Glossary of Chinese Terms

Home , Hongshan culture, Longshan culture, Ningcheng County, Niuheliang, Qijia culture, Su Bingqi

Appendix

Anyang Aohan banner (area) Bajia site bi (circular jade objects) Changping Baifu site Chengzishan site Chifeng Chijiaying village Chutoulan village Dadianzi site Daguan mountain Dajing site of Linxi County Damiao village Damohugou Dadongguou ding tripod Dongbajia site Dongmagou site Dongnangou site

243 244 APPENDIX

Dongshanzu site dou pedestal Erligang phase Erlitou phase Fanzhangzi site Fengxia site Fuhe culture Fushanzhuang village ge dagger-axe Guangfu Yingzixigou (tributary) gui vessel Gushanzi site Hongshan culture Hongshanhou site Hongtugou Hu people huang (semilunar-shape pendants) Huaxia Hutougou site Jiang clan jue vessel Kalaqin site Kangjiawan village kui dragon Laidaigou stream Laoha river Laotouxigou stream li tripod Liao dynasty Liaoz hongjing Liulihe site Longshan culture Lower Xiajiadian culture Luo River APPENDIX 245

Nanshangen site Ningcheng Niuheliang site Nuluerhu mountain range Pingdingshan site Pingfang site Pingquan Dongnangou site Qidan people Qijia culture Qilaotu mountain range Sanzuodian site (village) Sifangdi site Shanrong people Shi (warrior-nobles of the class) Shuiquan site taotie motif Upper Xiajiadian culture Weiyingzi culture Xiajiadian site Xiaobaiyang site Xiaoheishigou site Xiaoheyan period Xiaojiadi tributary Xiaozhuanshanzi site Xigangou River Xilamulun River Xilugehe River Xindian site Xinglongwa culture Xishangen site Xishantou site Xitai site Xu state Xuchang area 246 APPENDIX

Yan state Yaowangmiao site Yinhe River Yingjinhe River Yinjiadian village Yinxu Yueshi culture yun lei (cloud and thunder) Yuxi area Zhaobaogou culture Zhaosuhe River Zhengzhou site Zhizhushan site Zhongyuan (Central Plain) Zhoujiadi site Zhukaigou site Zuojiaying village

CHINESE JOURNALS

Kaogu Kaogu tongxun Kaogu xuebao Kaogu yu wenwu Liaohai wenwu xuekan Liaoning daxue xuebao Lishi yanjiu Neimenggu wenwu kaogu Wenwu Wenwu ziliao congkan Zhaowuda mengzu shizhuan xuebao Zhiwu taixue yu di zhiwuxue congkan Zhiwu xuebao Zhongyuan wenwu References

TITLES IN CHINESE

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Active agency theory, 1 Animal husbandry (cont.) Adaptation, 11, 16 in Xinglongwa culture, 53-54 Affiliations in Zhaobaogou culture, 53-54 lineage, 2 Animal motifs, of artifacts social, 3, 18 Upper Xiajiadian, 155, 156-157, 162- Agricultural societies, Chinese 163 historiographic view of, 52-53 Zhaobaogou, 54 Agriculture Animals, see also Animal husbandry; of Chinese states, 220 Bones, of animals; specific types environmental effects of, 70 of animals of Erlitou culture, 206 grazing, see also Herding of Hongshan culture, 52, 79, 83, 181, 184 in Upper Xiajiadidn culture, 162, 163 of Longshan culture, 206 religious significance of, in Upper of Lower Xiajiadian culture, 52, 119- Xiajiadian culture, 163 120, 122, 128, 181, 184,232 Anyang, 49, 224n catchment analysis of, 126-135 Aohan, 70, 71 n, 76, 121 relationship to pastoral nomadism, 5, Archaeology 194- 199, 22 1-222 Chinese: see Chinese archaeology in socially-complex societies, 192 “new,” 10, 16, 25-26; see also in Upper Xiajiadian culture, 52, 153, Processual archaeology 161, 163, 181, 184, 194, 232 Architecture, see also Ceremonial struc- in Xinglongwa culture, 53-54 tures; Houses; Temples in Zhaobaogou culture, 53-54 monumental Altars, of Hongshan burial sites, 82-83, 86n construction of, 13-14 Andersson, John, 48, 55 Hongshan, 84 Animal husbandry Lower Xiajiadian, 89 in Erlitou culture, 206 relationship to group-oriented societ- in Hongshan culture, 52 ies, 32-33 in Lower Xiajiadian culture, 52, 120 Arrowheads in Northeast China cultures, 220 bone in specialized pastoral societies, 71n Lower Xiajiadian, 109, 120 in Upper Xiajiadian culture, 161-163, Upper Xiajiadian, 154-155, 163 164, 194, 218 bronze, Upper Xiajiadian, 155, 163, 168

