Science: Mojel Curriculum Guide, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight

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Science: MoJel Curriculum Guide, Kindergarten through Grade Eight. INSTITUTION California State Dept. of Education, Sacramento. REPORT NO ISBN-0-8011-0665-6 PUB DATE 87 NOTE 134p.; For the related mathematics curriculum, see SE 048 611. AVAILABLE FROM Publications Sales, California State Department of Education, P.O. Box 271, Sacramento, CA 95802-0271 ($3.25 plus tax). PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Usa - Guides (For Teachers) (052)

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Biological Sciences; Earth Science; Elementary Education; *Elementary School Science; Interdisciplinary Approach; Physical Sciences; Pr7cess Education; *Science Activities; Science Education; Science Experiments; *Science Instruction; State Curriculum Guides IDENTIFIERS *California

ABSTRACT This guide was developed with the intention of helping teachers and school site administrators in California review the elementary science curriculum and compare it to an idealized model that is presented in the document. Part I of the guide provides a summary of a number of characteristics considered to be important to a strong elementary science program. It was designed to aid teachers, principals, and parents in identifying features of their local science program where attention is needed. Part II presents a full-scale portrait of an elementary science program that focuses on the development of student understanding. This section presents teaching ideas that are concerned with both the knowledge base and science process skills. Common themes are present in the discussion of science instruction in the various subject areas. The disciplines and associated themes addressed are:(1) biological science (cells, genetics, evolution, plants, protists, animals, human beings, ecosystems); (2) earth science (astronomy, geology and natural resources, meteorology, oceanography and hydrology); and (3) physical science (matter, mechanics, energy sources and transformation, heat, light, electricity, magnetism, and sound). (TW)

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'''':" +4!'.... D'a CURRICULUM ,' .: ,.:. .'f * ,.'1, 4:': ,IcONDERGARTEN THROUGH RADE EIGHT Publishing Information

The Science Model Curriculum Guide, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight was developed by an advisory committee (see page ix) working in cooperation with Thomas Sachse, Manager, Mathematics/Science Education Unit, State Department of Education. Artifax Corporation of San Diego prepared the Guide for photo-offset production, and Cheryl Shawver McDonald of the Bureau of Publications des4 ned and prepared the artwork for the cover. The Science Model Curriculum Guide was published by the California State Department of Education, 721 Capitol Mall, Sacramento, California (mailing address: P.O. Box 944272, Sacramento, CA 94244-2720); was printed by the Office of State Printing; and was distributed under the provisions of the Library Distribution Act and Government Code Section 11096. Copyright @ 1987, California State Department of Education Copies of this publication are available for 53.25 each, plus sales tax for California residents, from Publications Sales, California State Department of Education, P.O. Box 271, Sacramento, CA 95802-0271. Other publications that are available from the Department may be found on r ages 125-26, or a complete list may be secured by writing to the address above or by calling the sales unit in the Bureau of Publications: (916) 445-1260.

ISBN 0-8011-0665-6 4 III

CONTENTS

Foreword v Preface vii Acknowledgments ix

Overview 1

Part I 3

Designing the Program 3 Operatiig the Program 5

Part II 9 Biological Science (K-3) 9 A. Cells, Genetics, and Evolution 9 B. Plants 11 C. Protists 12 D. Animals 13 E. Human Beings 14 F. Ecosystems 14

Earth Science (K-3) 16 A. Astronomy 16 B. Geology and Natural Resources 18 C. Oceanography and Hydrology 21 Physical Science (K-3) 23 A. Matter 23 B. Mechanics 24 C. Energy: Sources and Transformation 25 D. Heat 26 E. Light 27 F. Electricity and Magnetism 28 G. Sound 30 Biological Science (4. 6) 32 A. Cells, Genetics, and Evolution 32 B. Plants 33 C. Protists 35 D. Animals 36 E. Human Beings 39 F. Ecosystems 40

Science 5 Iv

Earth Science (4-6) 42 A. Astronomy 42 B. Geology and Natural Resources 44 C. Meteorology 46 D. Oceanography 48 Physical Science (4-6) 50 A. Matter 50 B. Energy 52 C. Mechanical Energy 53 D. Heat Energy 54 E. Light Energy 55 F. Sound Energy 57 G. Electricity and Magnetism 58 Biological Science (7-8) 60 A. Cells, Genetics, and Evolution 60 B. Plants 62 C. Protists 63 D. Animals 64 E. Human Beings 64 F. Ecosystems 66 Earth Science (7-8) 69 A. Astronomy 69 B. Geology and Natural Resources 71 C. Meteorology 73 D. Oceanography 75 Physical Science (7-8) 78 A. Matter 78 B. Mechanics 82 C. Energy: Sources of Transformations 82 D. Energy: Heat 83 E. Energy: Light 84 F. Energy: Electricity and Mag:ietism 85 G. Energy: Sound 87

Appendixes 89 I. Biographies of Scientists 91 II. Scientific Discoveries 105 DI. Scientific Literature 113 IV. Science Materials 121

Model Curriculum Guide FOREWORD

"... the first principles which are instilled take thedeepest root ..." Abigail Adams, Letter to John Adams, August 14, 1776

The importance of the elementary school experiencecannot be overstated. The first connections that our children make with formal learninglay the foundation on which their future education will be built. If through their day-to-day school experiences students find that learning is important, interesting,and meaningful to their livesand if we help students not only to want to learn but alsoto know that they can learnwe have put in place important buildingblocks for a solid academic foundation. Yet, to value learnLng andto want to learn are not the only ingredients of the foundation. The content of the curriculumwhatwe teach our childrenultimately determines how well theyare prepared for the challenges of further education and for productive adult life.

California's attention to the content of the elementary school curriculumis part of the state's comprehensive curriculum improvementefforts.With the Hughes-Hart Educational Reform Act of 1983 (Senate Bill813), California reinstituted high school graduation requirements, which increasefor many schools the number of courses required for graduation. The legislationalso mandated publication of the Model Curriculum Standards, GradesNine Through Twelve, which is intended to help high schools improve thequality of academic coursework. The Model Curriculum Guides, KindergartenThrough Grade Eight are aligned with the state's Model CurriculumStandards, as well as with our frameworks, handbooks, and assessment programs. Together, the Guides and the Standardsare intended to engage eachstudent from kindergarten through grade twelve in interesting, disciplinedacademic study. Their overarching purpose is to ensure that all California schoolsare able to address the state's most critical educational needsto:

Prepare youth fc: prod-ictive adult employment inan economy increasingly dependent on highly skilled, highly literate employees.

Graduate informed, thoughtful citizens who understand the shared values and ethical principles essential for a healthy, functioning democracy.

Produce culturally literate adults who have learnednot only basic skills but also a common body of concepts and central works of history, literature, English-language arts,science, mathematics, social science, foreign languages, and the arts and through this studypossess a strong sense of a shared tradition and cultural heritage.

The task of developing a curricular model appropriate for all students is enormous. Students in many of our schools come from widely diverse ethnic, racial, linguistic, and economic backgrounds.They also develop at very different paces academically, physically, and emotionally.To prepare so diverse a student population for the complex world of their future, educational leaders in California and nationally urge the adoption of a rigorous, integrated

Science vi

core curriculum that begins in kindergarten and builds from grade to grade through high school, as described here:

A core curriculum of study validates each student's individuality and unique strengths while engaging all children in meaningful investigation of the common knowledge, values, and skills needed for productive adult life. Students study the beliefs which form the ethical and moral bonds of our nation. They develop an understanding of civic responsibility in a plu- ralistic, democratic society and learn the technological literacy needed for our increasingly complex society. A common core curriculum ensures each student a sound educational foundation and develops fully the student's academic, ethical, and political potentials.

In an integrated curriculum, teachers incorporate through the lessons they teach the knowledge and skills from two or more disciplines. In integrated units of study, teachers emphasize the rich connections among content areas, teach students the interrelatedness of knowledge and skills, and fos- ter a holistic view of learning. Through the integration teachers also extend instructional time in subjects structured as integrated lessons. In a science lab in which students record their observations in concise, declarative sen- tences and read about one another's discoveries, for example, the students learn reading and writing along with science concepts.

At the beginning of this foreword, I quoted from a letter Abigail Adams wrote to her husband. Now I close with a most appropriate quote from a letter she wrote to her son, John Quincy Adams: "Learning is not obtained by chance; it must be sought for with ardor and attended to with diligence." As we build new curricula for our elementary schools, we need to keep both of Mrs. Adams's ideas clearly in mind: Those first principles that we teach our children lay a foundation that must not be permitted to assemble by chance. This guide and the other materials we have produced to support our educational eforni efforts in California will help ensure that the education of our children will not be left to chance but will be pursued with the diligence and insight of an Abigail Adams.

Superintendent of Public Instruction

Model Curriculum Guide vii

PREFACE The Model Curriculum Guides set forth the essential learnings forelementary i and middle school English-language arts, mathematics, andscience curricula. And guides for social science, history, finearts, physical education, and foreign languages are being prepared.

Although the Guides are not mandatory, theyare intended as evocative models of curriculum content. Individual schools will probablymodify ,and expand the content, as appropriate, for their particular student populations.For each subject, the Guides suggesta learning sequence, delineating concepts, skills, and activities appropriate for learners in kindergarten throughgrade three, grades three through six, and grades six through eight. Thesequences are suggestive.Teachers' judgments about a partimlar student's readiness for more advanced instruction will ultimately determine when new concepts and skills are ir.troduced.

Sequencing essential learnings for various grade levels is useful in organizing so large a body of information. Yet, the overarching message of the Guides is that learning is not linear.It is a process that involves a continuous overlay of concepts and skills so that students' understandings are ever-broadened and ever-deepened. The content and model lessons of the Guidesare structured to help teachers lead discussions, frame questions, and design activitiesthat contain multiple levels of learning. Examples indicate how knowledgeat one level can be reinforced and expandedas students advance through the curriculum. The organization of material is intendedto help teachers move each student quickly from skill acquisition to higher order learning while,at all times, fully engaging the student in rigorous academic study.

The shift of emphasis from mastering basic skillsto understanding thoroughly the content of the curriculum is intentional. Research indicatesthat children will learn more and more effectivelyif teachers focus lessonson content and the connections among subject areas. Students learnto apply skills by reading, writing, and discussing curriculum content. The essential learnings emphasize central concepts, patterns, and relationshipsamong subject areas and reinforce inquiry and creative thinking.

Whenever possible, lessons include background information about the works, ideas, and leaders that have shaped the discipline. Such contextual knowledge helps students understand the way in which people discover and apply information under particular circumstancesto advanced fields of knowledge. This fuller picture of academic content develops students' cultural and technological literacies their ability to see both the content of the discipline and the broader context out of which facts and concepts evolve.

Science 9 vlIl

The Model Curriculum Guides, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight will be successful if they help elementary and middle school communities shape an integrated, active core curriculum that prepares students for the challenges of secondary school and beyond. The building blocks of an academic foundation are in place in many of our elementary schools.Yet, so important is the foundationnot only to children and their families but also to our future communities and the nation as a wholethat we must make every effort to ensure that, in every school and for every child, the elementarycurriculum is the best that we can provide.

"The beginning is the most important part of the work."

Plato, The Republic

JAMES R. SMITH FRANCE ALEXANDER Deputy Superintendent Director Curriculum and Instructional Leadership Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment Division

THOMAS P. SACHSE Manager Mathematics/Science Education

Model Curriculum Guide 10 Ix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Del Alberti, Superintendent, Auburn Union Steve McKay, Anderson Valley Junior-Senior Elemental), School District High School, Boonville

Maureen AllPn, Elementary Science Specialist, Alicia Meza, Assistant Superintendent, Sacramento Irvine Unifie School District, LagLna Hills City Unified School District Dawn Binder, Science Project Specialist, Green Rosa Nagaishi, Chemistry Teacher, Marshall Acres Elementary School, Live Oak Elementary School District, Santa Cruz High School, Los Angeles Unified School District Mary Ann Church, Math/Science Coordinator, San Joaquin County Office of Education, Stockton Gary Nakagiri, Science CIC, Parkside Center, San Francisco Robert Clarillos, Science Resource Teacher, Los Angeles Unified School District Kathy Patterson, Teacher, Evergreen Elementary School, Evergreen Union Elementary School District, Harriet Cohen, Teacher, Park Day School, Cottonweod Oakland Mary Anna Quon-Warner, Science Resource Diane Conradson, San Jose State University, Teacher, Escondido Union School District Biology Department Thomas Sachse, Manager, Math/Science Education Perry Dyke, Pediatrician / Parent, Redlands Unit, California State Department of Education

Rodney Edgmon, Principal, Noble Elementary Jeff Self, Teacher, Eureka City Elementary School School, Bakersfield City Elementary School District District

Gary Estep, Teacher, Chico Junior High School, Sid Sitkoff, Elementary Science Specialist, Los Chico Unified School District Angeles Unified School District Philip Gay, Science Specialist, San Diego City Mare Taagepera, University of California, Unified School District Department of Chemistry, Irvine Peter C. Gega, Professor of Teacher Education, Edith Young, Coordinator, Hacienda San Diego State University Science/Environmental Magnet School, San Jose Unified School District David George, Panama Union Elementary School District, Bakersfield Special acknowledgments are due Zack Hanscom, Professor, San Diego State University, for Al Gunther, Stephen M. White Junior High appendixes I, II, and III. School, Los Angeles Unified School District Tom Craig created Appendix IV and is also due Colleen McDonald, San Diego City Unified special thanks. School District NOTE: The roles and job titles cited a'- we are those of the listed individuals during the development of this document.

Science 11 The Science Model CurriculumGuide was written for thepurpose of having teachers and school siteadministrators review the elementary science curriculum and compare it to the idealizedmodel which appears in the pages that follow. The ModelCurriculum Guides (like the Model Curriculum Standards) will be usedfor comparisons at the school and district levels and are useful forcreating a dialogue among thosemost responsible for and knowledgeableof the local science curriculum. The Science Model Curriculum Guidewas drafted by a talented committee of science teachers and science specialistswho worked to craft a document that is especially vivid interms of the science lessons that are portrayed along with each guideline. Theguidelines themselves (whichappear in boxes throughout the document)are correlated to the Science Frame- work Addendum and alsoarticulated with the Model Curriculum Standards.As such, the Model CurriculumGuide will be another vehicle for supporting the instructionalmaterials found in textbooks and those educational technology softwarematerials that have been reviewed and matched with the Science FrameworkAddendum.

The ultimate goal for science educationremains that of science literacy for all students in California. The definitionof science literacy has been well articulated elsewhere and consistsof the following four elements:

1.Developing positive attitudes aboutscience and taking an active interest in natural phenomena andtechnological achievements

2.LeArning fundamentalconcepts of science and how the applications of these concepts affectour daily lives

3.Learning techniques thatcompose the scientific method to validate knowledge and to develop thinking skillsfor lifelong learning

4.Using attitudes and knowledge aboutscience to live as an informed citizen in a technologically advanced nation

The goal of science literacy for Californiastudents is best reached by a thoughtful approach to integrating thescience curriculum with other areas of study.The reader will note throughout the ScienceModel Curriculum Guide numerous referencesto learning activities that can be integrated with the visual and performingarts, English-language arts, mathematics, and history-social science. Theappendices at the end of the document further elaborateon the resources and materials that can be used to integrate science with otherareas. For example, the appendices dealing with biographies of scientists and scientificdiscoveries are especially useful in cross-curriculum integrationwith English-language arts and history-social science. Moreover, the listof scientific literature is an especially interesting avenue for studentsto avail themselves of good science reading while learning reading andother language arts skills. 2

Part 1 of the Document

The guide was developed with the expectation that it will servedifferent purposes for different readers.Part I provides a relatively brief summary of a number of importantcharacteristics of a strong elementary science program. It is designed to aid teachers, principals, and parents in identifying features of the local science program where attentionis needed. For some readers it will provide p -imarily an initialappreci- ation; for others, it will provide a kind of checklist either before ordur- ing an intensive examination of a school's program. Part I isintended to identify hallmarks that a wide range ofprofessionals and lay people can turn to repeatedly in an ongoingplanning and evaluation process.

Part II of the Document Part II presents a full-scale portrait of an elementary science program focused on the development of student understanding. It isdesigned to be a guide and resource for persons with majorresponsibility for science curriculum or staff development. It will help them toestablish specifications and assessment criteria for long-term improvement efforts. Elementary teachers can and should, over a periodof time, read Part II carefully to acquire a more tangible vision of the science program that they can, with sustained support, gradually provide.Throughout Part II, the process skills (consistent with the ScienceFramework Addendum) are underlined to reinforce the expectation that science lessons impart both the science content (or knowledge base) andthe science processes (or scientific methods). In addition, superscripts are used to denote teaching ideas presented in theappendices: 1 biographies of scientists; 2 scientific discoveries; and 3 scientificliterature. The super- script 4 is used to denote lessons which lend themselves to cross- curriculum interpretation.

3 Model Curriculum Guide All students have the right toa science education cov:..ry they make during exploration. They take that prepares them to take their place in societyas pride in explaining difficult concepts and loveto scientifically literate citizens. Experiencing sci- reel off the minutest detail about fascinating science as students helps them unde-stand a e nat- ence facts. They are excited about learning and ural and technological world as adults and helps when given a chance,pursue science with enthu- them make our world a better place in whichto Fiasm. Science brings this excitementto the class- live. Functional knowledge of science givesstu- room; teachers need only to capitalize on this dents skills for lifelong learning, understanding, innate eagerness to know. Science education isa and action. It provides a means for coping with natural, exciting, and rewarding extension of and responding to the rapid changes in tech- youth itself.Therefore, it is incumbent on ele- nology that directly affect their welfare.The mentary teachers to ensure that this enthusiasm development of a scientifically literate populace is and excitement are maintained throughout thestu- a necessity, not a luxury. dent's academic career. Part I of this document presents the factors that are most commonly At the elementary level students bringa natural found insuccessful elementary and middle curiosity to the classroom. They havea thirst for school science programs. knowledge. They tenaciously hangon to any dis-

DESIGNING THE PROGRAM Organizing a consistent, well-rounded science higher education should devotea minimum of education program requires the participation and three years to the study of biology, chemistry, dedication of the entire school staff. It isnot an and physics at the high school level. Time alone easy task; no worthwhile educational endeavor is not a guarantee for a quality scienceprogram, is. But it is a rewarding task for teachers and but a concerned and enthusiastic teacher,com- students that builds the character of the whole bined with parental and communitysupport, will school mission. Of course, coordinating the de- ultimately contribute to a high quality science velopment of a quality science program requires education program. the support and direct involvement of the school site leadership. Several issues are paramount in designing science instruction. Program Support

Teachers of science universally report the need Time Allocations for Science Instruction for administrative support to achieve and sustain a comprehensive science program like the one A comprehensive school program requires ade- called for in this guide.This support usually quate utile for science instruction in grades K-12. translates into establishing science as a priority Specific time allocations should be assigned to subject and providing thespecial resources ensure the acquisition of scientific knowledge, necessary to sample the diversity and establish positive attitudes toward science, rational and the integral nature of science as a discipline and c-eative thinking skills, and manipulativecom- endeavor. To be treated as a priority subject, sci- municative skills. A schedule of 100 minutes ence education would have to obtain the instruc- weekly in grades K-3, 150 minutes weekly for tional status of language arts, mathematics, and grades 4-6 (with an additional 50 minutes weekly the social sciences. This means more time, higner for health in grades K-6), three semesters in quality time, and equivalence in expenditures for grades 7-8, and two full years during grades 9- materials, staff development, and assessment. 12 should be allocated.Students preparing for As an instructional priority, the science program

Science 14 4 Designing the Program

would assume an equivalent place on report Facilities, Equipment, and Instructional Materials cards,in parent-teacher conferences, and in extrnunicular activities.Finally and perhaps Facilities, equipment, and instructional materials most important, superintendents and principals must be selected, maintained, and updated to would need to talk and act as though science meet the needs of a quality prngram.Asa first were a priority subject. priority, students should have up-to-date instruc- tionalmaterialsthatadequately coverthe Recent surveys of teachers of science (especially knowledge base that learners are expected to those in elementary classrooms) have called for acquire. If a primary text does not cover all the smaller class sizes and more supplies so that desired content, ancillary materials should be students can take an active role in science acitiv- obtained.Another priority is to arrange for a ities. If fiscal constraints preclude reducing class host of demonstrations and experiments that sizes at the school site, instructional aides em- reinforce what students learn in more didactic ployed with categorical or general funds can be presentations. Here is where the science lesson used to maintain safety and order in scie.e comes to life. Appendix IV in this document lists classes.Teachers of science also report divi- desired science materials by grade level span. dends from sharing their instructional and experi- The materials of a science education must be mental techniques. Each teacher who contributes mutually reinforcing; the print, as well as all ideas and procedures to others helps to improve forms of non-print, materials should interrelate competence in science education. and focus on the instructional outcomes.

Spiraling and Articulation Staff Development

Liketheothercurriculumareas,science Any successful science program must depend on education benefits from early introduction and well-prepared, dedicated teachers.Teachers of careful repetitionat higher cognitive levels science must meet the most rigorous standards throughout the grade levels.It should present for su..t matter knowledge and teaching exper- concepts by increasing breadth and complexity at tise. Teachers must model appropriate behaviors appropriate intervals. In grades K-6, instruction in the classroom. This modeling involves show- needs to introduce and continually reinforce the ing enthusiastic attitudes about science (such as study of a wide range of science phenomena. In inquisitiveness and open-mindedness), demon- grades 7-8, earth,life, and physical science strating procedures consistent with those of a concepts learned in the lower grades should be professional scientist (such as laboratory safety reviewed and expanded. In-depth instruction in and experimental rigor), and exhibiting exem- earth/space science, biology, chemistry, physics, plary personal behavior (such as humane treat- etc., should be offered during grades 9-12. ment of animals and environmentalconcerns). Because the enormous breadth of content areas Spiraling will require the continuous review and and changing fields of science mandate a constant progression of knowledge and experiences over updating of science teachers, we must ensure that the different grade levels. This review and pro- there are provisions for professional development gression of knowledge will require careful and in-service opportunities. Staff development articulation between teachers at all levels.All does not end with teacher training. School admin- teachers must cover the agreed on science istrators need to know how to judge the quality concepts. The 1984 Science Framework Adden- of the science program and how to improveit. dum and Part II of this document should be con- Department chairpersons and principals need to sultedforspecificexpectations for learners' take advantage of science education programs to achievement in science. help them in the pursuit of excellence.

15 Model Curriculum Guide 5

Evaluation testing program providesone assessment of achievement and thinking skills for the individual One key to the success of any scienceprogram is school site. Elementary and secondaryprogram its evaluation. There aremany valid means of reviews will assist local leaders in evaluating and evaluating the progress ofa science program. improving science programs. Thereare also Science programs, including the experiential various local,regional, and national testing aspects, can be evaluated by means of anassess- programs available that will report individual ment model such as that described inthe student progress. Ail of the aboveserve as yard- Department of Education's Science Educationfor sticks in measuring the success ofa local science the 1980s. This document also providesa model program. for determining teacher effectiveness.The CAP

OPERATING THE PROGRAM

Quality science instruction is evidentto all the facts, laws, and theories of physical, life, and senses. It's not a program that is just heard; it is earth sciences. seen, felt, often smelled, and sometimes tasted. Science is a triad. First, it is a body of organized The science curriculum should be basedon knowledge. It is facts, figures,concepts, and ter- current scientific knowledge and at the level of minology. The knowledge manifests itself inthe the student's emotional, physical, and intellectual technical world the application of science. Sec- development.Instruction in science will give ond, science is a way of solving problems,a way experiences that reinforce the content learned in of discovering what is happening innature, and a their classes, stimulate the development of in- means of pushing back the cloak of ignorance. vestigativeprocesses,andfosterscientific Science has been successful in solvingmany of inquiry and reasoning.Regular opportunities the problems facing the humanrace as well as in should be provided for studentsto explore adding to our understanding of the universe. natural phenomena, to apply science knowledge Finally, science is peoplepeople who workto to current situations, and to develop a positive seek the truth, people who through inspiration attitude toward self and science. and perseverance push forward the humanquest for knowledge. The scienceprogram in action It is important to define the role ofcontent in must continually show all these sides of science. science instruction very carefullyso that the outcome of our programs is students with a rich conceptual understanding of science. Instructional Focus

Content is the foundation of a balanced science Experiential Learning program. This content involves not only facts but techniques and strategies for thinking and explor- While classroom activities should be diverse, ing. As stated above, science education isa triad varied, and excitir,g with a balance of science of concepts, processes, and people, but the meth- content and experien tial learning, the instructional ods and people of science are truly appreciated focus should be maintained on concepts ac- only when the science content is understood. quisition. Conceptual understanding cannot be fully realized without the texture added by conducting A balanced science program is activity-based. experiments, observing appropriate demonstra- Experiential learning is the acquisition of content tions, and discussing the societal implications of and skills through active participation. An impor- scientific and technological advances.Science tant aspect in all experiential learning is providing education is predicated on students learning the comprehensive safety instruction.

Science 16 6 Operating the Program

Students at all levels learn best by having activity-Science Outside the School Setting based, hands-on science experiences with an emphasis on developing the rational thinking skills School districts should draw on and develop inherent in scientific thinking. The student should alliances with the science resources found outside experience the exciting and creative methods of the classroom. Universities, educational televi- study used in inquiry by professional scientists. sion, museums, zoos, field trips, and science The students can do this by replicating earlier fairs can play an important r^-` in enriching the experiments leading to the important discoveries school science program. in science, formulating experiments to solve specificproblems of their own choosing, and There are abundant opportunities for parents to developing alternative solutions to problems become an extension of the classroom by en- posed withinthe framework of the course couraging and providing science experiences for content. their children. The family can share in the enjoyment of providing science enrichment through travel, home activities, and involvement with Attitudes, Ethics, and Values homework.

Another important aspect of a science program is Teachers can help parents (and their students) by the open discussion of attitudes, ethics, and val- assigning homework that extends the classroom ues. Students must come to realize that science is assignment and encourages parent-student inter- a human endeavor and not a value-freebody of action on science topics. knowledge. Science and technology have such profound impact on society that ethics be an itegral part of the science curriculum. Integration of Science Throughout Other Disciplines The Science Framework Addendum isquite explicit in its discussion of ethical issues in the All disciplines benefit by drawing on insights classroom. The science curriculum should pro- acquired in other fields of learning. Every cur- vide some opportunities for in-depth analysis of riculum area lends itself to the study of science ethical issues, including understanding the con- and its applications just as science lends itself to sequences of various courses of action. It is de- the study of other curriculum areas. Examples sirable that the science program deal with ethical include reading stories with scientific themes, issues as they arise in the presentation of science. using scientific articles as models for writing/ language arts assignments, studying the math- It is important to note that when discussion is ematical aspects of scientific problems, discuss- elicited on ethical issues, divergent and opening the ethical implications of specific social ended questions should be used and responses problems, and sketching various life forms to ap- should provide clarification and expansion of preciate the similarities and differences in nature. students' views and opinions rather than eval- One of the greatest achievements of science has uation and closure. been to establish connections between different aspects of culture and nature. Theseconnections The province of science should be clearly under- should be illuminated at every juncture in the stood. The science classroom should not be a teaching of science. Appendices I, II, and III are forum for establishing points of view on the extremely helpful in relating science to literature, multitude of social issues, but rather it should be history, and our culture. the basis for dealing with them. While science cannot dictate the conclusions be made, it can provide a basis for seeking, understanding, and evaluating social issues that arise in the study of science.

Model Curriculum Guide 17 7

Application of Basic Skills in the Science Classroom

Instruction in science should assume a responsibility for teaching, reinforcing, and applying basic skills.Writing, oral communication, and computation are important components of science instruction. Students should learn how to read and interpet science articles and communicate scientific information orally; they must also apply appropriate mathematical concepts and computer skills in interpreting data. Students must learn and experience science as it relates to otherareas if they are to make the transfer from conceptual learning to practical application.

Science 18 PART II 9

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE (K-3)

A. CELLS, GENETICS and EVOLUTION K-1

1. DIFFERENCES EXIST BETWEEN LIVING The teacher introduces categories and schemes AND NONLIVING THINGS; THERE IS GREAT for living things and shows pictures of living DIVERSITY AMONG LIVING THINGS. organisms with part of the organism covered. By inferring, students willname the organism and its characteristics and/or behaviors. For K-1 example, webbed feet indicate a swimming animal, plus a flat bill indicates a duck. The teacher uses an aquariumtoillustrate differences between living organisms(fish, algae, and snails) and nonliving objects(sand, rocks, bubbles, water). By observing andcom- paring, the students will determine characteristics of living and nonliving objects.Teachers focus the observations (If the classon those items which distinguish the living from the nonliving (moving, respiring, etc.).Students will record characteristics by drawing, writing a story, and/ 2-3 or describing them to the teacher.4 Students will determine that all living organisms eat, breathe, The teacher will distribute pictures of "mystery" move, reproduce, get rid of wastes, and react to organisms. By observing, teams of students will stimuli. No nonliving object does all of these. determine key characteristics and behaviors of their organism. Students will dramatize these 4Art, English-Language Arts (See so page 2 for an the class can name the organism.4 Students will explanation of entries like this one.) recognize that all organisms have certain charac- 2-3 teristics of structure, function, and behavior which enable people to classify them by identifying similarities, differences, and relationships. Students will collect and display living, formerly living (shells, fossils, coal, bones), andnever- 4Art living objects.After obuz, discussing, and classifying the objects into the three categories, students will hypothesize whether certain objects 3. MOST LIVING THINGS ARE MADE UP OF are living.They will experiment to determine SMALLER STRUCTURES. whether certain objects are living (plant seeds, gently prod the chrysalis of a butterfly) toprove K-1 or disprove their hypothesis. They will prove whether an object was formerly living byasso- The teacher will collect and take apart various ciating it with its living state. Students willrecon- organisms (small plant to show root, stem, etc.; cile their decisions with the criteria for livingor large fruit to show seeds, pulp, skin; cocoon to formerlyliving organisms and never-living show chrysalis inside; insect to show wings, objects. legs, etc.).By ob ersvIgt and describing, students will draw and label the parts of their 2.LIVING THINGS CAN BE DESCRIBED AND organism, using a hand lens to aid observations CLASSIFIED AS DIFFERENT KINDS OF of smaller structures.4 PLANTS, ANIMALS, OR PROTISTS BY THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND BEHAVIORS. 4Art

Science 19 10 K-3

2-3 5.A SPECIES IS COMPOSED OF Wit AR INDIVIDUALS THAT REPRODUCE THEIR OWN The teacher will trace the outline of several KIND, BUT VARIATIONS EXIST AMONG THE students on paper after providing diagrams and INDIVIDUALS. discussing the major internal organs. Teams of students will draw and label the internal organs in appropriate positions on the outline. The teacher K-1 will lead a discussion of organ systems and other The teacher introduces the fact that while there is structures of humans and have students relate great diversity within organisms of a type them to structures of other organisms. (species), the common bond is that like produces like.Students will bring in pictures or species (like roses) and share similarities and differences 4.LIVINGTHINGS HAVE ADAPTATIONS THAT ENABLE THEM TO LIVE IN PARTICULAR within species. Then the teacher points out that ENVIRONMENTS. despite the differences within a species, offspring of very different looking individuals do have common characteristics.

2-3 Humans, likeother organisms, show great diversity within the species.Even in a single classroom, there are quite a number of differences that can be observed by comparing, measuring, and graphing.4Students will record their height, hair and eye color, foot size, and finger- prints.They learn that despite these apparent differences, there is great commonality among K-1 humans. The teacher will display pictures, mounts, and 4Mathematics living specimens of similar (mouse and rat, garden snail and slug, sunflower and dandelion) and dissimilar (salamander and lizard, cactus and 6. WHEN ORGANISMS DIE, THEIR LIFE rose) organisms.By comparing structures and FUNCTIONS CEASE AND THEIR BODIES DE- behaviors,students willidentifyadaptations, COMPOSE. hypothesize what adaptation is for, and evaluate its effectiveness. K1 Students will maintain a decomposition terrar- 2-3 ium. On a school walk, they will collect dead will design an and decomposing organisms (insects, plants) and A small group of students decomposers and scavengers (sow bugs, earth- imaginary organism and another team determines loamy the environment in which the organism lives. worms, snails). These will be placed on The two teams meet to evaluate how well the soil (not potting mix) in a terrarium, dampened adaptations of the crested organism fit the en- slightly, and covered (but not kept airtight). Students will observe and r=c1. changes daily, vironment of the "species." Then the combined groups present the organism,environment, and keeping track of the decomposition process, how the environment changes (e.g., worms), etc. any necessary adaptations.

Model Curriculum Guide 20 Biological Science 11

2-3 R. P1ANTQ

The teacher and students will discuss deathas 1 cessation of bodily functions and decomposition I 1. PLANTS HAVE BASIC REQUIREMENTS as the recycling of materials of the original organ- THAT NEED TO BE SATISFIED IN ORDER FOR ism. At a time when a fish dies in the aquarium, THEM TO SURVIVE. the teacher will discuss the characteristics of dead organisms: no eating, respiring, moving,excret- K-1 ing, responding, etc. At this point, decomposition begins, and the teacher makesan analogy to The teacher will introduce thenecessary condi- composting done by gardeners. tions for plant survival and demonstrate thatex- periments with plants can help improvesuccess rate. The teacher will help students set up ten 7.FOSSIL REMAINS INDICATE THAT MANY pots with the same species of plant (geraniums, SPECIES HAVE BECOME EXTINCT WHILE beans, marigolds, etc.) in each.Students will NEW SPECIES HAVE COME INTO BEING. then compare matched pairs of plants grown with and without light, water, warmth, drainage, and fertilizer. Growth rates are comparedon a weekly K-1 basis, and students discuss the results relatedto each variable. Students will cooperatively design The teacher will relate the past existence ofother experiments to test the basic needs of dinosaurs to extinct life forms. The teacher will plants. display pictures of extinct animals (saber-toothed tigers, giant dragonflies, mammoths) and their living counterparts. By comparing these, students EXAMPLE GRAPH FOR FIRST NEEK begin to understand the evolutionary relation- 6 ships of extinct and existing animals. Number 5 of Bean 4 Plants 3

EXAMPLE GRAPH FOR SECOND WEEK

Number 5

of Bean 4 Plants 3

2-3 1

The teacher will have students learn theprocess of obtaining fossil evidence by having students enclose bones and leaves in plaster of Paris. After the plaster is thoroughly hardened, students 2-3 will chip out the bones or leaves witha chisel. (SAFETY: Wear safety goggles.) With successes Students will grow young plants (beans, mari- and failures, students will learn how archaeolo- golds, tomatoes) in sand, loamy soil, shredded gists make fossil discoveries.

Science 21 12 K-3

paper, and other media.While giving normal 3.SEEDS REQUIRE CERTAIN CONDITIONS care to plants, they will measure fix, growth of IN ORDER TO GERMINATE; EACH SPECIES plants over a four-week period, recording data on REPRODUCES ITS OWN KIND. hictograms.4 After determining the best medium, they will grow plants in that medium and vary the amount of light, water, fertilizer, air (drained and K-1 undrained containers), and heat, using only one variable for each plant.Students will measure The teacher will bring in plants with seeds growth and record data on histograms. Students developing on them (wild mustard, radishes, will determine basic and specific needs for marigolds, avocado on branch, pumpkin with part of vine).4 The teacher will help students to plants. remove and plant ripe seeds and grow seedlings 4Mathematics for several weeks.Students will compare the young plants to the original plants from which the seeds came.

