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A STUDY of the LINKAGES BETWEEN POPULAR MUSIC and POLITICS in SOUTH AFRICA UNDER APARTHEID in the 1980S

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A STUDY of the LINKAGES BETWEEN POPULAR MUSIC and POLITICS in SOUTH AFRICA UNDER APARTHEID in the 1980S A STUDY OF THE LINKAGES BETWEEN POPULAR MUSIC AND POLITICS IN SOUTH AFRICA UNDER APARTHEID IN THE 1980s by DAVID JUSTIN DURBACH Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the subject AFRICAN POLITICS at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA Supervisor: Dr. S. Botha March 2015 Name: David Durbach Student number: 46674977 Degree: MA in African Politics I declare that A Study of the Linkages between Popular Music and Politics in South Africa under Apartheid in the 1980s is my own work and that all the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. All interviewees have consented. Signed: Date: ii SUMMARY This dissertation seeks to explore how the exercise of political power and the music industry impacted each other in South Africa under apartheid during the 1980s. It does so by looking firstly at the ways in which the South African government used music to promote apartheid. Secondly, it looks at the role of South African popular musicians in the struggle against apartheid in the country, specifically their role in civil society and the methods they employed to fight apartheid while avoiding censorship. It looks at key musical developments of the decade and explores their political implications, focusing on three popular genres: bubblegum (or disco), crossover and reggae. Thirdly, it explores the role of South African music and musicians in the struggle against apartheid outside South Africa. Finally, it looks at the role of music in the international anti-apartheid movement and the contribution of the international music community to the struggle. KEYWORDS Apartheid; bubblegum; censorship; crossover; music industry; reggae; political socialisation; political communication iii CONTENTS LIST OF ACRONYMS ........................................................................................ viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION............................................................................. 1 1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................. 2 1.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS ................................................................................. 2 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY .................................................................... 4 1.4 LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................... 5 1.4.1 Popular Music as a Socio-Political Phenomenon ...................................... 6 1.4.2 The Role of Music in Political Change....................................................... 8 1.4.3 Civil Society’s Role in Democratisation ..................................................... 9 1.4.4 Music in South Africa............................................................................... 10 1.4.5 The Role of Music in South African Politics ............................................. 12 1.4.5.1 Government’s Use of Music to Promote Apartheid........................ 14 1.4.5.2 The Role of Musicians in Protesting Apartheid.............................. 15 1.4.5.3 The Role of Musicians in the Rise of Civil Society......................... 15 1.4.5.4 South African Musicians Overseas – in Exile and on Tour............ 17 1.4.5.5 The International Music Community’s Role in the Struggle........... 17 1.5 METHODOLOGY........................................................................................... 19 1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ..................................................................... 24 1.7 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY................................................................... 27 1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ..................................................................... 28 1.9 CHAPTER OVERVIEW.................................................................................. 29 CHAPTER 2: THE SOUTH AFRICAN GOVERNMENT, MUSIC AND THE MUSIC INDUSTRY........................................................................................................... 32 2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 32 2.2 THE SOCIO-POLITICAL CLIMATE OF THE 1980s ...................................... 32 2.2.1 An Overview of Apartheid........................................................................ 33 2.2.2 The 1976 Student Uprising and its Aftermath.......................................... 35 2.2.3 The Idea of the Total Onslaught and the Total Strategy.......................... 36 2.2.4 Constitutional Change and Reform.......................................................... 37 2.2.5 Militarisation and the States of Emergency ............................................. 38 2.3 DIRECT GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT IN MUSIC ................................... 40 iv 2.3.1 SABC Radio, Music and Separate Development Propaganda................ 41 2.3.2 Music Censorship.................................................................................... 47 2.3.2.1 Directorate of Publications............................................................. 48 2.3.2.2 SABC Censorship ......................................................................... 50 2.3.2.3 Police Censorship ......................................................................... 53 2.3.2.4 Industry Censorship ...................................................................... 54 2.3.3 Government-Led Music Projects ............................................................. 57 2.3.3.1 State Funding for the Performing Arts........................................... 57 2.3.3.2 Sponsoring International Artists to Perform in South Africa........... 59 2.3.3.3 Bureau of Information ‘Peace Song’.............................................. 61 2.3.3.4 Music Industry Awards .................................................................. 63 2.3.3.5 National Song Festivals................................................................. 63 2.3.3.6 Sponsored Live Events ................................................................. 64 2.4 THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE SOCIO-POLITICAL CONTEXT FOR THE CREATIVE CLIMATE FOR MUSICIANS ............................................................. 65 2.4.1 Political and Financial Restrictions .......................................................... 65 2.4.2 Police Intimidation ................................................................................... 68 2.4.3 Touring Difficulties................................................................................... 70 2.5 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 71 CHAPTER 3: LOCALLY-BASED MUSICIANS AND THE STRUGGLE AGAINST APARTHEID ........................................................................................................ 76 3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 76 3.2 THE STRUGGLE CONTEXT OF MUSIC IN THE 1980s: CIVIL SOCIETY, TRADE UNIONS AND MUSICIANS .................................................................... 77 3.2.1 The Rise of the Union Movement ............................................................ 79 3.2.2 United Democratic Front (UDF)............................................................... 80 3.2.3 COSATU and the Mass Democratic Movement (MDM) .......................... 83 3.2.4 South African Musicians’ Alliance (SAMA) .............................................. 85 3.3 KEY MUSICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF THE DECADE................................... 88 3.3.1 The Emergence of “Bubblegum” Music ................................................... 88 3.3.2 The Growth of Collaborative “Crossover” Music and the Role of White Musicians ......................................................................................................... 92 3.3.3 The Emergence of Reggae as a Popular Genre ..................................... 96 3.3.4 New Independent Record Labels .......................................................... 101 3.3.5 Live Performances................................................................................. 102 v 3.3.6 The Growth of Independent Radio Stations........................................... 106 3.4 MUSICIANS’ METHODS OF FIGHTING APARTHEID................................ 109 3.4.1 Double Meanings................................................................................... 111 3.4.2 Satire..................................................................................................... 113 3.4.3 Positive Social and Moral Messages..................................................... 114 3.4.4 Re-interpreting Existing Songs .............................................................. 116 3.4.5 Album Covers........................................................................................ 117 3.4.6 Alternative Channels to Record, Perform and Sell Music...................... 118 3.5 THE FALL OF APARTHEID AND THE END OF BUBBLEGUM .................. 120 3.6 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 123 CHAPTER 4: SOUTH AFRICAN MUSIC OVERSEAS AND ITS ROLE IN THE EXILED STRUGGLE MOVEMENT ................................................................... 128 4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 128 4.2 BACKGROUND TO SOUTH AFRICAN MUSICIANS IN EXILE................... 128 4.3 MUSIC IN THE EXILED STRUGGLE MOVEMENT..................................... 132 4.3.1 Defining the Role of
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