265 266 Index

Arrowheads (cont.) Bones, of animals (cont.) flint, Lower Xiajiadian, 106, 120 from Lower Xiajiadian sites, 110, 112, as grave goods, 109, 167, 168, 169, 170 113-114, 120, 167, 168, 169 Lower Xiajiadian, 106, 109, 120 from Upper Xiajiadian sites, 146, 162, 163 stone, Upper Xiajiadian, 163 Bronze Age cultures, of Wessex, England, Upper Xiajiadian, 153, 154-155 32-33 as grave goods, 167, 168, 169, 170 Bronze artifacts Awls, bronze, Erlitou, 207 Central European, 29 Axes Chinese bronze comparison with Northern Corridor Erlitou, 207 bronze artifacts, 155- 158 as grave goods, 155 differentiated from Upper Xiajiadian from Northern Corridor sites, 157 bronzes, 176n Upper Xiajiadian, 155, 156 as Upper Xiajiadian grave goods, 43, Lower Xiajiadian, 105, 108 166, 167, 168, 171, 172, 173, socketed, Weiyingzi, 196 214-216,217-220, 221 stone utilitiarian and ritualistic uses of, 38 as grave goods, 108, 112-114, 120 ding-type, 107, 217 Hongshan, 77 Erlitou, 139n, 202, 206 Lower Xiajiadian, 105, 108 as grave goods Upper Xiadiajian, 155, 156, 161 as indicators of interregional interaction, 214-216, 217-220 Ban Gu, 45n from Upper Xiajiadian sites, 155, Basalt artifacts, 105, 106, 176n 158-160, 166, 167, 168, 170, Beads, as Upper Xiajiadian grave goods, 174, 214-216, 217-220 113-114, 155, 168-169 during Zhou dynasty, 217 Behavior, universal patterns of, 6 Lower Xiajiadian, 101, 106-108, 139n, Beijing-Tianjin plain, 57 155 Beit-Shean, Israel, 13-14, 40, 45n from Northern Corridor sites, 155- 158 Bells, bronze, 207 northern-type, 158-159, 173, 196, 222 Belt buckles, bronze, 157 of Ordos region, 159, 176n Bi (jade artifact), 80-81 use in religious rituals, 214 Binford, Lewis, 25 Shang, 57, 207, 223n Blades, see also Daggers; Knives Upper Xiajiadian, 155-161, 166, 167, stone, Upper Xiajiadian, 153 168, 170, 176n, 214-216, 217- Boas, Franz, 26 220 Bone, chemical analysis of, 238, 240-241 yan-type, 107 Bone artifacts Zhou, 37 Lower Xiajiadian, 101, 120 Bronze industry as grave goods, 108, 109, 112, 113 Erlitou, 206 Upper Xiajiadian, 154- 1 55,160- 161,163 Lower Xiajiadian, 55 as grave goods, 167, 169, 170 Upper Xiajiadian, 55, 143, 144, 164 Bone industry Bronze metallurgy, development of, 46n Lower Xiajiadian, 109, 120 Burial sites, see also Grave goods Upper Xiajiadian, 154 of children, 114, 115 Bone ornaments, Upper Xiajiadian, as correlation with sociopolitical ideology, grave goods, 168 32-33 Bones, of animals Erlitou, 206 use in divination: see Oracle bones Hongshan, 74, 79-83, 86n, 87n from Hongshan sites, 79 of Liao upper class, 180-181 Index 267

Burial sites (cont.) Center-periphery model, of interregional Lower Xiajiadian, 60, 89, 101, 110-115 interaction, 199-200, 212-213, animal remains in, 110, 112, 113-114 214, 220-221 comparison with Erlitou burial sites, 208 economic exploitation concept of, 19- grave goods, 107- 108 20, 21 pit graves, 110, 11 1 Central Europe, bronze artifacts of, 29 pollen analysis of, 69 Central-place model, of sociopolitical or- as social stratification indicator, 208 ganization, 121-122 suggestions for future research into, Ceramics 238 Erlitou, as grave goods, 206 male graves, 173, 177n Hongshan, 57, 76, 77, 80, 86, 101, 104 pit graves li tripods, 209, 120 Lower Xiajiadian, 110, 11 1 Lower Xiajiadian, 101-105, 139n Upper Xiajiadian, 149, 217 differentiated from Upper Xiadiajian stamped-earth construction of, 216-217 ceramics, 151-152 Upper Xiajiadian, 60, 144, 146, 148, fast-wheel production of, 120 149, 150-151 as grave goods, 102-103, 104, 108, factor analysis of, 167-171, 175, 177n 112, 113, 140n, 208 female graves, 173, 177n homogeneity of style, 187 intensity of labor investment in, 166, polychrome, 103, 137-138, 139n 167-168, 170-171, 219 Upper Xiajiadian, 151-153, 164 K-means cluster analysis of, 171 differentiated from Lower Xiajiadian of leaders, 216-220 ceramics, 151-152 male graves, 173, 177n heterogeneity of style of, 187 pollen analysis of, 70 Xiaoheyan, 85-86 as social status indicators, 239-241 Zhaobaogou, 54 Buttons, bronze, Upper Xiajiadian, 155 Ceremonial buildings/structures Lower Xiajiadian, 89, 123, 140n Cairns, burial, 80, 82-83 at Yinxu, 49 Capitalism, 11, 19-20, 34, 45n,46n Chalandriani cemetery, Syros, 177n Casting molds, Upper Xiajiadian, 160, Change 161, 176n cognitive, 4 Catchment analysis sociopolitical: see Sociopolitical of Lower Xiajiadian sites, 116, 124-135, change 137, 140-141n Changping Baifu site, 158- 159 of Mesopotamian sites, 126 Changzishan site, 80 of Mexican sites, 130, 13 1 Chardin, Pierre Teilhard de, 48 Cattle, bones of Chariot fittings, bronze, Upper Xiajiadian, from Erlitou sites, 206 168 from Lower Xiajiadian sites, 120 Chichen Itza, 13 Cemeteries Chicken bones, from Erlitou sites, 206 Chalandriani, Syros, 177n Chiefdoms Erlitou, 206 definition of, 223-224n Lower Xiajiadian, 60, 110-115, 150; see of Hawaiian Islands. 22, 31-32 also Dadianzi site individualizing, 174-175, 219 age groupings of, 1 14, 115 of Pacific Islands, 22 femalegraves, 110, 112-113, 115 Chifeng area, 53-60; see also Hongshan malegraves, 110, 112-113, 115 sites; Lower Xiajiadian sites; Upper Xiajiadian, 60, 144, 148-151, Upper Xiajiadian sites 162, 239-240 chronology of, “53-57, 185-186 268 Index