2.PLANTS HAVE MAJOR STRUCTURES 4English-Language Arts THAT HAVE SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS.

K-1 2-3

The teacher will introduce the major plant struc- The teacher will set up three terraria, each tures (root, stem, leaves, flower, fruit, seeds) containing mosses, ferns, "normal" plants, and a and their functions. Students will bring to class cactus.Students will give one a "desert" en- plant parts they eat and identify which structure vironment (heat, strong light, little water), one a each is.Students will use food sources to "normal" environment, and one a moist, cool, reinforce the commonalities and differences of shady environment.Students will observe and plant structures. describe the results during a three-week period.

<7=st C.PROTISTS

1. PROTISTS CAN BE DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED AS ALGAE, FUNGI, OR PROTO- ZOA.

K-1

The teacher will introduce the differences of life 2-3 forms that are too small to see, but readily The teacher will bring in six growing plants of available in pond life. The teacher (or students) will collect water and algae (pond scum) from a the same species (marigolds, radishes, etc.) and remove one structure from each (root, stem,all pond. Students will examine algae with a hand lens to observe bubbles of oxygen respired from leaves, all flowers, all fruit or seeds). The stu- drops of water dents will predict the functions and then replant .green cells. They will examine week. under a microscope (or use films where there is to continue growing the plants for one observe protozoa Students will then determine the functions of no microprojector available) to and algae. The teacher will relate the existence of these parts from the results. The teacher will use small living organisms that have a mar impact a film or local resources to establish the structure on society, like yeast (for bread). and functions of plant parts.

Model Curriculum Guide ,2. Biological Science13

2-3

Each group of students will select an animal and then read,4 see films, and observe it if possible. 2-3 Then they will make a diorama4 illustrating its habitat and needs. Students will determine basic Students will examine yeast cells (dry activated needs of animals in general and then identify yeast in water) and mold "threads" under a ways each species satisfies those needs. microscope. 4Art, English-Language Arts The teacher will reinforce the diversity of life forms by having students collect specimens fora "protist zoo." 2.ANIMALS CAN BE DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED BY THEIR STRUCTURAL AND/ Students will collect various examples of algae OR BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS. (seaweed), fungi (yeast), and protozoa (amoe- bas) in order to understand tix role of the protists in the web of life. K-1

The teacher will arrange a visit to the zoo (where D. ANIMALS possible) to help students see the array of animals that have common features. Some students will look for locomotion, others for habitat, and still 1. THERE IS GREAT DIVERSITY AMONG others for skin covering, etc. In discussing their ANIMALS; HOWEVER, ALL ANIMALS HAVE findings, the teacher will show that no one sys- SIMILAR BASIC NEEDS. tem is perfect and that big generalizations create classification anomalies. K-1

The teacher will display pictures of a variety of 2-3 animals (including invertebrates, such as jellyfish and sea stars, as well as a host of vertebrates) of The teacher will instruct the students about the various life forms and discuss their common five classes of vertebrates and ask students to needs: (1) food; (2) water; (5) habitat;(4) air bring in pictures of all five. They will arrange all (oxygen); and (5) temperature range. The teacher the pictures into the five classes and decide will reinforce the basic conditions of survival. whether the groups are arranged correctly to be

Science 23 14 K-3

classified. Then they will draw two pictures of comparine human needs with those of other vertebrates and will be asked to classify them into mammals. The teacher will discuss characteris- one of the classes. Each student will be asked to tics and behaviors specific to humans (e.g., cook- support his or her answer. ing food, wearing clothes, crying, using tools, playing musical instruments, writing and painting, reading books). Students will draw an Vor collect pictures to mak?, a collage showing human 3.ANIMALS PRODUCE THEIR OWN KIND; behaviors .4 THEIR LIFE CYCLES ARE GENERALLY SIMILAR BUT VARY AMONG DIFFERENT 4Art KINDS OF ANIMALS.

K-1 2-3

The teacher will introduce concept of growth The teacher will compare "primitive" (non- and development and the stages leading to technological) societies with modem, technology- maturity for various animals. The teacher will based society. Students will discuss, draw, and maintain classroom animals which can give birth collect pictures of human behaviors and cultural inthe classroom:frogs, guppies, hamsters, venations (shelter, food, clothing, art, alpha- chicks from fertile eggs, etc. The teacher will bets)4Students will then relate these to needs display pictures of young and adult stages of that are basic to all humans and will group pic- animals, or students can draw pictures of live tures according to class-developed categories. specimens.4 Students will match young and parents. 4Art

2-3 F. ECOSYSTEMS The teacher and students will compare tadpoles, mealworms, or caterpillars (bc sure to bring in 1. EACH KIND OF LIVING THING HAS food plants for caterpillars found outside). Stu- SPECIAL NEEDS; IT GETS WHAT IT NEEDS dents will record their observations by drawing4 FROM THE ENVIRONMENT AND INTERACTS stages of development and will distinguish be- WITH MANY OTHER LIVING THINGS. tween species that bear live young and egg layers. 4Arr YOUR NEEDS

E. HUMAN BEINGS

1. HUMAN BEINGS ARE MAMMALS WITH NEEDS AND FUNCTIONS SIMILAR TO THOSE OF OTHER MAMMALS AND WHICH CAN BE DESCRIBED BY CERTAIN CHARACTERISTICS AND BEHAVIORS.

K-1 The teacher will open the class with an overview of how humans are part of the animal kingdom,

Model Curriculum Guide 24 Biological Science15

K-1 vation.Students will examine weed patches) observing and recording the number of different The teacher will begina classroom mural with a species within the wire circles and the number of picture of a person in the the center. The students individuals of each species.Names of various will list the needs ofa person (food, clothes, plants and animalscan be invented by students.4 house) in spokes around the figureafter the teacher has completed one spoke. Then they will 4English-Language Arts describe and drawsources of materials that sat- isfy the needs drawn around each spoke(web- bing).The activity will be repeated for other 3.ENERGY GOES FROM THE SUN TO organisms (trees, butterflies, birds). The teacher GREEN PLANTS; ANNALS GET ENERGY will then compare the relationshipsamong organ- FROM EATING PLANTS AND/OR OTHER isms that have the same needs by demonstrating ANIMALS. that each has the same figure in thesame spoke. 2-3 2-3 The teacher will discuss the flow ofenergy Students will make a mural showing how various through the ecosystem. Students willtrace the en- organisms obtain the same needed item(e.g., ergy cycle from the sun to green plants and water for human, frog, kangaroo rat, caterpillar. through the food chain to decaying organismsby taping actual specimens aphid, radish, cactus, starfish). Theteacher will or pictures to a chart. help the students to developa food web from a similar mural.

4.LIVING THINGS CHANGE WITH TIME.

2.EACH KIND OF LIVING THING LIVES IN A SPECIAL PLACE CALLED ITS HABITAT AND K-1 SHARES ITS PARTICULAR ENVIRONMENT WITH OTHER LIVING THINGS TOFORM The teacher will compare how people change GROUPS CALLED COMMUNITIES IN SET- TINGS CALLED ECOSYSTEMS. over time. Students will display photos of grandparents as children, as young parents, and at present; their parents as children and at present; K-1 and themselves as babies.

The teacher will assign each studentan organism to observe (pill bug, sparrow, worm) around the 2-3 school yard. The students will describe, record, and draw their organism in respectto its habitat, The teacher will compare pictures of ancient shelter, and other plants and animals sharing the forests (ferns and horsetails in the dinosaur era) same locale.4 to present-day forests. Students will record life cycle changes of a tree.(The teacher can grow 4Art an avocado, an oak, or a maple from seed or dig up and replant seedlings.)

2-3

The teacher will provide each group of students with a wire coat hanger bent intoa circle that will be used to circumscribe an area for field obser-

Science 25 16 K-3

EARTH SCIENCE (K-3)

A. ASTRONOMY K-1 The teacher will describe the moon as a cold, 1.THE SUN IS OUR CLOSEST STAR ,.D rocky body reflecting light.Students will com- GIVES LIGHT AND HEAT; OTHER STARS ARE "SUNS" THAT ARE VERY FAR AWAY. pare light reflection off white paper, a mirror, or GROUPS OR PATTERNS OF STARS ARE other object to sunlight reflecting off the moon. CALLED CONSTELLATIONS. The teacher will discuss that the moon is the only body in the solar system (besides earth) humans have visited.

2-3

The teacher will Ciscuss the basic needs of living organisms, particularly human beings. Students will discuss what astronauts needed to stay alive on the moon and what would be needed to colonize the moon.1.4 K-1 1Carl Sagan The teacher will compare a burning candle with 4Social Science the sun and a star.The teacher will burn the candle to illustrate that objects which give offFree photographs and educational materials light also give off heat. (SAFETY: A light bulb are available from NASA -Ames, Mountain View, can cause burns.) The teacher will relate light CA 94035. and heat to light bulbs, hot plates, fire, etc.

3. THE EARTH IS ONE OF NINE PLANETS 2-3 REVOLVING AROUND THE SUN.

The teacher will display pictures of several con- K-1 stellations. (The most prominent constellations are visible from November to March.) Students The teacher will display NASA photographs of will randomly place about ten drops of ink on planets taken by spacecraft, particularly those of paper and make up their own constellations.4 The earth.Students will compare appearances and teacher will relate myths from various cultures discuss differences it temperatures and distances about constellations. Students will make up their from the sun. own myths about their constellations.4

4English-Language Arts, Art (See page 2 for an 2-3 explanation of entries like this one.) The teacher will present situations involving scale models, such as model airplanes and maps. The 2. THE MOON REFLECTS SUNLIGHT. IT IS A students will make a model of the solar system NATURAL SATELLITE OF THE EARTH AND on the school yard by placing a stake on oneside THE ONLY BODY IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM of the yard for the sun.1They will measure HUMAN BEINGS HAVE VISITED. relative distances for planets rscale: 1 centimeter 26 Made' Curriculum Guide Earth Science 17

per million kilometers or 1 inch per million miles) record the position and time on a drawing ofa and place stakes for planets in appropriate fixed point.The teacher will demonstrate the places.4 The teacher will relate the distancesto need to observe from the same position each time the time spacecraft require to travel and the to control variables. average temperatures of each planet.

'Copernicus 2-3 4Mathematics The teacher will help students observe the position and angle of the sun in respect to the flagpole and relate the position to the length and 4.THE SUN IS THE CENTER OF OUR SOLAR position of the shadow. (SAFETY: Do not look SYSTEM. THE EARTH REVOLVES AROUND directly at sun.) The students will mark the THE SUN IN ONE YEAR AND ROTATES ON ITS OWN AXI: IN 24 HOURS, A MOTION THAT position of the end of the flagpole or other "pole" CAUSES NIGHT AND DAY. shadow every half hour throughout the school day. Students will draw a chalk line around the K-1 shadow, beginning at the top, and observe how quickly the shadow moves. The teacher will aid The teacher will discuss yearly events and students to observe the position and phase of the holidays and relate the time of one year to the moon and the time of observation and relate its earth traveling around the sun. motion to a fixed directional position of the sun during the year.

2-3 6. DAYLIGHT PERIODS LONGER IN SUMMER AND SHORTER IN VviNTER. The teacher will set up a light bulb for thesun and darken the room. One student will carry the earth (a basketball) as he or she walks counter- K-1 clockwise around the sun while simultaneously turning the b al around on its own axis. Students The teacher will prepare a recording sheet of will observe light and dark sides of the "earth." clock faces. Students will record the time of sun- Students will observe (or mark on the ball) that rise and sunset during the winter months. They California is first lit, passes opposite the "sun," will record the time they have to turn lights on in moves away from the sun, and passes into the evening and the time it becomes too dark to darkness. The teacher will relate rotation to a 24- play outside, and they will compare these times hour period and revolution around 'le sun to a to daylight during the summer months (e.g., one-year period, both occurring simultaneously. relate to favorite TV shows).

5.AS THE EARTH ROTATES, THE SUN AND 2-3 MOON APPEAR TO MOVE ACROSS THE SKY. The teacher will help students observe changes in day length. Students w"1 find information in the K-1 newspaper givingsunrise-sunsettimes, and The teacher will help students compare the posi- compare day and night lengths weekly for several months. They will graph changes. The teacher don of the sun (and moon when observable) to a will initiate discussions of energy conservation fixed point at school (e.g., flagpole, roof) every half hcur during the school day. Students will and relate them to daylight savings time.

Science 27 18 K-3

R. GEOLOGY and NATURAL RESOURCES students in determining the best human use of structures (city, agriculture, open space, etc). 1. THE EARTH'S SURFACE HAS A VARIETY 4Geography OF TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES WHICH ARE CHANGED OVER TIME BY NATURE AND BY THE ACTIVITIES OF HUMAN BEINGS. 2. ROCKS HAVE CHAI ACTERISTICS BY WHICH THEY C MI BE DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED; SOILS ARE FORMED FROM ROCKS.

K-1

The teacher and students will determine characteristics by which rocks can be classified. Students will collect rocks and classify them according to color, layering or crystals, texture, comparative weight, susceptibility to breaking, etc. The teacher will place rocks on a tray. One student will classify a specimen by describing its characteristics. Other students will try to pick it out.

2-3 The teacher will demonstrate weathering by: (1) shaking rocks together in a container until pieces break off;(2) soaking a piece of sandstone in water and then placing it in a plastic bag and freezing overnight; and (3) filling a small plastic K-1 bottle with pea or bean seeds, adding water to the brim, capping the bottle tightly, and leaving it in The teacher will discuss and show pictures of the classroom overnight. ("Root" or seed major topographical features such as river-cut pressure will break the bottle or split the rocks.) canyons and mountains and compare their ap- Students will relate weathering of rocks to forma- pearance and formation to local features.Stu- tion of soil particles. They will collect and exam- dents will take a walk to view local topographical ine different types of soil (sand, clay, loam). features(e.g., erosion under downspouts of gutters, pathways worn through plantings and soil). The teacher will compare how local 3.EARTHQUAKES OCCUR WHEN BLOCKS "miniature" features look to an ant or beetle. OF EARTH MOVE; VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS OCCUR WHEN MAGMA (MELTED ROCK) IS FORCED THROUGH OPENINGS INTHE EARTH'S CRUST. 2-3

The teacher will introduce vocabulary of geo- (SAFETY: Earthquake safety units are available graphical features.Students will make a salt/ from: Environmental Volunteers, Palo Alto; flour or clay topographic map modeling struc- Lawrence Hall of Science, U.C., Berkeley; tures of geology (peninsula, mesa, delta, moun- DepartmentofEducation, tain range, river system).4 The teacher will aid CaliforniaState

Model Curriculum Guide 2E) Earth Science 19

Sacramento;U.S. Geological survey, Menlo isms and the need for parks and other wildlife Park.) preserves. The teacher will discuss "good man- ners" (such as staying on trails, leashing dogs, and not littering) in parks. K-1

The teacher will display and discuss pictures of 2-3 mountains and valleys. Students will layer 1/4- in. (0.6-cm) thick strips of plasticene clay ofThe teacher and students will determine natural different colors. They will push on the ends of resources needed by humans.Students will the layers to its= a model of mountain build-discuss the results of not having or running out ing and earth movements. The teacher will empha- of resources such as fossil fuels, pure water, size the time frame needed to build mountains in clean air, wood, various minerals, and especially respect to the amount of movement in one plants and ocean life. The teacher and students lifetime. will discuss ways each student can conserve resources.

5. WEATHER PHENOMENA HAVE EFFECTS ON LIVING THINGS.

K-1

The teacher and students will determine components of weather.Students will record daily weather by placing on a flannel board pictures of 2-3 types of clouds, flags and trees as they are angled by the wind, children dressed appropriately for The teacher will display pictures and discuss that day, and corresponding terms (hot, windy, volcanic activity from a U.S.G.S. educational rainy).Students will draw pictures of or chart unit on Mt. St. Helens. (SAFETY: Ammonium daily weather for a month.4 The teacher will read dichromate and powdered asbestos, as desc.ibed appropriateliteraturetointroduce"weather in older source books, are hazardous chemicals words" from poems, etc.(misty, damp, rain- and should not be used.) Students will compare bow), to add to pictures and charts.4 pictures of Hawaiian volcanoes (shield) and Mt. Shasta (composite volcano) and make models of 4Art, English-Language Arts both types, the former with layers of thin plaster of Paris, the latter with thick plaster of Paris. 2-3

4. MANY OF THE NATURAL RESOURCES The teacher will bring in articles about current NEEDED BY HUMAN BEINGS AND OTHER events related to weather phenomena (floods, LIVING THINGS ARE IN LIMITED SUPPLY. drought, freezes).4Students will relate weather phenomena to animal activities (hibernation, aesti- vation, insect metamorphosis, fur and feather K-1 color changes, migration).

The teacher will discuss and show pictures of 4Social Science both common and endangered species. Students will discuss effects of lack of habitat for organ-

Silence 20 K-3

shallow pans, containing the same amount of 6.AiF-1 IS ALL AROUND US; WIND IS MOViNG AIR WHOSE DIRECTION AND SPEED CAN BE water, in the sun and shade.Students will stz MEASURED. serve water condensing in closed bottles placed in the sun and in the shade. The teacher will demonstrate "rain" by heating water in a covered K-1 Pyrex container and then letting the water cool and drip back into the container. She or he will The teacher will define air as a substance we can- relate this to rain from clouds. not see, but which is all around us. Students will become aware of air by: (1) blowing up a balloon and feeling the air come out; (2) using a fan to 2-3 move air; and (3) placing a bottle underwater and seeing bubbles come out. Students will determine The teacher will discuss evaporation of water wind direction by relating it to the position of when the temperature is warm, recondensation various school buildings, trees, and the flag's when the temperature of the water cools, and rain direction. or snow falling. Students will draw simple diagrams of the water cycle, including water evaporating from small ponds, wet lawns and puddles, and formations of clouds. The teacher will discuss sources of water, after students examine world maps, and sources of energy to evaporate water.

8. CLOUDS HAVE CHARACTERISTICS BY 2-3 WHICH THEY CAN BE DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED. The teacher will introduce the use of an anemometer, a wind vane, and a directional compass. Students will determine and record wind direction and speed with a simple wind vane and an anemometer. They will relate direction to type of The teacher will have students observe different weather (south before rain, northwest after rain, types of clouds during various weather patterns. east with very clear warm weather).Students Students will identify and describe the three will predict oncoming weather by determining major types of clouds. They will bring in pictures wind direction. The teacher will match their of clouds and classify them as to types. Students predictions with the actual weather conditions. will discuss fears and feelings about lightning, thunder, and strong winds. Students will draw clouds and make up stories about cloud shapes.4 7. THE SUN PROVIDES ENERGY FOR THE WATER CYCLE AND OTHER WEATHER 4Art, English-Language Arts PHENOMENA.

2-3 K-1 The teacher will have students observe clouds The teacher wili ask students what happens to and bring in pictures containing various types of water on the ground from rain, etc.She or he clouds.Students will classify clouds by three will ask whether water disappears faster on a major types and common subtypes and relate warm or cold day, in sun or shade. Students will types to cloud height and particular weather measure the time required for evaporation in patterns. The teacher will "make lightning" by

30 Model Curriculum Guide Earth Science 21

rubbing pieces of nylon or polyester cloth ina 2-3 dark room (static electric'ty). The teacher will "make thunder" by shooting offa wooden "pop Students will water corn or bean and beet plants gun" or pulling a "plumber's friend" offa for 3 weeks with fresh water and 1 percent, 2 surface. The teacher will read myths about the percent, and 3.5 percent saltwater solutions and causes of lightning and thunder.4 measure and graph growth. (Add 1 teaspoon salt to 2 cups of water for a 1 percent salt solution; 5 (SAFETY: Discuss safety procedures during a mL to 0.5 L). The teacher will discusssources of lightning storm, especially when caught outside water for agriculture. or in a car.)

'Social Science 2.THE OCEAN IS THE MAJOR CONTRIB- UTOR TO THE WATER CYCLE.

C. OCEANOGRAPHY and HYDROLOGY K-1

The teacher will heat salt water in a covered 1. con- NEARLY THREE-QUARTERS OF THE tainer. EAP-rH'S SURFACE IS COVERED BY WATER, Students will taste the water condensed BUT MOST OF THE WATER IS SALTY. on a lid and relate fresh condensed water on the lid to the water cycle. K-1 2-3 The teacher will make a 3.5 percent salt solution (2-1/3 tablespoons salt in 1 quart of water, 35 mL in 1 L) and have students taste "seawater." The teacher will display a sequence of weather Students will examine maps and globes to satellite photographs to demonstrate cloudsover compare land and water coverage of the earth.4 oceans and cloud movement. Students will dis- The teacher will discuss limited sources of fresh cuss fog formations when wet areas become cool water and the need for conservation. Students (coastal fog, "tule" fog) and the role of trees, etc., as "water traps" for fog condensation. will identify all places where water can be found and whether the water is fresh or salt water. 4Social Science, Geography 3. THE OCEAN BOTTOM HAS MANY TO- POGRAPHIC FEATURES COMPARABLE TO LAND SURFACES.

K-1

The teacher will show pictures taken of the ocean floor, especially near land. Students will make a plasticene clay or plaster of Paris model of the land area with hills and valleys in a large, deep pan. They will slowly fill the pan with water to observe formation of lakes, islands, shorelines, salt water etc. Students will draw pictures of undersea features, discuss a submarine trip on the ocean floor, and compare it to the formation before it , became inundated.4 The teacher will compare the model to a reservoir before and after flooding.

4Art

Science 31 22 K-3

students,Students will discuss resources from the ocean: food, medicines, minerals, transporta- The teacher will discuss navigable waters in tion, aquaculture, undersea oil drilling and min- respect to sizes of ships and boats that can use ing, and recreation. The teacher will bring to them. Students will examine maps of harbors to class appropriate news articles about current determine deep and shallow areas and topograph- events related to the ocean's resources, including ical maps of the ocean floor to determine un- information about foods various cultural groups dersea mountain ridges, islands, etc. They will get from the ocean.4 relate the topography to boat and ship drafts, inland harbors (Sacramento and Stockton), and 4Social Science underseaexplorationsbysubmarinesub- mersibles.4 2-3

4Social Studies, Geography The teacher will display pictures illustrating ocean pollution by oil spills (oil-soaked birds), sewage (beaches closed to swimming and fish- 4.THE SEA CONTAINS AN IMMENSE VARI- ing), and shoreline development (beaches closed ETY OF LIVING THINGS. to the public). Students will discuss the steps the public (parents) and government take to prevent K-1 pollution and steps students can take to avoid littering at beaches. The teacher will list all organisms students name that are found in the ocean. Students will collect picture and/or watch films or videos for tidepool and ocean-oriented programs. The teacher will 6.MANY LIVING THINGS NEED FRESH, keep adding to the list of organisms and paint out PURE WATER; RAIN AND SNOW RUNNING the variety of shapes, colors, relationships, adap- INTO RIVERS AND LAKES ARE THE MAIN tations, etc., that are found. SOURCES OF FRESH WATER.

K-1 2-3 Students will compare the environments of ocean The teacher will display a variety of sea life, both and freshwater plants and animals. pictures and specimens, and encourage students to bring in shell collections, etc.Students will identify various marine invertebrates and describe 2-3 their adaptations.Students will draw and describe the life cycles of several major groups of The teacher will bring to class five each of live marine invertebrates.4 The teacher will discuss plants from sunny-hot-dry to "normal" to shady- variety in organisms and even among mollusks cool-moist types of climates. Students will grow (shelled animals) alone. these under proper conditions but will water one of each kind with clean water, oily water, soapy 4Art dishwater, water with liquid bleach (concentration for removing stains), and vinegar (half 5.THE OCEAN PROVIDES MANY NATURAL vinegar and half water).Students will observe RESOURCES FOR HUMAN BEINGS. native plants of the home area and compare their characteristics to those of plants of different K-3 climates.4 Students will determine adaptations of desei, animals to drought conditions. The teacher will display pictures of resources from the ocean and encourage additions from 4Geography 3; Model Curriculum Guide Physical Science 23

PHYSICAL SCIENCE (K-q)

A. MATTER (SAFETY: Melt paraffinor wax in a container placed in water and heat thewater. Never melt these materials directly 1.MATERIALS AND OBJECTS HAVE CHAR- over heat; wax vapor may explode.) ACTERISTICS BY WHICH THEY CAN BEDE- SCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED. 4Art(See page 2 for an explanation of entries like this one.) K-1

The teacher will provide objectsto classify for 2. MATTER EXISTS AS A SOLID, LIQUID, OR sensory perceptions, physical characteristics, and GAS AND CHANGES STATE WITH THE ADDI- function.Using all their senses, students will TION OR LOSS OF HEAT. classify a set of objects as to size, shape,color, sound, relative position, smell, weight,texture, K-1 and form. Students will classify objectsthrough experimentation as to buoyancy, magnetism, elas- The teacher will demonstrate the change ofstate ticity, change in shapeor form, and hardness. of water from ice to liquidto steam and back to Students will also classify objectsas to their liquid and ice. The teacher will melt andresolid- functions. The teacher will selectsome classified ify sugar and demonstrate dry ice melting.Stu- objects and ask students tot xplain their reasons dents will dip a frozen banana in melted chocolate for classification. and observe the change of state of thechocolate. The teacher will relate cold to solidstate, warm to liquid, and hot to gas.

(SAFETY: Boiling water, steam, and melted sugar can inflict severe burns; dry ice can cause tissue damage.)

2-3

The teacher will elicit from students thenames of common materials which are solid, liquid, or gas 2-3 at room temperature and discuss what temperatures are necessary to change their states.Stu- The teacher will provide beeswax for studentsto dents will add ice to liquid butyl stearate,* record shape with their hands and paraffin for other the temperature and rate at which it solidifies, and experiments. The students will identify the char- compare this result to the characteristics of water. acteristics of beeswax and paraffinas to whether Students will make lipstick or "chapstick"out of or not they can change state or shape, be burned the butyl stearate by adding Crayolas** for for light or heat, float or sink, and mix with coloring and wax (not paraffin) for hardening. water.Students will experiment with the water The teacher willdemonstratethefreezing repellent characteristics of wax by makingwax (solidifying) and melting temperatures ofwater, paper, furniture polish, and batik-cloth.4The chocolate, and sugar and compare them. teacher will make a chart listing the characteristics of wax and comparing them to those of oils, * Available from any chemical supply service. water, and ice. ** Crayola brand crayons will melt inwax; other brands may not. Crayolas are nontoxic. Science 33 24 K-3

B. NIFCHANYIS 2. ENERGY iS NECESSARY TO DO MACHINES MAKE SOME WORK EASIER.

1.OBJECTSCANBEDESCRIBED,SE- QUENCED, AND/OR CLASSIFIED IN RESPECT TO THEIR POSITION, DISTANCE, MOTION, K-1 AND TIME OF OCCURRENCE. The teacher will define a machine as an object that makes work easier.Students will compare and discuss trying to lift a heavy box off the floor directly and then raising it with a lever. Students will slide a heavy box across the floor, and then compare this movement with placing thebox on casters and rolling it. They will spin a, book on a table and then place 15 to 20 marbles under the lid of a large jar, lay a book on the lid, and spin again. They will then compare the two spinnings. The teacher will discuss the amount of force necessary to accomplish the work of movingthe object and the energy needed to do the work.

2-3

The teacher will have students lift heavy objects with a lever and then pose the problem of lifting them higher off the ground. The teacher will char- acterize pulleys as "bent" levers. The students will use fixed and movable pulleys to raise heavy objects and determine their relative mechanical advantages. The teacher will borrow large levers K-1 (such as those used in piano moving) and have The teacher will have students run a race and then students lift a large, heavy object or observe an call 'freeze!" about half way through the race. engine being hoisted out of an automobile.1 Students will describe their own position in respect to that of others. Students will place a chart 1Archimedes of the positions on the chalkboard. The teacher will have each student select a printed word to 3.A FORCE IS A PUSH OR A PULL AND IS describe his or her position in relation to those of NECESSARY TO MOVE AN OBJECT OR STOP others (e.g., first, half way, slow). AN OBJECT IN MOTION.

2-3 ---"...... The teacher will map the classroom or other area by helping students place a 1 meter square gridof strings across it, number each square, and then K-1 place a sheet of paper on the floor with a grid drawn to scale: 1 m = 10 cm. Students will dupli- The teacher will demonstrate on achild in a cate the map on a smaller scale withblocks.4 swing that force is necessary both to setthe swing in motion and to stop the moving swing. 4Social Studies, Geography

Model Curriculum Guide 34 Physical Science 25

Students will use the force ofa push or pull to in space; loss of air,oceans, soil; loose objects move a stationary object.Students will stop a drifting away). The teacher will bring in pictures moving object by usinga pulling force on it of weightless conditions inside spaceships. (attach a string and pullon the string as the object moves away). Two students will siton the floor, place the palms of their hands together,and 2-3 push. Then they will interlock their fingers and pull. Next, they will lie on their backson the The teacher will discuss gravityas a force and set floor under a small table and raise thetable with up experiments to measure the force of gravity.' their legs. The teacher will discuss the feelingof Students will attach a large rubber bandto a small muscles in using force to cause motion and other block or box. They will pull the rubber bandto types of force: air pressure, water pressure, grav- unstretched length, measure it, and thenmeasure ity, and machines and theirenergy sources. the additional stretch needed tomove the toy. Students will repeat the activity, pulling thetoy up an inclined plane raised to various angles and 2-3 then down an inclined plane, measuringtne rubber band's stretch.Students will add weights to The teacher will place 16 1-gallon (3.8-L) plastic the box and repeat the measurement with each freezer bags around a table, five bagsto a side, addition. They will lift the empty box vertically and open the ends outward. Sheor he will lay an- and measure the stret.h. After using the rubber other table upside down on the first table. Onthe band, students can repeat the activity witha sim- first table, the teacher will leave theopen ends of ple spring scale. Students will predict changes in the bags exposed about 2 in. (5 cm).Sixteen the rubber band's stretch and relate changesto children will blow into the bags andraise the weight and angle of lift. The teacher willset up a table. The teacher or another studentcan sit on table to record data and compare the amounts of the table before students begin blowing.The force needed to do the work. force of the air pressure will easily raisethe table with the person on it. The teacher willrelate the 'Galileo, Newton force of air pressure to jack hammers,spray paint containers, and barometers. C. ENERGY: SOURCES and TRANSFORMATION

4.GRAVITY IS THE FORCE THAT ATTRACTS OBJECTS TO THE CENTER OF THE EARTH. I.ENERGY IS NECESSARY TO DO WORK AND CAUSE CHANGES IN MATTER; ANY KIND OF CHANGE REQUIRES ENERGY. K-1

The teacher will hold various objects,some obvi- 2-3 ously heavy and others light, and ask what will happen if she or he drops them. Students will Students will move objects from one place to predict what will happen. They will Predict what another and identifythesource of energy. will happen when they release objectson an Students will melt margarine over a candle; move inclined plane, in water, and ina 10 percent salt an object with a magnet; pour vinegar on baking solution and then experiment with releasing the soda; mix plaster of Paris with water (feel heat objects.Students will predict what will happen given off); and wind up a spring to makea toy when they throw objects vertically and then "go."Students will make a bulletin board to horizontally.Students will discuss what would show energy being used to do work and make happen if there were no gravity(weightlessness changes.

Science 35 26 K-3

the amount of heat varies, depending on source 2.ENERGY EXISTS IN SEVERAL FORMS, and distance. Students will use a thermometer to INCLUDING HEAT,LIGHT,ELECTRICITY, varying MAGNETISM, CHEMICAL ENERGY, NUCLEAR measure and compare temperatures at ENERGY, AND MOTION; THE SUN IS OUR distances from heat sources, such as a candle, PRIMARY SOURCE OF ENERGY. light bulb, hot plate, and objects such as a sidewalk in sun and shade.The teacher will discuss the Greek myth of Icarus and Daedalus 2-3 and discuss means of preventing wings from melting.4 The teacher will discuss energy as something in an object that enables it to do work and identify 4History-Social Science forms of energy. Students will make a variety of objects that operate by using different rubber band-powered wind-uptoys(first"muscle 2.HEAT IS ESSENTIAL FOR LIVING THINGS, power," then motion); a lemon juice battery to BUT TOO MUCH OR TOO LITTLE HEAT CAN light a flashlight (electrical); a vinegar and baking CAUSE DAMAGE. soda rocket (chemical); a magnetic maze game (moving metal objects through a game board with a magnet); a pinwheel spinning over a candle Strips ofpaper (heat moving air, motion of air); popping corn illustrate the (heat). Students will make a mural to trace an height bread energy form to its source. rises.

D. HEAT

---1 1.HEAT COMES FROM A VARIETY OF SOURCES, INCLUDING THE SUN,FIRE, 15 min 30 min 45 min LIGHT, AND FRICTION.

K-1 K-1 The teacher will display a bulletin board with The teacher will describe briefly that yeast,which pictures containing heat sources. Students will makes dough rise, is actually composed ofmi- identify heat sources. Students will feel the pave- croscopic plants that need warmth to grow. ment and other objects in the sun and inthe Students will make or purchase bread dough and shade. Students will feel lit and unlit light bulbs. let it rise under "too cool" (65°-70° F; 18°-21°C), (SAFETY: A lit bulb can burn.) Students will "too warm" (95° -100° F; 35°-38° C), and correct rubtheirhandstogether,rub two blocks conditions (about 80° F; 27° C). The teacherwill together, etc., to feel heat from friction. Students help the students measure the amount bread rises, will exercise and then take their temperatures to plot the rise against time (every 15 minutes),and determine heat from metabolic activities of living examine the dough. organisms. The teacher will discuss myths about how human beings discovered fire. 2-3 improper 2-3 The teacher will discuss the effects of storage of food and foodspoilage. Students will The teacher will discuss how some objects give compare the effects ofdifferent temperatures off heat that can be used by people, but that (near a heater, in a room, in a refrigerator or

Model Curriculum Guide 36 Physical Science 27

freezer) on the storage of food(broccoli, head E. LiGHT lettuce, milk, bananas, peanut butter)and graph the results. The teacher will collectand discuss information about theproper storage temperature for different foods.4 1. LIGHT COMES FROM A VARIETY OF SOURCES AND HAS CHARACTERISTICS BY 4Health WHICH ITCAN BEDESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED.

[3.TEMPERATURE IS THE MEASURE OF HOW HOT THINGS ARE. K-1

The teacher will demonstratea variety of light sources(glowing hot plate,burning wood, Coleman lantern, candle, flashlight, light bulb, sparks from fire starter, photographs oflightning and aurora borealis, photographs of lightning bugs and light-producing deepsea fish).