Chifeng area (cont.) Climatic change, influence on emergence diachronic phases of, 5; see also of pastoral nomadism, 195-196 Diachronic analysis Cluster analysis, 169- 170: see also Factor field research in, 60-67 analysis geographic and climatic background Coalitions, 3, 32 of, 63-64, 67-70, 71n Coffins methodology, 61 -63 Erlitou, 206 interregional interactions in, 24-25 Lower Xiajiadian, 110, 113- 114 location of, 52, 67 Upper Xiajiadian. 151, 167, 168, 171 paleoenvironment and paleoclimate of, Collapse, social, 12, 13-14 69-70, 71n Conflict, relationship to population den- sociopolitical changes in, 40 sity, 192 sociopolitical entities of, 231-232 Confucianism, 27-28, 46n, 223n sociopolitical organization of, 44 Constitution of Society (Giddens), 10- 11 suggestions for future research in, 234- Copper ore mines, Upper Xiajiadian, 160- 241 161 synchronic phases of, 5, 185-186 Core-periphery relations, between agricul- trade relations of, 121 tural and pastoral societies, 52-53 Chifeng city, Upper Xiajiadian grave exca- Corporate power strategy, 33-34, 189 vations near, 150- 151 Court rituals, use of bronze vessels in, 206 Chijiaying site, 97 Courtyards, 99 Chijiaying village, 63 Craft specialization Children, Lower Xiajiadian burial sites of, in Erlitou culture, 206-207 114, 115 in Hongshan culture, 83, 235 Chime stones, 140n in Lower Xiajiadian culture, 109, 120- China, see also Specific geographic re- 121 gions in Upper Xiajiadian culture, 161, 164 Chinese name for, 199 Critical theory, 1 communist regime of, 49 Culture(s) Japanese invasion and occupation of, archaeological, 209 49, 55 boundaries of, 18-19 Northeast: see Northeast China interregional interactions of, 2 12 Chinese, common identity of (Huaxia), prehistoric ethnic groups associated 215-214, 221-222 with, 50, 58, 60, 71n Chinese archaeology, 47-71 Chinese vs. Western models of, 19 artifacts orientation of, 50, 51, 57, 60, 228 postprocessual view of, 26 Chinese versus Western concept of, 47 processual view of, 25 development of, 48-53 Cybernetics theory, 4 ethnocentric and geocentric approach of, 45n, 47, 58, 199-200 Dadianzi site, 60, 89, 110-115, 139n, 150, historical orientation of, 49, 50, 52-53, 208,238 71n, 228 grave goods, 108, 121, 186, 209 Marxist orientation of, 5 1 pollen analysis of, 69, 70 influence of nationalism on, 49-50 Dagger-axes, Lower Xiajiadian, 106 site-anticipation approach of, 50, 56- Daggers, bronze, Upper Xiajiadian, 134, 57, 58, 71n 155, 156, 168, 218 Chisels, bronze Daguangan mountain range, 67 Erlitou, 207 Dajing site, 160-161 Upper Xiajiadian, 155, 168 Damiao village, 63, 68 Chutoulan village, 63, 68 Darwinian evolution. 10 Index 269

Deer bones, from Lower Xiajiadian sites, Division of labor (cont.) 120 world system model of, 20 Defense systems Dogs, bones of of Lower Xiajiadian sites, 54-55, 91-95, from Erlitou sites, 206 96, 123, 131-132, 190, 208 from Lower Xiajiadian sites, 120 craft specialization and, 120 Dongbajiasite, 97, 99-100, 139n rammed-earth techique of, 210 Donghu confederacy, 180 relationship to burial sites, 110 Dongmagou site, 206 site locations of, 115-116, 117-118 Dongnangou site, 151 site size and, 131-132 Dongshanzui site, 83 social stratification and, 123 Dong Zhongshu, 28 watchtowers of, 210 Dragon, as motif, 82, 210 of Upper Xiadiajian sites, 138-139n Dragon masks, 209 Dengfeng, 204 Di, 218 Earrings, Lower Xiajiadian, 106, 107, 108- Diachronic analysis, of processes in the 109, 140n Chifeng area and northeast Economic activity/systems, prehistoric, China, 185-225 see also Agriculture; Animal hus- emergence of pastoralism, 193- 199 bandry; Herding ideology and sociopolitical change, formalist and substantivist views of, 34- 188-192 39 interregional interaction and social as function of sociopolitical structure, change, 199-222 193-194 during Lower Xiajiadian period, 200- Endogenous influences, on sociopolitical 212 processes, 16, 17-18 during Upper Xiajiadian period, 212- Engels, Friedrich, 25, 51 222 Erligang phase, of Shang dynasty. 205 population aggregation and political hi- Erlitou culture, 107, 201 erarchy, 192-193 craft specialization in, 206-207 Dichotomies, in archaeology, 1-2, 3, 9-46 interregional interactions of, 207-209 ideology-related, 2 5 - 30 polities of, 2 12 of indigenous processes vs. external in- public buildings of, 208 fluence, 16-25 social complexity of, comparison with leadership-related, 3 1-34 Lower Xiajiadian culture, 202, prehistoric economies-related, 34-39 206-212 processual versus postprocessual, 9 Erlitou site, 201 social evolution-related, 10- 15 bronze artifacts of, 139n, 212 Dietary analysis, of skeletal remains, 238, burial site, 206 240-241 internal organization of, 204-205, 206- Diffusion, 10, 16-17, 18, 23 207 Disks, decorative size, 204 bronze Ethnocentrism, 10 Erlitou, 207 of Chinese archaeology, 45n, 47, 48, Upper Xiajiadian, 155, 156, 157 58, 199-200 stone, Hongshan, 77 Exchange networks, 5, 35, 221 Divination: see Oracle bones Exogenous influences, on sociopolitical Division of labor processes, 16-18 in Hongshan culture, 235 Exploitation in Lower Xiajiadian culture, 120 by leadership, 31-32 in Upper Xiajiadian culture, 161, 164 Marxist theory of, 25 270 Index