K-1 (SAFETY: Use caution when demonstrating hot or very bright light sources.)Students will The teacher will pass around various objects ofdescribe characteristics of light fromvarious different temperatures and askstudents to se- sources by intensity, color, heat, etc. quence them from coldest to warmest. Students will sequence a series of pictures(swimming pool, ice cubes, frying bacon, burning candle, 2-3 bottle) from coolest temperatureto hottest. Stu- dents will compare ice fro: a refrigerator freezer The teacher will demonstrate that lighttravels in andicefromastoragefreezerbyfeel. all directions by turningon a light bulb in a (SAFETY: Storage freezer icecan cause tissue darkened room.Students will recognize that damage if held too long or placed in the mouth.) light travelsinstraight lines by placinga The teacher will define temperature as the way cardboard box over a light bulb ina darkened the amount of heat in an object is measured. room and poking small holes one by one in the top and sides of the box. The teachercan make light rays more easily seen by shaking chalkdust 2-3 into the rays and relating the dispersion of lightto that of dust particles, etc., in the air. The teacher will discuss that objectsexpand when heated, which is the basis fora thermometer. Students will make and calibrate a water ther- 2. LIGHT CAN TRAVEL THROUGH SOME MA- mometer. They will place a 24-inch (61-cm) TERIALS; MATERIALS THAT BLOCK LIGHT glass tube into a two-holed rubberstopper and CAST SHADOWS. place a thermometer into the second hole,to the same bottom level. They will half-fill a 1-cup (0.24-L) flask or bottle withwater colored with K-1 food coloring and placea stopper tightly in the bottle.Students will warm the the bottle (in The teacher will display a variety of materials hands) or cool it to change thewater level in the transparent, translucent, and opaque.Students tube. The teacher will aid students in calibrating will predict which of the materials willcast by marking water levels on the glass tubeto shadows and hold each in a light beam to verify correspond with thermometer readings. their predictions. Students will relate the degree

Science 3? 28 K-3

of transparency of material to color and density objects reflected in the mirror. Students will run of shadow. strings between themselves, the mirrors, and the object. The teacher will clarify that angle of light from the mirror. (Angle incidence equals angle reflection.)

4. VERY HOT OBJECTS RADIATE LIGHT AS WELL AS HEAT.

2-3 K-1 The teacher will demonstrate making silhouettes on paper, using a projector beam as the light The teacher will heat a needle or thin wire in a source.Students will make stick puppets (cut candle flame until it glows red and darken the out shape and glue to thin rod), project shadows room to observe light emission. The teacherwill with the projector beam on a screen (white cloth demonstrate the glow of a blown-out match or sheet), and put on a shadow play. Students can piece of charcoal. Students will hold their hands make colored "shadows" by using transparent close enough to the glowing object to feel heat, colored plastic for puppets.4 observe the distance at which they can see light, itAn and compare distances.

2-3 3.LIGHT TRAVELS IN STRAIGHT LINES BUT CAN BE REFLECTED. The teacher will demonstrate that lenses concentrate light by having students look through a magnifying lens and field glasses.Students will K-1 focus sunlight on paper through a magnifying The teacher will identify and describe reflective lens until the paper begins to char. (SAFETY: surfaces around the classroom and school yard. Perform under teacher's supervision only.) Stu- Students will experiment with a variety of ma- dents will repeat the experiment, but use class- terials and identify those which reflect light. room light as the source of radiant energy.Stu- Students will reflect light from metal mirrors or dents will relate the radiant energy of light to the other reflective surfaces onto various "targets" in heat of a nearby star (like our sun) and light from felt. the room. (SAFETY: Students must not reflect stars which are too far away to have heat light, especially sunlight, into another person's eyes.) F. ELECTRICITY and MAGNETISM

2-3 1. MAGNETS ATTRACT OBJECTS CONTAIN- ING IRON AND CAN BE USED TO SORT The teacher will challenge students to make light MATERIALS. rays bend around objects and corners to illustrate the concept. The teacher will help students deter- K-1 mine lines between the light source, reflective surface, and lighted "target." Students will The teacher will display a tray of objects, some determine where they must position themselves containing iron and some, like aluminum, not in front of a large mirror in order to see various containing iron. Students will use a magnet on a

38 Model Curriculum Guide Physical Science 29

fishing rod to "fish" for objects in a large center) on a wooden dowel.They will place mag- container.They will compare the objectsat- nets with like poles adjacent tracted with those not attracted. so that repelling They will predict forces leave spaces betweenthe magnets. Stu- which objects from anotherset will be attracted to dents will tie a 10-cm thread the magnet. The teacher will through a magnet discuss character- and tape the loose endto desk. Then students istics of objects ableto be attracted. will lower an iron rod (suchas a file) toward a magnet until it rises and "floats"under the rod. The teacher will suspend 2-3 the magnet and approach it with the like pole ofanother magnet. She or he will ask studentsto explain the action The teacher willprepare a mixture of iron filings of the tethered magnet. and sand and ask studentsto pick out iron with tweezers. Then, students willsort out iron filings from the mixtureby running a magnet 3.OBJECTS CONTAINING IRONCAN BE through the mixture. Students willpick up steel pins from a mixture of steel MAGNETIZED; MAGNETISM CANBE TRANS and brass straight FERR ED TO OBJECTS CONTAININGIRON. pins in a container.The teacher will discuss industrial uses of magnets(sorting metals in a resource center, lifting cars in anauto junkyard). K-1

The teacher will referto magnetism operating 2. MAGNETS HAVE TWOPOLES, NORTH through space and othermaterials and ask AND SOUTH. OPPOSITE POLESATTRACT; students to hypothesize whether itcan be trans- LIKE POLES REPEL EACHOTHER. MAG- feral. Students will suspenda series of objects NETIC FORCE OPERATESTHROUGH MA- (paper clips) froma magnet, each hanging from TERIALS AND OVER A DISTANCE. the preceding one, to demonstratethat magnetism can be transmitted. The students willcompare K-1 how far a series ofmagnets can transmit magnetism by determining howmany paper clips, The teacher wi.31 providema -nets for students to each hanging from the precedingone, can be determine properties. Studentswill hold bar or lifted. Students willtcozare the relative strength cow* magnets together andexperiment with of various magnets andsequence them according attracting and repelling forces.The students will to how many paper clips eachcan lift. "push" one magnetacross a surface with another by placing like poles together.The students will move iron objects on a surface (paper,water, 2-3 wood) by movinga magnet below the surface to demonstrate that magnetic force worksthrough a The teacher will discuss thatmagnets can be separating object and throughspace. The teacher made and destroyed. Students willmake a mag- will elicit a list of properties ofmagnets from net by stroking a small iron nailor a needle with students. a strong bar magnet 20 to 30 times in thesame direction. They will use the magnetizednail to *Long-lasting cow magnetscar. be obtained from pick up small iron objects. Studentswill hit the agricultural supply houses. magnetized nail or a smallmagnet with a hammer and try to pick up iron objectsto demonstrate that magnetism also can be destroyed. 2-3

The teacher will discuss thatmagnets can attract 4.MATERIALS CAN BE DESCRIBEDAND and repel throughspace.Students will stack CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO WHETHEROR "doughnut" magnets (circular witha hole in the NOT THEY CONDUCT ELECTRICITY.

Science 39 30 K-3

form of energy.Students will make a list of all objects run by electricity in their homes.2 They will categorize them by function (heat, light, motor to make objects "go"). Students willmake a shoebox model of a house.They will draw in electrically powered objects in appropriate places. Students will discuss and practice conservation by turning off electric lights and appliances when not in use.

2Electricity

2-3 2-3

The teacher will set up a circuit with a D cell bat- The teacher will discuss the concept that any tery, a flashlight bulb set in a porcelain orplastic resistancetothe flow of electrical current socket, and each wire end wrapped around produces heat. Students will make a circuit with separate steel thumbtacks set about 1 in. (2.5 cm) a 6 V battery and fasten the twowires into two apart in a block of wood to provide an open clean, 3-in. (7.6-cm) steel nails. They will place circuit. Students will bridge the gap (close the cir- one nail into each end of a hot dogand, using it cuit) between thumbtacks with various materials as a resistor, cook it.Students will relate the heat to determine whether materials conductelectricity to cook a hot dog to the heat givenoff by other (copper or steel wire; brass, iron, and aluminum resistors (e.g., electric light bulb, electric hot nails; aluminum foil; dry string and string soaked plate). in vinegar; coin; any other object of plastic, wood, etc.).1 (SAFETY: There is no possibility of a student receiving a shock or other injury G. SOUND from handling the circuit setup.) The students will predict, then experiment with a test set of objects, their conkctivity. The students can com- 1. SOUNDS COME FROM MANY SOURCES, pare, and sequence the ability ofvarious objects to CAN TRAVEL THROUGH MANY THINGS, AND conduct electricity according to the brightness of CAN BE REFLECTED OR ABSORBED BY the flashlight bulb. The teacher will elicit a list of VARIOUS SURFACES. materials able to conduct electricity and nonconductors. Students will compare properties of materials that conduct electricity. K-1 students 1Frarildin The teacher will tape-record sounds the hear while the class takes a walk. Studentswill identify sounds played back after thewalk. Students will make a mural of the walk anddraw in the objects that madethe sounds.4 5.ELECTRICITY IS AN ENERGY SOURCE USEC TO RUN MACHINES AND PROVIDE 4Art LIGHT AND HEAT.

K-1 2-3

The teacher will discuss energy sources(wind, The teacher will place a box over atransistor water, sun, etc.) and focus onelectricity as a radio while the students listen to the sound.She

Model Curriculum Guide u Physical Science 31

or he will line the box with insulating material (cotton batting, egg cartons) and place itover the 3. VIBRATING OBJECTS PRODUCE SOUND; radio. Tile teacher will place a Masoniteor metal THEY CAUSE VIBRATION IN WHATEVER THEY screen behind the radio, directing the sound in TOUCH, INCLUDING THE EARDRUM. one direction, or place a megaphone in front of the speaker. Students willcompare and describe sounds and compare insulating and reflecting K-1 materials and surfaces. The teacher will discuss that objects that vibrate rapidly produce sound.Students will make a soundscope to observe vibrations. They will 2. cut SOUNDS HAVE CHARACTERISTICS BY both ends off a long, narrow can (tennis ball can) WHICH THEY CAN BE DESCRIBED AND CI ASSIFI ED. and make a drymhead by fasteninga stretched ballon over one end. Then the students gluea piece of mirror off center on the balloon. While standing so the mirror reflects lighton the wall, they will speak into the opposite end of the tube and watch the reflected light vibrate. The teacher will discuss what made the balloon vibrate.

2-3

The teacher will relate the pitch ofa flute or re- K-1 corder to water-filled glasses. The students will gently flatten the end of a plastic straw and cut The teacher will demonstrate how sounds made from both sides to form two overlying triangles by similar objects (bells, xylophone, etc.) will or double points. They will press their lips to- have a different pitch and can havea different gether just beyond the cuts for a "double reed"4 intensity.Students will fill the same size and and blow. They will cut a series of straws, each shaped bottles or water glasses with varying shorter than the preceding one, to form a "pan amounts of water, strike the bottles with a metal pipe," or cut a series of small holes halfan inch rod, and compare and sequence the bottles accord- apart in one straw for a "flute."4 The teacher can ing to pitch (or frequency) of sound. Students tune the pan pipes to a piano as students experi- will strike the bottles with varyingamounts of ment with the correct lengths of the straws. forceto compare intensity (or amplitude) of sound. 4Music

2-3

Using the bottles in the above activity, the teacher will help students to se'. up water-filled bottles in a sequence. Students will experiment by varying the amount of water so as to "tune" the bottles to the scale of a piano or guitar. The students will play simple melodies on the bottles.4

4Music

Science 41 32 4-6

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE (4-6)

A. CELLS, GENETICS, and EVOLUTION age the class to build a complex "organism" with tissues, organs, and systems. 1.LIVING THINGS ARE MADE UP OF A CELL Discuss the interrelationships of systems OR CELLS. MOST CELLS HAVE A NUCLEUS, within the human body (i.e., circulation- AN OUTER COATING, AND OTHER STRUC- respiration; muscular-nervous; z.tc.)." TURES. 'Harvey

2. GENES ARE MATERIALS IN CELL NUCLEI THAT DETERMINE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISMS AND ARE LOCATED IN THE CHROMOSOM ES.

12cm 12cm

pipe cleaners STEP 8 cm 8 cm I 4cm long 4c 4 cm Show microscopic views of plant and animal cells using an overhead projector or pipe cleaners 15 cm long a micloprojector; identify and compare their structural parts. Then ask students to make STEP Wind the pipe cleaners together to form a simple human cell model by filling a small a simplified chromosome model. twist top Baggie with colored water, Jell-0, gelatin, or styling gel. Insert an item such Discuss the nucleus as the control center of as an olive or button to represent the nu- the cell; then describe the structure and cleus; smaller items may represent cyto- function of chromosomes. Give each stu- plasmic struct,....es, such as mitochondria. dent two similarly colored 15-cm (about 6- A plant cell may be modeled by adding a in.) pipe cleaners and six 3-cm (about 1.2- cardboard cell wall and chloroplasts. Ask in.) pipe cleaners (two each of three col- students to describe the three-dimeasional ors).Around each 15-cm pipe cleaner, shape of cells as well as the parts of a typ- students then wrap a 3-cm pipe cleaner of a ical human body cell.1.2 different color at the 4-cm, 8-cm, and 12- cm marks (these different colors represent I Leeuwenhoek dominant and recessive genes).Students 2Cell Theory (See page 2 for an explana- should make a color coded key to dif- tion of entries like these.) rTltaMdominant and recessive genes. Finally, ask thestudents to wind the two Explain to students that groups of similar I5-cm pipe cleaners together. This finishes specialized cells form tissues, tissues form a simplified chromosome model.Students organs,and organsaregroupedinto may then describe their simplified chromo- systems that perform functions in complex some model to other students.Challenge organisms such as humans. Ask groups of students to guess how a cell might duplicate students to attach several similar Baggies this chromosome when the cell is ready to together to form a model of a tissue. divide to form two new cells. Different student groups may vary the size, shape, color, and consistency of liquid in Discuss how dominant and recessive genes, the Baggies to represent different type cells are passed from parents to their offspring. resulting in different tissue types. Encour- Then give each student team two brown

4; Model Curriculum Guide Biological Science33

paper bags. Have them put five brown and gests humans have been on the earth a five white seeds in each bag and markone short time in comparison to other life. bag Parent A and the other bag Parent B. How have we changed the earth? For the Tell students the brown seedrepresents the better and for the worse?" Guide students gene that controls brown eye color and is to evaluate the available evidence for this dominant; the white seedrepresents the theory. gene that controls blue eye color and is recessive. Ask students to selectone seed 2Geologic Time from each bag (without looking), predict the eye color inherited from thesetwo Discusstheformationoffossilsin parents, and return the seeds to their sedimentary rock: then ask studentsto original bag. This random selectionpro- "build" fossil layers in a papercup. Have cess could be repeated several times, with them select four or more pictures, drawings students predicting in advance what they of an organism that shows development think the outcome might be. 1,2 from simple to complex forms (e.g.,cat, horse, fish), or small items (bone, fern 1Mendel leaf, etc.). Using plastic wrap to separate 2Laws of Inheritance layers or soil, have them layer their pictures in the cup from most complex to simplest in 3.FOSSILS ARE FORMED WHEN ORGAN- the following steps:wrap, picture, soil ISMS ARE BURIED IN SEDIMENTARY ROCK. (about 2 cm), wrap, picture, soil, etc.; then FOSSIL REMAINS INDICATE THAT MANY have them pack the soil down, tap the sides SPECIES HAVE BECOME EXTINCT AND NEW SPECIES HAVE COME INTO BEING OVER of the cup, and invert the cup ona paper GEOLOGIC TIME. towel iefore lifting thecup off the compact mound of "layers." Then, by lifting each Discuss the many changes scientific evi- layer of wrap an "older fossil" is exposed. dence suggests have occurred duringgeo- Have students list the items found ingeo- logic time.2 Tell students theycan reduce logical sequence from oldest to most recent. the history of the earth and its probable Scientific evidence suggests that the loca- evolutionary events to a 100-m (abouta tion of specific fossil; in certain sedimen- 328-foot) walk. Stretch a 100-m (328-foot) tary rock layers can be interpreted to help rope along the playground and use flags explain the evolutionary development of and posters along it to mark theappearance new organisms. of plants, dinosaurs, humans, etc. 1-ellstu- dents, "Begin your walk! Youare at the time when the earth had no livingcreatures. B. PLANTS Walk 25 m (82 feet) to reach the first life -- single - celled organisms. At 40 m (131 1. ONE IMPORTANT WAY THAT MOST feet)first vertebrates (oceanic); 51m (167 PLANT CELLS DIFFER FROM ANIMAL CELLS feet)--first land plants; 62 m (203 feet) IS THAT THEY HAVE A THICKER, STRONGER first land vertebrates; 70 m (230 feet) OUTER COATING CALLED A CELL WALL. dinosaurs appear; 88 m (289 feet) dinosaurs become extinct, birds and mammals Discuss plant cellstructures; then ask appear; 95 m (312 feet) --grand Canyon is students to observe onion skin cells, elodea formed; 99 m (325 feet)first humancrea- leaves, and iceplant epidermis cells under a tures appear; 99.85 m (327 feet, 6 inches) microscope or with a microprojector. Then --Stone Age people appear; 99.9 m (327 ask them to use their observations to corn- feet, 8 inches)civilized people make the pars the differences in the cell walls. These scene; 99.98 m (327 feet, 11 inches) comparisons will help the students draw Columbus discovers America." Finish by conclusions about why plants need a rigid asking students: "Scientific evidencesug- cell wall and humans or animals do not.

Science 43 34 4-6

MODEL PLANT CELL clear materials such as wood, paper, glue, and plastic cup rubber bands so models of the "invented" lasagna noodles plants can be built.Remind students to Jell -0 on sides aF cup represents represent cell consider the conditions in their environment cyptoplasm walls to be sure their "plant" can survive ;sere. tomato slice spaghetti represents When all the models are completed, ask represents cell membrane cell nucleus each team to explain the appearance and function(s) of the various parts of their A model "plant" cell with firm "walls" will "plant." reinforce student understanding of the role of the cell wall in plan, support. Students 3.THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS can make their own cells out of Jell -O and ENABLES PLANTS TO ABSORB SUNLIGHT other common items representing various AND PRODUCE THEIR OWN FOOD; THIS PRO- parts of a cell. Have them use clear plastic CESS RETURNS OXYGEN TO THE AIR AND cups as "forms"; lasagna noodles for cell WATER WHILE USING UP THE CARBON DI- OXIDE "WAS .'E PRODUCTS" OF PLANTS AND walls; spaghetti for membranes; Jell -O for ANIMALS. cytoplasm; a tomato slice for the nucleus; etc.Refrigerate the "cells" for several hours. Allow students to "eat" the various parts of their cell later in the day. Ask them which materials in their "model" actually petroleum jelly on top contained microscopic cells similar to the oncl bottom of leaves giant one they just consunml.

Note. Petrdeur jelly may 2.PLANTS HAVE DIFFER :-N T. STRUCTURES olso1-o.t added to the tops or bottoms of other leaves (ROOTS, STEM, LEAVES; WHICH ENABLE to compare results THEM TO SURVIVE AND ADAPT TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT.

Ask studer "What are some ways plants List and discuss the raw materials neces- have ada, ive in their environment?" sary for photosynthesis; then ask students Use a ca 1 a common (local) flow- to demonstrate that blocking the pores of a ering plant .iscussion examples. "How plant prevents photosynthesis from taking does the cactus survive in a hot dry desert?" place.2 Have them spread petroleum jelly Examine the "leaves" for color, texture, on the top and bottom of several leaves on a size, shape, etc. "Would a geranium be able live plant. Have students predict what will to live in 110' F (43° C) heat and with little happen. Observe/record for two weeks; the water?Why or why not?"Challenge leaves will lose their green color. The jelly students to use their knowledge of basic prevents the movement of gases through plant structures to infer and predict after the pores;thus, no carbon dioxide, a carefully observing these two contrasting necessary raw material for photosynthesis, plants. Record student comments on butch- can get into the leaves. er paper. Later, hold a plant debate: have students create arguments for and against 2Photosynthesis the survival of a lettuce plant growing "wild" (without care) in the desert. mlimp00:11000;11,1,0, NOON 14.0.000.0000reprerone Discuss the functions of plant structures; roe 111111101110Atipairl 111 then challenge students to invent a plant that irs%14:400q11. can survive in a particular environment. 0001.4000111100too oppoOlo, cards oossed through Assign a different environment to each team net represent water, (e.g., desert, snow, underwater).Provide esit/Ps oxygen, ciliate ptyyl I , eta.

Model Curriculum Guide 44 Biological Science35

Review the raw materials and products of tings from ground covers, violets, avocado photosynthesis; then have studentsact out seeds, sweet potatoes, pineapple tops, etc. the process of photosynthesis ina large leaf Plant tops can be placed in a shallowpan cell.Hang a volleyball net acrossone with water,typically, new roots form corner of the room to represent the cell wall where the cut siirface is kept covered by and cell membrane of a plant cell. Havea water.Have them compare growth rates group of seven to ten students prepare and and structures. carry cards that identify them as "water," "oxygen," "chlorophyll," etc. Students 5. HUMANS USE PLANTS TO CREATE MA- pass the cards through the net to show CHINES, CLOTHING, BUILDING MATERIALS, permeable membrane actionas"sun," FUEL, FOOD, ETC. "oxygen," or "water" enter thecorner "leaf cell," go to "chlorophyll," and leaveas List several items in the classroom, Suchas "sugar" or "carbon dioxide."4 During the paper and wooden tables, that arc made process of photosynthesis materials move from plants.Thcii ask students to bring into and products move out of the cell. items from home and assemblean in-room "museum" with labels to show plantuses 43nglish-Language Arts, Drama for medicine, clothing, wood, fuel, food, etc. Invite another class to visit this "mu- 4. FLOWERS ARE A PLANTS REPRODUC- seum" and learn more about the display by TIVE ORGANS, PRODUCING MALE AND FE- asking your students to explain these help- MALE SEX CELLS THAT DEVELOP INTO ful uses for plants. SEEDS AND ARE DISPERSED IN A VARIETY OF WAYS. SOME FLOWERING PLANTS CAN During a social studies unit on California REPRODUCE FROM VEGETATIVE PARTS Native Americans, give some examples of SUCH AS ROOTS AND STEMS. how they used plants. Then ask students to find in reference materials many examples of the unique uses of plants byour Native Show students examples of several different kinds of seeds. Americans. Students may construct models Then have students of housing structures and boats from reeds, gather seeds by wearing socks over their bark, brush, and -wooden planks; makea shoes and running through the playground, chart, diorama, or model to show the stages field, etc. Students may make a map of of acorn flour preparation; or gather plants what type seeds exist in differentareas; and label each to show how they were used also, ask them to cla.3sify seeds bya variety as medicines.4 Ask students to list the sci- of properties.* Ask how differeir, animals' entific properties or structures of the plant fur may be simile- to the socks.Thus, they researched and explain how they think students can compare how certain seed those properties/structures helped make the structures are adapted for dispersal of those plant useful to the Native Americans in seeds by different animals. California.

SAFETY: Caution students to watchout 4SocialStudies,English-Language Arts, for broken glass, snakes in tall grass, etc. Art *Book to identify seeds: Wildflowers, by C. Barton PROTISTS

Describe the process of vegetative repro- 1.FUNGI SUCH AS MOLDS, MUSHROOMS, duction to the clas.. Then ask students to OR YEAST ARE SIMPLE PLANT-LIKE ORGAN- prove that new plants may be started from ISMS THAT LIVE OFF PLANTS OR ANIMALS, cld plants. For example, have them begin WASTE PRODUCTS, OR ROTTING MATERIAL. ALGAE ARE SIMPLE PLANT-LIKE ORGAN- rooting old carrot tops, potato eyes, cut- ISMS THAT LIVE IN WATER.

Science 45 36 4-6

During early November, begin a discussion Askstudent',,whether they know the differ- of fungi such as molds.Keep a carved ence between the common cold and a step Halloween pumpkin until it has plenty of throat infection. Then, to help them distin- mold. Use hand lenses or a microscope to guish between bacterial and viral infections, observe the mold. Bury the pumpkin on the ask the school nurse, a local pharmacist, a school grounds and have students predict doctor, or a public health official to talk to what will happen to it. Dig up the pumpkin the students about "Bacteria and Virus Prob- in the spring, check predictions, and pre- lems: Causes and Controls."Afterward, pare and record conclusions about what hap- help students make a chart comparing the pened.The pumpkin remains should be two.1,2,4 nearly or completely rotted. 'Fleming SAFETY: Wash hands; be careful not to 2Germ Theory breathe mold spores. 4ilealth

Conclude a discussion of algae by growing algae from a nearby pond or stagnant water D. ANIMALS in jars or small aquariums placed in different lighting conditions.Have students 1.ANIMALS CAN BE CLASSIFIED IN SEV- check the rate of growth and use an eye- ERAL WAYS, SUCH AS BY SIMILARITIES IN dropper, slides, and a microscope for a BODY STRUCTURES (E.G., VERTEBRATES closer look at samples. Have them illus- AND INVERTEBRATES). trate their observations. Some kinds will have one cell; others may be strands or fila- ments of several cells.4

4Art

2.PROTISTS MAY BE EITHER BENEFICIAL OR HARMFUL TO HUMAN BEINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT. CONTROL OF HARMFUL ONES INVOLVES BOTH PUBLIC POLICY AND PERSONAL BEHAVIOR.

Explain to students how common protists are in the environment. Then have students moisten bread and wipe the floor, door knobs, etc., to gather spores, etc. Place the spores in a ziplock Baggie (double bag) and store in a dark, warm area.Pretreat the contents of half the bags with products designed to control or prevent growth of harmful protists.Students will learn the effectiveness of various control methods.1,4

SAFETY: Do not open bags; the contents After introducing the concept of classifying may cause allergic reactions in penicillin- animals, have students create animal family sensitive students. mobiles. Provide a large selection of old magazines and have them cut out all of the 1Be,adle animal pictures.Make a large outlined 4Health shape of an animal to represent each of the

Model Cut riculum Gjde 46 Biological Science37

classes of animals (birds, fish, mammals, Discuss several ways various animalsare etc.). From each large outlined shape hang adapted to find fcod and shelter in their smaller outlined shapes of representative environments. Then challenge studentsto animals from that class.Have students "Invent an Animal" with simple materials glue on each outlined shape their animal pic- that will blend into a particular local habitat tures that match with each class (all bird found on the school grounds.Materials pictures on the bird outlines, all fish pic- should include vegetable bodies (potatoes, tures on the fish outlines, etc.).Students white marshmallows) and sticks, tooth- should be able to visualize relationships picks, tape, rubber bands, string,yarn, within and between classes by studying clay, cotton, pipe c' Inners,paper, or what- their mobiles.1,4 ever for adaptations. Use tempera paints (thick) to camouflage the animals. Select 1Linnaeus 4Art two sites (with a visual barrier between them) and divide the class intotwo teams. Each team hides its animals and then Have students make a list of animalson the switches sites and tries to find the other chalkboard.Assign one animal to each team's animals. Ask students whether their student and have them write thename on a invented animal would have survived long 3 x 5 card. For each round of thegame, enough to obtain food; if not, why not? the teacher will assigna classfication scheme body coverings, movement, hab- 3.ANIMALS OBTAIN THEIR ENERGY FROM itat, skeleton/no skeleton, etc. The teacher FOOD IN THE FORM OF PLANTS, OTHER gives a classification characteristic (e.g., ANIMALS, AND PROTISTS. animals that lay eggs).All students with animals possessing this characteristic will stand, give their animal'sname, and sit Discuss how animals obtain food energy down. A new characteristic for the classifi- from plants.Have students observe this cation scheme is given, and thegame directly by giving students one snail each proceeds.1 and having them feed it small pieces of lettuce (crickets from a pet store, ina clear lCuvier plastic c.np, or moist bread may be used). Provide hand lenses for "close-up" observations of snail feeding and movement 2.ANIMALS HAVE ADAPTATIONS THAT EN- behaviors. Help students understand that ABLE THEM TO SURVIVE IN THEIR SPECIFIC food energy is changed into energy of ENVIRONMENTS. motion and other life activities.

Show several examples of adaptations that Define the terms herbivore, carnivore, and help animals hide from their enemies. Then omnivore; help students apply those terms have students play a "ProtectiveColor- to the correct animals during a discussion ation" game outdoors. Selectan area on of a typical food chain. Then ask the the playground and divide the class into students to make herbivore-carnivore-omni- two teams. Give Team 1 equal numbers of vore mobiles.Make three large outline a variety of colored paint chip strips from a patterns: rabbit-herbivores; mountain lion- paint store or squares of colored construc- carnivores; bear-omnivores. Have students tion paper. Pieces of colored stringor yarn cut out and classify pictures of animals may be used also. After Team 1 hides the from magazines, glue them to tagboard, cut chips, Team 2 finds as many as itcan in 15 them out, and hang them from each minutes. Compare and graph the number representative outline pattern.Ask the of each color Team 2 could find. Students students to write a story about how one of should now realize the value ofa color that the animals obtains its food.4 blends with the environment. 4Art, English-Language Arts

Science 4 7 38 4-6

4. MOST ANIMALS REPRODUCE SEXUALLY. Show a film depicting the life cycles of THOSE THAT CARE FOR THEIR YOUNG several common animals. Then, in the class- USUALLY PRODUCE FEWER YOUNG. room, establish a mealworm colony using large containers of bran for food with potato or apple slices for moisture. Ask Ask the class how many puppies c: kittens students to observe the mealworms in vari- are usually born in one litter. Then get a ous stages of growth during a one-month female and male guppy from a pet shop. period. Observe several generations as they Place them in a glass bowl half-filled with develop and compare the stages of growth. water that has been standing overnight and Finally, compare the mealworm's life cycle add several sprigs of water plants.After with some of those shown in the film. young are produced, remove the male to a separate container.Feed sparingly with cover over fish food as directed on the package. Ask vivarium students to record how many young are clear glass or plastic vivarium produced in one month. Then ask them to compare this number with that of animals moist apple that care for their young.

Discuss withthestudents how many Describe the difference between incomplete offspring would be needed to ensure spe- and complete metamorphosis. Have stu- cies survival in an environment with many dents observe incomplete metamorphosis predators compared to one with few pred- by observing crickets purchased from a pet ators. Have them gather data on how many store.House them in a small container eggs are laid by different species of fish with bran flakes, wet bread, moist apple, from reference materials or local resource etc., and study all stages of development. people. Make bar graphs to compare the Then have students record the incomplete differences.Discuss whether these differ- metamorphosis and compare it to complete ences are related to their habitat. Ask each metamorphosis with mealworms as in the student to "adopt a fish" and write a short above activity. Students will learn that the report about its fascinating facts, especially life cycles of different organisms show dif- the life cycle and why each fish lays only a ferent patterns and take different lengths of certain number of eggs.4 time. 4English-Language Arts, Mathematics 6. WE CAN RAISE AND KEEP SOME KINDS OF ANIMALS FOR USE AND ENJOYMENT 5.ANIMALS PROGRESS THROUGH A LIFE WITH PRODER CARE; BEHAVIORS AFFECT- CYCLE AND HAVE THE SAME PATTERN OF ING THE WELFARE OF PETS, DOMESTIC AN- DEVELOPMENT FROM GENERATiON TO IMALS, AND WILDLIFE INVOLVE PERSONAL GENERATION. RESPONSIBILITY AND SOCIAL POLICY.

Mealworm Life Cycle Ask students to de Bribe the home their family provides for their favorite pet. Have holes in cap them list ways their pet's basic needs are met. Then have students make postersof 0 glass jar the "ideal home" for a wild animal and a bran pet. What are the differences? Why? Then have students make a miniature "real" apple mealworms home for an animal of their choice. How 001 could they make the perfect home for a lizard? For a worm? For a frog? For a pet rabbit? For a horse? etc. Help the students

Model Curriculum Guide 4 6 Biological Science39

be sure they have planned for theproper Discuss the circulatory system; then set up care for their animal. a room-size model of it. Students become the red blood cells and begin their journey Discuss the role of friends and n0,,hbors at the heart. From there, they move through (the community) in being sure are arteries to the next station, the lungs, and treated with respect (humanely).Plan a pick up cards labeled "oxygen." After re- field trip to or invite a speaker from the turning to the heart, they circulate to other local humane society. Ask the speakerto body parts and "deliver" the oxygen before discuss people's responsibility for pets and the red blood cells return to the heart wildlife. How are pets different from wild- through a vein.Students should now be life? Why is it so critical tocare for a pet's able to draw and label a diagram showing needs and yet not feed or touch wild the circulatory path in the human body.1.2 animals? Stress that because people's activities have changed the natural environment 'Harvey in so many ways, people must takerespon- 2Circulation of Blood sibility for their pets and the wild animals that remain. Have students write a letterto 2. HUMAN BEINGS GROW AND DEVELOP IN their local humane society requesting infor- SIMILAR WAYS, BUT AT VARIOUS RATES. mation on the humane care of animals.4 ADOLESCENCE IS A PERIOD OF RAPID, UN- EVEN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT WHEN 4Social Studies, English-Language Arts SEXUAL MATURATION OCCURS. Ask students to remember how they looked E. HUMAN BEINGS and behaved when they were three to five years younger. Then ask them to bring in pictures of themselves at various ages and 1.THE ORGANS OF THE HUMAN BODY place them in chronological order. Have a FORM SYSTEMS THAT CARRY ON ESSEN- TIAL BODY FUNCTIONS. "baby face" contest to match baby pictures to the students in the room. Students may make a pictorial poster of family, parents, Help students learn about a particularorgan grandparents, etc.Discuss how the stu- in the human body by asking them to "Inter- dents have changed; then have them predict view an Organ." Ask them to selecta par- in what ways they expect to change as they ticular organ or system of the body and list become adults by having them draw self- its characteristics. Then ask their classmates portraits at middle and old age. Have them to play "guess who?"name that organ. evaluate and discuss the physical changes Next, have them cut out the shape ofan that have occurred or will occur.4 organ, write a description of its structure and function on it, and place it onto the Art, Health outline of a large paper body for display. Students should be able to identify and Discuss the concept of "average" as it ap- describe a variety of organs and systems. plies to body weight, height, etc. Then ask students to begin a search for the most MODEL OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM "average" student.Each student is measured for a set of common features: arm span, head size, etc. All measurements are charted and averaged.Students compare their measurements to those of the "average child." A description is written that illustrates this "average" student.4(Adapted from Project AIMS.) OTHER BODY PARTS (iro n orys en canis) 4Mathematics

Science 4C 4-6

3. HUMAN REPRODUCTION OCCURS WHEN Help students identify essentialhabitat AN EGG AND A SPERM UNITE. components, limiting factors, and the fact that some fluctuations in wildlife populations are natural. Have students role-play During the discussion of human reproduc- these concepts as deer. Students count off tion, have an anonymous question and in foursones become deer; twos, threes, answer box in class so students can ask and fours become food, shelter, and water questions. Ask the school nurse to respond in the "environment." At a given signal, to these questions.This technique gives the deer walk through the "environment" students answers to their questions in a non- and select one item: food, water, or shel- threatening manner.4 ter. Students that have been selected by the "deer" group become part of the deer 4Health population. Any deer that cannot find what it needs in the environment dies and be- To introduce the social aspects of boy-girl comes part of the "environment"group. relationships, invite the school counselor or Repeat the procedure several times; then nurse to come in to talk about adolescence graph and interpret the changes in the deer and sexuality. Ask the presenter to answer population over several generations (or questions and relate her or his experiences turns).(Adapted from Project Wild; refer and awkwardness. Caring, sensitive fam- to the project for detailed directions and ily relationships can be fostered through extensions.)4 this discussion.4 4Mathematics 4Health

2.AN ECOSYSTEM CONSISTS OF A COM- F. ECOSYSTEMS MUNITY OF LIVING THINGS INTERACTING WITH EACH OTHER AND THE ENVIRON- MENT. MOST ECOSYSTEMS DERIVE THEIR 1. A POPULATION CONSISTS OF ONE ENERGY DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY FROM SPECIES THAT LIVES IN A LIMITED AREA. THE SUN. POPULATIONS CONTINUE TO BECOME ENDANGERED, AND SPECIES MAY BECOME EXTINCT. Ask students, "How are the people living in acity(a community) interdependent?" Then have students list all the people that Discuss what ha Jens for a species to help keep the city (or community) and the become "endangered." Ask students to se- people in it going. How do they need each lect an endangered species and research the other? Write the list on the board and then causes and plans for future protection for draw lines to connect the people who de- that species.Impress upon the students pend on one another, e.g., farmer, baker, that wildlife serves as an integral part of the plumber, automobile mechanic. Ask stu- food chain and is a barometer for the contin- dents to compare this human "web of life" uation of human life. Invite guest speakers with that found in a forest. (Adapted from from concerned community organizations; "Caught in the Web of Life" from The have students make posters illustrating the Growing Classroom, p. 194.) neefor protection of endangered animals; or have students write letters to concerned Discuss ways the original "stored" energy organizations for information. Then form a from the sun is lost as that energy is trans- "mock court" to try various alleged offend- ferred up the food pyramid.Place 20 ers against selected endangered species.4 M&M's or jelly beans in each of 20 sandwich bags and have at least seven extra 4Social Studies, English-Language Arts "empty" sandwich bags. Then select

Model Curriculum Guide Biological Science 41

20 students as "producers," give eacha (popcorn). When the teacher signals the filled bag, and instruct each "plant"to eat Predators to enter the field, they tag only five M&M's (energy units), leaving15 their own prey (frogs eat grasshoppers, units of energy stored.Next, select four snakes eat frogs, and hawks eat snakes) students as first-order consumers ("herbi- and capture its stomach (Baggie), adding its vores"); give each an empty bag and contents to their stomach (Baggie). Pred- instruct him or her to collect 12energy ators who escape tagging and surpass the units (M&M's) from five plants andput food level on their stomach (Baggie) them in his or her bag; each "herbivore" survive and win the game.Change the now eats 30 energy units, leaving 30 in his numbers in each animal group and switch or her bag representing "stored" bones, animal identities for future rounds. flesh, fat, and organs.Next, select two studentsassecond-orderconsumers After discussing food chains and food ("omnivores");give eachabag and webs, have students play the "Food Web" instructions to catch two herbivores, taking game. Ask students to brainstorm various 30 energy units from eachone; each food chain groupings; record ideason the "omnivore" now eats 30 energy units, chalkboard.Then have students label a leaving 30 "stored" in hl,or her bag. separate 4 x 6 card for each animal/plant. Finally, select one studentas the third-order Make one card labeled Sunsource of consumer ("predator," "carnivore"), who energy.Select a student to represent the collects the remaining 60energy units from sun and place the student in the center of the second-order consumers andeats 30 the other students arrangtstanding in a energy units, leaving 30 for growth, good circle and each holding a different plantor health, and reproduction.Challenge stu- animal card. The "sun" is given a ball of dents to describe each level where "lost" string and holds the loose end. A student energy goes; help them realize its use in the holding some type of plant card will take life activities of breathing, moving,etc. the string ball and pull it back to hisor her (Adapted from: Green Box, "Introductory place in the circle. Then a student who eats Think Activities," pages 27-28.) this plant will take the ball from the "plant" while the "plant" student still holds the 3. FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS REPRE- string.Students will continue to come SENT THE FEEDING PATTERNS OF THE forth and take the ball of string from "organ- MEMBERS OF AN ECOSYSTEM. ism" to "organism" untilseveral food chains are made and inter webbed. Finally, the "sun" calls out the extinction of one Discuss predator-prey relationships; then organism. That organism drops the string, have students play "Predator PlayA causing "slacking" in the string which repre- Game of Tag" on the playground. Selecta sents death to all organisms that feel slack. typical food chain with at least threeto four This causes a chain-like reaction. Students different animals; for example, grasshop- should now be able to write a story telling pers, frogs, snakes, and hawks. Identify a about several food chains that form a food different color crepe paper arm bandto web in an environment of their choice or represent each kind of animal and distribute telling what happens when one organism is one band to each student so there are many removed from the food chain.1,4 grasshoppers, fewer frogs, a few snakes, and one to three hawks. Scatteredpopcorn 'Conservation represents the food source (plants). Give 4Engiish- Language Arts each animal a plastic Baggie "stomach" with a horizontal line on it to identify the foodconsumptionnecessaryforits survival. All predators remain off the field until signaled; grasshoppers gather food

Science 51 EARTH SCIENCE (4-6)

A. ASTRONOMY Ask students how concentrated the sunshine is in summer compared to winter.Help 1. THE EARTHS ROTATION, REVOLUTION, them find out by cutting out a 2 in. x 2 in. AND AXIS TILT CAUSE SPECIFIC CLIMATIC (5.1 x 5.1 cm) piece from a discarded win- CHANGES IN THE NORTHERN AND SOUTH- dow screen and mounting it in a slide ERN HEMISPHERES. projector.Shine the resulting grid onto a globe at the place where you live (for the summer position the globe's axis should point toward the projector; for winter, away from the projector). Ask studentsto compare the number of squares that appear in both cases.Also, ask them when the squares are brighter.They will observe more and brightersquaresduringthe summer position, showing that more light is concentrated on a smaller area then.

2. THE MOON'S ROTATION, REVOLUTION, AND REFLECTION OF THE SUNS LIGHT Show students how the tilt of the earth's CAUSE PREDICTABLE CHANGES IN THE axis causes different effects in different MOON'S PHASES AS WELL AS ECLIPSES. seasons. Use a bit of clay to fasten a roof- Help students understand the moon phases ing nail upside down on a globe at the place we all observe by preparing a take-home where you live. Adjust a slide projector so monthly calendar with large squares for its beam hits vertically at the equator. Then students to draw the different phases of the position the globe so its 23 1/2 degree tilted moon as they observe them each night. axis points away from the slide projector Ask students to make these observations and have students ineasure the shadow and drawingsat home and bringthe length (this is winter).Next, position the completed calendar back to school at the globesoitsaxispointstowardthe end of the month. They may check the projector, again, have students measure the newspapers for any missed observations shadow length(thisis summer). Help (cloudy nights).Alarge class calendar may studentsunderstand how shadows are be kept at school and filled in daily. longer in the winter (the sun is lower in the Discuss how the moon's revolution around sky) and shorter in the summer (the sun is the earth causes us to see different amounts higher in the sky). of its lighted surface at different times during the month.

Discuss how an eclipse is caused; then drive in a long nail perpendicularly near each end of a stick 11? cm long. On one

Model Curriculum Guide 52 Earth Science 43

nail glue a Ping Pong ball (earth) andon the other end put a clay ball (moon) with 4.THE SOLAR SYSTEM CONTAINS a SPHERES AND CHUNKS OF MATTER THAT diameter of 9.5 mm. Position the stick in REVOLVE AROUND THE SUN. THE LARGEST the sunlight so that the shadow of themoon BODIES ARE PLANETS, MOST OF WHICH falls on the earth, or viceversa.Ask HAVE MOONS, AND OTHERS ARE ASTER- students to observe the umbra andpenum- OIDS,METEOROIDS, COMETS, AND A bra.Help them understand the difference MULTITUDE OF SMALLER PARTICLES. between a partial and a full eclipse interms of the viewer on the earth being located in Suggest to students that it is possible to either the umbra (total eclipse)or penumbra make a model of the relative distances of (partial eclipse) portions of the shadow. the planets from the sun. Form groups of three or four students and assign one plan- 3. THE SUN IS THE CENTER OF THE SOLAR et to each group. Have each group prepare SYSTEM AND IS A MASSIVE SPHERE OF HYDROGEN AND HELIUM THAT RELEASES a length of string equal to the distance of ENERGY THROUGHOUT THE SOLAR SYS- its planet from the sun using the scale 2.5 TEM. cm =1 609 000 km (for example, earth at 149 637 000 km = 232.5 cm). Have an ex- Ask students, "How does distance from the tra group cut a large sun out of construc- sun affect how much heat a planet re- tion paper and place it in the center of the ceives?" Demonstrate by settingup an un- playground. Then have each planet group shielded glowing light bulb; aska student attach its string to the sun and stretch the to hold one hand 1 in away from it. (SAFE- string to its full length. When all planets TY: Have the student shield hisor her eyes are spaced around the sun, have them with the other hand.) Then have thestu- move in the same direction in their orbital dent gradually move his or her hand closer paths, simulating the revolution of planets to the bulb. (SAFETY: Do not touch bulb.) in their orbital paths. (REMINDER: This Ask him or her to tell the class when the model misses the elliptical nature of the heat is first felt and how the heat feels when planets' actual orbits.) Students may wish the "planet" is even closer to the "sun." to expand this activity by making a scale Other students in the class may wishto size paper "sun" and "planets" to put at the experience how a "planet" gets "warmer"as outer end of their strings and move in their it gets closer to the "sun," justas it happens orbits at the correct orbital "speeds."1 to the inner planets in our solar system. 1Copemicus (See page 2 for an explana- Demonstrate the construction of a solar tion of entries like this one.) cooker. Then have students build their own, selecting a type of material they Discuss the discovery of planets, comets, predict will concentrate the most heatto and asteroids; then have students make a cook an apple slice. A cone may be made "Time Line of Space Discoveries." Have from a variety of materials, suchas tin foil, them research the dates and discoverers of black paper, or white paper, and taped toa the various objects found in our solar sys- Styrofoam cuplinedwiththesame tem.They may start with newsclips of material. A thin slice of apple may be recent discoveries and work backwards to threaded on a skewer or toothpick as it is develop the time line; then have them put it threaded through the cup. A thermometer up in the classroom, or hallway if the time may be placed in the cup, and observations line is too large. This historical perspective and temperature readings may be taken to will give insight into the process by which compare each type of material used. Help knowledge in astronomy, applications of students understand that the cooking heat new technology, and understanding of our came from the sun's concentrated energy.2 own planet earth have developed.'

2Sun Power/Solar Energy 1Brahe, Maria Mitchell

Science 53 44 4-6

As students learn about the surface features balloon, using a felt-tip pen.Then have of known planets, moons, and asteroids, them put a small amount of air into the demonstrate how scientists believe craters balloon and use a string and a ruler to may have been formed. Fill a box or large measurc and record the distance between baking pan about 3 or 4 cm deep with the dots. Next, have them add more air to flour, talcum powder, or baking soda (a the balloon and again measure/record the thin layer of talcum powder over flour distance between the three dots. Have them would show effects of layers). Then drop repeat the procedure one more time. Ask marbles, golf balls, and/or small rocks into them, "What has happened to these three the container from the same height. It may 'galaxies' (dots) in your 'universe'?" They help to tie a string around the small rock should be able to explain how all three and pull it back out after impact, thus simu- "galaxies" constantly get farther apart from lating a "bouncing" crater formation or an one another and from the center of their object that completely disappeared beneath "universe." the surface. Ask students to compare the features of the "craters." The crater walls and splash effects will vary with the size of B. GEOLOGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES the object and speed/angle of impact 1. ROCKS ARE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO 5. ASTRONOMERS IDENTIFY STAR GROUP- THE PROCESS BY WHICH THEY ARE INGS AS CONSTELLATIONS AND GALAXIES. FORMED (IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY, AND SPECIFIC STAR CHARACTERISTICS CAN BE METAMORPHIC). DETERMINED FROM STARLIGHT.

Students will probably already have heard about groupings of stars called constellations and given names such as Big WATER Dipper and Orion by ancient astronomers. Have them make models of various constellations by attaching miniature marshmallows together with toothpicks and gluing the patterns onto paper (different colored marshmallows could be used to represent different magnitude stars; also, paper cutouts could be used instead).Students Discuss the process of forming sedimentary may wish to superimpose drawings of the rocks; then have students model the process constellations that were created by various by filling a glass or plastic jar two-thirds ancient cultures. Also, the class may con- full with soil and adding water to near the centrate on the polar constellations and top before replacing the cap.Next, they mount them on the classroom ceiling shake the jar until the soil has thoroughly mixed with the water. Finally, have them around the North Star. Help the students After a period of realize how real patterns in nature were let the mixture settle. time, perhaps even the next day, they can given mythical explanations by ancient cultures and that these names are still used observe the settling of the sediments into distinct layers.Help them c 1_242= the today on star maps. 1 particle sizes in the different layers with those of various types of sedimentary 1Herschel rocks: conglomerate, sandstone, shale, etc. Help students visualize the "expanding Once students learn the meaning of the universe" model used by many astronomers by having them randomly place three dots changes involved when metamorphic rock is formed, have them model the process by (X, Y, Z) on a deflated large round softening (by kneading or warming) a golf

54 Model Curriculum Guide Earth Science 45

ball size or larger lump of modeling clay. grow on, etc.Help students compare the Then have them insert small steel washers effects of these variables with changingcon- into the clay ball from all sidesso that none ditions in nature that have led to crystals of is pari, 'el to another. Next, have themput different size, shape, color, etc., in similar the clay/washers lump between sheets of rocks (e.g., granite used in tombstones).2 wax paper on the floor and lay a book or small board on top.Finally, have them 2Agricola stand on the book to flatten the clay lump and then remove it to look at the alignment of the washers.Help students compare 3.WEATHERING AND EROSION ACT ON their "model" with a natural specimen ofa ROCKS AND MINERALS TO CHANGE LAND- metamorphic rock, such FORMS, CREATE SOIL, AND AFFECT HUMAN as schist, that has ACTIVITIES. flattened, aligned crystals.Ask whether they think heating their lump, suchas happens deep in the earth, would have Show students a picture of a large mountain helped the lump "change" (metamorphose) boulder or rock slopethat has layers more.' "peeling"offmuchlikeanonion. Demonstrate how this might have happened Hutton by soaking several pieces of porous rock (sandstone, limestone, pumice) in water for 2.MINERALS HAVE SPECIFIC PROPERTIES an hour. Place the pieces in a plastic bag (COLOR, HARDNESS, LUSTER, CRYSTAL and set tl.e bag in a freezer overnight. SHAPE) BY WHICH THEY CAN BE CLASSIFIED Allow students to examine the rocks the AND WHICH MAKE SOME OF THEM USE- next day and have them compare the FUL ECONOMICALLY. changes they observe and the picture of the "peeling" boulder they saw earlier.Help Discuss the properties of minerals; then themunderstand how freezingwater have students set up theirown "hardness" expands and can break seemingly very chart by using rocks they find and simply "hard" rocks.This process can damage seeing whether one will scratch another. buildings, roads, statues, etc. Then have them compare their chart with the Mohs' Scale of Hardness found ina Discuss the effects of "acid rain"on the reference book or a commercial test kit. Be beautiful old buildings andstatuesin sure they understand that a rock that Venice, Italy, as well as major cities inour scratches another is the harder of thetwo, country. Students can experiment with this and that comparisons basedon this fact process by filling two jars half full of water have led to the development of Mohs' Scale and a third jar half full of vinegar. Then of Hardness.2 have them blow throughstraw into one of the jars.Next, place a few limestone- 2Mohs' Scale of Hardness containing rocks into each jar ari,have students observe/record the results. They As students observe a variety of rock will see the limestone rocks begin to react specimens, they will note many different in the presence of an acid (the vinegar and kinds of crystals.Help then understand carbon dioxide [carbonic acid] solutions act how crystals form by providing them with like acid rairwater)to show signs of a variety of di.Terent kinds of crystal reci- chemical weathering. pes. In each case. each group should make a "super-saturated" solution and allow it to evaporate, uncovered, in a quiet environ- 4. EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES OC- ment. Students may experiment by varying CUR ALONG FAULT LINES, RELEASING the following:amount of salt, type of LARGE AMOUNTS OF ENERGY AND CHANG- container,temperature,objects crystals ING LAND FORMS.

Science 5 Ei 46 4-6

Near the beginning of a class discussion of Discuss the earth's resources and how we earthquake and volcano locations and use our land and water; then ask students: concentrations, have students gather infoi- "How much usable land and water do we mation on the positions of (1) mountain have on this planet?" Help them visualize ranges; (2) areas of volcanic activity; and the answer by demonstrating as follows: (3) zones of earthquake activity. Then have Cut an apple into four quarters; set three of them plot these features on a world or West- them aside. The remaining quarter repre- ern Hemisphere map. Ask them whether sents the part of the earth's surface that is they detect any patterns in the data they not covered by ocean. Now cut this piece have plotted;also, whether the phrase in half; set one of these pieces aside. The "Pacific Rim of Fire" has any basis in fact. remaining piece represents the part suitable Help them see that some force deep in the for human habitation; the other is too dry, earth must be causing pressures in certain too wet, too cold, too mountainous, etc. areasthatleadtoearthquakesand Now cut the last piece into four. One of volcanoes. these is the part of the earth that we can grow our food on. Then cut a slice off one Present the basic concepts of the Plate of these; this is the 3/100 of 1 percent of the Tectonics/Continental Drift Theory. Then earth's surface that supplies all our potable ask students to theorize why both North (thinkable) water.Ask students, "Now and South America are drifting westward. that you've seen this, is conservation a Demonstrate this"drift" by gently and good idea?Do most people conserve? slowly pushing a small rug across the floor Why, or why not?" Help them see how the (push from its trailing edge).Have stu- finiteness rf our resources and the expan- dents observe how the rug develops folds sion of our human population indicate great along its leading edge; ask them how this is need for conservation techniques. similar to the western edge of North and South America. Then show a movie or Discuss recycling with the students. Ask pictures of scientific drawings that depict them, "What is it? Why do it? Does it save how scientists believe currents in the hot dollars?"Then have a newspaper and interior of the earth cause "plates" or blocks aluminum can drive at your schoola one- of crust to move across the earth's surface. day collectionand keep a record of how much is collected and what the earnings 5.NATURAL RESOURCES NEEDED BY HU- are. Challenge other classes to see whether MANS ARE IN LIMITED SUPPLY AND MUST BE they can beat this record. Help the students CONSERVED. realize how important conservation is to our future supply of natural resources like trees, metals, and energy.4

4Social Studies -"Y` Earth's surface covered by ocean C. METEOROLOGY

1. WEATHER IS AFFECTED BY MANY FAC- TORS SUCH AS THE SUN-WARMED EARTH, AIR PRESSURE DIFFERENCES, AND MOIS- TURE IN THE AIR.

Discuss how land and water surfaces affect EartF 'a surface not covered by ocean the weather; then have students compare the absorption and release of heat by soil and Y4 GROW FOOD; A PIECE OF THIS water. Have them fill one can with dry soil EQUALS DRINKABLE WATER and another the same size with water.

5 6 Model Curri:ulum Guide Earth Science 47

Next, have them place both cans outside in sunlight and measure/record the temperature after 2 hours. Finally, have them place bothans in a refrigerator and measure/ record the temperature after 10 minutes. Students should readily conclude from their data that soil heats and cools more quickly than water. Thus, land areas warm more rapidly in the day and cool more quickly at night, causing greater weather variations than occur over or near large bodies of water. Discuss convection currents in air as a major cause of winds; then demonstrate the formation of convection currents.Start with a large cardboard box. Put a 100-watt light bulb in a flat bottom ceramic socket on the floor of the box. Cut the ends from a tall metal can large enough to fit over the bulb; arrange a support so air can flow in under the can and up past the bulb. Cover the open end of the box with a sheet of ch;ar plastic film to make a window and cut a small opening at the bottom of the box on the side near the bulb. Place a container with a piece of smoking rope in it next to tliln small opening. Ask students to observe the path of the smoke in the box when the Tell students, "Air is all around us, andwe lamp is lit and compare it to when the lamp hear others talk about air pressure, but we is off.The hot bulb warms and expands never feel this pressure. How can scien- the air around it, making that air lighter; and tists know aboat air pressure?" Then give the surrounding cooler, heavier air is pulled each student a sandwich bag and have the in by gravity and pushes the lighter air up. students hold them in one hand so they can Help students see how similar effects in later blow into them to inflate them. Then nature can cause strong winds. group the students around a rectangular table and have them rest their bags around the perimeter of the table surface. Have two student volunteers invert a second, identical table onto the first table with the not-yet-inflated bags as the "sandwich filling." At a given signal, have the students inflate the bags, thus lifting the upside- down table. Ask the students whether they now can say they have seen evidence that Students have learned that air can exert air can exert pressure. pressure and that convection currents can cause winds. Ask them how meteorolo- 2.WIND IS THE RESULT OF MANY FAC- gists (scientists who study the weather) can TORS, INCLUDING ATMOSPHERIC CONDI- measure wind speeds; then have them make TIONS, SURFACE FEATURES OF THE EARTH, a device to do so.Ask them to evenly AND THE EARTH'S ROTATION; ALSO, WIND space four paper cups laid sideways around MAY BE USED AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY. the perimeter of a paper plate. Have them

Scimice 57 attach these cups to theplate, push a bethe same on a day with different straight pin through the center of the paper hurnidity.4 plate into a pencil eraser, and mark one cup so that the plate's rotations can be easily 4Mathematics counted. Choose a windy day to have the students test and calibrate their wind speed measuring device. Invite a locai newspaper D. OCEANOGRAPHY or TV weatherperson to come to the class to tell about the operation of or, if possible, 1. MANY OCEAN FLOOR FEATURES ARE show an anemometer used to measure wind COMPARABLE TO LAND SURFACES AND speeds. ARE SHAPED BY SIMILAR FORCES.

3. MOISTURE IN THE ATMOSPHERE TAKES MANY FORMS AS A RESULT OF THE SUN'S ENERGY.

Discuss the various forms of moisture that can occur during the water cycle.Have students experiment with these forms by Remind students of television specials they may have seen about underwater studies of taking two clear jars, filling one halfway canyons, coral reefs, the continental shelf, with moist soil and the other halfway with water, covering both jar openings with offshore oil drilling, etc., in programs by Cousteau, National Geographic, etc. Ask clear plastic wrap and placing both jars in them how they think underwater contours direct sunlight. Ask them to observe what can be determined from the surface; then happens and record their findings.Then have them repeat the experiment in indirect have them make a model of an echo sounder. Divide the class into groups of sunlight. Discuss any differences they four and give each group a large clear observed; ask them what forms of moisture plastic tub or bucket. Have them place one were present.Help students relate these or two metal objects in the bottom and then forms to the states of matter and the kinetic fill it with water (salt water if available). energy of molecules. Have each group select a variety of objects (such as a paper clip, button, rubber band, Demonstrate that water vapor condenses on or penny) to drop into the water and various materials at different rates. Provide time/record how many seconds it takes for similar sized cups made of various mate- each of them to reach the bottom. Students rials(paper,wa-.ed paper, Styrofoam, should drop eachobjectthreetimes, glass, metal), filled with the same amount compute an average drop time, and plot the of ice cubes, and ask students to predict results on a graph. Help them see that this which type of cup will collect water drops graph represents a profile of the sea floor in first on its outside.Form student teams the same way that echo sounding readings and have students mark a 1-cm square on would. the side of each container. At uniform time intervals (perhaps every 30 seconds), an ob- server should count the number of drops in co a square and tell the recorder the total. Then a:" have each team graph the time for drops to appear on each container and the rate of increase after the drops appear. Ask students to develop explanations of the rate of condensation on each container.Also, ask them whether they think the results would

Model Curriculum Guide

Jr ZS Earth Science 49

Discuss underwater land forms; then have watershould be free of saltbecause students draw a diagram to show the simi- the apparatus utilized the sun's energy to larities of ocean floor features and land purify the water via the water cycle. surfaces. Have them include abyssal plain, atoll, continental shelf, guyot or plateau, 3.TIDES, WAVES, AND CURRENTS ARE ridge, seamount, trench, and volcanic is- CREATED AND AFFECTED BY VARIOUS land, all labeled. Then have themuse their INFLUENCES. diagram to construct a three-dimensional model in a shoebox with the top of the shoebox being the sea level. Fina4, have During a discussion of the creation of water them cut several slits in the top of the currents, demonstrate their formation by shoebox, put the lid on the box, and trade the mixing of water of different tempera- boxes with a classmate. They may then use tures. First, freeze colored water into a thin plastic ruler to make probing mea- cubes. Then place a colored ice cube in an surements into the box much as an echo aquarium filled with room temperature sounder would make. Ask them to record water.Ask students to observe and draw the measurements and use them to con- pictures of the currents as indicated by the struct a new diagram of the model sea- flow of color. Then compare this action to bottom topography; a comparison wi'Li the the formation of equatorial and polar original diagram will show how accurate currents in the oceattl this technique is. 1Humboldt

2.THE ENERGY FROM THE SUN INTERACTS WITH BODIES OF WATER (OCEAN ESPE- After charting the information, develop a graph. CIALLY) TO DRIVE THE WATER CYCLE AND INFLUENCE CLIMATE. Level in Discuss the water cycle; then boil water ina Feet tea kettle or pan so steam rises above it. Then hold a metal pie plate with ice cubes in it above the steam. The "steam" water vapor condenses on the bottom of the pie plate, forms drops, and fallsas precipitation.Help students :,ee how thin Date demonstration models the heating of the = High Tide oceans or lakes by the sun, the formation of = Low Tide water vapor, the cooling of vapor high in the atmosphere to form clouds, and finally Collect the tide tables from several daily the formation of drops of rain to complete newspapers.Provide copies of the chart the cycle. shown here and have students record low and high tide times and levels for several Show students how the energy of the sun days. Then have them graph each point to can be used to help provide fresh drinking see tidal change patterns. Finally, ask water by having them make a solar still. students to relate the tidal changes and Ask them to place a clear plastic cup in a conditions to moon phases.4 small plastic Baggie. Next, fill the cup halfway with salt-water solution, tie the Baggie closed at the top, and place it in a sunny spot. Have them wait until water begins to condense inside the Baggie and collect at the bottom of the Baggie. This collected

Science 5-3 50 4-6

PHYSICAL SCIENCE (4-6)

A. MATTER Discuss the difference between a mixture and a compound; then prepare a mixture of 1.MATTER HAS MASS/WEIGHT AND OCCU- sand, iron filings, sawdust, salt, and paper PIES SPACE. clips. Challenge students to think of ways to se arate the mixture. Have students de- Discuss how the pull (force) of gravity velop experiments to test their methods. If attracts objects (matter) to the earth (a large necessary, suggest using a seive (to remove ball of matter) and this pull between objects paper clips), a magnet (for iron filings), gives them "mass" (the same as "weight" and water (makes sawdust float and dis- for objects at or near the earth's surface). solves salt; slop off the sawdust and then Then have students predict the mass of the pour out the water and let it evaporate to edible portion of bananas, oranges, etc. reclaim the salt; the sand is left). Explain to Provide scales or balances so they can students that these pure substances were weigh the entire fruit, eat the edible parts, only mixed, not chemically combined, and and weigh the remaining peelings. Have therefore could be easily separated by phys- them subtract the final weight of the peel- ical methods.' ings from the original weight; they will then know the "mass" (weight) of the edible 1Pauling portion. (Adapted from Project Aims.)1,4 Define a pure substance as one that has 1Newton unique physical and chemical properties; 4Mathematics (See page 2 for an explana- also, it cannot be separated into component tion of entries like these.) parts by physical methods. Then ask students to gslmiLel the properties of starch, Conclude a discussion of how matter oc- baking powder, and baking soda by observ- cupies space by providing an empty jar and ing through a hand lens.Have them test filling it with a measured volume of small the reaction of each substance to a drop rocks or large gravel.Ask students to each of water, vinegar, and iodine. Secretly hypothesize whether the jar is completely mix two of the powders.Ask students, full. Then add a measured volume of sand, "How can we test to find out what they tapping the jar to settle it until full. Again are?" Explain that physical and chemical ask students to hypothesize whether the jar tests similar to these are used to identify is full.Then pour a measured volume of many unknown substances. water slowly into the jar until full.Calcu- late the total volume of matter that has been added to the original volume in the jar. 3.INDIVIDUAL ATOMS ARE IN CONSTANT Explain that just as there was a lot of space MOTION, HAVE A NEUTRAL CHARGE, AND between the rocks and sand grains, there is ARE MADE UP OF EVEN SMALLER PAR- also a lot of empty space between atoms TICLES: ELECTRONS (NEGATIVE CHARGE), PROTONS (POSITIVE CHARGE), AND NEU- and molecules. TRONS (NEUTRAL CHARGE). ATOMS OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS HAVE A UNIQUE COMBINATION OF PROTONS, ELECTRONS, 2.MATTER IS MADE UP OF MANY DIF- AND NEUTRONS. FERENT SMALL PARTICLES KNOWN AS ATOMS THAT ARE THE BASIC BUILDING Show examples of several of the elements BLOCKS OF ALL MATTER. MATTER CAN BE that typically exist as pure substances in our A PURE SUBSTANCE (AN ELEMENT, MOL- environment. Ask students to make a chart ECULE, OR A COMPOUND) OR A MIXTURE showing the symbols of the elements and SUCH AS A SOLUTION. examples of where they are used: e.g., Al

Model Curriculum Guide 6u Physical Science 51

(aluminum)foil, containers; Fe (iron) Next, discuss ways to make the cube melt cans, cars; C (carbon)diamond, graphite, faster, then experiment.Students should charcoal. Start a classroom element collec- now understand how changes inheat tion and have students keepa record. content (temperature) can cause changes of Students will begin to understand how phase. Have students explain in theirown elements are the building blocks of all words or role play how watergoes from matter.' one state to another.'

'Alvarez, Goeppert-Mayer Advanced students may wish to researcha fourth state of matter called "plasma." Discuss how atoms can become electrically charged by gaining or losing electrons; then 'Kelvin select a low-humidity day, inflatetwo balloons, tie a cotton threador string to each, and rub both balloons onyour Show how substances cango from the clothing or hair. Both balloons will havea liquid to the solid phase (state) by placinga positive charge (electrons were rubbed off) few crystals of salol on a microscope slide and will repel each other when suspended and heating the slide gently overan alcohol and brought near each other. Next, touch burner flame. After the crystals have several places on one balloon toa wall melted, place the slide on a microscopeor (electrons will leak back on) and bring the microprojector stage and let students pp...- suspended balloons near each other again; serve crystals grow as the liquid cools and they will attract. Help students understand solidifies.This shows how as molecules that loss or gain of electrons by, for slow down they attract each other and example, friction or contactcan cause become locked in relatively fixed locations substances to become electrically charged, in the crystal structure. thus attracting opposite charges and repelling the same charges. Finally, havestu- 5.CHEMICAL CHANGESCHANGETHE dents research the formation of lightning.' ATOMIC STRUCTURE OFMOLECULES, THEREBY PRODUCING NEW SUBSTANCES. 'Franklin, Millilcan EACH PURE SUBSTANCE IS CAPABLE OF A UNIQUE SET OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGESWHICH ARE KNOWN AS ITS PHYS- 4. MATTER CAN EXIST IN ONE OF THESE ICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. THREE PHASES: SOLID, LIQUID, OR GAS. A SOLID CAN BE CHANGED TO A LIQUID AND A LIQUID TO A GAS (EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL CHANGES) BY APPLYING HEAT, WHICH INCREASES THE SPEED AT WHICH ATOMS MOVE AROUND.

Demonstrate how a substance can change from one phase (state) to another by placing an ice cube in an open pan. After the ice Discuss chemical changes; then demon- cube melts, discuss what has happened (as strate one by stuffing a wad of steel wool the molecules vibrated faster, they moved into the bottom of a narrow olive jar. Wet out of their fixed positions and could slide the steel wool slightly. Invert the jar and over each other).Next take the pan and place it in a shallow pan of water slightly place it in direct sunlight for about an hour higher than the jar opening. In a few days, (asthe molecules vibratefaster,they students will note the rise of water in the jar bounce up into the air and become separate as the oxygen is consumed. Have them gas particles).Discuss ways one could examine the rusted steel wool and compare stop a cube from melting; then experiment. it with unrusted steel wool.Help them Science 61 52 4-6

understand that this is a chemical change in B. ENERGY composition and properties; the steel wool cannot be returned to its original form by 1. ENERGY IS NECESSARY TO DO WORK ordinary physical means. AND CAUSE CHANGES IN MATTER.

Describe how chemical changes may pro- Discuss energy and how it is used to do duce new substances with very different work. Then demonstrate a solar or battery- properties.Have student teams put two powered motor, radio, toy, or hand calcula- spoons of baking soda in a large ziplock tor. Show that a source of energy, such as bag and carefully add an upright paper cup light or the chemical energy of the battery, half filled with vinegar. Have them squeeze is necessary for the device to operate (do most of the air out of the large bag and seal work). it carefully. They then invert the bag and observe the chemical reaction that occurs when the two substances mix. Have them write a description of the changes; then discuss how scientists develop many new products by understanding and using a variety of chemical changes.

6. CARE MUST BE TAKEN WHEN HANDLING CHEMICALS THAT ARE POISONOUS, FLAM- MABLE, CORROSIVE, OR VERY REACTIVE.

Discuss fire as a chemical change; then ask students to identify frequent fire hazards in a home such as oily rags in a garage, heat- ers too close to curtains, and frayed wires. Have students develop a sample fire safety check list and then go on a scavenger hunt at their home to find all unsafe hazards, discussing with their parents how to correct them as soon as possible. Emphasize per senal responsibility for creating and maintaining a safe-from-fire environment.

Describe the dangerously corrosive nature of acids and bases. Then distribute about Students can learn how energy can cause ten strips per student of neutral litmus physical changes in matter by calculating the paper.Have students go on an "Acid/ calories of heat absorbed by water as its Base/Neutral Scavenger Hunt" at home (or temperature is increased. Have them add 10 school).Have them list each substance mL of water to a large test tube and use a they test and record the color the litmus Celsiusscalealcoholthermometerto paper turns. Red/Pink = Acid; Purple/Blue measure/record the water temperature; then = Base; No Change = Neutral.Discuss they heat the test tube with a candle for how some weak acids and bases may be exactly 15 seconds.Finally, they carefully foods (vinegar, etc.), while strong ones stir the water with the thermometer and (drain cleaners, etc.) can be used to help us measure record the new temperature.Tell but may b° very dangerous and should not them it takes 1 calorie of heat energy to raise be mixed with other chemicals that may 1 g (1 g is about equal to 1 mL or 1 cc) of create dangerous fumes, etc. water 1 degree Celsius in temperature (it

62 Model Curriculum Guide Physical Science 53

takes 1,000 of these "small" caloriesto burger." If necessary, suggest they include equal 1"large" calorie of food energy). the food for the steer, the fuel for the Students can now determine theamount of tractor, the electricity for the freezer, etc. energy (in calories) the water absorbed. More than one componentmay come origin- They will have experienced and docu- ally from the sun's energy. Have themcon- mented how energy (the candle flame)can struct a mobile or a diagram depicting the cause a change (temperature increase) in various sources and transformations. Then other matter. discuss the complex series of transformations involved in buildinga home, building 2.DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY (LIGHT, and riding their bicycle, etc. HEAT, ELECTRICITY, ETC.) CAN BE CON- VERTED FROM ONE TO ANOTHER. Define the differem, oetween renewable Show the conversion of energy from (sun, wind, etc.) and nonrenewable (coal, one oil, etc.) sources of energy. Form student form to another by takingtwo tin cans (soup, juice, coffee or...) and stripping off teams to gather information and select one the labels. Spray paint of their members to report (ina panel one can black, and presentation) ways of conserving leave the other one shiny.Fill both cans a particular nonrenewable source ofenergy. Help with water and let them sit in thesun for 20 the class realize the ethicalconcerns people minutes. Use an alcohol thermometerto become aware of as particular measure/record the temperature before and energy sources become nearly used up.4 after exposure to thesun.Discuss the question: "In which can was light (solar) 4Social Studies energy changed toheat energy more efficiently?" The data will prove the black one did.