Factor analysis Grave goods (cont.) of Lower Xiajiadian burials, 108, 114- Upper Xiajiadian, 151, 153, 154, 155, 115 164-176 of Upper Xiajiadian burial sites, 167- factor analysis of, 167-171, 175 171, 175 as indicator of interregional interac- Fanzhangzi site, 110, 114, 140n tion, 214-220 Fengxia site, 98, 120, 139n as prestige objects, 43, 164-175, Feudalism, as evolutionary stage, 11 219 Figurines, life-size clay, 54, 57, 83 sociopolitical implications of, 164- Fish bones, from Upper Xiajidian sites, 163 176 Fishing, 163 Graves: see Burial sites Flint artifacts Greece, ancient, 22, 34, 45n Hongshan, 78, 79, 106 Grinding stones Lower Xiajiadian, 106, 120 Hongshan, 77 Upper Xiajiadian, 106, 153 Lower Xiajiadian, 106 Formalist theory, of economic systems, Upper Xiajiadian, 153, 154, 161 34, 35-37, 38-39 Group affiliations, 3; see also Ideology, Frontiers, differentiated from peripheries, grouporiented 45n Fuhe culture, 54, 109 Habitation sites: see Houses and habita- Funerary treatment, see also Burial sites; tion sites Grave goods Han dynasty, 45n, 64, 198 in Hongshan society, 83-84 Confucian ideology of, 27-28 Harris, Marvin, 45n Gansu, 143 Hawaiian Islands, chiefdoms of, 22, 31- Glossary 32 of Chinese journals, 246 Hebei Province, 57, 208, 209 of Chinese terms, 243-246 Heilongjiang Province, 180 Goats, bones of Helmets, bronze, Upper Xiajiadian, 155, from Erlitou sites, 206 168 from Lower Xiajiadian sites, 120 Henan Province, 217 from Upper Xiajiadian sites, 162 Herding Goddess Temple of Liaoning, 83, 84, 186 in Lower Xiajiadian culture, 120, 196 Gold artifacts in Upper Xiajiadian culture, 162, 240 Lower Xiajiadian, 107, 108 Heterarchy, 15 Upper Xiajiadian, 167, 168 Hierarchy Grain production, 197-198 in Hongshan culture, 84 Grave goods sociopolitical of Chinese origin, as evidence of inter- finance strategies of, 36-39 regional interaction, 214-220 horizontal processes in, 12-13 Erlitou, 206 in Lower Xiajiadian culture, 91, 124, Liao, 180-181 137, 138 Lower Xiajiadian, 102-104, 107-108, succession of, 83-84 112-115, 120 Historiography of burials, 108, 114-115 Chinese, 199-201 as indicator of interregional interac- as ideology, 28 tion, 208 Hoes lacquer artifacts, 109 Hongshan, 77 as prestige objects, 112, 114-115, Lower Xiajiadian, 105 138-139 Upper Xiajiadian, 161 Index 271

Hongshan culture, 73-87 Houses and habitation sites (cont.) agriculture in, 52, 83, 79, 181, 184 Lower Xiajiadian, 74, 95-101 chronology of, 54, 55-56, 185-186 defense systems of, 123, 131-132, 190 collective ideology of, 84 homogeneity of style of, 187 hunting in, 79 as indicators of social status, 99, 100, as indigenous culture, 84 123-124, 125, 186, 238 jade industry of, 54, 73, 83 lack of data about, 60 effect of migration on, 209-210 proximity to Upper Xiajiadian ceme. religious leadership of, 190 teries, 150 ritualistc structures of, 186 stone houses, 74 settlement patterns of, 73-79, 183-184, survey methodology for, 65 186 mud brick, 146 social complexity of, 54, 83-84 semisubterranean, 146 sociopolitical organization of Upper Xiajiadian, 144, 146-147 public ceremonial basis of, 186, 235 Hu, 218 suggestions for future research into, Huang (jade artifact), 80-81 235-236 Huaxia, 213-214, 221-222 transition to Lower Xiajiadian culture, Hui, King of Liang, 233 104 Hunting Hongshan sites in Hongshan culture, 79 altitude above sea level, 194 in Lower Xiajiadian culture, 120 burial sites, 74, 79-83, 86n, 87n in Upper Xiajiadian culture, 162- 163 Changzishan site, 80 Hutougou site, 80, 83 distance from closest water source, 194 Hyperdiffusionists, 17 distance from Yinhe River, 194 distribution of, 75 Identity, Chinese (Huaxia), 213-214, Dongshanzui site, 83 221-222 habitation sites, 74, 76-79. 86n. 235- Ideology 236 as active factor or epi-phenomenon, Japanese-supervised excavations of, 55 25-30 Niuheliang site, 235 Confucian, 27-28, 46n, 223n number 49, 76, 236 Daoist, 27 number 52, 80 definition of, 27 number 169, 86n group-oriented, 33-34, 188-189 number 170, 86n of Hongshan culture, 84 ritual, 79-80, 82-83, 235 of Lower Xiajiadian culture, 30, 138,232 surface visibility of, 74 relationship to monumental architec- Hooks ture construction, 23-33 bone, Lower Xiajiadian, 109 stylistic expression of, 187 bronze, Upper Xiajiadian, 155 transition to individualizing ideology, Horizontal processes, in sociopolitical hi- 232-233 erarchy, 12-13 individualizing, 33-34, 40-41, 188- Horse fittings, bronze, Upper Xiajiadian, 189, 219 155, 162 of the Inca, 44 Horses of Lower Xiajiadian culture, 232 as exchange goods, 220, 221 prestige artifacts and, 219-220 in Upper Xiajiadidn culture, 162, 177n relationship to interregional interac- Houses and habitation sites tions, 41 Erlitou, 205 stylistic expression of, 187 Hongshan, 74, 76-79, 86n, 235-236 of Upper Xiajiadian culture, 191 272 Index

Ideology (cont.) Jiang clan, 217, 218, 224n Legalist, 27 Jilin Province, 180 processual analysis of, 4 relationship to leadership strategy, 188- Kalaqin site, 98 192 Kinship, in nomadic pastoral societies, relationship to sociopolitical change, 233 26-30, 188-192 K-means cluster analysis, of Upper Inca, 36-37, 44 Xiajiadian burial sites, 171 Indigenous processes, versus external in- Knives fluences, 1, 16-25 bone Inner Mongolia Lower Xiajiadian, 109 bronze artifacts from, 143 Upper Xiajiadian, 154- 155 Chinese expansion into, 180 bronze Interregional interaction Chinese/Northern Corridor compari- center-periphery model of, 199-200, son of, 155-156 212-213, 214, 220-221 Erlitou, 207 as continuing process, 186 as prestige objects, 218 foreign artifacts as evidence of, 43 Upper Xiajiadian, 143, 155, 156, 168, giving of presents as, 218 218 intensive, 43 reaping, Upper Xiajiadian, 153 at local level, 23 stone of Lower Xiajiadian culture, 200-212, 232 Hongshan, 77, 79 with Erlitou culture, 207-209 Lower Xiajiadian, 105 migration and, 209-210 Weiyingzi, 196 mechanisms of, 22-23 Kongo, 37 nature of, 22 Kongzi, 46n in Neolithic China, 228-229 Kosaku, Hamada, 55, 56 in Northeast China, 199-222 in pastoralist societies, 198 Lacquer artifacts peer-polity theory of, 21-22, 23 Erlitou, 207 relationship to individualizing ideology, 41 Lower Xiajiadian, 109, 112, 121, 208 relationship to shared cultural traits, Lacquered coffins, Erlitou, 206 212 Laoha River, 67, 68, 70 relationship to social stratification, 233 Laws, universal, 1 relationship to sociopolitical strategy Lead artifacts, Lower Xiajiadian, 107- 108 development, 190 Leader-chief system, nonmarket, 121 research issues in, 22-23, 42-43 Leadership of Upper Xiajiadian culture, 232 corporate power strategy of, 33-34 Irrigation systems, management of, 46n in Hongshan culture, 83-84 Islam, 13-14, 40 in Lower Xiajiadian culture, 236 Israel, Beit-Shean site, 13-14, 40, 45n managerial vs. exploitative, 31-34, 46n network power strategy of, 33-34 Jade artifacts relationship to ideology of Erlitou, 206, 207 sociopolitical organization, 5, Hongshan, 57, 80-82, 210 33-34, 138, 175-176, 188-192, Lower Xiajiadian, 108, 113 232-233 Jade industry, Hongshan, 54, 73, 83 in Upper Xiajiadian culture Japan, invasion and occupation of China burial sites of, 216-220 by, 49, 55 individualized ideological basis of, Jewelery, see also Earrings 175-176 Lower Xiajiadian, 106, 107 Liangzhu, 224n Index 273