Tell students that series of several different C. MECHANICAL ENERGY energy transfers may lead to an observed energy result. Ask them to rub their hands 1. FORCE IS A PUSH OR A PULL. GRAVITY IS together and feel the heat buildup. Have A FORCE THAT ATTRACTS ALL OBJECTS. them trace the energy transfers; ifneces- FRICTION IS THE FORCE THAT RESISTS THE sary, suggest that the sun (light) energy MOTION OF OBJECTS. became food (chemical) energy, then became mechanical (rubbing) energy, which became heat (from friction)energy. Chal- e, lenge them to trace other seriesas in building a road, flying an airplane,etc. " ------

3. ENERGY SOURCES AND TRANSFORMA- TION OF ENERGY ON EARTH CAN BE Help students experience the meaning of TRACED BACK TO THE SUN'S ENERGY AND friction by having them attach a spring scale ARE EITHER RENEWABLE OR NONRENEW- to a brick or a milk carton filled with sand. ABLE. CARE AND CONSERVATION IN THE Then as they pull it over different surfaces, USE OF ENERGY AND OTHER NATURAL such as cement, rug, dirt, etc., have them RESOURCES IS AN ETHICAL CONCERN OF make a chart tortordthe amount of force EVERYONE BECAUSE THESE RESOURCES needed.The class may depict these data ARE IN LIMITED SUPPLY. with a bar graph or a list in order f.-om most to least friction. The greater the friction, the Conclude a discussion of energy sources greater the force needed to pull the object. and transformations by challengingstu- dents to study "The Making of a Ham-

Science 6?) 54 4-6

differences in scale readings and how the inclined plane made lifting the car easier.

Challenge students to reduce the force needed to move an object by using a lever. Have them use a meter stick pivoted on a Review theconcept of friction;then rubber stopper fulcrum tolift a book. demonstrate the effect of wheels added to Move the rubber stopper fulcrum to differ- an object to be moved. Fit st, put a block of ent positions. Experiment to see which wood on a flat board. Raise one end of the position requires the least effort (force) to board until the force of gravity causes the lift the book. Then have the students draw block to slide and measure the height and/or diagrams to show when a small effort or a angle of the board.Next, put two round large effort is needed. When the fulcrum is (cylindrical) pencils or dowels under the close to the object, less effort is needed. block; again, measure the height and/or angle of the board when the block begins to move. Wheels reduce friction, thus con- D. HEAT ENERGY serving energy and making the object (block) move easier. 1. TEMPERATURE, THE NAME FOR HOW HOT THINGS ARE, MEASURES HOW FAST 2. WORK IS DONE WHEN A FORCE IS USED THE MOLECULES OF A SUBSTANCE ARE VI- TO MOVE AN OBJECT. SIMPLE AND COM- BRATING (THEIR KINETIC ENERGY). PLEX MACHINES MAKE USE OF MECHAN- ICAL ENERGY TO DO WORK.

Clarify that work is done only when a force on an object actually moves it by showing how a simple machine such as an inclined plane can vary the force needed to do work. Tie a string to a toy car and attach the string to a spring scale. Lift the car and record the scale reading. Set up an inclined plane (1- m board with one end resting on a stack of

books) and pull the car up the plane using .:!!;. ... i:,:; the spring scale. Record the scale reading. Change the angle of the plane and repeat, Discuss how a thermometer measures recording the scale reading. Discuss the temperature; then have students make a

Model Curriculum Guide 64 Physical Science 55

thermometer. Have them almost filla Show that insulating materials slow down narrow olive jar with colored water and put heat transfer by heating a quantity ofwater a straw halfway into the jar, plugging the and pouring equal amounts into containers jar's opening and sealing around thestraw of the same size and shape. Have students with clay. Have them place the jar inthe surround each container witha different sun ana observe what happens to the water substance such as vermiculite,newspaper, level in the straw as thewater gets warmer. Styrofoam, sand, air, or cloth. Ask them Help them understand how the molecules to predict which will be the best insulator. vibrate faster and push fartherapart as they Have them measure the temperature in each get warmer.1 container at equal intervals throughout the day and graph the results.Help the stu- 1Kelvin dents hypothesize that heat transfer bycon- duction, convection, or radiationwas re- Clarify the difference between thetemper- duced by each insulating method. ature and the heat content of substances by heating one small andone large nail on a hot plate for 5 minutes, thus makingeach the same temperature. Prepare two equal E. LIGHT ENERGY size small cans half filled withra m temperature water. Then use tongs to dropone 1. LIGHT nail into each container. Have studentsde- TRAVELS VERY RAPIDLY IN termine which water sample STRAIGHT LINES FROM ITS SOURCE AND gets warmer MAY BE REFLECTED, REFRACTED, OR AB- and, therefore, which nail hadmore heat SORBED. content. Thus, two objects at thesame temperature but different massesmay contain different amounts of heatenergy.

2. HEAT ENERGY WILL BE TRANSFERRED AND CAN BE USED TO DO WORKWHEN SUBSTANCES ARE NOT AT THE SAME TEMPERATURE. HEAT TRANSFER CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED BY CONDUCTION, CON- VECTION, AND RADIATION.

thermometer SIN 10111111111111111111111111111111111111111\N mirror Discuss heat flow from one substanceto another; then demonstrate how heat is Show how the energy carried by a light conducted through a wire.Carve wax beam may be reflected by having students shavings from a candle and place them tape a thermometer to an outdoor wall on a along a wire suspended between two metal shaded part of the building.Then, with supports. Then heat near one end of the students standing in the sunlight and using wire with a candle. Ask students to record a mirror, have them reflect sunlight onto the their observations. The wax shavings melt and drip in order, beginning with the thermometer and record any changes in temperature.They may experiment with shaving nearest the candle flame. two, three, or four mirrors focused on the Sdence 63 56 4-6

same thermometer and record temperature changes, graphing the results.Help them see that light must travel in straight lines, yet can bounce (reflect) off certain objects.

SAFETY: Students must use mirrors carefully in order not to reflect sunlight into classmates' eyes. Demonstrate how a "water" prism can separate the colors in white light by half- filling a glass baking dish or cake pan with ...... ----- 1...\-1 water and putting it in the sun.Place a small mirror in the water and lean it against one end of the dish at an angle so it reflects a sunlight "spe...=n" from the submerged part of the mirror onto a wall.Ask a student volunteer to stir the water gently so Discuss light refraction (bending); then the class can observe what happens to the challenge students to predict the position of colors. The "rainbow" of colors will move an object in water when viewed from an around in random patterns. angle above the water. Form two-student teams; have one member place a penny in 3.CONCAVE MIRRORS CAN FOCUS LIGHT the bottom of a tuna fish can. The other BY REFLECTION; CONVEX LENSES CAN member positions himself or herself so the FOCUS LIGHT BY REFRACTION. penny remains jus; out of sight. The first Demonstrate the difference between a member adds water to the can; the second concave and convex lens.First, have member observes what happens without students look through the bottom of a thick moving his or her head, records the results, drinking glass (a concave lens); everything a andexplainswhathappenedwith appears right side up and smaller.Next, Because the light beam travels diagram. have students place a drop or two of water slower in water, it bends and makes the onto a comic strip page. The drop has a penny appear higher than it is. convex or bulging shape which causes objects to appear larger, or magnified. 2. WHITE LIGHT IS A MIXTURE OF COLORS Finally, have students make a simple tele- THAT CAN BE SEPARATED INTO A SPEC- scope by placing a concave lens near their TRUM BY A PRISM. eyes and a convex lens beyond them. Have them keep moving the convex lens toward Discuss the colors in white light.Then and away from the concave lens until they have students blow soap bubbles in the see a magnified image. sunlight. They may observe the different colors as sunlight passes through different Ask students how a design engineer could parts of the babble.Ask them to record determine where to put the food when devel- their observations by creating a color oping a concave dish solar cooker. Then drawing with watercolors, crayons, or ... have a student volunteer demonstrate how Help them realize that raindrops may act to find the distance at which a concaveshav- similarly to soap bubbles when a rainbow ing mirror focuses light. Have the students is observed in nature. reflect sunlight onto a white card; then move the mirror closer or farther awayuntil the light comes to a point.Measure the distance between the mirror and card (called

Model Curriculum Guide 66 Physical Science 57

the "focal distance"). Ask the class:"Will of the ruler part that sticks outover the table other concave mirrors have thesame focal edge and pluck the end again. Ask them distance?" to record what happens to the speed ofthe vibrations and the pitch with each ruler's SAFETY: Do not allow theconcave mirror positim. to reflect sunlight into anyone'seyes. Helpstudentsexperiencesoundas 4. THE SPECTRUM OF VISIBLELIGHT COL- vibrating matter by having them experiment ORS IS THE ONLY PART OFTHE FI.ECTRO- with several tuning forks. MAGNETIC SPECTRUM OF ENERGY Ask them to MOVING strike a tuning fork with its rubber mallet THROUGH SPACE THAT OUR EYESARE ADAPTED TO DETECT. and, holding it next to theirears, twist it back and forth, noting the directionality of Discuss the visible lightspectrum. Then the sound. Have them strike the fork again shine sunlight througha prism onto white and touch its base behind theirears, to their paper. Note the locations of the different teeth or lips, or on top of their headsto feel colors of the spectrum. Then holda ther- the vibrations.Finally, have them strike mometer bulb end just beyond the red end the fork and touch its baseto a paper cup or of the spectrum. Explain that invisibleinfra- index card.The cup or card acts likea red light wavescause the thermometer loudspeaker to amplify the sound. temperature to rise. 2. SOUND TRAVELS AT DIFFERENT Have students experienceone way our eyes SPEEDS IN SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES, see color by asking them to stare intently BUT SOUND DOES NOT TRAVELTHROUGH A at VACUUM. SOUNDS CAN BE DIRECTED, a colored square GI paper for 1 minute; then REFLECTED, AND ABSORBED. switch their viewing toa piece of white paper. Have them describe the after-image Discuss the transmission of sound through they seeintilt. complementary color. matter. Then place a ticking clock inan Explain that their eyes have chemicalsthat unlined metal waste basket and respond to certain colors; staring measure at one how far away the soundcan still be heard. color used up that chemicalso that color Then line the basket with thick cloth and was "missing" from thewhitelight measure the hearing distance again.Ask reflecting off the white card. the students how the distancescompare. Then ask them to suggest otherways the sound intensity could be varied.

F. SOUND ENERGY Ask students which they think sound will travel faster through: airor string? Have 1. SOUND IS A FORM OF ENERGYCON- them cut a piece of heavy-duty string about SISTING OF RAPID BACK AND FORTHMOVE- 1 m (1 yd.) long and then tie two eating MENT OF PARTICLES (VIBRATING OBJECTS). utensils (knife, fork, spoon) about 2.5cm FREQUENCY, OR PITCH, IS THE NUMBEROF (1 in.) apart in the center portion of the VIBRATIONS PER SECOND; LOUDNESSDE- string. Then have them place both ends of PENDS ON THE INTENSITY (AMPLITUDE)OF the string into the outer portion of THE VIBRATIONS. one of their ears, letting the utensils swing freely Discussvariouswaysofproducing so they collide with each other making a sounds.Then have students positiona chime-like sound in theirears.Finally, plastic ruler so that half its length extends have themonoipaer the sound when the beyond the table edge; they hold the other string is removed from theirears and the half firmly to the table. Have thempluck air is conducting the sound.Ask them the free end and note the soundas the ruler whethertheiroriginalprediction was vibrates. Next, have themvary the length correct.

Science 67 58 4-6

Discuss how a horseshoe magnet differs 3. THE HUMAN EAR IS SENSITIVE TO A from a bar magnet; then have students cut LIMITED RANGE OF FREQUENCIES WHICH ARE RECEIVED AND TRANSMITTED TO THE different shaped magnets out of a rubber- BRAIN THROUGH THE AUDITORY NERVE. ized magnetic sheet. Have them cover their shapes with Saran wrap and sprinkle iron filings on top to study the shape of the mag- Help students learnthestructure and netic field. These magnetic patterns can be function of the ear by having them research saved permanently by spraying the design the parts of the ear and how it transmits lightly with paint or clear plastic sealer; or, sound to the brain. They may wish to draw have students make drawings to record a labeled diagram or build a clay model. each shape. Students should begin to under- Ask them also to research and graph the stand how knowledge of different field different range of frequency levels a variety shapes could help a design engineer de- of animals can hear compared to that of a velop a new piece of equipment. human, as well as the different decibel ratings of a variety of sound sources. 2.A STATIC ELECTRIC CHARGE MAY BE Demonstrate the range of frequencies that PRODUCED ON OBJECTS RUBBED TO- the human ear can receive. Fill four soda GETHER. THERE ARE TWO KINDS OF ELEC- bottles with water at different levels. Using TRIC CHARGES, POSIT IVE (+) AND NEGATIVE (); LIKE CHARGES REPEL AND UNLIKE a pencil to tap the bottles, have students CHARGES ATTRACT EACH OTHER. arrange the bottles in order from lowest to highest pitch.Next, have students blow across the top of each bottle and rearrange Ask students how many of them think they the bottles, if needed, in order from lowest have ever personally created a static electric to highest and compare the results to those charge. Then give students a clear plastic of the first activity. Challenge the students cup, some puffed rice, Saran v 1.ap, and a to compose a tune or make rhythm instru- rubber band. Have students put the puffed ments that produce different frequency rice in the cup, cover it with Saran wrap, ranges. and secure it with the rubber band. Then have students rub the Saran wrap-covered cup on their hair or clothing until thepuffed G. ELECTRICITY and MAGNETISM rice is attracted to the Saran wrap when the cup is sitting on the desk. Ask the students

1. A MAGNETIC FIELD, CAPABLE OF EX- to hypothesize why the puffed rice sticks to ERTING FORCE ON MAGNETIZABLE SUB- the Saran wrap.Help them comprehend STANCES, EXTENDS FROM THE POLES OF A that elect ons were transferred from one MAGNET. THE EARTH ACTS AS A LARGE place to another when the cup was rubbed MAGNET, WHICH ENABLES US TO USE A against certain materials. MAGNETIC COMPASS. Discuss how static electric charges are Ask students whether they think itis formed; then have the students observe the possible to "see" the shape of a magnetic attraction and repelling of sawdust. Obtain field. Then place a bar-shaped magnet on fine sawdust or pencil shavings from the an overhead projector, cover it with a sheet pencil sharpener.Have students place of acetate or Saran wrap. Next, sprinkle some in a small container, thenrub any iron filings on top of the cover.Ask plastic abject (pen, comb, plastic straw) students to note the magnetic force at the with a cloth or paper towel. Have students poles. Draw a circle over the bar magnet to hold it near the sa, dust pile and pbserve simulate the earth. Have students observe the sawdust being attracted. Then have magnetic north.Students should begin to students holdtheplasticupright and understand how the use of a compass helps observe the repelling of many sawdust ship captains navigate across wide oceans. particles; ask them how they could explain

ModelCurriculum Guide 60 Physical Science 59

what they observed. Help themremember that unlike charges attract eachother while like charges repel each other.

3.AN ELECTRIC CURRENT CAN BEMADE TO MCVE ALONG A CONDUCTOR IFTHERE IS solvanometer A COMPLETE CIRCUIT. I Show students how a wall switchor lamp Demonstrate how a conductor moving switch "turns the lights on" whenit through a magnetic fieldcan have an completes the circuit. Then have students electric current created in it by makinga test a variety of ways to make a circuit small coil of insulatedcopper wire and using a battery, one wire, anda light bulb. connecting the two ends toa small galva- After each student can make the bulblight, nometer. Next, obtain r. strong magnet and groups of students can combine equipment move the coil of wire through the magnetic to form larger circuits.Help students field near one of the poles slowly understand that some and then ways of creating at different speeds. Students will be ableto circuits can make the bulb burn brighter gbserve the needle registera current flow (series), and other ways make several bulbs that depends on the number ofturns of wire burn at the same brightness (parallel)? in the coil and the speed (2 the coilthrough the magnetic field. 2Electricity Help students find out howan electric cur- Discusshowsomematerialsallow rent can produce a magnetic field by having electrons to flow (conductors), andother teams build an electromagnet. Give each materials do not allow electronsto flow team a large nail, insulated copper wire, (nonconductors or insulators). Havestu- and a battery. Have the teams coil the wire dents test materials by constructing an open around the nail and attach the wire endsto circuit (see diagram). the battery. This will producean electromagnet that will pick up paper clips.Stu- Then have students use a variety of materi- dents can test several variables: (1) different als to close the circuit. These materialscan amounts of wire in the coil;(2) more then be classified as "conductors"if the batteries; and (3) more naiisor no nail. Ask light bulb goes on or "nonconductors," students to hypothesize about why each i.e., "insulators," if the light bulbdoes not variable they test causes its results. light

4. A MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCES AN ELEC- TRIC CURRENT IN A CONDUCTORTHAT MOVES THROUGH THE FIELD.ALSO, AN ELECTRIC CURRENT MOVING THROUGH A CONDUCTOR PRODUCES A MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND THAT CONDUCTOR.

Science 60 7-8

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE (7-8)

A. CELLO, GENETICS, and EVOLUTION mation obtained during the demonstraticr , and discussion to develop a written group 1. KNOWLEDGE OF fl-IE CELL INCLUDES prediction of what might happen to the fish THE BASIC CONCEPT OF THE CELL THEORY, in each case and why. When students THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE appear to be finished, add one more assign- MAIN PARTS OF TYPICAL PLANT AND ANIMAL ment. "Hypothesize how some fish can live CELLS, AND THE PROCESSES OF DIFFU- in both fresh and salt water."(In the case SION AND OSMOSIS AS THEY RELATE TO of fish, the kidneys and gills act as osmo- THE TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS BETWEEN regulatory organs. This can lead to some AND WITHIN CELLS. key questions fez students to contemplate prior to a later study of organ systems.) Use models, slides, videos, and text to help students compare the structure and function of the major parts of both plant a;d animal 2. THE RELATIONSHIPS WHICH EXIST cells.2 Supply multicolored cohstruction AMONG CELLS, TISSUES, AND ORGANS CAN paper, scissors, and glue.Have students BE IDENTIFIED, AS CAN THE ENERGY RE- design and label a "typical" cell and on QUIREMENTS OF UNICELLULAR AND MULTI- completion present their cell to the class.4 CELLULAR ORGANISMS. At the conclusion of the exercise, ask students to hypothesize why plants have a cell wall and animals do not.Place all Discuss with students the implications of hypotheses on the chalkboard and discuss eating ten candy bars per day for ten days. them, with an emphasis on the concept that In addition to the obvious health and nutri- although plant and animal cells are similar, tional factors, avroach the topic from the differences based on inferred patterns of phy-'o'ogical and anatomical points of evolutionary development exist. view.-f possible, obtain a model of the hums', digestive system from a local high 2Cell Theory s- ,l.Otherwise, use an overhead pro- 4Art(See page 2 for an explanation of jt, )1- whileeach student is given a photo- entries like these.) copy of the digestive system.Trace the candy bar through the body, taking special Beginclasswithdemonstrationsand caretoobserve what happensatthe discussions of diffusionandosmosis. cellular, tissue, and organ levels.When Diffusion demonstrations might include finished, have students use their drawings spraying perfume in one part of the room or to compare what would happen if they ate adding a small amount of dye to a large ten cookies per day for ten days insteadof container of water.Osmosis demonstra- candy; and then have students write an tions might include filling a semipermeable essay relating the digestive misadventures membrane (dialysis tubing) with a starch of a cookie eater, focusing on the concept solution and placing the membrane in an that although food groups provide the iodine and water solution.Following the energy needed by animals, somefood demonstrations, hand groups of students a groups don't provide "effecientenergy."4 sheet of paper with the following state- ments on it: 4Health, English-Language Arts Case A: 10 saltwater fish are placed in fresh water. What happens? Discuss the energy sources for plants and Case B: 10 freshwater fish are placed in animals. Set up a healthy hay infusion and salt water. What happens? obtain geranium plants. Have students observe both, using amicroscope to focus on Ask students to communicate with one cells, tissues, and organs.(Teachers may another in :heir group and use the infor-

Model Curriculum Guide i V Biological Science 61

also want to use prepared slides.)After preliminary observations, placethe hay infusion and geranium plantsin the dark. Follow the same observationprocedure glassor every other day for two weeks.Keep careful notes, including dees.At the con- plastic front clusion of time, have studentswrite an anal- 4:1 of the influence of .fighton plants and animals, realizing thateven though animals do not use light directlyas an energy source, their sui rival is indirectly linkedto its presence.

3.MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS ARE BASICCC'N- CEPTS INHERENT IN THEUNDERSTANDING OF SEXUAL AND ASEXUALCELL DIVISION; FURTHERMORE, THE ROLES OFGENES AND CHROMOSOMESAND THE PRINCIPLESOF DOMINANCE, RECESSIVENESS,AND MUTA- At the beginning of theyear, discuss time TIONSARE ALL ESSENTIALFACTORS IN scales with students and builda plastic C ETERMINING CHARACTERISTICS. "core sampler" foruse during the year. Each day, have students dropa measured Bring some bread doughto class and have amount of sand into the box. For holidays students watch it rise. Have studentsJay, and special school event days,have stu- pothesize the reasonsthis phenomenon dents drop an artifact of that occurs. event into the Obtain dried yeast and place it in box. At the end of theyear, students o-_ lukewarm water (35° C) for30 minutes. serve layering and infer the passage of ame Place drops of the water/yeast mixtureon a periods of varying lengths between depression slide and events. lige a microscope to Data can be extrapolatedto represent long observe that asexual cell division inyeast periods of timt and inferences made occurs by budding. in terms of geologic time scales usingpowers of 10.4Have students conceptualize that Discuss the processes of mitosis andmeio- sis by use of a video and relative ages of fossilsare determined in text. Have stu- several ways, including the order in which dents use several colors of clayto build the strata of sediments that contain them models of chromosomes, polar bodies, and were deposited.1,2 spindle threads arrangedto show -tages in mitosis and meiosis.4 These models will 'Mendel, Crick, Darwin illustrate that mitosis is a process that re- 2Natural Selection, DNA, Evolution sults in replication of the number of chro- 4Mathematics mosomes, whereas meiosis is a process that results in a reduction in the number of )iscuss the environmental facto_s thatcan chromosomes. lead to changes in animal populations. Give examples, such as subspecies varia- 4Visual Arts tions of lizards throughout Californiaor changes in fruit fly populations innature. THE BASIC CONCEPT OFNATURAL SELECTION REFLECTS THE SIGNIFICANCE Randomly scatter one hundred 3-cm pieces OF FOSSIL AND GEOLOGIC EVIDENCESUP- of several colors of yarn ("wooly worms") PORTING THE EXTINCTION OFPREVIOUS on a large grassy area.Have students ORGANISMS AND THE hVOLUTION OFNEW, pretend to be birds gatheringworms for MORE COMPLEX AND DIVERSEORGANISMS food. Each bird can carry onlyone worm FROM SIMPLER FORMS OF LIFE. at a time to its nest (a plastic bag on the perimeter of the grassy area). Aftera given

Science 62 7-8

time, the number of each color of worm is alargepieceof elodea(availableat recorded. Have students use their data to aquarium shops) in an aquarium filled with formulateexplanatorymodelsforthe water. Submerge a funnel over the plant change in the color of the wooly worms. and then place a test tube full of water Follow by reading the story of the changing upside down over the end of the funnel. color of peppered moths in England. From Illuminate with a bright light. Have the experiment it can be inferred that natural students observes the displacement of water selectio i is the process through which bene- and analyze the gas produced by the ficial changes in characteristics that come method used in the demonstration.it will about through variation and mutation tend be apparent that photosynthesis renews to persist over generations, while harmful oxygen in the atmosphere and in the water. characteristics and changes tend to be eliminated. 2Photosynthesis Dieffenbachia plant B. PLANTS

1. PLANTS ARE UNICELLULAR OR MULT:- CELLULAR ORGANISMS THAT LIVE BY PERFORMING COMMON PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS, INCLUDING PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSPIRATION. cotton damps plant2inches into water

Engage students in a discussion of the movement of materialsthrougha plant and what happens to plants during varying weather conditions, such as hot windy days, a humid environment, and extreme cold. Have students work in groups. Have students cut off a series of growing plants(e.g., dieffenbach'a) at the base where they enter tht soil and secure the specimens with a clamp on a ring stand. Pack cotton around the plants and seal with warmparaffin.Make comparisonsof changes in the water level hourly.For some plants, vary the conditions andrecord the results using grow lights and fans; for others, create a humid or cold environment. Experimentation will show variations in the Review and discuss the process of photo- amount of water and dissolvedminerals synthesis with students? Place a glowing rising up to the leaves. Conclude by hav- splint in a test tube of oxygen and another ing students write a group research paper splint in carbon dioxide and observe what which discusses the results of manipulating happens. Have groups of students immerse variables.

Model Curriculum Guide 7z Bio!ogical Science 63

2.PLANT ADAPTIONS TO MINERAL RE- hung them in a breezeway so the vegetative QUIREMENTS AND TROPISMS INFLUENCE parts would not be disturbed, and watered SURVIVAL IN A VARIETY OF PHYSICAL them through the "bottom" pot hole? Have ENVIRONMENTS. students draw a picture of what their plants would look like and what they think plants Ask students if they haveever planted would look like in twoor three weeks. seeds and, if so, what seeds needto ger- Have student groups plant bean seedlings minate. Continue by asking students what in vermiculite-filled pots andwater them plants need to growonce they have ger- with a nutrient solution. Once the plants minated. Keep a posted record ofanswers. are established, orient the pots in different Provide each student with Styrofoamcups directions in a dark cardboard box. Cuta or small plastic pots. Use some inertan- hole to allow light to enter fromonecorner. choring medium, such as vermiculite,and Observeroots and the vegetative parts of add two seeds to each pot.Split the class plants in two to three weeks. Review with into thirds and use tap water withone students that in normal environments, the group, distilled water with the second vegetative and reproductive parts of plants group, and a hydroponic solution with the are positively phototropic and negatively third group. Have students keep records of geotropic, whereas the rootsare negatively the time of germination and theamount of phototropic and positively geotropic. Con- daily growth after germination. Keep all clude by asking students to write about and class data posted. When appropriate, have sketch plant life on a planet that they choose students organize the data and draw infer- to create, formulating explanatory models ences about the effects of each solution on based on their classroom experimentation.4 (1) germination; and (2) growth aftergermi- nation.Have students discuss and write °Art, English-Language Arts group reports which focus on essential nutriertts.4 C. PROTISTS .4English-Languagt, Arts 1. PROTISTS REPRESENT A DIVERSE GROUP OF LIVING ORGANISMS, INCLUDING BACTERIA, PROTOZOA, ALGAE, AND FUNGI; THEY EXHIBIT WIDE VARIATION IN STRUC- TURE, FUNCTION, HABITAT, AND LIFE AC- TIVITIESAS WELL AS ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE.

Have studentsdiscussand read how various cultures have developed methods of making food taste better with protists. Included could be Middle Eastern bread, Scandinavian yogurt, Oriental soy sauces, and French cheeses. Organize a class project to make one or more food products requinng protists (e.g., root beer, yogurt, bread). Have students sample cultureS microscopically and then write reports em- phasizing the use of protists in various fer- Ask students what would happen if they mentation processes.' went home and turned all their potted plants upside down, placed "collars" around the top of the pots so the soil would stay in, 'Fleming

Scienr- 64 7-8

Have studcats view a film or video about samples of common invertebrates and verte- algae. Continue with a discussion of differ- brates. Using major characteristics of each ent types of algae--from phytoplankton to phylum and class, students develop a di- large kelps. Place students in algae groups chotomous key for each specimen. At the for the year and have each group select a conclusion of the exercise, have the groups "water source" near school that will be avail- exchange "keys" to see whether they will able for the year. Every other week, have work on the specimens.) students sample their source by observing drops under the microscopes. Have them 1Linnaeus draw all species and keep track of their numbers and relative sizes. As the year 2. MOST ANIMALS REPRODUCE SEXUALLY. progresses, continually organize and com- ALTHOUGH EMBRYOS OF SOME ANIMALS pare data. Conclude by having students ARE SIMILAR IN THE EARLY STAGES OF write team research papers in which they DEVELOPMENT, THERE ARE MANY DIFFER- analyze their data and predict patterns for ENCES IN DEVELOPMENT BETWEEN EGG- future years. LAYING AND PLACENTA-FORMING SPECIES. Ask someone from a poultry farm or pet D. ANIMALS store to come into class and discuss the incubation of chicken eggs and/or the development of baby mice. Procure an incOator 1. THE MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEMS OF REP- and go through a daily discussion with the RESENTATIVE VERTEBRATES AND INVERTE- class of the stages of development of a BRATES EXHIBIT NUMEROUS SIMILARITIES chicken embryo, with an emphasis on the AND DIFFERENCES IN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION. function of the egg. Meanwhile, also procure some male and female mice and go through the same discussion, with empha- Engage students in a discussion of the sis on the placenta.Have students keep knights of old and their heavy armor.4 careful records of dates. After hatching and Have each student list the advantages and birth, ask students to observe and collect disadvantages ofthisarmor and follow up information on the -eproductive cycles of with a discussion of the armor of the other egg-laying and placental classroom dinosaurs.Place arounl the classroom animals. various invertebrates and vertebrates (e.g., sponges, jellyfish, earthworms, crabs, mus- Ask students whether they think they can sels,starfish,sharks,bonyfish,and always tell the difference between fish, frogs).Have students walk around the amphibians, reptiles, birds, ..nd mammals? room and sketcheach specimen and Lead into a discussion of embryonic devel- hypothesize about its skeleton. By use of opment of representative species.Assign slides and drawings, discuss the skeleton groups of students various orders of verte- of each representative specimen, emphasi- brates.Have them examine illustrations zing that the skeletal system of invertebrates showing the embryonic development and and vertebrates exhibit numerous similari- mature appearance of their order.Have tiesanddifferencesinstructureand students compare the similarities and mi- function. trastthe differencesat various stages.

4History-Social Science E. HUMAN BEINGS Discuss early classification systems. Place students in groups and have them practice 1. HUMAN BEINGS EXHIBIT SPECIFIC CHAR- the keying of different kinds of bottles or ACTEASTICS WHICH PLACE THEM IN AN nails, based on similarities in structure. ORDER OF MAMMALS CALLED PRIMATES. Next, give each group ten representative

Model Curriculum Guide 7 Biological Science65

Provide a period of time for studentsto Have students formulate experimental hy- read items in various books and articles potheses and then use the apparatus shown (such as from National Geographic)on above to collect data. When theyare fin- primates and primate behavior.Ask stu- ished, help students to analyze the data dents to work in groups and make a list of statistically using calculators.4 Togetheras the characteristics of primates.Have them a class, have the students write a general- follow this with a list of the characteristics ization based on the research.1,2 of humans. Then have themcompare the two lists and theorize why humans have 'Harvey been so successful on earth.Cor-lude 2Circulation of Blood with students drawinga picture of .That 4Mathematics humans might look like atsome future time because of changing environmentalcon - Discuss human heart rates and the effect of ditions.4 stimulants and depressantson heart rates. 4Art Obtain a culture of daphnia and havestu- dents work in groups or usea microprojector for a "class lab." First, have students Provide a period of time for studentsto obtain the normal heart rate for daphnia by both read an item and reviewa film or tapping their pencil on paper to match the video about the research of Jane Goodall. daphnia rate for 15 seconds, counting the Discuss her work from botha biological pencil marks and extrapolating. (Therate and historical perspective.4 Have students for this organism is extremely high.) After individually select variousareas of interest, obtaining an average rate, follow thesame such as social behavior, familycare, intelli- procedure after adding caffeineto some gence, aggression, and use of tools, and samples and nicotine to other samples. write a researchpaper comparing apes and Have them comparethe data and draw humans.4Ask students to predict future inferences for human populations. patterns of behavior for each group based on their research. 3.IN ORDER TO MAINTAIN THE VALUES AND ETHICS OF SOCIETY, HUMAN BEINGS 4History-Social Science, English-Language MUST Ar'T RESPONSIBLY WITH REGARD TO Arts REPRODUCTION, FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS, AND MENTAL AND PHYSICAL HEALTH 2.MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEMS (E.G., RESPI- RATORY, CIRCULATORY, DIGESTIVE, AND REPRODUCTIVE) EXHIBIT SPECIFIC STRUC- Ask students to choose between reading TURE AND FUNCTION. The Chocolate War, by Robert Cormieror A Separate Peace, by John Knowles. Place students in groups based on the book that Flex straw inserted *---Jug filled with water through mouth they read.4Have each group prepare a of straw. Measuring tape fastened to jug panel discussion for the rest of the class in regard to its book and 'ts significance in terms of the present values, ethics, and peer Bowl pressure of the community.