Liao culture Lower Xiajiadian culture (cont.) population density of, 193 sociopolitical organization of (cont.) settlement patterns of, 183- 184 central-place model of, 121-122, 135, Liao dynasty, 64, 119-120, 180-181, 182, 164, 186, 236 183-184, 195 changes in, 89, 91 Liaoning Province, 223n grouporiented ideology of, 138, 232 archaeological chronology of, 54 hierarchical organization of, 124, dagger-axe from, 106 137, 138 Kaladqin site, 98 local subsystems of, 137 Liaozhongjing, 180 effect on the population, 237-238 Lineage affiliations, 2 rank-size analysis of, 135-137, 141n Linxi County, copper ore mine site, 160- relationship to burial practices, 114- 161 115 Liu Guanmin, 58 suggestions for future research into, Longshan culture, 203, 204 236-238 relationship to Lower Xiajiadian cul- synthesis of, 137- 138 ture, 209-210 types of, 232 Longshan sites, 205 weaving industry, 106 Lower Xiajiadian culture, 89-141 Lower Xiajiadian sites agriculture in, 52, 122, 128, 232 altitude above sea level, 194 catchment analysis of, 126-135 artifacts from, 101 animal husbandry in, 52, 120 bone artifacts, 106, 109 chronology of, 54, 55-56, 185-186 ceramics, 101-105 craft specialization in, 109, 120- 121 lacquer artifacts, 109 economic base of, 119-121 metal artifacts, 106-109, 112, 113 effect of migration on, 84-86, 104, stone artifacts, 105-106 209-210 burial sites: see Burial sites, Lower environmental and climatic conditions Xiajiadian of, 69-70 ceremonial sites, 89, 123, 140n grouporiented ideology of, 30, 138, Chijiaying (number 65) site, 97, 133, 232 193 interregional interactions of, 190-191, Dadianzi site, 60, 69, 70, 89, 110-115, 200-212, 232 121, 139n, 150, 186, 209 with Erlitou culture, 207-209 defense systems of, 54-55, 91-95, 96, leadership of 123, 131-132, 190, 208 prestige of, 186 locations of, 115-116, 117-118 religious, 190 rammed-earth technique of, 2 10 militaristic focus of, 54 relationship to burial sites, 110 polities of, geographic area of, 62, 118- relationship to craft specialization, 119 120 population density of, 193 watchtowers of, 210 relationship to Longshan culture, 209- distance from closest water source, 210 194 social complexity of, 44, 124 distance from Yinhe River, 194 comparison with Erlitou culture, 202, distribution of, 59, 90, 91 206-212 Dongbajia site, 97, 99-100, 139n social status in, 138- 139 ecology of, 1 15 sociopolitical organization of. 99, 100, extended occupation of, 119- 120 121-137, 186 Fanzhangzi site, 110, 114, 140n catchment analysis of, 124-135, 137, Fengxia site, 98, 120, 139n 140- 141n geographic area of, 56-57 274 Index

Lower Xiajiadian sites (cont.) Lower Xiajiadian sites (cont.) habitation sites, 74, 95-101 Shuiquan site, 120 homogeneity of style of, 187 size of, 91 lack of data bout, 60 catchment analysis of, 124-135 proximity to Upper Xiadiajian ceme- correlation with population, 128- 129 teries, 150 rank-size analysis of, 135- 137 internal organization of, 65, 95-96 size distribution of, 122-123. 124 as social status indicator, 99, 100, subperiods of, 105 123-124, 125, 186,238 Zhizhushan site, 101 stone houses, 74 Luoyang, 201, 202, 204 survey methodology for, 65 Hongshan postsherds from, 73 Mao, 49, 51 Kalaqin site, 98 Maori, 37 locations of, 11 5-118, 140n Marx, Karl, 25, 51 number 1, 140n Marxist theory, 25, 26, 31. 32, 45n.51 number 2, 140n Masks number 3, 139n animal, 209, 210-211 number 8, 73 dragon, 209 number 14, 139n Materialism, 25-26, 45n number 16, 139n Materialization, 29-30 number 2 1, 139n May 4th movement, 49, 71n number 24, 96, 122, 125, 133, 139n Maya, social collapse of, 12, 13, 14 number 30, 140n Mayapan, 13 number 34, 139n Mencius, 233 number 41, 139n Mengzi, 233 number 42, 139n Mental development, application to social number 48, 139n evolutionary theory, 10- 11 number 63, 122-123 Mesoamerica number 65, 116-117, 133, 193 division of labor in, 45n number 94, 123, 140n social evolutionary process in, 33, 189, number 96, 97, 122-123, 125, 133, 190 139n, 141n Mesopotamian sites, catchment analysis number 117, 122, 133, 134 of, 126 number 133, 122 Metal artifacts, see also Bronze artifacts; number 138, 117-1 18 Gold artifacts number 145, 117-118 Lower Xiajiadian, 106-109, 112, 113 number 149, 117-118 Mexico number 151, 122, 133, 134 Oaxaca valley, 193 number 154, 117 settlement hierarchy in, catchment anal- number 156, 117 ysis of, 130, 131 number 157, 117 Microliths, flint occupation during Upper Xiajiadian pe- Lower Xiajiadian, 120 riod, 148, 161 Upper Xiajiadian, 153 public structures of, 89, 208, 236, 237 Migration ritual sites, 123, 137 as diffusion mechanism, 17 Sefangdi site, 120 effect on Lower Xiajiadian culture, 84- settlement patterns of, 91, 143, 186, 236 86, 104, 209-210 catchment analysis of, 124-135 Millet, 120 comparison with Upper Xiajiadian Mines, copper ore, of Upper Xiajiadian settlement patterns, 163-164 period, 160-161 Index 275