4English-Language Arts Review withstudents how thelungs function and their anatomical structure. Have students read the Crito, by Plato. Next ask them how much difference they Entertain a class discussion of the personal think exists in lung capacity between boys and social responsibility of a human being and girls, between smokers and nonsmok- from a historical, Socratic point of view, as ers,between athletes and nonathletes?4 contrasted with the personal and social

Science 75 66 7-8

responsibilitiesofhumanbeings as Write a definition for an ecosystem on the perceived by students today.4 Have the board and discuss ways in which students class draw inferences and formulate ex- could monitor a section of the school yard planatory models for changes in human for a year as their own "personal" eco- behavior. Review that responsible attitudes system. Have students make rain gauges, and behaviors are important to individuals anemometers, and various other pieces of and society. These behaviors are especially equipment. Throughout the school year on important where permanent damage to an a weekly basis, students should record data individual (or to society) may result, or on all plant and animal life and keep careful wliere long-term effects are unknown. records of all physical data (e.g., temperature, wind, rain, soil). Have them use 4History-Social Science a class bulletin board and keep field note- books. At the end of year, have them write a class research paper analyzing all dataand F.ECOSYSTEMS predicting futurepatternsfortheeco- system.4

1. ECOSYSTEMS ARE COMPOSED OF 4English-Language Arts LIVING ORGANISIMS (SPECIES, POPULA- TIONS, AND COMMUNITIES) INTERACTING WITH ONE ANOTHER AND THE PHYSICAL 2. MATTER NEEDED TO SUSTAIN LIFE IN AN ENVIRONMENT. ECOSYSTEM IS CYCLED AND REUSED. MA- JOR CYCLES INCLUDE THE CARBON CYCLE, Review with students various examples of NITROGEN CYCLE, AND WATER CYCLE. marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. Based on the geographical location of the school, create a classroom ecosystem. The following example is for a water .c------coastal school: Help students set up a 10- 1-liter gInss gal. (38-L) marine aquarium. Add a rock column mud (use block anaerobic mud with attached mussels, gooseneck bar- for bes+ results) <---mix mud with 5rriL (1 tso) Ca CO3 nacles, and a couple of bat stars.(Check and 5mL (ltsp) USN- with the Department of Fish and Game for permission to ot:iin these specimens.) <--mix mud and shredded paper These three organisms represent a classic intertidal community. Have students keep daily records of water temperature, salinity (using a simple hydrometer), and the various types of interrelationships that exist Have students read about, review, and among the species. (Look for commensal draw pictures of the various major cycles in scaleworms onbatstars,parasitic which matter is reused. (Even though this copepods in mussel shells, and examples of concept may be scheduled for spring, mutualism among the three major species.) spend some time on it during the fall.) Have students keep records of the eco- Demonstrate for each class the procedure system over time and compare changes in for making a Winogradski Column. W'ien the physical environment with changes in it is completed, set it in a window for the populations. Conclude by having students school year.Have students compare the apply the knowledge they gained by writing growth on the light and dark sides of the a paper about how they would monitor an columnduringthedifferentseasons. ecosystem in its natural environment.4 Colors wil! chLige as organisms change. In the spring, review and draw again each 4English-Language Arts of the major cycles and discuss thesein

Model Curriculum Guide 7 b Biological Science67

terms of the changes that have occurred Review various feeding levels ina com- throughout the year in the column. munity. Include a discussion of producers, herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and de- Use videos and softwareto assist in a composers.Discuss the number of steps discussion of various cycles of materials possible in a food chain basedon each (especially the carbon cycle). Procure from succeeding level passingon less energy a biological supply house, a local pond, or than it receives. Place students ingroups the marine environmenta representative and have themcompare the amount of culture of diatoms and copepods.Have energy a person would use if he or she students observe these organisms under the existed as a herbivore,a carnivore, or as an microscope at various magnifications and omnivore. Have students relate their data draw and label them.4 Following this in- to life in third world countries today.4 troduction, carefully and slowly review Finally, have eachgroup synthesizeits photosynthesis in a diatom and respiration hypothetical data and predict future eating in a copepod. In a diatom, theenergy trap- habits for human populations, placingem- ped by the chloroplast is used torearrange phasis on the concept that the number of the water and carbon dioxide molecules into organisms becomes smalleras energy glucose. The copepod eats the diatom, and passes through each successive link of the its enzyme system breaks the hydrogen food chain and that it is only by shortening bonds in glucose, so that the end products the food chain that there is enoughenergy of glucose are carbon dioxide andwater, to go around. which diffuse back into the water andare available to diffuse into another diatom 4History-Social Science chloroplast.(By using simple organisms and viewing them microscopically first, students can really begin to understand 4. THE CAUSE AND EFFECT OF CHANGE IN these major cycles.) ECOSYSTEMS THROUGH TIME IS EVIDENCED BOTH IN TERMS OF NATURAL (SUCCESSION) 4 A r t AND HUMAN (CONSERVATION, POLLUTION) INTERVENTION. 3. PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS, AND DE- COMPOSERS ILLUSTRATE ENERGY TRANS- FER IN AN ECOSYSTEM; HOWEVER, ENERGY Select a local issue for theyear that has IS NOT RECYCLED. some meaning for your class (e.g., closing a desert motorcycle course, banning hunt- ing or fishing in some popular area). Have Have students study some major examples students keep newspaper accounts of the of producers,consumers, and decom- issue, attend city council meetings, and posers. Continue with a discussion of eco- listen to the comments of local newscasters. logical pyramids and discuss thereasons Have them record information from old- for the limited number of organisms at each timers in the community. At the end of the level. Have the class makea compost heap year, have students organize all the data that near the classroom.Enlist the support of have been collected and setup a class local nurserywerkers or grounds ke ;. debate in regard to the long-termconse- Have students continually care foi e quences of decisions which may or may not compost and record its temperature periodi- be made at the local level.4 cally. Relate the temperature changeto the toles decomposers have in an ecosystem, 4English-Language Arts illustrating that with each step in a food chain much potential energy is lostas heat; therefore, organisms at each succeeding level pass on less energy than they receive.

Science 77 68 7-8

brassscrews

16 1 --I

l' ---1

side view Ask students whether they or anyone they know has had to clean the bottom of a boat that has been left in the water. (Relate that there is some evidence to support that the number of fouling organisms on the bottom of ships led to the defeat of the Spanish Armada.) Have students cut out 6-in. (15.2-cm) square pieces of pine and attach them to a back panel with brass screws. Suspend this panel from a local dock (Harbor Master docks can often be used). Every two weeks during the year have students remove a block and bring it into class in a bucket of seawater. (This activity can also be done in fresh water.)Have students scrape the block with razor blades and make microscope observations. In the spring, many macroscopicplantsand animals will appear. Further information in regard to pH, water depth, current, temperature, turbidity, oxygii, and salinity can be collected and analyzed. Succession will be shown to be a process in wIlich ecosystems change over time. As changes occur in the physical features of the systm, new species move in and population sizes change.

Model Curriculum Guide 7 Earth Science 69

EARTH SCIENCE (7-8)

A. ASTRONOMY Diffraction grating replica toped over 1. NUMEROUS KINDS OF ASTRONOMICAL 2-cm opening OBJECTS ARE KNOWN TO EXIST WITHIN THE razor blodes UNIVERSE AND CAN BE CLASSIFIED IN toped edge to TERMS OF THEIR PROPERTIES. edge over opening to Shoe box produce o 1-mm with cover 1-mm slit

Review with students thateven though many bodies in the universe cannot at present be physically analyzed, there are other means of determining their properties. One such means is an instrument thatcan "fingerprint" a star by describing the light emitted by the star. Have students make shoe box spectroscopes and compare various light sources: incandescent bulbs, fluorescent tubes, sleet lamps, colored flames Discuss the early voyages of Balboa and produced by adding various elements and compounds, and light passing through Cabrillo along the Pacific Coast.Ask students to hypo. 'lesize how these explor- colored filters. Students will observe thata ers determined their position when they spectroscope can be used to describe bright- were beyond the sight of land. :f.ead into a line spectra of various elements and can discussion of celestial navigation and the infer that light from stars, when anal zed, instruments whichare used,such as provides information about their tempera- sextants. Next have students make home- ture, size, age, composition, and distance. made transits using protractors and soda straws.Discuss Polaris and circumpolar 2. DISTANCES IN SPACE ARE VAST BUT constellations and ask students to think ARE MEASURABLE. about where Polaris would be located using their transits if they were at the north pole Have the students work in groups and esti- or the equator.Review the concepts of mate the distance to each of the following: latitude from geography classes.Have the moon, the sun, the nearest planet, the students go home and record their angle nearest star. Write estimates on the board observations of Polaris.(If they then steb- and introduce the concept of scientific tract their readings from 90°, they will ob- notation. Then ask students to relate their tain local latitude.)4Continue developing estimates to any distances they do know, as student understanding of space-time rela- well as to relate the sizes of planetary tionships by recording and graphing the objects to the sizes of known objects. Con- changing positionsof the moon and tinue this discussion periodically for a few selected constellations at specific times and weeks prior to Solar System Day. Set up locations throughout the year.1.2 the scale model of the solar system described below in the school yard. Return to 'Kepler classet.dreviewscientificnotation. 2Planetary Positions/Motion Generalize about sizes and distances in 4Mathematics (See page 2 for an explana- space, reviewing that distances to the stars tion of entries like these.) are so great that dimet measurement is not

Science 70 7-8

possible; therefore, distances are expressed Have students develop a list of hypotheses in sight years and in scientific notation. to ex9lain the difference between summer and winter.Review the concept that the Scalesize in BodyDistance* millimetersSuggested model earth's axis is tilted (23-1/20) from the per- pendicular to the plane of its orbit about the Sun ---- 232 Yellow balloon, about 25.4 cm sun. Winter occurs in the Northern Hemi- Mercury 9.7 0.8 Head of straight pin sphere or Southern Hemisphere when this Venus 8.3 2.0 Head of dressmaker's pin part of the earth is tilted away from the sun, Earth 6.9 2.1 Head of dressmaker's pin resulting in shorter daylight hours and in a Mars 13.1 1.1 Head of straight pin lower angle of incidence of the sun's rays. Jupiter 91.724.0 2.5cm Styrofoam ball Set an unshaded light bulb in the center of Saturn 108.1 20.0 1.9.cm Styrofoam ball the room. Walk around the room with a Uranus 240.4 8.6 Dried garbanzo (chick pea) globe, keeping the axis pointing in the same Neptune 271.1 8.2 Dried garbanzo (chick pea) direction. Students will notice directness of Pluto 234.0 6.0 Salt grain rays and varying amounts of radiation strik- ing different parts of the earth. Nearest star: 6,667 kilometers from sun. Moon: a grain of salt 6.4 centimeters from earth.

*Scale in meters from last body.

fed square white cord w.th ?nhale \.\\%1 I ------D VI 11 ter11,11,19 11 01 ---- meter angle of sun's rays Place students in groups with various resource books and ask them to devise a way to measure the diameter of the sun.Dis- cuss various hypotheses that are formu- latedReview ratios from mathematics (e.g., 1/2 = 4/8, 3/6 = 2/x). Give students Lead the students in a discussion of how the ratio D/L = d/1 and then assist them in they could experimentally measure and re- setting up experimental procedures. (Help cord different seasons (e.g., counting the students to manipulate variables from the number of leavesunder certaintrees equation into the form D = dL/1, and solve throughout the year, rgr,ssd. inthe daily tem- for D.)4 Predict patterns for measurement perature, counting insects or birds through- of solar bodies. out the year). Suggest to students that they could develop some excellent explanatory 4Mathematics models for the seasons by using angles. Since the tilt of the earth's axis produces 3. THE TILT OF THE EARTH'SAXIS PRO- seasons, set a vertical post in the school DUCES SEASONAL VARIATIONS. yard. Have students record the length and position of the shadow cast by the sun each c:00000 0 000 pc,,,,c,,,z, day at the same time during the entire 'z' 4"c> ::. school year. Also have them record the an- s. 0 gle of the sun's rays. Have them transfer aa this information to graph paper and con- 0 0 0 clude with research papers analyzjj_gl the 00' data.4

c, cz oc--1r.=.''''''''<:'..c> 4:7 4::7'-'7 ° c7 4Mathematics

Model Curriculum Guide 80 Earth Science 71

B. GEOLOGY and NATURAL RESOURCES Crystal plates are named for continentsor major features and represented by models 1.THE DYNAMIC NATURE OF THE EARTHS and maps. These mapscan be used to rec- CRUST ISEVIDENCED BY LANDFORM;; ognize and predict patterns of earthquakes ARISING BY A VARIETY OF BUILDING UP and volcanoes. Give students data tables (FOLDING, FAULTING, VOLCANISM) AND that list latitude and longitude readings for TEARING DOWN (WEATHER AND EROSION) earthquakes and volcanoes that haveoc- PROCESSES. curred throughout the world inany one year. Have them plot each of these on crystal plate maps superimposedon world maps.4 Have studentsAnalyzethe relationship between earthquake positions and the shape of continents and analyze the general patternsfor the location of volcanoes, knowing that earthquakes generally take place when rocks suddenlysnap along fault lines and that the most active volcanoeson land are found mainly in anarrow belt that circles the Pacific Ocean.

4Mathematics, Geography

2. THE ROLE OF PLATE TECTONICS IS Folding EXEMPLIFIED IN THE FORMATION OF FEA- ?..1:Zfse!9.4.-Y ,Ge445 TURES AND PHENOMENA FOUND ON THE EARTH, SUCH AS THE SHAPES AND LO- CATIONS OF CONTINENTS, MOUNTAIN RANGES, VOLCANOES, OCEAN TRENCHES, AND EARTHQUAKE BELTS.

Have students read some of the history of continentaldrift.2 Include information Use video and books to review theprocess about Sir Francis Bacon' and Alfred Weg- of folding and faulting. Relate the discus- ener.Discuss the unwillingness of scien- sion to local examples when possible (e.g., tists to accept early theories and hypotheses faulting is illustrated by mountainranges and the emphasis placed on land bridges for such as the Grand Tetons, whereas folding many years. Have students work in groups is illustrated by the Appalachians). To illus- and cut out continents from a world map trate faulting, have students paint different showing physical featu_es of the earth. colored layers on blocks of woodor Styro- Ask each group to combine the continents foam. Move the blocks up and downor to show their positions as parts of Pangaea. back and forth to demonstrate thrust and Also ask students to experiment with other strike slip faults. To illustrate folding, have ways in which the continents could fit students glue together alternate layers of together.Have the groups report to the different colored foam rubber or felt. Push class on their best fit of continents and give the stack of foam rubber or felt layers to evidence supporting their model. represent anticlines and synclines. 'Francis Bacon 2Plate Tectonics

Science 81 72 7-3

3.SCIENTISTS ESTIMATE THE AGE OF GEO- LOGIC FORMATIONS AND ESTABLISH A GEO- LOGIC TIME SCALE TO SEQUENCE EVENTS --cut IN THE FORMATION OF THE EARTH.

Review geologic time scales with students and discuss various geological periods.2 Review past discussions about distances in Outline map with space and the need to relate these data to Atlantic Ocean cut along something known.Explain that just as indicated para Ilels space-time relations were useful for astronomical understanding, special relational understandingisalso needed for past events. Place students in groups and give each group a roll of adding machine tape. Box with indicated Using a scale of 5 mm = one million years, meridians cut ask students to mark the beginning of each geological period. (The Cambrian period to the present will require about 3 m of paper; beginning with the formation of the earth will require about 23 m!) The completed time scale may be enhanced with cutouts or Set map on box and drawings of life forms typical of each push into meridian period.4 slits until continents 2Geol _Tic Time touch. Slow y pull apart to show 4Mathematics seafloor spreading and movement along transform faults. Review information about the age of dinosaurs and some famous dinosaurs. Ask students to theorize about the naming Engage students in a discussion of major Can they think of scientific discoveries that have occurred of various dinosaurs. some subject they are presently taking that throughout history. Ask them whether they might help them better understand dinosaur can think of ally major discoveries that may terminology, as well as the derivation of have occurred within the past 30 years in other scientific terms? Give students a list the earth sciences. Lead into a discussion of prefixes and suffixes used in naming of sea-floor spreading.Place students in prehistoric animals. Students can use this groups and have them construct the model list to decipher names of several ancient of sea-floor spreading. Ask them to use animals (e.g., stegosaurus). Applying the their model to theorize what will happen knowledge gained of known dinosaurs, stu- through time in regard to the continents. dents should be asked to make up names Follow up by assigning research reading for make-believe creatures using the prefix- about the work of Maurice Ewirg, H. H. suffix list. Conclude by having each class Hess, and J. Tuzo Wilson.Students can member draw an original variety, as well as present this information as a panel discus- write a description of it.(See list on next sion.4 page.) 4English-Language Arts

8z Model Curriculum Guide Earth Science 73

gallon (3.8-L) plastic jugs.Next, have ETYMOLOGY LISTFOR DESIGNING A DINOSAUR each team use ten 1-gallon (3.8-L) jugs full

t LLO - other MACRO -large of water to represent the earth's total water ALTO - high MICRO - small supply. From this total, take out 4.5cups AMMO - sand MINUS - imitator ANATO - duck MUSSA - mouse (1.06 L) to represent the fresh wateron the ARCHE(. - )scent NANO dwarf earth'E surface. From these 4.5 cups (1.06 ARGYRO Aver NODO - knot ARISTO - test NYCHUS -caw L), remove 3.5 cups (0.82 L) to represent ARTHRO - ted eight what is located in glaciers, ice caps, soil, AVI -fligh t ODONTO teeth ARO - heavy OPS - face and the atmosphere. From the remaining BRACHIO -arm ORNITHD - bird CAMPY -.rent OTHERIUM -beast 0.23 L (1 cup), take away all but 1 mL (ten CAUDO - tail OVI tomeqg drops)to represent water thatistoo CEPHALO -head PACHY - CERATO - horn PALED -old polluted or inaccessible. The remaining 1 CETI° -whsle PELORO - monstrous CHEIRUS -hand PENT:. - fore mL (ten drops) represents the readily avail- CHONDRO - bony PICA - sharp able freshwater supply!Ask students to COELO - hollow PLATTE° - fiat COLON° - hit PODO - foot relate their data to the need for conservation COMSO - pretty POLY -many CONICAL - cone - shaped POST -after measures. (Also, make certain the water CORN/HO - helmet PRI - saw (as in tool) used in this experiment is nct put down the CRYPTO - hidden PRO befae CYANO - blue PSEUDO - false drain, but is put to good use.) DA4PLETO - fnghtful PSITTA - pm DECA - ten PTERYX - feather DI - two RAPTOR - thief Engage the class in a discussion of conser- DINO - terriie REX DOCUS - beam RUFUS .1V vation issues in relation to business and DONTO - teeth SARCO - flesh profit.Have students read An Enemy of DROMEO - running SAURUS - izard DORSO -back SIGNO -slow the People, by Henrik Ibsen.4 Discuss the DERMA - skin SINO - Chinese relative importance of the purity of the ECHINO -spiny SPINO -thorn ELAPHRO light STEGO - roof town's water supply versus the chief econ- ERECTO - upright STENO - narrow omy of the town, realizing that conserva- FERRIS - iron STRUTHIO - ostrich ' ASTRk - stomach STYRACO - spiked tion of r :sources and management of uALU -fowl TETRA -four GNATHOS ITN' THOESCELPHIO - wonderful renewable resources are ethical concerns HADRO In T ON - snake involving individual behavior and public HEPTA - seven TORNu - savage ILIO - crocodile TORSO - bxly policy. PIGENIA - ingenious TRI - three JAUNDICE - yellow TYRANO - tyrant LAOP woodland VELO suft 4English-Language Arts LAPHOS - crest ZANCL - sidle

C. METEOROLOG`.' 4.CYCLES OF MATTER AND ENERGY ARE RELATED TO RENEWABLE AND NONRENEW- ABLE RESOURCES AID PROVIDE INFOR- [1. WINDS ARE CAUSED BY THE ACTION OF MATION FCR THE SG.IIIAL AND ETHICAL THE SUN, BY THE EARTH'S ROTATION, AND IMPLICATIONS OF RESOURCE CONSUMP- BY TV EARTH'S SURFACE FEATURES. TION AND CONSERVATION. WINDS INFLUENCE BOTH WEATHER AND CLIMATE. Invite individuals from the Water Quality Board to talk to the class. Also have stu- Review with students that many mechanical dents watch and report on newscasts of corrections have to be made daily as a result flood and drought conditions around the of the earth's rotation. Include a discussion world. After this, put the following ques- of ships at sea, long-range projectiles, and tion or the chalkboard: "Of all the water even throwing a baseball. With chalk or a available on the surface of the earth, how wipe-off t ...rker, draw a line on a globe much is available for daily consumption?" from the North Pole to the equator and Place students in groups five members another line from the South Pole io the each and have each member bring it two 1- equator. These lines represent principal air

Science 83 74 7-8

movements along the earth's surface if the the type of equipment that is used for offi- earth were not rotating. Now draw similar cial weather reporting.Follow this by lines while the globe is being rotated from ha ving teams of students procure or make west to east. The resulting lines represent simple equipment to measure temperature, the principal air movement as it is being air pressure, relative humidity,andprecipi- affected by the earth's rotation (the Coriolis tation and use these instruments to monitor effect). Conclude by having students pre- and report weather data for the school dict the differences between the movement newspaper.Look for software programs of global winds in the Northern and that will allow these data to be stored and Southern Hemispheres. analyzed. For students living in rural areas, the temperature data can be used to calculate chill requirements needed for fruit Ruriing bundle ripening or insect control. (Consult county of incense sticks farm advisor for formulas.) Lamp chimn, Bottle rdboard cover Colored 1 water Flood light

Stopper Aquarium Glass tube Ask students how they would ventilate a roorr.; they Lac: no air conditioning. Set up equipment as shown and ask students to Paper dip +icked to write down all their observationsthey board will be asked to analyze how to ventilate a room properly once the demonstration is concluded. (What will be seen is that hot Long blond hair, washed in alcohol air over the candle rises and leaves the rinsed in distilled aquarium.Cold air flows in through the water, and dried other chimney, taking smoke along with it. Cold air can be seen moving across to the candle, taking the place of the hot air. Cardboard Wind is caused in a similar way. Shutting pointer off air flow through either chimney will prevent air from moving through the other Metal nut chimney, also.) This demonstration shows for weight why room ventilation requires a place for hot air to leave and for cold air to enter. Discuss the sophistication of weather reporting today. Include weather satellites, 2.SCIENTISTS HAVE DEVELOPED INSTRU- computerized analysis, and infrared lasers. MENTS TO MEASURE SUCH WEATHER CON- Challenge students to see whether they DITIONS AS TEMPERATURE, AIR PRESSURE, could predict weather as well with simple, RELATIVE HUMIDITY, AND PRECIPITATION. homemade equipment. Make a 'Iygrometer to measure relative humidity and a barome- Ask a weatherperson from a local ...... lo or ter to measure atmospheric pressure. (Keep television station to report to the class about at ccnstant temperature or use a thermos

Model Curriculum Guide 84 Earth Science 75

bottle to decrease the effect oftemperature. Ask studentswhether they know why the Float a drop of oil on the water ;n thetube oceanis salty? Set up an experiment that to reduce evaporation.) Have students keep will test one of the probable student byz records throughout the schoolyear Ind potheses.Have each group fill a small compare them with published reports. flower pot with garden soil and anotherpot with garden soil mixed with table salt. 3. HUMAN ACTIVITIES AS WELL AS NATT Have them run distilled water through each URAL PHENOMENA AFFECT WEATHER AND pot and collect leeched water in watch CLIMATE CONDITIONS. glasses or petri dishes. Have them place distilled water in a third glass. (Review with students the significance of Organize students ingroups of two and a control in have them compare and record temperatures experimentation.) Let the water evaporate above asphalt, concrete, bare soil, fzom each watch glass and check the resi- grass, due with a microscope or hand lens for salt ivy, and other groundcovers. Have students return to class and record their data crystals. Each group can zganizg its data on the board. and write a group paper whichrates the Next, have each student experimental data write an analysis of his or her results based to what happens in nature. on the data accumulated. Finally, discuss the papers in light of the knowledge that If possible, take students on substances which absorbor reflect heat a field trip to influence tide pools or to a local lake, pond,stream, temperaturereadingsinthe or river. immediate vicinity. While there, have them collect water samples from different locations. Engage students in a discussion of 'clean They should include water that has stood in air." Ask them to research the high spray pools as well as deeperwater. way air is When students return to class, have them monitored in communities (e.g,for smog alerts and allergy seasons). Next, have test each sample by placing a meas;d stu- amount of water in an evaporating dents coat the inside of several petri dishes .ash. Set a watch glass on an evaporating dish. with petroleum jelly. Set dishes in various Heat gently until all water has evaporated. locations (e.g., near a factoryor shop, near a railroad or an airport, in a home, by a (SAFETY: Wear safety goggles.) Have highway). Leave the dishes in place for students weigh residual solids, or doa one or two days and then return them to microscopic analysis, to determine theper- class and examine them under cent of dissolved solids in each water a microxope sample.4 Engage the class in to see particulate matter that fell from the air a panel discussion in which they apply the knowledge in each location. To quantify the data,you they obtained to an analysis of the effects of can set the petri dishes on a transparent grid salinitychanges on living to enable students to count, and later graph, organisms. (Refer to Biological Sciences, Cells.) particles ter unit of area over time.4 4Mathematics 4Mathematics

D. OCEANOGRAPHY 2. THE FACT( RS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FORMATION OF TIDES, WAVES, AND CUR- RENTS AS WELL AS THE EFFECTS 0'7 THESE PHENOMENA ON LANDFORM`-' CAN 1. RIVERS AND STREAMS TRANSPORT MIN- BE DELINEATED. ERALS INTO LAKES AND OCEANS, THEREBY CHANGING SALINITY AND AFFECTING LIVING ORGANISMS.

Science 76 7-8

Ask students to record the moon's position and relative size every night at the same time for one month.Next, have them obtain from a bait shop or diving shop a local tide table. Have them select specific months throughout the year and graph the daily tide cycle for one month at that location. Place each of the moon phases on the Ho+ water with graph, and have students compare moon food color phases to tidal height, showing that ocean tides result from gravitational attractions of the sun and moon.

3. OCEANS AND FRESHWATER BODIES ARE POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ENERGY AND MATERIALS FOR TECHNOLOGICAL APPLI- CATIONS. Review with students some of the major ocean currents in the world, such as the Split the class into twc groups and assign a Gulf Stream and the Kuroshio Current. library project in which one group re- (Include currents off the California coast searchesallitcan about hydroelectric suchastheCalifornia Current.)1Also power plants and the other group re- review convection currents as they apply to 3earches nuclear power plants. Engage the weather changes. Demonstrate to students whole class in a discussion of the environ- how convection currents are formed in the mental impact of hydroelectric and nuclear ocean.Heat some water containing food power plants. Examine factors such as ther- coloring, almost to boiling. Pour it into a mal pollution, movement of soil, flooding, flask until full.Carefully insert a double disease, and water quality. (Students __Light stopper with glass tubing. Set the flask in want ilook at the effects of the Aswan an aquarium full of cold water. Hot, Dam o the Nile or the long-term effects of colored water will rise to the surface, while the disaster at Chernobyl.)4 cold, clear water enters the flask. Ask students to write an explanation of what they 4Social Science observed as well as a statement of why the experiment worked the way it did. (Varia- Discuss with students the fact that some tions in temperature and salinity cause coastal cities in France are capitalizing on differences in the density of seawater. The the iegularity and power of low tidal waves density changes, in turn, cause currents.) or tidal bores moving up narrow bays. The energy from the tidal bores is beingar- 1Humboldt nessed by dams to produce electricity. This technique is now being studied for use in California. Have students research the use e 1 14 1. 17 1: 19 20 January of tidal power in terms of providing an 0 ANCHORAGE ISIIIIII Norma inexpensive energy source for industry. 16 ...... , 4- 14--E. Ask them to build a theoretical model of a, 120.,====n mindmizmmoimmIIMII 11- 10usimurtminwimorminwist I c 911111111111111111111111111111IMINIIIMMEIMMUNIIIIMI such a plant designed for operation at a VIIRIMMITIM1111111MIIIIIIIIMMIIRIIIIIIIIIIIII111 specific point along the Calif°, nia coast. 44111111MIMMITMIMMIALIIIIINIMIIIIMILMIIM 211111INIMI11MI11IM111111MIIIIMMVIIIIIMIIMIIIIII -- 'mama Students will make a presentation to the Immo -- MI-- class of their model, and other class Last Quarter 12th New Moon 20th members will critique it in terms of energy

Model Curriculum Guide Earth Science 77

efficiency, cost of operation, experimental design, and marketing strategy.

4. MANY SOURCES OF POLLUTION EXIST FOR MARINE AND FRESHWATER HABITATS, AND EACH HAS SUBSEQUENT IMPLICATIONS FOR THE QUALITY OF HUMAN LIFE.

Determine a major aquatic issue in the local area (e.g., drilling for oil in the Santa Barbara Channel). Have students read the local newspapers, watch newscasts, and in- terview local citizens in regard to the topic. Randomly sort file class into petroleum engineers and aquatic biologists. Initiatea panel discussion to foci'son various aspects of the issue.

Obtain data from the local health districtor sanitation district in regard to the changing bacterial counts in local bays, estuaries, lakes, or rivers throughout theyear. Have students graph the population changes and ffnalyze these in relation to season, building activity, decomposition of agricultural pesti- cides, and other factors.4

4Mathematics

Science 87 78 7-8

PHYSICAL SCIENCE (7-8)

A. MATTER their data and write a group general- ization supported by their research data. 1.THE BASIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER INCLUDE MASS, WEIGHT, VOLUME, AND lArchimedes DENSITY. 2Buoyancy 4Mathematics

2. MATTER IS COMPOSED OF PARTICLES IN CONSTANT MOTION. CHANGES OF STATE IN MATTER RESULT FROM CHANGES IN THE MOTION OF PARTICLES.

-Pilfer paper Cuts Ask students whether they can think of ____.\ dot of colored examples of craft that are lighter than air. v--- mixture

Tell them that the following demonstration 1 I will illustrate some properties of air (occu- end of filter paper pies space and has weight) and will help tab in water them hypothesizeaboutlighter-than-air craft. Bend a ring of cardboard and set it on a balance. Next place a deflated volley- water ball (or basketball, etc.) on the ring. Weigh -._ the deflated ball, and then inflate and weigh again.Follow with a discussion of the properties of various gases and an analysis Method 1 of the gases of which air is composed. Conclude with gases lighter than air. bent pin ''hook/' in bottle cap Ask students which weighs more, a pound of feathers, a pound of Styrofoam, or a ._ P pound of lead. Discuss with students that ---"O the answer to this question is related to a study of density (the ratio of mass to the -Filter paper volume of matter). Have students work in groups and weigh an assortment of objects, measure the volumes by water displacement, and calculate the densities:1,2 a. Measure objects of equal vonime but solvent different masses. b. Measure objects of equal masses but ... different volumes. (Use small bottles or Method 2 vials weighted with sand.) c. Weigh equal volumes of various liquids Aristotle challenged Democritus's atom (water, alcohol, salau oil, glycerine, salt theory by stating that if air were made of water, etc.) and calculate the density of atoms, those atoms would not rise but each.4 Be certain to emphasize the stan- would all "pile up" on the ground. Ask stu- dard of density as 1.00 g/cm3 for water. dents why was he wrong. (Atoms in mo- Ask students to organize and synthesize tion.) Tell students t...at the following exper-

68 Model Curriculum Guide Physical Science 79

iment will illustrate this theory: Placea dot of colored mixture (food color, ink, etc.) on filter paper. Put the end of the filter paper in water or another solvent. As the solvent reaches the dot, molecules of various substances in the colored mixture willmove across the paper at various rates, producing colored bands.

Prior to the classroom demonstration, ask students to perform the following experiment at nome: Fill an empty ice cube tray with water and place it in a freezer. After Have students observe while the instructor the water freezes remove the tray, let the ice boils a small amount of water in an old 1- melt, and taste the product.Set up the gallon (3.8-L) can (dittcfluid can, for illustrated demonstration. (SAFETY: Make example). Remove the can from the heat certa'n there is adequate ventilation for source and quickly cap it. Set the can aside moth balls.) Following the demonstration, and solicit student hypotheses as to why have students write up their observations, (after a few minutes) the can begins to with attention to the controlling of variables buckle and collapse.2 Next, place students and recognizing and predicting patterns. in groups and tell them they are going to carry on an experiment that will help them ice 9Iass dish understand theditto can phenomenon. Hand each group a flask, as shown above, crystals I which contains water with food color. Ask formed as students :o heat the air in the flask with beaker their hands.Molecules move faster and condense moth balls farther apart, increasing pressure on the liquid inside the flask, thereby causing the hot plate 'quid to move up the tube. Have students place an ice bag on the flask to reverse the c'sus" process. Conclude with a thorough discussion of the ditto can and the flask.2 !midis Ifila pie plate wifh ice LW-e O 2Boyle's Law condensed water droplets Discuss with students why pressure is felt on the ears when a car door is closed with beaker the windows up. Place students in groups and supply each group with an air pist. n ice cubes (, lastic syringe) and some bricks.After each brick is added, ask students to record burner the new volume of the trapped air.After sufficient data have been collected (up to ten bricks), have students graph the total pressure of the bricks versus the volume of the air in the pi3ton.4 Conclude by asking 3. IN GASES, THE PROPERTIES OF PRES- students to relate their experimental data to SURE, TEMPERATURE, AND VOLUME ARE INTERRELATED SO THAT CHANGES IN ONE theoretical data that show the volume of air PROPERTY CAUSE CHANGES IN ANOTHER. decreases as the pressure increases. 4Mathematics baence 8y r80 7-8

4.THE NATURE OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS 5.ATOMS OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS COM- AND THE PROPERTIES OF THE ATOMS COM- BINE IN SPECIFIC RATIOS TO FORM MOLE- POSING THE ELEMENTS CAN BE ILLUS- CULES, AS ILLUSTRATED BY THE FORMU- TRATED BY USE OF THE PERIODIC TABLE. LAS FOR COMPOUNDS. ATOMS ALSO COMBINE IN SPECIFIC GEOMETRIC AR- RANGEMENTS TO FORM COMPOUNDS BY Make a collection of as many elements as MEANS OF IONIC AND COVALENT BONDING. students can obtain.Next, discuss compounds and have students bring in representative samples of various compounds. Havestudentsobserveandcompare Place a large periodic tablet on the wall and common subtances that are representative continue a discussion of elements and examples of the two kinds of bonding. compounds based on representative sam- Give each group 2 cm3 of table salt and 2 ples.Arrange students into groups and cm3 of table sugar. Have each group write have them organize the first 20 elements of a paper which emphasizes the comparison the periodic table into some logical se- between the two compounds in terms of quence other than the use of atomic lum- roughness, grain shape, "crushability," and bers. Have students present their results to melting point.4Follow with a discussion the rest of the class for analysis.(This of covalent and ionic bonding. Have would be a good opportunity for discussion students predict which compound exhibits of whether elements might or might not be ionic bonding and which exhibits covalent able to combine under a different arrange- bonding. ment.) Conclude with students reading about Mendeleyevl and why he organized 4Erglish-Language Arts the periodic table as he did.

1Mendeleyev, Bohr 2Periodic Table

After a review of elements, intruduce students to scientific theories about the atom. Discuss the structure of the atom and have students read and report on the periodic table. Each student is given a blank periodic table, along with small cards, each bearing thf... atomic number and mass number of an element. Students attempt to correctly place Hand out recipes for making rock candy the element cards on the blank periodic and lollipops at home.Ask students to table. (Students lori- for comr:Jn character- bring products to class.Discuss the pro- istics of families.)This activity can be cess with the class. Lead into a discussion made more enjoyable and competitive if it is of crystals and their geometric arrange- conducted as a game of bingo.Element ments and formation. Ask students to keep cards are drawn at random, and the first stu- careful notes of their observations, make dent to complete a family or a period wins. accurate drawings, and be ready to recog- The relationship which exists between the nize and predict patterns for these labora- atomic masses and the properties of ele- tor) activities. ments is illustrated by the periodic table. a. L'issolve as much solid as possible in a small jar of boiling water.Suspend a weighted string in the solution. Borax will form crystals on cooling.Alum,

Model Curriculum Guide Physical Science 81

copper sulfate, and magnesium sulfate a. Synthesis: 2Mg +02 >2Mg0 work well. (SAFETY: Burn a magnesium ribbon in b. Spread a drop or two of saturated a well-ventilated room. Do not stare at solution on a microscope slide.Heat burning Mg.) gently over an alcohol lamp and observe crystals forming under the microscope. b. Decomposition: 2NaHCO3 > Na2CO3 c. Place a clean copcer wire on a micro- + H20 + CO2 scope slide.Add two drops of dilute Heat baking soda in a test tube fitted silver nitrate solution. Observe crystals with a delivery tube.Collect CO2 in a forming under the microscope. loosely covered beaker. Notice H2O condensing in the upper part of the test tube. 6. CONSERVATION OF MASS IS ILLUS- TRATED BY CHEMICAL EQUATiONS WHICH c. Single replacement: DESCRIBE THE REARRANGEMENT OF AT- Fe + CuSO4 > OMS INTO DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES. SIN- Cu + FeSO4 GLE REPLACEMENT, DOUBLE REPLACE- Immerse a clean, shiny iron nail in MENT, SYNTHESIS, AND DECOMPOSITION CuSO4 solution. Copper will plateon ARE EXAMPLES OF THESE REACTIONS. the nail.