Mirrors, bronze, 168, 224n Nomadism, pastoral (cont.) Models, archaeological, see also Multidi- emergence in Upper Xiajiadian culture, mensional theoretical frame- 194-199 work, of sociopolitical change kinship and, 233 as basis for new research strategies, as political resistance, 198 227, 234 relationship to bronze artifact develop- Molds, ceramic, 161 ment, 143 Mongolia, bronze artifact production in, relationship to social complexity, 15 143 North China, definition of. 71n Monuments: see Public buildings/monu- Northeast China, 53-60; see also specific ments regions and cultures Moral superiority, 11 interactions with Upper Xiajiadian cul- Multidimensional theoretical framework, ture, 228-229 of sociopolitical change, 6-7, paleoenvironment of, 181, 182 39-45,227-241 Northern Corridor advantages of, 230-231 bronze artifacts from, 155- 158 goal of, 234 definition of, 71n hypothesis generation with, 234 development of socially-complex societ- implication for future research, 234-241 ies in, 51 ; see also Hongshan cul- in Hongshan culture, 235-236 ture; Lower Xiajiadian culture: in Lower Xiajiadian culture, 236-238 Upper Xiajiadian culture in Upper Xiajiadian culture, 239-241 Nuluerhu mountain range, 67

Nanshangen site, 147-148, 166-167 Oaxaca valley, Mexico, 193 Nantaidi site, 76 Oracle bones Nationalism, 10 as evidence of interregional interaction, influence on Chinese archaeology, 49-50 209 Needles, bone Lower Xiajiadian, 109, 112, 121, 139n, Lower Xiajiadian, 109 210 Upper Xiajiadian, 154-155, 173 Shang, 49, 109, 139n, 140n, 210 Neo-evolutionists, 10 Upper Xiajiadian, 155 Neolithic cultures Zhukaigou, 140n, 210 of Chifeng area, 53-54, 55 Ordos region, 143, 159, 176n interregional interactions of, 201, 228- Ornaments 229 bone, Upper Xiajiadian, 153 social complexity of, 20 1 bronze, Upper Xiajiadian, 155, 168 of Wessex, England, 32-33, 84 semiprecious stone, 87n, 153 of Yellow River basin, 104 stone, Upper Xiajiadian, 153 Neo-Marxist theory, 3 1 Outer Mongolia, Liao dynasty's control of, Network polities, 219 180 Network power strategy, 33-34, 41, 189 Ningcheng excavation, 105 Pacific Islands, chiefdoms of, 22 Niuheliang site, 54, 57, 80, 82-83 Paleoclimate, of Chifeng area, 69-70, 71n Nomadism, pastoral Paleoenvironment Chinese historiographic descriptions of, of Chifeng area, 69-70, 71n 52-53 of northeastern China, 181, 182 dichotomy with agriculture, 221-222 Paleolithic cultures, of Chifeng area, 53 emergence in Chifeng area, 193-199 Paradigms, evolutionary, 2 emergence in Northern Corridor, 52- Pastoralism: see Nomadism, pastoral 53, 144, 180, 193-199 Pastoral societies, specialized, 71n 276 Index

Peer-polity model, 21-22, 23, 233 Power strategies, 189 Periphery, see also Center-periphery Prehistoric societies, spatial arrangement- model, of interregional interaction based classification of, 62 differentiated from frontiers, 45n Prestige artifacts, see also specific types of Pig husbandry, in Lower Xiajiadian cul- artifacts ture, 120 definition of, 36 Pigs, bones of economic theories of, 36-39 from Erlitou sites, 206 Processual archaeology, 16 from Lower Xiajiadian sites, 120 diffusion models of, 17 from Upper Xiajiadian sites, 162, 163 evolutionary approach of, 4 Pingdingshan site, 147- 148 leadership theories of, 31-32 Pingquan Dongnangou site, 149, 177n materialistic bias of, 25-26 Plaques, decorative bronze multidimensional framework for, 4 1, Chinese/Northern Corridor comparison 42 of, 157 postprocessual critique of, 3, 28 Upper Xiajiadian, 143 Public buildings/monuments Political control, see also Leadership construction of, 13-14, 223n as basis for social complexity develop Hongshan, 84 ment, 2 Lower Xiajiadian, 89, 236, 237 Political organization: see Sociopolitical organization Qidan, 180 Pollen analysis, 69, 70 writing system of, 181 Polyani, Karel, 35-36 Qijia, 224n Population density Qilaotu mountain range, 67 agriculture as basis for, 196 Qin empire, 179, 180, 198 relationship to sociopolitical structure, Qing dynasty, 71n, 195 192-193 Qin-Han Great Wall, 180 Population growth, effect on social corn- plexity, 11, 45n Positivism, 1 Racism, 10 Postprocessual archaeology Radiocarbon dating, 56, 201 anti-evolutionary theory of, 10-1 1 Reaping tools, Upper Xiajiadian, 161 processualist critique of, 3, 28 Relativism, cultural, 10, 16 Postsherds, see also Ceramics; Pottery Religion, 25, 29; see also Oracle bones; Hongshan, 74, 76, 80 Ritual activities; Ritual sites from ritual sites, 80 Renfrew, Colin, 32-33 Lower Xiajiadian, 65, 101 Ritual activities as population density indicator, 193 in Lower Xiajiadian culture, 121 Upper Xiajiadian, 146, 148, 160-161 use of prestige objects in, 37 Pottery Ritual sites as evidence of interregional interaction, Hongshan, 79-80, 82-83, 235 209 Lower Xiajiadian, 123, 137 Hongshan, 54, 76, 77 Roman empire, 13-14, 40 as grave goods, 80, 81 Rong, 218 from ritualistic sites, 235 Ryuzo, Torii, 55 Lower Xiajiadian, 101-105, 139n as grave goods, 102-103, 104, 120 Sanzuodian village, 62 with imitations of bronze artifacts, 107 Sayil, 13 as social status indicator, 177n Scythopolis, 13- 14, 46n Upper Xiajiadian, as grave goods, 167, Sefangdi site, 120 168, 169, 170 Seiichi, Mizuno, 55, 56 Index 277