Ask students to give examples of various d. Double replacement: CuSO4 + Na2CO3 chemical reactions observed innature. > CuCO3 + Na2SO4 Keep a list posted for the year and have A precipitate of copper carbonate will students continually add to it.(Examples form. include rusting cars, baking bread, souring milk, and tarnishing silver.) Have students Have students write up the results of their continually review the difference between experiments with an emphasis on being physical reactions and chemical reactionsas able to generalize from their specific data. the list grows. 1 7.THE STUDY OF RADIOACTIVITY AND NU- Discusswithstudentsthecommon CLEAR FISSION AND FUSION REACTIONS reactions occurring in tr,tue that Klustrate NECESSITATES AN UNDERSTANDING OF various types of chemical reactions: THE TECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS AND SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS INVOLVED. a. Synthesissilver in a spoon reacting with sulfur in the air to tarnish b. Decompositionmilk breaking down into simpler sugars and other chemicals when it sours ...,-,' c. Single replacementin smelting iron, loop made from carbon taking the place of the iron in the coat hanger ore d. Double replacementmany paints in which lead and potassium compounds exchange elements

After this introduction, have students work in groups and carry out a variety of experiments to illustrate the abovereac- tions. (SAFETY: Wear goggles and work very carefully.)

Science 91 82 7-8

Have students readabout fission and Styrofoam of equal weight. After students fusion.' Discuss nuclear power plants, have discussed their prior hypotheses with nuclear submarines, and spacecraft tray-1. to one another, have them weigh each object ".stant planets as illustrative of fission ana discuss their findings.(The vial of reactions. Review the reactions that occur leadshotwillfeeldecidedly heavier. inside the sun and other stars as fusion Although both objects exert the same down- reactions. To demonstrate to the class these ward force on the hands because of gravity two types of reactions, make two wire pulling on equal masses, the pressure of the loops (2 in. [5.1 cm] in diameter) and dip vial of shot is greater because its force is them into a soap solution.First, blow a concentrated on a smaller area.) soap bubble (approximately 4 in. [10.2 cm] in diameter) and trap it between the two 12,xplain to students that during the early wire loops. Slowly pull the loops apart to days of airline service, women were not form two smaller bubbles, one on each allowed to wear high heels on board loop, to represent a fissioning nucleus. planes. Ask students Lo theorize why this Second, blow two similar bubbles and hold might be true sin,- thousands of pounds of one on each loop. Carefully press the two materials were loaded into these same bubbles together to form one larger bubble, planes. Explain "iat the following experi- representing the fusing of two nuclei. ment will help to give the answer, but each Conclude byaskingstud ntstofka_w group will have to first bring a spike heel to pictures of fission and fusion reactions.4 school the next day. a. Calculate the area of the spike heel. 'Marie Curie, Oppenheimer b. Weigh the person who wears the heel. 4Art c. Calculate the pressure per square inch on a heel if the person places her entire After a thorough review of nuclear reac- weight on one heel. (This explains why tions, have students use current journals heels puncture floors and punctured and newspapers to analyze the nuclear early passenger a'rplane aisles.) power industry. Ask them to keep cards on d. Repeat calculations for a flat sole shoe file of all their information. Conclude by with the realization that pressure is the having groups write papers theorizing force per unit of area on which the force about the future of the nuclear power acts.4 industry in California based on the data they have collected. 4Mathematics

B. MECHANICS C. ENERGY: SOURCES of TRANSFORMATIONS

1. ENERGY, FORCE, PRESSURE, WORK, AND POWER ARE RELATED. SIMPLE AND 1. POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY EXIST COMPLEX MACHINES EXEMPLIFY THE USE IN MANY FORMS (E.G., MECHANICAL, HEAT, OF ENERGY TO DO WORK. LIGHT, SOUND, ELECTRICAL, AND MAG- NETIC). Ask students whether they think they are often misled by their senses. Pass around Discuss with students various roller coa.,.er the room a vial of lead shot and a larg.; rides they may have taken.Review the block of Styrofoam of equal weight. Have rides in terms of ole potential and the students write down which one they think kinetic energy of the cars. Ask students to is heavier and why. Next, place students in hypothesize why each hill in the ride is a groups and give each group a similar vial of littleless high than the one beforeit. lead shot and a similar large block of (Some energy is lost in overcoming fric-

9, Model Curriculum Guide Physical Science 83

tion.) Tell students they will applysome of Place students in groups and give each the ideas from the discussionto some group a series of equal sized squares of simple "m&atines" in the classroom. Exam- different materials (metal, linoleum, smooth ine a variety of spring wind-up toys and cardboard, glass, carpet, etc.). Have each discuss the potential and kineticenergy rela- group make a chart and =Ed the apparent tionships that exist. Extend the discussion temperature reactions of group members as to battery-operated toys. Finally, have stu- they place their hands flaton each material. dents construct rubber band wind-uptoys Bring the class together and record the data (e.g., balsa wood airplanes with rubber for each group on the board. Definecon- band-powered propellers).Ask them to ductionandgive examples of good use their models to explain to the class conductors (metals such as aluminum and potential and kineticenergy concepts.' copper).Continue with a discussion of (Potential energy is stored energy thatcan insulators and examples of good insulators be released to do work. Kineticenergy is (non-metals such as wood and plastic). energy in the form of motion of an object.) Finally, ask students to look attheir experimental data and hypothesize why 'Newton there appeared to be difference inapparent temperature.(All materials are the same temperature, but the metal feels cold and the carpet feels warm because the metal greatest potential, conducts heat away from the hand rapidly, least kinetic energy whereas the carpet does not.)

greatest kinetic energy After reviewing concepts of kinetic and potential energy and giving examples of devices that illustrate conversions between potential and kinetic energy (e.g.,clocks and pendulums), introduce the formula for determining the amount of kineticenergy present: KE = 1/2 mv2 (where v= d ÷ I). Give each group of studentsa pendult:, and structure the lessonas a laboratory research day where students are givena prob- 'Tg-t-ube lem and they Apply their prior knowledgeto solve the problem. Experimentsare to be clamp conducted and data recorded, graphed, and analyzed." The problem: Usinga pendu- colored water lum, determine the points where kineticor potential energy is the greatest and the least.

4Mathematics

D. ENERGY: HEAT After a discussion of conduction, convec- 1. HEAT, TEMPERATURE, AND HEAT CA- tion, and radiation, review with students PACITY ARE RELATED. HEAT MAY BE TRANS- careful laboratory technique prior to assign- FERRED BY CONDUCTION, CONVECTION, ing the following experiment. Have stu- AND RADIATION. dents set up the equipment as shown

Science 93 84 7-8

above.Shine a 100-watt light evenly on tiny Styrofoam beads both cans. Expanding air pushes colored (from old "bean bag`' chair ) water to one side. Turn off the light and pert dish vvIth hole release the clamp to equalize the pressure. drilled in side Replace the clamp. As the cans cool, col- .metal or plastic tike ored water moves to one side. (Radiant heat fastened to petri dish [infrared radiation] from a lamp is absorbed with 5-minute epoxy by a black surface more readily than a light wood or cardboard mask to cover -est of overhead projector; cot out surface. Consequently, the air in the bla'A rubbertube ' can is heated more and, therefore, expands hole large enough for petri dish more.) After students have completed the experiment, have them work in groups and This activity is a demonstration for students design a similar experiment that will give so they can more easily conceptualize mo- them quantifiable results.Have groups lecular motion during temperature change. prasent their experiments for the class as Set up equipment on an overhead projector demonstrations. as shown above. Blow into the hose to set "molecules" in motion. Blow hard to represent high temperature, gently to represent 2.TEMPERATURE IS A MEASURE OF MO- low temperature. Add more beads ("mole- LECULAR MOTION. BOTH SIMILARITIES AND cules") to represent a great amount of heat, DIFFERENCES EXIST AMONG FAHRENHEIT, even if the speed of particles (temperature) CELSIUS,AND KELVIN TEMPERATURE SCALES. remains constant.

Ask students to gues., what the air temperature is in °F, °C, and °K. Ask them to E. ENERGY: LIGHT write their answers on a piece of paper, collect these and put the answers on the 1. LIGHT CAN BL DESCF.IBEu IN TERMS OF BOTH THE WAVE AND PARTICLE THEORIES, board.Discuss the three scales and how WITH LIGHT ENERGY PROPORTIONAL TO they are used. Explain to students that they FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH. will use Celsius readings continually in science classes and that many scientists also Have students each take a file card and use the Kelvin scale.'(Since Kelvin ther- make a small pinhole in the card.Have mometers are not readily available, show them look at a light in the distance. Use students how to useratiosto determine °K. their observations to lead into a discussion A calculator is especially useful at this of the wave and particle theories of light. time.) Place students in groups and have Explain that some experiments show light them measure the temperature of hot water is made up of waves, whereas others show every two minutes as it cools from boiling. that light is a stream of small particles. Both Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers After preliminary discussion, have students are used and Kelvin units are determined break into groups and give each group a mathematically. The resultingh...)perature stopwatch to time their pulse rates. Then versus time data are then graphed using a have them record data from the following different color for each temperr ure scale.4 activity:

'Kelvin a. Have students travel a distance of 3 m in 5 4Mathematics seconds, hopping five times. Have them record pulse rates for 15 seconds. b. Have students again travel 3 m in 5 seconds, hopping ten times. Have them record their pulse rates for 15 seconds.

Model Curriculum Guide 9 4 Physical Science 85

c. Compare the number of hops requiredto over the letters and slowly raise the test travel the distance in a given timeas the tube while viewing the words through it. length of hops is longeror shorter. Fill the test tube withwater and cap it with d. Notice which requiresmore energya a rubber stqpper. Have them repeat, view- few long hops or many short hops? ing the words througha water-filled test e. Draw the analogy between the hopping tube. (The water-filled test tube, actingas a students and the wavelength, frequency, convex lens, bends light rays sufficiently to and energy of photons. invert the image. "OXIDE"appears erect because the letters appear the same inverted.)

Discuss with students how the angleat which light strikes a mirrorcompares with the angle at which it bounces off. Placea hinged mirror behinda coin on a sheet of paper. Arrange the angle of the mirrors so that three equally spaced coinscan be seen. Trace the angle of the mirrors andmeasure the angle with a protractor.Multiply the number of coins by the angle. Repeat for four, five, and six coins, remeinbering that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.4

4Mathematics Discuss the old argument betweenpro- ponents of the wave and particle theories of light.' Fill a shallow circulartray with F. ENERGY: ELECTRICITY and MAGNETISM about 1 in. (2.5 cm) of water. Fastenacross the tray a barrier that hasa small opening. Move a small block of wood rapidlyup and 1.ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM ARE down at the end of the tray and observe the RELATED. THERE ARE DIFFERENCES IN THE behavior of the waves as theypass through PRODUCTION AND EFFECTS OF STATIC AND the tray. Students can sketchwave patterns CURRENT ELECTRICITY. and relate these to the behavior of thepar- ticles that pass through the hole in the barrier. Only particles passing directly through the slit will continue on the other side of the barrier, waves passing through willpropa- gate outward from the slit.

'Huygens

1. LENSES, MIRRORS, AND PRISMS CAN BE USED TO REFLECT AND REFRACT LIGHT, AND THEY ALSO HAVE A WIDE VARIETY OF TECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS.

Discuss with students how imagesappear inverted when viewed througha convex lens. Print the words "OXIDE" and "JAGUAR" in block letters on an index card. Have students lay an empty test tube

Science 86 7-8

Have lengths of insulated wire and bar magnets set out for students. Ask whether they can devise a way to use these materials to create sufficient electric current to be thread magnetized finishingnail measured by a galvanotheter.1 Students hypothesize andtryvarious ways of many turns of fine arranging and moving the wire and magnets insulated wire rely e to each other.Straight lengths of attachment points for low wire and student-wound coils of various voltage electric source lengths should be used. Have them try to move either the coil or the magnet. Stu- dents then organize their data and report on the effect of the number of coils of wire, as Show students a variety of electrical meters well as on the relative motion of the coils and attach each to a ;;ounce of current to and magnets. deflect the needles.Ask students what makes the needle move. Make a finishing 'Ampere, Faraday nail galvanometer and attach the appai.atus to a low voltap sotrce.Have students observe movement of the magnetized nail. Vary the number of wire loops or vary the 2.VARIOUS METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS ARE USED IN MEASURING ELECTRICAL current to deflect the nail. (The number of POTENTIAL, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE. wire loops or amount of current flowing through the wire loops creates a variable magnetic field which will deflect a needle or a meter.)

3. TECHNOLOGICAL AND HOUSEHOLD AP- PLICATIONS OF ELECTRICITY ARE NUMER- OUS.

Ask students whether they have seen a string of Christmas lights with one bulb removed or burned out, and the remaining bulbs go out. Wire bulbs in a series circuit and then a parallel circuit. Let students compare brightness and see what happens if one bulb burns out or is removed in either Discuss with studentsthephenomena of circuit. Measure the electrical potential cur- various conditions impeding the flow of rent and resistance at various points along electrons in a circuit (type of conductor, each circuit. The patterns of wiring light- distance, etc.). Place probes in solutions of bulbs illustrate complete and open circuits. sugar and distilled water and in salt and distilled water.Try placing probes on a Show students an electrical distribution coil and moving one probe along the coil. panel rear the classroom and ask them Also try with a carbon rod. Observe the whether they know what the parts ate. brightness of the light. Electrical resistance Suggest that they may need to add a circuit varies, depending on the material the elec- or wire a receptacle or switch in their trons are moving through and the distance houses some day. Acquire a single-phase they have to travel. circuit breaker box and wile a 120-volt single-phase circuit. Wire a receptacle to the wires coming from the box.Add a

96 Model Curriculum Guide Physical Science 87

single-pole switch to the circuit.Tell students to go home and teachsomeone else what they have learner'.

G. ENERGY: SOUND

1. THE WAVE NATURE OF SOUND(COMPRES- SION, REFRACTION) AFFECTS PITCH,LOUD- NESS, REFLECTION, AND REFRACTION.

Discuss with students what makessome sounds louder than othcrs. Why doesmu- sic from the school dance makewalls and other objects vibrate? Have studentsstretch and fasten a piece of balloonover one end of a soup can that has had thetop and bottom ren.z.ved. Putsome grains of rice on the rubber covering of thecan and place the open end of thecan over a radio speaker. The rice will jump up and down according to the volume of the music.Students can "see" that the loudness of a sound is determined by the amplitude ofa wave.

Discuss with students how the sizeof a musical instrument relatesto the "pitches" of the sounds it produces (e.g., saxophone versus trumpet, or piccolo versus flute). Have students use straws and bottlesto blow across the mouths oftwo identical bottles filled with differentamounts of water, noting the differences in pitch. Now strike each bottle witha spoon and have the students note whichone ..as the higher or lower pitch. Other factors being equal, the greater the mass ofa body, the lower the pitch.

Science A * O :

APPENDIXES

I. BIOGRAPHIES OF SCIENTISTS II.SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES III. SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE IV. SCIENCE MATERIALS

These appendixes to the Science ModelCurriculum Guide (K-8) are intended to be illustrative of the biographies, discoveries,literature, and materials that teachers could use in generating and maintaining students' interest in science.Throughout the guide are representative learning activities that incorporateselections from these Id^. While these are created solely as suggestions, the authors welcome suggostorsfor additions to and deletions from the list.

Science 9 d Biographies of Scientists 91

APPENDIX I: BIOGRAPHIES OFSCIENTISTS (That Elementary StudentsShould Study)

Agassiz, Jean Louis 1807-1873 explanation of buoyancy and the laws of thelever and pulley. He once said, "Giveme a place to Agassiz, a Swiss-American naturalist and geolo- stand on and I can move the world."The state- gist, was best known for showingthat the Ice ment was challenged by King Hieron. Archi- Age had priods of both forward- and backward- medes answered by pullinga loaded ship from moving ice and that glaciers move faster in the the harbor to the shore witha series of pulleys. center than on the outer edges. Asa biologist, he found in his studies of animalsthat he agreed with Darwin's ideas of evolution,although he Aristotle 384 B.C.-322 B.C. did not publicly support Darwin. Aristotle, one of the greatest of the ancientGreek philosophers, developed the idea of Agricola, Georgius deductive 1494-1555 logic and is noted for his preciseobservations of and classifications of living things. About Known as the Father of Mineralogy, one- the German third of his writings still survive todayand cover doctor Agricola tried to bring orderinto the topics such as politics, history,ethics, and knowledge of minerals through observation.His science. most important book, De Re Metallica,was trans- lated by Mr. and Mrs. HerbertHoover, who believed that Agricola was the originator of the Arrhenius, Svante August 1859-1927 experimental approach in scientificstudy. The Swedish chemist Arrhenius developedthe idea of ionic dissociation, for which Alvarez, Luis W. he was 1911 awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry in19C3. His unbelieving teachersgave him the lowest pos- An American physicist, this 1968Nobel Prize sible passing grade for his work in this winner studied short-lived area, sub- subatomic particles mitted as part of the requirementsfor a doctoral found in the nucleus of theatom. Alvarez devel- degree. oped ways of using these particlesto investigate events in ancient history, such as the extinction of the dinosaurs and the construction of theEgyp- Audubon, John James 1785-1851 tian pyramids. French-born Audubon came to Americaat age eighteen and became its best known authorityon Ampere, Andre Marie 1775-1836 birds. Although he is best remembered for his painting of North American birds, hewas also Ampere, a French physicist best known forhis praised for his studies of binl migrations. studies in electric currents and relatedmagnetic forces, gives name to the unit of intensity ofan electric current.Early in his career, Ampere Avery, Oswald Theodore 1877-1955 suffered from depression caused by the execution of his father and the early death of his wife. Although trained as a physician, the Canadian Avery is best known for his studies ofa bacteria called pneumococcithe pneumonia-causing Archimedes 287 B.C.-212 B.C. germs. Avery found that the differences between bacteria which caused disease and those that did A great scientist of ancient Greece, themathe- not were determined by the organisms' DNA and matician Archimedes is best known for his not protein as was previously believed.

Science 92 Appendix

Avicenna 980-4037 killed in an airplane crash while on his way to England. The Arab physician Avicenna is best remembered for his medical text, Canon of Medicine, in which he described causes, cures, and symptoms Beadle, George Wells 1903 of many diseases. Because of political problems in his country, he worked for several Muslim The American geneticist Beadle, with his co- rulers and was almost executed during a sudden workers Tatum and Lederberg, experimented military move. with bread mold and proved that genes act by regulating specific chemical processes. In 1958, Beadle shared the Nobel Prize in medicine and Avogadro, Medeo 1776-1856 physiology for these important studies. Avogadro, an Italian physicist whose name describes the number of molecules in r. mole of Beaumont, William 1785-1853 any substance, is best remembered for the basic principle that equal volumes of gases at the same As an American frontier physician, Beaumont temperature and pressure contain an equal num- gained fame for his studies of the process of ber of molecules.Unfortunately, Avogadro's digestion.One part of Beaumont's work was work was not well accepted until after his death. ended when his patient (who was being treated for a shotgun wound to the stomach) escaped.

Bacon, Francis 1561-1626 Becquerel, Antoine Henri 1852-1908

Born the son of an important government offi- A French physicist, Becquerel shared the 1903 cial, Bacon was one of the earliest supporters of Nobel Prize with Pierre and Marie Curie for the experimental and scientific methods in solving discovery of natural radioactivity. Becquerel was problems. In an attempt to study the slowing of a professor of physics at the Museumof Natural the decay process by cold, he became ill andHistory in Paris, a position held by both his eventually died of bronchitis. father and gran-wather.

Bacon, Roger 1220-1292 Bernard, Claude 1813-1878

One of the leading figures in the development of The French-born physiologist Bernard studied science in the Middle Ages, Bacon became the mammalian digestive processes and discov- known as the founder of experimental science. ered that the liver converts sugar to animal starch His opinions were not always shared by his fel- called glycogen.Failing in his attempts to low scholars. Bacon spent 15 years in prison, become a playwright, Bernard chose science as and his most significant work, Opus Maius, wa., his second career. not published until many years after his death.

Berzelius, Jons Jakob 1779-1848 Banting, Sir Frederick Grant 1891-1941 Jons Jakob Berzelius, a noted Swedish chemist, Canadian-born Sir Frederick Grant Banting, originatedthesystem of writing chemical awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923, was the fust symbols and formulas, representing allknown scientist to isolate from the pancreas the hormone elements and compounds. Although he was a insulin, which controls diabetes. A major in the brilliant chemist, young Berzelius was a poor Canadian Army during World War II, he was student who almost failed in medical school.

Model Curriculum Guide i 0o Biographies of Scientists 93

Bohr, Niels Henrik 1885-1962 Carothers, Wallace Hume 1896-1937 Danish -horn, Nobel Prize-winningBohr ex- Wallace Carothers, panded the science of chemistry an American chemist, is best with his theory known for his development of thefiber known as of the structure of theatom. During World War nylon. At age forty-one, Carothers II, Bohr arranged the committed escape of many Danish suicide after the death of his twinsister. Jews. He spent the rest of hislife promoting peaceful uses of nuclearenergy. Carver, George Washington 1864 -1943 Boltzmann, Ludwig Edward 1844-1906 Born a slave on a farmnear Diamond, Missouri, Carver became an internationally famous Boltzmann, an Austrian physicist, agri- made im- cultural chemist. In additionto his scientific con- portant contributions to the theory ofradiation tributions, Carver worked to bring higher and the kinetic theory of edu- gases. He was a strong cation to Southern blacks andto improve rela- supporter of atomismthe theory that theatom is tions between blacks and whites. made up of tiny, simple particlesthat cannot be destroyed or dividedandmay have committed suicide because he felt that theanti-atomists had Cavendish, Henry won. 1731-1810 EnglishchemistandphysicistCavendish discovered many fundamental laws Boyle, Robert of electricity 1627-1692 as well as measurin:, the density of the earth.A shy man, Cavendish spent An Irish scientist, Boyle's most of his life in experiments with scientific research, made fewfriends, and even gases led him to discover the inverse relationship insisted on dying alone. between volume andpressure of gases, known as Boyle's law. His continual relianceon experimentation helped to establish theexperi- Celsus, Aulus Corneliusc. 10 B.C.unknown mental method in chemistry andphysics, which is reinforced in the scientific community today. Celsus, an ancient Roman who collectedinforma- tion on all branches of knowledge,wrote a summary of Greek knowledge in eight volumes. Brahe, Tycho 1546-1601 Like many scientists of his time,Celsus was a member of one of the highest royalfamilies of Born into Danish nobility, Brahedeveloped a Rome. systematic approach for observing theplanets and stars. Brahe lost hisnose in a midnight duel and wore a false nose of metal formost of his Chadwick, Sir James life. 1891-1974 Experiments of the English-born Chadwick ledto his discovery of the subatomic particlecalled the Calvin, Melvin 1911 neutron, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1935. Knighted in 1945, Sir Calvin, an American biochemist, Chadwick received the headed the team of British scientists workingon 1961 Nobel Prize for his studies of the dark the atomic bomb project during World WarII. reactions of photosynthesis. Usingradioactive carbon dioxide, he traced the chemicalreactions that occur when a plant changes carbondioxide and water into sugarnow called theCalvin cycle.

Science 10.E 94 Appendix

Chargaff, Erwin 1905 Curie, Pierre 1859-1906 The Austrian-American biochemist Chargaff Pierre Curie's research on the magnetic proper- developed the technique of using paper chroma- ties of metals preceded his joining his wife in tography to establish the base-pairing rule in their studies on radioactivity.Unfortunately, DNA, which allowed Watson and Crick toPierre was run over by a horse-drawn carriage determine DNA structure. Chargaff considered and died at the age of forty-seven. his profession a branch of natural philosophy.

Cuvier, Georges Leopold Clausius, Rudolf 1822-1888 Chretien Frederic Dagobert 1769-1833

A German physicist, Clausius's studies of heat, The French naturalist Cuvier began the sciences work, and energy degradation helped establish of comparativeanatomy andpaleontology thermodynamics as a science. A serious German through his own studies of animal structure. nationalist and the son of a Prussian military While teaching at the College of France, Cuvier officer, Clausius was wounded in the Franco- was awakened by a student dressed as a devil Prussian War, in which he served as a medic. who threatened to eat the professor. He replied, "Allcreatures with hooves and hornsare herbivores; you cannot eat me"and went back Copernicus, Nicolaus 1473-1543 to sleep.

Considered the founder of present-day astronomy, the Polish-born Copernicus developed the Dalton, John 1766-1844 theory that the earth is a moving planet in a sun- centered universe.Since his ideas were not The unit of atomic weight was named in honor of widely accepted, Copernicus's book on the struc- John Dalton, an English chemist who made the ture of the solar system, De Revolutionibus, was first table of atomic weights.Because of his not removed from a list of banned books until Quaker beliefs, Dalton refused to accept the 1853. honors bestowed upon him.

Crick, Francis Harry Compton 1916 Darwin, Charles 1809-1882

Crick, an English biochemist, shared the 1962 Darwin, an English naturalist, became famous Nobel Prize in medicine and physiology with J. for his theories on evolution based on a natural D. Watson and M. H. F. Wilkins for their double selection of species.Darwin's father allowed helical model of the DNA molecule. Originally a him to sail around the world on the H.M.S. physicist, Crick helped to develop radar during Beagle only after being convinced by Darwin's World War II. Uncle Josiah.

Curie, Marie Sklodowska 1867-1934 De Vries, Hugo Marie 1848-1935

Marie Curie, with her husband, Pierre, discov- The Dutch botanist De Vries believed that new ered the radioactive elements polonium, radium, species of plants and animals occur as a result of and ionium and studied their chemical properties, mutations. DeVries was one of three scientists in for which she received two Nobel Prizes:in 1900 who independently worked out the laws of physics in 1903 and in chemistry in1911. inheritance described by Mendel 100 years Ironically,Mariediedof leukemiafrom before. overexposure to radioactivity, which can also destroy cancer cells.

Model Curriculum Guide Biographies of Scientists 95

Ehrlich, Paul 1854-1915 of the three-dimensional structure of molecules. After the loss of two sons and his suffering from Working in the field of immunity,Gcrman cancer, Fischer took his own life. bacteriologist Paul Ehrlich discovered thechem- ical Salvarsan as a cure for syphilis andreceived the 1908 Nobel Prize. Known for his ill-natured Fleming, Sir Alexander 1881-1955 personality, Ehrlich made few friendsin the laboratory. The British bacteriologist Fleming discoveredthe bacteria-killing protein called lysozyme and the green mold called penicillium. From this, the life- Einstein, Albert 1879-1955 saving antibiotic penicillinwas purified, and for his work, Fleming received the 1945 Nobel Born in Germany and consideredone of the Prize. greatest f cientists of all time, Einstein is best known for his theory of relativity. Other major contributions include his explanation of thephoto- Franklin, Benjamin 1706-1790 electric effect produced bya quantum of light and analysis of Brownian motion.As a child, A jack-of-all-trades and master ofmany best Einstein was somewhat slow to develop,and it describes Franklin, an Americanstatesman and was feared that he was retarded. scientist whose famous encounter witha kite in a thunderstorm led to the invention of the lightning rod. The fifteenth of seventeen children, Frank- lin came from a poor family; but his leadership Faraday, Michael 1791-1867 talents enabled him to become a successful Ameri- can amoassador. Michael Faraday, an English chemist andphysi- cist, was a great contributor to science:he discovered how electricity could be moved through Galen c. 130c. 200 wire by a magnet; he formulated the laws ofelec- trolysis; he was the first to liquifygases and Often called the Father of Experimental Physi- distill benzene from fish oil. Faraday's first job ology, Greek physician Gal served in the was with a bookbinder, which gave him access Roman court of Marcus Aurelius. His detailed to learning through reading books. studies of anatomy made him an authority in the field of medicine for over a thousandyears after his death. Fermi, Enrico 1901-1954

An Italian-American physicist whowon the 1938 Galilei, Galileo 1564-1642 Nobel Prize, Fermi proved that slowneutrons can produce radioactive atoms which can release A thorough experimenter in astronomy and great amounts of energy. After escaping the Fas- physics, the Italian Galileo discovered the laws cist regime in Italy, Fermi continued his research of the pendulum and of falling bodies and made in the United States and produced the first many astronomical observations.His clever nuclear chain reaction in 1942. talent in construction produced many telescopes and compasses, and he was also a talented .Musi- cian and artist. Fischer, Emil Hermann 1952-1919

A German chemist, Fischer won the 1902 Nobel Gauss, Karl Friedrich 1777-1855 Prize for a wide range of research. He discovered a method of identifying sugars; did research on German mathematician and astronomer Gauss proteins and dyes; and established the importance proved the fundamental theorem of algebra,

Science 103 96 Appendix mathematically determined the elliptical orbit of a sideintheEnglish Civil War,sent young planet, and developed the universal theory of the Nehemiah to the Netherlands to study medicine. earlh's magnetism. So promising a student was Gaucsthathiseducationwas fundedby Ferdinard, Duke of Brunswick. Hales, Stephen 1677-1761

The English botanist Stephen Hales is known as Gibbs, Josiah Willard 1839-1903 the Father of Plant Physiology, is noted for his experimental approach to research on plant Considered the Father of Modem Physical growth, and was the first to recognize that a Chemistry, Gibbs is famous for his mathematical portion of the air contributes to the nourishment concepts of free energy and chemical potential as of plants.Hales's book, explaining his dis- the driving force of chemical reactions. As with coveries, was the last to be officially supported Einstein, Gibbs's work was not fully understood by the Royal Society's president, Isaac Newton. by his peers.

Halley, Edmund 1656-1742 Goddard, Robert Hutchings 1882-1945 In 1862, English astronomer Halley calculated Pioneering the science of rocketry and space the orbit of the comet which bears his name and flight, American physicist Robert Goddard devel- accurately predicted its return. He is also noted oped the mathematics of rocket action. While for his accurate mapping of the, stars and his German rocket experts praised his work, many determination of an accurate way to measure the other scientists ridiculed him as a "moon man." distance from the sun to the earth.

Goeppert-Mayer, Maria 1906-1972 Harvey, Sir William 1578-1657

Maria Goeppert-Mayer, the German-American Sir William Harvey was an English physician physicist, suggested the arrangement of particles who first described the circulation of blood within atoms--a nucleus containing protons and through the heart and boAy. His theories were neutrons with electrons arranged in the outer attacked by followers of Galen, but he lived to atom.In 1933, she received her Ph.D. at the see full credit given to his work and was given University of Gottinger and promptly moved to the title of Father of Modem Physiology. the T1nited States.

Heisenberg, Werner Karl 1901-1976 Gray, Asa 1810-1888 A German physicist and 1932 Nobel Prize The American botanist Asa Gray received a winner, Heisenberg is responsible for develop- degree in medicine but became a leading authority ment of the uncertainty principle, which states on plant life and natural history.Despite the that no accurate measurement of a body's posi- antievolutionary climate of his time, Gray vigor- tion and velocity can be made at the same time. ously defended the theories of Darwin. Heisenberg was in charge of research on the atomic bomb during World War II; but after the war, he resided in democratic West Germany. Grew, Nehemiah 1641-1712

An English botanist and physician, Grew is best Helmholtz, Hermann von 1821-1894 known for his studies of the reproductive organs of flowers and the comparative anatomy of German physicist and physiologist Helmholtz is animals.His father, who fought on the losing best known for his work in proving the law of

Model Cumculum Guide 104 Bioaraphies of Scientiss 97

conservation of energy as well as his studies of which states that the force necessary to returna the eye and the ear. Helmholtz deviseda way to spring to its equilibrium position is proportional measure the speed of a nerve pulse, which his to the distance it is displaced. He is also known teacher said could not be measured. for his naming of cells from his microscopic observations of cork. An argumentative fellow, Hooke was continually involved in disputes and even criticized the work of Isaac Newton. Herschel, Sir William 1738-1822

Herschel is credited with founding the present- Humboldt, Alexander von 1769-1859 day system of star astronomy through hisre- search of the heavens with self-constructed tele- German scientist and geographer Humboldt scopes. His musical talent gave him the financial studied ocean currents, volcanoes, waterways, security to pursue his interests in mathematics and the earth's magnetism and collectedover and optics. 60,000 plants. At the age of twenty-five, Hum- boldt was left with an inheritance which allowed him to spend the rest of his life in enthusiastic Hershey, Alfred 1908 research and travel, earning him the title Founder of Geophysics. With fellow American biologist Martha Chase, Alfred Hershey conducted experimentscon- firming the theory that nucleic acidswere the Hutton, James 1726-1797 basis of heredity.In 1969, Hershey shared the Nobel Prize for his discoveries involving the James Hutton, a Scottish philosopher, physician, mechanism of replication and the geneticstruc- and geologist, is known as the Father of Geology ture of viruses. and was the first to determine the importance of heat in the formation of the earth.His book, Theory of the Earth, opposed the establishment's Hippocrates of Cos 460 B.C.-377 B.C. belief in the biblical interpretation of creation. Known as the Father of Medicine, the Greek physician Hippocrates was a prolific writeron Huygens, Christian 1629-1695 the subjects of medicine and biology. His influence is said to have given the medical profession A Dutch physicist, mathematician, and astron- a sense of duty to humanity, which is reflected in omer, Huygens was the first to study the polar- the Hippocratic oath taken by all medical doctors. ization of light and developed the wave theory of light.While a member of the Royal Society, Huygens employed Galileo's theory of the Holmes, Oliver Wendell 18091894 pendulum in building the first "grandfather's clock." This American essayist, physician, and physiologist discovered the contagious disease childbed fever, for which he recommended that physicians Hypatia 370-415 wash their hands between examining patients. As a youth, Holmes was bored by the study of Hypatia was the only woman scholar of ancient law and then turned to medicine. times and is known for her mathematical and philosophical writings, for inventing the astro- labe, and for measuring and distilling water. Hooke, Robert 1635-1703 During an outbreak against non-Christians, she was murdered for upholding her traditional A man of humble beginnings, this English Greek religious beliefs. experimental scientist is known for Hooke's law,

Science 105 98 Appendix

Jenner, Edward 1749-1823 1892,in recognition of hiscontributionto science, he was given the title of Baron Kelvin of Because of the keen observations and experimen- Largs. tations by Edward Jenner, an English physician, vaccination was found to be an effective means of preventing smallpox. Acting on a hunch, Jen- Kepler, Johann 1571-1630 ner inoculated a young lx )y who previously had cowpox, with smallpox. He thereby immunized Known asthe Father of Modern Physical both types of virus and gained fame for himselt. Astronomy, Kepler was a German mathematician and astronomer who determined the elliptical Jerne, Niels 1912 orbits of planets, described the lunar influence on tides, and discovered three laws of planetary Swiss immunologist and 1980 Nobel Prize motion. Kepler may have also written the first winner Jerne is best known for his model of piece of science fiction with his story of a man antibody-antigen interaction. This model suggest- who traveled to the moon. ed that the information for producing an antibody is present in the host before it comes into contact with the antigen. Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert 1824-1887

A Germanphysicistresponsibleforthe Joliet - Curie, Irene 1897-1956 development of spectralanalysis, Kirchhoff found that a chemical analysis of a substance The. renchphysicist Joliet-Curie worked with could be made by studying its unique spectral her husband, Frederic, to determine that radio- lines. Several principles of physics bear Kirch- activity was not confined to the heavy elements hoffs lame. such as uranium but could also be prepared artificially with smaller atoms.The eldest daughter of Pierre and Marie Curie, Joliet-Curie Koch, Robert 1843-1910 chose to keep her name after marriage since her parents, Marie and Pierre, had no sons. Koch, a German bacteriologist and 1905 Nobel Prize winner, established hneteriology as a separate science with his use of agar and formulation of Koch's postulates for identifying Joule, James Prescott 1818-1889 causative agents.He discovered the separate germs which cause tuberculosis, cholera, bu- James Joule, an English physicist interested in bonic plague, and sleeping sickness. Koch therelationshipbetweenwork andheat, helped to train other Nobel Prize winners, such developed Joule's law, which explains that heat as Behring and Ehrlich, and the inventor of the is produced in an electric conductor. Joule, in petri dish, Julius Petri. whose honor the unit of work was named, was a brewer and never held an academic position.