Semiprecious stone ornaments Skeletal remains, dietary analysis of, 238, Hongshan, 87n 240-241 Upper Xiajiadian, 153 Smith, Adam, 34 Settlement patterns Smith, G.E., 17 central-place model of, 121-122 Social complexity of Chifeng area, 62 of Chifeng araa, 61-62 of Hongshan culture, 73-79, 183 Chinese archaeology’s interpretation of, lack of data bout, 60 5, 50-51 of Liao culture, 183-184 components of, 43 of Lower Xiajiadian culture, 91, 124- horizontal shifts and vertical shifts in, 125, 143, 163-164,186,236 14-15 surveys and sampling of, 62 of Lower Xiajiadian culture, 44, 124 of Upper Xiajiadian culture, 163-164,240 comparison with Erlitou culture, 202, of warring-states to Han period, 183 206-2 12 Shamanism, Chinese, 2 multilineal concept of, 1 1 - 12, 13 Shang dynasty effect of population growth on, 11, 45n bronze vessels of, 57, 207, 223n political control as basis of, 2 capitals of, 49, 204 relationship to ideology of social organi- Early, 209 zation, 189-190, 191 Erligang phase, 107, 203, 223n relationship to interregional interaction, Late, 56, 158- 159 200 oracle bones of, 49, 109, 139n, 140n, relationship to pastoralism, 15 210 relationship to social evolution, 11 overthrow of, 2 13 of Upper Xiajiadian culture, 14-15, 144, stamped-earth burial techniques of, 163- 176 216-217 relationship to grave goods, 163- 176 Zhou period of, 207 Social evolutionary theory Shang period, Chinese-Northern Corridor of Chinese archaeology, 51, 53 interaction during, 221 criticism of, 10-1 1 Shanrong, 218 of endogenous influences on Shanxian, 204 sociopolitical processes, 16 Sheep, bones of multidimensional model of, 4 from Erlitou culture sites, 206 Social inequality, relationship to coali- from Lower Xiajiadian sites, 120 tions, 3 from Upper Xiajiadian sites, 162 Sociopolitical change, 9 Shells/shell artifacts, as grave goods, 70, Chinese archaeological view of, 51 71n climatic factors in, 69-70 in Erlitou graves, 206, 207 multidimensional framework for: see in Lower Xiajiadian graves, 112, 113- Multidimensional theoretical 114, 121, 208 framework, for sociopolitical in Upper Xiajiadian graves, 167, 168 change Shi class, 14, 27 peer polity theory of, 21-22, 23 Shovels, bone relationship to ideology, 26-30 Lower Xiajiadian, 109 sociopolitical dimensions of, 40-41 Upper Xiajiadian, 154- 155 Sociopolitical organization Shuiquan site, 120 influence of endogenous and exoge- Siberia nous processes on, 16-18 bronze artifact production in, 143 of Lower Xiajiadian culture, 12 1 - 137 interregional interactions in, 21 1, 222, catchment analysis of, 124-135, 137, 229 140-141n Sickles, stone, Hongshan, 77, 79 central-place model of, 121-122, 135 278 Index

Sociopolitical organization (cont.) Taosi culture, 139n of Lower Xiajiadian culture (cont.) Taotie, 210-211 grouporiented ideology of, 138 Taxation, 36, 38, 196 hierarchical organization of, 124, Temples, 83, 84, 186 137, 138 Tools local subsystems of, 137 bone, Upper Xiajiadian, 154-155, 168 rank-size analysis of, 135-137, 141n bronze relationship to leadership strategy, 232 Erlitou, 207 relationship to population density, 192- Upper Xiajiadian, 155, 167, 168, 169, 193 170 of upper Xiajiadian culture, 144, 175-176 Lower Xiajiadian, 101, 105-106, 120 Song dynasty, 50, 180 metal, Lower Xiajiadian, 106 Spatulas, bone, Upper Xiajiadian, 154-155 stone Spindle whorls, Lower Xiajiadian, as grave drilled, 153 goods, 112-113, 108, 173 Hongshan, 77 Spoons, bronze, as Upper Xiajiadian grave Lower Xiajiadian, 101, 105-106 goods, 168 Upper Xiajiadian, 153, 160-161, 167, Spring and Autumn Annals, 28 168, 169, 170 Spring and Autumn Period, 22, 213 Trade, see also Interregional interaction State-level society between Chinese and northern cul- emergence in China, 48 tures, 218 Steppes, Central Asian by Lower Xiajiadian culture, 121 Chinese cultural traits of, 2 11 Trade studies, 17 interregional interactions in, 222 Traits, cultural, shared, 23 nomadic pastoral societies of, 51, 61 Transbaikal area Steward, Julian, 25-26 bronze artifact production in, 143 Stone artifacts interregional interactions og, 222, Hongshan, 77-79, 86n 229 Lower Xiadiajian, 105-106, 113, 139n, Turquiose artifacts, Erlitou, 207 140n Upper Xiajiadian, 153-154, 161, 167 Upper Xiadiajian culture, 54 as grave goods, 167 agriculture in, 52, 70, 153, 161, 163, Stone piles 181, 184, 194, 195, 232 at Hongshan sites, 79-80, 235 animal husbandry of, 161-163, 194 at Lower Xiajiadian sites, 65 bronze industry of, 108-109 at Upper Xiajidian sites, 148, 150-15 1 burial sites: see Burial sites, Upper Storage pits Xiajiadian Hongshan, 76, 79, 236 chronology of, 54, 55-56, 185-186, Lower Xiajiadian, 100-101, 120 213 Upper Xiajiadian, 147-148, 161 economic base of, 161-163, 240-241 Stylistic expression, relationship to emergence of pastoralism in, 194- 199 sociopolitical ideology, 187 environmental and climatic conditions Substantivist theory, of economic sys- Of, 69-70 tems, 34.35-36, 37, 38-39 herding in, 240 Surveys, 50 heterogeneity of stylistic expression of, of Chifeng area, 61-62 187, 191-192 Symbolism, processual analysis of, 4 hunting in, 162-163 Syros, Chdlandriani cemetery excavation influence on the Yan state, 220 on, 177n interregional interactions of, 190-191, System theory, 1 212-222,229 Index 279

Upper Xiadiajian culture (cont.) Upper Xiadiajian sites (cont.) leadership of, 187, 239 population density, 148 power of, 219, 221 Xiajiadian site, 146-147, 148 use of prestige grave goods by, 2 16- Xiaobaiyang site, 150, 166-167, 169, 220 170-171, 174 pastoral nomadism basis of, 239 Xiaoheishigou site, 158, 176n polities of Uxmal, 13 chiefdom-level, 214 competition among, 233 Versailles agreements, 49, 71 n size of, 240 sense of local identity in, 163 War settlement patterns of, comparison with influence on Upper and Lower Lower Xiajiadian settlement pat- Xiajiadian cultures, 190- 191 terns, 163-164 relationship to acquisition of prestige social complexity of, 44, 55, 161, 163- objects, 39 176, 186-187 as social complexity cause, 190 decline of, 239 Warringstates period, 179-184, 213 factors affecting, 191 peer-polity networks of, 22 horizontal and vertical shifts in, 191- Watchtowers, 210 192 Wealth finance systems, 36-37 models of, 173-176 Weapons sociopolitical organization, 144, 196 bronze individualizing, 30, 187, 175-176, 239 Chinese/Northern Corridor compari- multidimensional framework of, 230 son of, 155-156 suggestions for future research about, of Chinese origin, 155-156, 214-216 239-241 Erlitou, 207 types of, 232 Upper Xiadiajian. 155, 167, 168, 169. transition to pastoral economy, 38- 39 170 Upper Xiadiajian sites Upper Xiajiadian, 190 altitude above sea level, 194, 195 Weaving industry, Lower Xiajiadian, 106 artifacts from, 151-161; see also spe- Wei River basin, 60 cific types of artifacts Weiyingzi culture, 54, 185-186, 196, heterogenity of style of, 187, 191-192 223n burial sites: see Burial sites, Upper Wessex, Neolithic culture of, 32-33, 84 Xiajiadian White, Leslie, 25-26 Dajing site, 160, 161 Wittfogel, Karl, 46n defensive walls of, 138- 139n World system model, 19-21, 22, 45n distance from closest water source, Worldview, Chinese, 23-24 194, 195 Writing systems distance from Yinhe River, 194 Chinese, 214 distribution of, 145 Qidan, 181 Dongnangou site, 15 1 geographic area of, 56-57 Xia dynasty, 71n, 200-202, 207-208; see location of, 11 5 also Erlitou culture Nanshangen site, 147-148,155,166-167 Xiajiadian site, see also Lower Xiajiadian number 24, 148 sites; Upper Xiajiadian sites number 32, 153 cultural chronology of, 55-56 number 123, 153 Xiaobaiyang site, 150, 166-167, 169, 170, Pingdingshan site, 147-148 174 Pingquan Dongnangou site, 149, 177n Xiaoheishigou site, 158, 215, 217, 224n 280 Index

Xiaoheyan culture, 84-86, 185- 186 Yingjinhe River basin, 68, 140n Xiaoheyan period, 210 surveys of, 58, 59 Xiaoheyan sites, 86 Yinhe River, junction with Yingjinhe Xiaozhuanshanzi site, 55-56 River, 63, 64 Xiaozhushan culture, polychrome ceramic Yinhe River basin, 62, 140n vessels of, 139n environmental zones of, 181 Xigangou tributary, 118 as Hongshan settlement area, 74, 76 Xilamulun River basin, 57, 67, 68, 160 as Lower Xiadiajian settlement site, 91, Xilugahe River basin, 119, 140n 126, 134, 162 Xindian site, 94 surveys of, 58, 59 Xinglongwa culture, 53-54 Upper Xiajiadian burial sites distribu- Xiongnu confederacy, 180, 198, 222 tion near, 150 Xitai site, 76 as Upper Xiadiajian settlement area, 162 Xu, Henan Provineec, 215 Yinjiadian village, 62 Xuchang area, 217 Yinxu, 49 Xu Guangii, 58 Yueshi, 224n Xunzi, 27 Yuxi, 202, 203, 204, 205, 207, 208 Xu state, 217, 218 Zhao, King, 213 Yangzi River basin Zhaobaogou culture, 53-54 bronze artifacts from, 155 Zhaobaogou site, 76 as origin site of Chinese civilization, 23 Zhaosuhe River basin, 119 state-level polities in, 176, 212, 214 Zhengzhou city, 201, 202, 204 Yan state, 180, 198 Zhengzhou site, 107 expansion into Northern Corridor, 221 Zhizhushan site, 101 influence of Upper Xiajiadian culture Zhongguo, 199 on, 220 Zhongyuan area, 40, 50 stamped-earth burial techniques of, as focus of Chinese archaeology, 58 216-217 oracle bone use in, 109 Yaowangmaio site, 55-56 as origin site of Chinese cultural devel- Yellow River basin opment, 53, 199-200 agrarian states of, 5 1 rammed-earth stone walls of, 210 archaeology of, 60 Xia dynasty of, 200-202 bronze artifacts from, 155, 156 Zhou dynasty, 224n Erlitou settlements of, 204 aristocracy of, 14 Neolithic cultures of, 104 Early, 56, 158-159 as origin site of Chinese civilization, 23, Eastern, 14, 37, 233 45n, 53-54, 61 Western, 37, 56, 157, 210, 213, 216- polities of 217 interaction with Upper Xiajiadian cul- Zhoujiadi site, 70 ture, 228-229 Zhukaigou culture, 210 state-level, 176, 212 Zhukaigou site, 140n