Krebs, Sir Hans Adolf 1900 Kelvin, Lord William Thomson 1824-1907 In1937. German-Britishbiochemist Krebs A Scottish physicist, Kelvin's work on electro- discovered the energy-liberating citric acid cycle magnetism and thermodynamics was the basis presentinthesugar metabolism of living for designation of the First Law of Thermo- systems. He also determined how ureais dynamics (the conservation of energy). He also formed, ridding the body of excess nitrogen. A introduced the idea of absolute temperature, the 1953 Nobel Prize winner, Krebs fled Germany scale of which bears his name. At the age of ten, when Hitler came into power. Kelvin enrolled in Glasgow University, and in

Model Curriculum Guide 106 Biographies of Scientists 99

Lamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre instrumentalthrough his researchin the devel- Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de 1744-1829 opment of nuclear science. Named in his honor are the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, the Although he is known as the Founder ofModem Lawrence Hall of Science, and the element 103 Invertebrate Zoology, Lamarck is best knownfor Lawrencium. his pre-Darwinian theory of evolution,which claimed that acquired characteristicsare inherited. Lamarck was the eleventh child ofa poor aris- Leeuwenhoek, Anton van 1632-1723 to....atic family and did not settleon a career in zoology until he was in his forties. The Dutch Leeuwenhoek has been associated with the microscope because of the hundreds of reports he sent to the Royal Society describing Landsteiner, Karl 1869-1943 insects, parasites, capillaries, blood cells, and bacteria which he had observed. A draper by Landsteiner, an American immunologistand profession, the poorly schooled Leeuwenhoek 1930 Nobel Prize winner, discoveredhuman enjoyed microscopy and lens-makingas hobbies. blood groups a great benefit for 21million wounded in World War IIand establishedim- munochemistry as a branch of science. Theshy, Leonardo da Vinci 1452--1519 reserved Landsteiner did not like publicityand failed to tell his own family of his Nobel Prize. Even if he had not been a great artist, Leonardo daVinci'sintellectualrange,energy,and originality would have set him apartas one of the Laplace, Pierre Simon de 1749-1827 grand geniuses of human history.His insight approached prophecy in the field of mechanics, A French mathematician and physicalscientist, astronomy, optics, and many other fields. Laplace wrote Celestial Mechanics, whichwas complementary to the work of Newton; healso contributed an equation for the physicalconcept Linnaeus, Carolus 1707-1778 of "potential." Notorious for stating in hiswrit- ings, "it is obvious" thatone equation derives Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, is knownas the from another, Laplace's calculationswere fre- Father of Modern Taxonomy by means of hisuse quently complicated processes and not obvious at cfbinomialnomenclatureinclassification all. systems, e.g., "Homo sapiens" (man, wise). Linnaeus's taxonomic system supported the theories of Darwin and Wallace, but he personally Lavoisier. Antoine Laurent 1743-1794 was not a believer in the theory of evolution. A Frenchman and Founder of Modern Chemis- try, Lavoisier realized the importance ofoxygen Lister, Joseph 1827-1912 in the process of combustion, helped in establishing the metric system, and explained thatany The English surgeonLister introduced the chemical action could be expressed byan chemical treatment for wou, is to protect against equation. For his investments ina tax collecting infection, using carbolic acid.In 1897, Lister firm, he was guillotined during the French Revo- was made a baron for his introduction of anti- lution. septic surgery and his advancements in the prevention of infection. Lawrence, Ernest Orlando 1901-1958

An American physicist and Nobel Prize winner, Lawrence invented the cyclotron andwas

Science 107 100 Appendix

Lyell, Charles 1797-1875 garden, Mendel determined the basic laws of heredity.Although widely acclaimed today, A Scottish scientist and inspiration for young Mendel's work was largely ignored by his peers. Darwin, Lye 11 discussed the element of geologic time in The Principles of Geology, in which he stated that some fossils were 240 million years Mendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich 1834-1907 old. Lye 11 also speculated on human origins in his book The Antiquity of Man, published in From humble beginnings,Russian chemist 1863. Mendeleyev is revered for his formulation of the periodic table in which the elements are arranged according to their atomic weights. Mendeleyev Maxwell, James Clerk 1831-1879 believed that some elements were still undis- covered, for which he left gaps in his table, and British physicist Maxwell is responsible for the was consequently considered somewhat of a expansion of the secand law of thermodynamics mystic. to include the movement of particles with different velocities and random motion. He also developed a mathematical proof of the electro- Meyerhof, Otto Fritz 1884-1951 magnetic theory of light. At age fifteen, Maxwell delivered a paper on Cartesian ovals to the Royal A German-American biochemist and 1922 Nobel Society of Edinburgh. Prize winner, Meyerhof demonstrated that the production of lactic acid in muscle tissue i2 due to glycogen breakdown when oxygen is depleted. The biochemical pathway by which glycogen is McClintock, Barbara 1902 converted to lactic acid bears his name, the Embden-Meyerhof pathway. American biologist McClintock revolutionized the study of genetics with her discovery of "mobile genetic elements," contradicting the idea Miller, Stanley Lloyd 1930 of the constancy of the genome. McClintock's work preceded the knowledge of the structure American chemist Miller experimented to mink and formation of DNA, and in1983, she conditions of the earth as living forms first received the Nobel Prize. emerged; he used simple inorganic compounds and an energy source to produce simple organic molecules, including the amino acids alanine and Medawar, Peter Brian 1915 glycine. He performed his famous experiment during his graduate studies. British immunologist Medawar received the 1960 Nobel Prize for his explanation of immunological tolerance. He reasoned that each individual pos- sesses unique immunological markers on all Millikan, Robert Andrews 1868-1953 cells. Because of the many serious burn injuries suffered during World War II, Medawar bc;:me The American physicist Millikan received the interested in studying skin grafting and the 923 Nobel Prize for his calculation of the charge reasons why some grafts were rejected by their of a single electron; he also verified experi- recipients. mentally Einstein's calculations on the photoelectric effect. Because of his deeply religious beliefs, Millikan actively sought to reconcile Mendel, Johann Gregor 1822-1884 science and religion.

Throughcarefulobservationsanddetailed records kept while working inhis monastery

Model Curriculum Guide Biographies of Scientists 101

Mitchell, Maria 1818-- 889 whether the same ibrce that pulled it down also held the moon in place. The first American female astronomer and the first female member of the American Academy of Arts and Science was Maria Mitchell, who Nirenberg, Marshall Warren 1927 discovered a comet in 1847. An advocate for equal educational opportunities for women, she Recipient of the Nobel Prize in 1968, American held a professional position at thz women's biochemist Nirenberg made advances in decipher- college of Vassar. ing the genetic code.Nirenberg determined which triplet sequence of nucleotides specified which amino acid. Mitchell, Peter D. 1920

An English chemist, Mitchell is responsible for Oppenheimer, Robert 1904-1967 the chemiosmotic hypothesis, for which hewon the 1978 Nobel Prize. Studying mitochondria, American physicist Oppenheimer led a large Mitchell determined that ATP formationis group of scientists at the Los Alamos Scientific coupled to hydrogen ions across inner mito- Laboratory in the development of the first nuclear chondrial membranes. His ideas have since been weapon employing atomic fission reactions. applied to other cellular organelles. Besides his efforts in nuclear science, Oppen- heimer also made a number of contributions to theoretical physics. Morgan, Thomas Hunt 1866-1945

Thomas Hunt Morgan, an American geneticist Pasteur, Louis 1822-1895 and 1933 Nobel Prize winner, studied fruit flies (Drosophila) to establish the concepts of gene- Pasteur was a French chemist who developed the linkage and crossingover.Morgan's famous germ theory of disease. He achieved fame for relative was Francis Scott Key, who wrote the his experiments, which refuted the theory of words to "The Star-Spangled Banner." spontaneous generation of life. The process of pasteurization, a gentle heating to kill harmful microorganisms, was named in honor of Pasteur. Muller, Hermann Joseph 1890-1967

An American geneticist, Muller wona Nobel Pauli, Wolfgang 1900-1958 Prize for experiments with radiation, which resulted in mutations. Muller was an avidsup- Austrian-American physicist Pauli is best known porter of the establishment of sperm banks so for his exclusion principle, which states that only that individuals of worth would have their genes two electrons crt occupy a particular orbital level passed to another generation. of an atom; for this, he won the 1945 Nobel Prize. Despite his intelligence, Pauli was known to be clumsy in the laboratory and a stumbling Newton, Sir Isaac 1642-1727 lecturer in the classroom. The noted English natural philosopher, astronomer, physicist, and mathematician Sir Isaac Pau ling, Linus Carl 1901 Newton developed the theory of gravitation and formulated the three basic laws of mechanics, Pauling, an American chemist, is known for his Newton's Laws of Motion. While at his mother's work on molecular structure and for formulating farm, the young Newton observed an apple fall- the concept of resonance (the distribution of ing to the ground, causing him to wonder electronic charge among bonded atoms), for

Science 100 102 Appendix which he received the 1954 Nobel Prize. In Reed, Walter 1851-1902 1963, he won a second Nobel Prize for Peace for his advocation of nuclear disarmament, making An American military surgeon, Reed discovered him one of three to receive two Nobel Prizes. that yellow fever was transmitted by a mosquito. He demonstrated that the agent which passed this disease to humans was a virus.In commem- Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich 1849-1936 oration of his achievements, the military hospital in Washington, D.C., was named in his honor. Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who studied gastric secretion in dogs; he also demonstrated the importance of the autonomic nervous syaem Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad 1845 -1923 in the physiology of digestion, leading to his studies on reflex conditioning. Despite his anti- The German physicist Roentgen was the first to communist advocations, Pavlov became an use the term "X-ray" following his discovery of a accepted member among Rt,ssi3n scientists. radiation source which he did not understand. Roentgen was awarded the 1901 Nobel Prize, and within a year of his discovery, over 1,000 papers on X-rays were published. Planck, Max 1858-1947

A German physicist, Planck was the first to use Rutherford, Lord Ernest 1871-1937 the term "quantum" and made significant contributions to quantum mechanics. A fundamental A British physicist, Rutherford is noted for his constant of the universe, Planck's constant was model of the nuclear atom, his theory of the radio- so named in his honor, and in 1918, he was active disintegration of elements, and his deter- awarded the Nobel Prize.Planck's son Erwin mination of thenature of alphaparticles. was executed in 1944, accused of plotting against Throughout his life, Rutherford made original Hitler's life. scientific contributions, including the changing of one element to another by manipulation.

Priestley, Joseph 1733-1804

The English chemist Priestley is credited with the Sabin, Albert Bruce 1906 discovt,ry of oxygen. A good friend of 'Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, Priestley was The American physician and virologist Sabin the first to mix carbon dioxide in water, creating made many studies into the causes and origins of the first soda water. viral disease in humans, particularly poliomyelitis. His work led to the development of an oral vaccine for its prevention.Ironically, Sabin Ptolemy, Claudius c. 100c. 170 caught a viral disease in the 1980s which left his legs paralyzed for a time. Also called Claudius Ptolemaeus, Ptolemy was a great astronomer and geographer of ancient times and was considered an authority until 1543. He Sagan, Carl 1934 rejected the idea of the earth as a moving body, and his serious treatment of astrolog, helped to An American astronomer and educator, Sagan is spread that superstition. an authority on planets, the origin of life on earth, and extraterrestrial biology. Recently, he has become an avid spokesperson against nuclear warfare and its catastrophic environmental conse- quences.

Model Curriculum Guide 110 Biographies of Scientists 103

Salk, Jonas Edward 1914 Thomson; Sir Joseph John 1856--1940

The Ainerican physician Salk was a principal Thomson, an English physicist and Nobel Prize fighter in the war against poliomyelitis with his winner, was able to describe the electron as a development of the Salk vaccine, given in three negatively charged particle based on his own doses. By the summer of 1961, the incidence of experimentation.No fewer than seven of his reported cases of polio was down by 96 percent. associatesalsoreceivedtheNobelPrize, including his son, G. P. Thomson.

Schrodinger, Erwin 1887-1961 Urey, Harold Clayton 1893-1981 The Austrian physicist Schrodinger proved the mathematical foundation for wave mechanics and An American physical chemist, Urey discovered the mathematical relationship of the electron to the element deuterium (2H), after wnich accurate the atom bears his name. Because of his anti- measurements of the atomic weights of hydrogen Nazi sentiments, Schrodinger moved ti Dublin, and oxygen were made, as well as the discover/ Ireland, when Hitler came to power. of oxygen isotopes. During World War II, Urey was in charge of the separation of isotopes in the Manhattan Project. Seaborg, Glenn Theodore 1912

The American chemist Seaborg discovered Vesalius, Andreas 1514-1564 atomic elements 97 through 102, for which he shared the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1951. As A Flemish anatomist, Vesalius was able to head of the Atomic Energy Commission, Sea- document human anatomy accurately. With the borg has taken an active role in education, par- aid of artists, Vesalius compiled the book On the ticularly in the area of science. Structure of the Human Body, which is considered one of the great books in the history of science. Teller, Edward 1908

An American physicist, Teller worked with a Watson, James Dewey 1928 group of scientists to formulate a molecular orbital theory, which explains the phenomenon The creative genius of Watson led to the double of the chemical bond and led to the development helical model of DNA, which was correlated to of the first hydrogen bomb. Besides his scien- the physical data of Wilkins and the chemical data tific endeavors, Teller has been an outspoken of Chargaff.In 1962, he received the Nobel critic of the totalitarian governments of Eastern Prize, along with his associates F. H. C. Crick Europe. and M. H. F. Wilkins.

Wohler, Friedrich 1800-1882 Theophrastus c. 370 B.C. c. 285 B.C. The German chemist Wohler disproved the A Greek botanist who named over 550 plant concept of vitalism, which states that organic species, Theophrastus is known as the Founder compounds possess a vital force which cannot be of Botany.Although he inherited Aristotle's reproduced in the laboratory. Although he was library and carried out his work, Theophrastus's an inorganic chemist, Wohler noted that crystals writings have been largely lost over time. of urea, an organic waste produce, formed upon heating ammonium cyanate.

Science 111 104 Appendix

Woodward, Robert Burns 1917-1979

Woodward, an American chemist, developed techniques for synthesizing complex organic compounds, for which he received the 1965 Nobel Prize. Among his contributions to science are his synthesis of cholesterol and chlorophyll and his deduction of the structure of penicillin.

Wu, Chien Shi.ing 1915

The Chinese-American physicist Wu disproved the theory of parity, which stated that phenomena of nature look the same even if observed with a mirror. Born in China, Wu came to the United States to pursue graduate studies at Berkeley, worked on the Manhattan Project, and was the first woman physicist elected to the National Academy of Sciences.

Young, Thomas 1773-1829

Known as the Founder of Physiological Optics, the English physicist Young discovered accom- modation, the mechanism by which the lens of the eye changes shape. He investigated interfer- ence phenomena of light and the elasticity of solid objects and was the first to use the word "energy" in its modem sense. Besides his scientific pursuits, Young helped to decipher hieroglyphics, including the inscription on the Rosetta stone.

Model Curriculum Guide 112 Scientific Discoveries 105

APPENDIX II: SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES (ThatPloMentarV Students Should Study)

AERODYNAMIC THEORY BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

The theories of air flow, lift, and drag developed Biological classification is a grouping of living by Theodore von Karmen and others have organisms into categories based on their similar- allowed aerospace technology to proceed from ities, e.g., structure "e present system for this the biplane to the shuttle craft.Though the classification, called bint,mial nomenclature, was Wright brothers were the first to fly in a man- introduced by the Swedish botanist Carolus made flying craft, their success was based on Linnaeus and implies the use of two terms, e.g., trial and error rather than aerodynamic theory. "Homo sapiens" (man, wise). The basic unit of binomial nomenclature is the species, members of which are capable of mating and producing ALCHEMY fertile offspring. As one of the earliest forms of chemistry, alchemy involved the search for "the philosopher's BLOOD T 'PING stone," which would change metals into gold and discover the "elixir of life" to provide long life The primary blood groups are defined by two and good health. As a modern science, alchemy proteins or blood factors which make up four can be related to the artificial creation of ele- types of human blood:A, B, both (AB), or ments, most of which are radioactive and unsta- neither (0). Karl Landsteiner's discovery of ble, as exemplified by the discoveries of Glenn these proteins in 1900 made possible successful Seaborg and Edward McMillan in the 1940s. blood transfusions and eventually even tissue and organ transplants. Other applications of blood typing can be made in forensic medicine and ANTIBIOTICS anthropological research. Antibiotics are substances made from living organisms, usually bacteria or molds, which kill BOYLE'S LAW harmful bacteria without harming thehost. Following the work of Ehrlich, Domagk, and Boyle's law, attributed to Charles Boyle in 1662, Fleming, Selman Waksman demonstrated that expresses the pressure-volume relation for an antibiotics could cure even the resistant disease ideal gas. It states that if a gas is kept at constant tuberculosis. temperature, its pressure will increase as its volume decreases.

BIG BANG THEORY BUOYANCY The term for the big bang theory was first used by George Gamow in 1946.It states that the The lifting effect of a fluid upon a body wholly universe orginated billions of years ago from the or partly submerged in it, known as buoyancy, explosion of a large mass, so that pieces are still was carefully studied by the Greek philosopher flying apart.It is supported by the red shift or Archimedes in 250 B.C. Archimedes's principle Doppler effect observed in the spectra from states that the buoyant force is equal to the weight distant galaxies. of the fluid that is displaced by an object.

Science 113 106 Appendix

CELL THEORY by Gifford Pinchot of the U.S. Forest Service, became popular in the early 1900s as conserva- In 1665, Robert Hooke coined the term "cell" on tionists began preserving forests and wildlife. the basis of his microscopic observations ofThe term comes from two Latin words cork. The cell theory is the concept that all living "servare," which means to keep or guard, and things are made of cells and is a unifying prin- "con," meaning together. ciple of modern biology. In 1805, Lorenz Oken first presented the idea that the cell is a fundamental, irreducible unit of life. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS)

CIRCULATION OF BLOOD Conservation of energy, the first law of thermodynamics, states that in any system, the total of That blood circulates through the human body all forms of energy will neither increase nor was shown experimentally by Sir William Har- decrease but that these forms may interchange. vey (1578-1657), who showed that the heart Research by scientists such as Carrot, Mayer, performed a pump-like function. This discovery, Joule, and Helmholtz led to this unifying prin- plus Harvey's quantitative methods of biology, ciple. propelled human physiology into the modem era.

DDT COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE Discovered by Paul Muller in 1939, dichoro- First recognized by the Russian biologist G. F. diphenyl-trichlorethane (DDT) was the first of Gauss, the competitive exclusion principle states many synthetic insecticides used to control insect that two species cannot exist on the same limiting pests and vectors of disease. The two important resource. The word "limiting" must be included outcomes of its use were that (1) subsequent in- in this statement because only resources that limit sect populations became resistant; and (2) there population growth provide the basis for compe- was a buildup of the toxic substance through the tition. food chain.

COMPUTER DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Computers are generally defined as devices Deductive reasoning is the process by which we capable of accepting information, processing the draw conclusions by logical inference from given information in a specified manner, and supplying premises. Mathematics and logic rely heavily on the information resulting from the process. Elec- this process, whereas the scientific method re- tronic digital computers were invented during quires a combination of induction and deduction. World War II to help in cracking Nazi codes, but they have since taken on broader roles.With their ability to be programmed in narrowly de- DNA fined fields, they can mimic experts, e.g., diag- nosing and prescribing.This application is The double helical structure of deoxyribonucleic referred to as artificial intelligence. acid (DNA) was explained in 1953 by James Wat- son and Francis Crick, thanks in part to the X- ray crystallography studies of Rosalind Franklin. CONSERVATION The description of this chemical transmitter of genetic information made possible the manipulation Conservation is the management, protection, and of genes, the synthesis of proteins, and contin- wise use of natural resources. The term, coined ued discoveries of the cell at the molecular level.

Model Curriculum Guide 114 Scientific Discoveries 107

ELECTRICITY EVOLUTION

Electricity is a form of energy whichoccurs as a The: unifying pnnciple of evolution states that result of the existence of electrical charge. The most organisms produce far more offspring than understanding of electricity has led to the inven- can possibly survive and that those best adapted tion of motors, generators, telephones, televi- to a particular environment live to reproduce. sion, and c(lnputers. Darwin, an English naturalist, is credited with this theory of natural selection from his book of observations as a naturalist on the HMS Beagle ELEC1ROMAGNETIC RADIATION in the 1830s. The theory has been strengthened from advances in genetics, statistics, and bio- Electromagnetic radiationisthe passage of chemistry. energy through space or through substances in the form of waves which have bothan electrical and magnetic component.Light, radio waves, GENETIC ENGINEERING and X-rays are all forms of electromagnetic radiation. James Maxwell suggested that light Genetic engineering, or biological manipulation, was an electromagnetic wave when he discovered is the ability to alter genetic structure and place it that an electromagnetic field radiates outward in a living system in order to producea desired from its source at the speed of light. product, such as th(t hormone insulin. This ability to splice or recombine genetic information was first performed in the 1970s by Paul Berg, ELEC1RON MICROSCOPE Stanley Cohen, and Herbert Boyer. Although the technology has great promise in the curing of dis- An instrument which uses a beam of electrons eases, it has become controversial because of its instead of light rays to magnify objects, the implications for interfering with human make-up. electron microscope can be used to see objectsas small as bacteria and viruses.It was used as early as 1931 in hospitals and research labora- GEOLOGIC TIME tories. There are two kinds of electron microscopes: (1) the transmission electron microscope, One of the great discoveries of all time is that of which passes electrons from an electrongun the age of the earth (over four billion years), the through a specimen and onto a fluorescent time incorporated in its history, and the scale of screen; and (2) the scanning electron microscope, this time (in millions and billions of years), called which moves electrons across a specimen with geologic time. The eighteenth century French scanning coils, forming a magnified image on a scientist Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buf- television screen. fon, figured the cooling of the earth alone would have taken 75,000 years; Charles Darwin reasoned that millions of years were necessary for ENTROPY (SECOND LAW OF THERMO- evolutionary change to occur. DYNAMICS)

First used by German physicist Rudolf Clausius, GERM THEORY entropy is a measure of the disorder in a system. The second law of thermodynamics states that In the late 1800s, Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch entropy can stay the same in a reversible process established the germ theory of disease.While or increase in an irreversible process, but can Pasteur proved that microbes are living organ- never decrease.An increase in entropy with isms, some of which cause disease, Koch formu- change denotes a reduced amount of available lated a method for determining which bacteria energy. cause specific diseases (see Koch's Postulates).

Science 115 108 Appendix

HPTPRMIC/T-IVTIRTTIT7ATT(IN feron was isolatPri by Ivns indenmann in 1957. It has proved useful in the treatment of di- Heterosis or hybrid vigor is the increased vigor seases such as leukemia, and continuing research and greater yield observed in plants and animals may lead to its possible use in prevention of other resulting from the crossing of pure but unrelated diseases. strains.Although this phenomenon was observed as far back as Darwin, geneticist George Harrison Shull formulated the heterosis concept KOCH'S POSTULATES and tested hybrid corn in the early 1900s. His work eventually resulted in great increases in the German bacteriologist Robert Koch formulated yield of corn as well as many other crops. four postulates or principles for locating and determiningdisease-causingmicroorganisms. These principles are considered fundamental in IDEAL GAS LAWS the study of disease and have been instrumental in conquering diseases such as tuberculosis, The ideal gas law presented by Boyle (1627- anthrax, African sleeping sickness, and Asiatic 1692) states that if a gas is kept at constant cholera. temperature, the pressure and volume are in inverse proportion; Charles's (1746-1823) law states that at a fixed volume, the pressure is a LASER linear function of the temperature. These laws are true only for "ideal gases," but they provide The word "laser" stands for light amplication by approximate values which are very useful. stimulated emission of radiation. The laser is a device which uses the natural oscillations of atoms or molecules for generating a monochro- matic, unidirectional beam of light.First con- INDUCTIVE REASONING structed in 1960 by American physicist Theodore Harold Maiman, lasers are considered valuable Supported by Francis Bacon and popularized by tools and are used in communications, industry, Galileo, inductive reasoning begins with actual military operations, and scientific research. experiences and proceeds to generalizations from what has been observed. Scientists realize that no generalizations can be allowed to stand without LAWS OF INHERITANCE repeatedly being subjected to testing. Formulated by Gregor Mendel in 1866, the laws of inheritance include the law of segregation, INSULIN whereby hereditary units are paired and then separated, and the law of independent assortment, Insulin is a hormone which is produced in the which states that each pair is inherited indepen- islets of Langerhans in the pancreas and which dently of other pairs. These laws were further regulates blood sugar levels.Insulin must be supported by the work of the Dutch scientist injected, since when given orally, the hormone is Hugo de Vries at the turn of the century. destroyed by the digestive system. Insulin, first isolated in 1921 by two Canadian biochemists, F. G. Banting and C. H. Best, is relied on by LAWS OF MOTION millions of diabetics to control their condition. Stated by Sir Isaac Newton in 1686, the three laws of motion state that (1) an object at rest INTERFERON tends to stay at rest unless acted upon by an external force; (2) F = ma, meaning force is equal Produced by the cells of human beings and other to mass times acceleration; and (3) every ntion mammals in response to viral infections, inter- gives rise to a reaction of equal strength but

Model Curriculum Guide 116 Scientific Discoveries 109 nrwinc; ha ri:trat.44"" Thsaci. 10ITIC lirs,,ra I I oarl fn a 4, like natural ones) that reseaR,11 advanceswere plain interactions of force, matter, arid motion made in their occurrence. until Einstein's theories provided a more complete explanation. NATURAL SELECTION

MICROSCOPE Also called survival of the fittest, natural selection was explained during the 1850s by the Brit- A microscope is an optical instrument that ish naturalist Charles Darwin. He believed that magnifies extremely small objects so theycan be all plants and animals developed gradually froma seen easily, Anton van Leeuwenhoek popular- few common ancestors and that organisms that ized the microscope in the numerous papers he were best adapted to their environment survived wrote on his observations. By the 1800s, better while the less well adapted ones died out. glass-making methods produced lenses with less distortion and, thus, better quality microscopes. NUCLEAR FISSION

MOHS' SCALE OF HARDNESS Nuclear fission is a type of nuclear reaction in which the compound nucleus splits into two Used to make relative determinations of hardness nearly equal parts, releasing large amounts of of different substances, the Mohs' Scale of Hard- energy. In the 1930s, Enrico Fermi and his co- ness uses ten minerals as indicatorsfrom talc, workers showed that there was a chain reaction the softest, to diamond, the hardest. Hardness re- when neutrons bombarded uranium. This discov- fers to the resistance of the substance to surface ery set the stage for both the atomic bomb and abrasion so that of two solids, the one that will atomic energy. scratch the other is the harder. The scale was invented by the German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1822. OXYGEN

Oxygen, the most abundant element on the MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES surface of the earth, was first found in its gas- eous elemental form (02) and announced publicly First produced by a clone of cells in the labor- by the English clergyman Joseph Priestley. This atories of Sanger and Barrett and Maxam and discovery, plus Lavoisier's work on combustion, Gilbert in 1975, monoclonal antibodies have led to the establishment of the law of conserva- become increasingly important in immunological tion of matter. research. By the isolation of cells which produce the same antibody and their reproduction, pure PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY antibody can be isolated for research into cures for specific diseases such as different forms of Paper chromatography, a method of separating cancer. substances that make up a mixture, was used by Erwin Chargaff to separate the organic bases of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). ...ads careful pro- MUTATIONS cess, employing absorbent paper and solvent, generated data necessary for establishment of the Mutations, which result in new hereditary char- base pairing rule which led to the determination acteristics in offspring, were first deemed signifi- of DNA's structure. cant by Hugo de Vries in 1900.However, because of the difficulty of studying them, it was not until 1927 (when Herman Muller demonstrated that X-rays could cause mutations much

Science 117 115 Appendix

PENDULUM PLANETARY POSITIONS/MOTION

Galileo discovered that the time it takesa pendu- In the mid-sixteenth century, the astronomer Co- lum to swing back and fortis through small dis- pernicus determined planetary positions, giving tances depends neither on its mass nor on the support to the idea of a sun-centered universe. length of the arc through which it swings. The His work was further elucidated by the determi- time of swing depends only on the length of the nation of the planets' elliptical orbits by Johann pendulum and the acceleration of a free-falling Kepler in the latter part of the sixteenth century. body. The Dutch physicist Huygens revolutionized timekeeping by applying Galileo's theories in the construction of a grandfather's clock. PLASTICS (SYNTHETIC POLYMERS)

Plastics are synthetic materials that can be shaped PERIODIC TABLE into almost any form and can have the hardness of metal or the softness of silk.In 1909, the Discovered almost simultaneously by the German chemist Leo Hendrik Baekeland invented the first Lothar Meyer and the Russian Dmitry Ivanovich completely synthetic resin, called Bakelite. Since Mendeleyev, the periodic table is a classification that time, numerous other polymers have been of the chemical elements by their atomicnum- produced, including nylon, polyvinyl, and poly- bers. It allows the systematic explanation andpre- propylene. diction of most of the elements' chemical and physical properties and, in fact, was instrumental in its own completion by making obvious where PLATE TECTONICS elements were still to be discovered. Plate tectonics, a revolutionary concept in earth science, proposes that the outermost shell of the PHOTOELECMIC Ell±,CT earth, or lithosphere, is divided into a number of rigid floating plates, the movement of which Photoelectric effect, or the ability of a bright results in mountain chains, oceanic rifts, and beam of light causing metals to release electrons faults. Although similar ideas were expressedas which could become an electric current, wasex- early as 1920, it was not until 1956 that Stanley plained by Albert Einstein in 1905. He showed Keith Runcorn unified the earth sciences by pre- that when quanta of light energy strike metallic senting tnis theory, accompanied by substantial atoms, the quanta force the atoms to release elec- evidence. trons; this was verified experimentally by the American physicist Robert Millikan. PRINCIPLE OF THE LEVER

Discovered by Archimedes in the third century PHOTOSYNTHESIS B.C., the principle of the leverthe simplest machineexplains that by application of a small Photosynthesis is the process by which chloro- force through a large distance, a large force can phyll-containing green plants, when exposed to be exerted through a small distance.Although light under suitable conditions of temperature and the forces can be different, the amount of energy water supply, use carbon dioxide from the atmos- applied is equal to the amount of energy exerted. phere, release oxygen to it, and synthesize carbohydrates. In chloroplasts, light causes carbon dioxide to combine with hydrogen atoms of QUANTUM THEORY water to form sugar with oxygen given off as a by-product; from sugar, together with nitrogen, The quantum theory, developed by Max Planck sulphur, and phosporous, green plants manufac- in 1900, states that energy is radiated in indi- ture carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and other visible units called quanta, or nhotons. Radiant cell products.

Model Curriculum Guide 118 Scientific Discoveries 111 energy iscompocpi of fiirther Pr"SrINANCE that all material particles have wave properties. The concept of resonance, formulated by Linus Pauling. suggests a distribution of electronic RADIOACTIVE DATING charge among bonded atoms. Consequently, the molecule actually exists in two forms, each Radioactive dating, the method for finding the reacting in a different way and both being of the age of rocks, is based on the radioactive decay of same energy because of the symmetry of their certain radioactive elements. This process is the geometrical configurations. inverse of half-life measurement andassumes that the concentration of the radioactive element is changed onlybynaturaldecayprocesses. ROCKETRY Through this technique, much of geologic time has been established. It is generally believed that the Chinese invented rockets; but as a modern science, rocketry was largely developed by the American scientist RADIOACTIVITY Robert Goddard. In 1926, Goddard conducted the first successful launch of a liquid-propellant Radioactivity is the process by which atoms emit rocket, paving the way for further development radiation or atomic particles and rays of high of space flight. energy from the disintegration of their nuclei. It was discovered by the Frenchman Becquerel in 1896 and was further explained through the work SPECTROSCOPY of Pierre and Marie Curie. In medical research, this phenomenon has been found to result in both The science of spectroscopy was founded by sickness (overexposure leading to leukemia) and Gustav Kirchoff, who found that a chemical health (radiation therapy for cancer victims). analysis of substances could be made by examination of their spectral 'Ines. Parts of the absorption spectrum are unique for each compound, just REFLEX CONDITIONING as a fingerprint is unique for a human.

Reflex conditioning involves the pairing of stimuli to produce a reflex substitution.It was STEREOCHEMISTRY researched by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov.In his observations of dog salivation The branch of chemistry that is concerned with when smelling food, Pavlov found that the flow the three-dimensional structure, bond angles, and of saliva was a conditioned response rather than bond lengths of molecules is called stereochemi- an autonomic reaction to the smell of food. stry. The existence and importance of this relative orientation of atoms was elucidated by Emil Fischer mound the turn of the century. RELATIVITY

Relativity is a theory which unifies the concepts SUN POWER/SOLAR ENERGY of matter and energy (E) with the famous equation E = mc2, in which m = mass and c= the Solar power is the energy in sunlight providing velocity of light.Einstein's first paper on this light and heat for the earth and was first used as subject in 1905 changed physics from the view an energy source by the Greeks and Romans. of Newton by pointing out that nothing in the With the development of technology, scientists universe is at rest, for even this piece of paper is have built solar heating devices and electrical stor- hurtling through the universe on the spinning age cells called photovoltaic cells; but the possi- planet earth, bilities for harnessing the energy from the sun are still largely unconquered.

Scions 119 112 Appendix

SUPERNOVAS VACCINATION

Supernovas are stars which explode, produce Vaccination, or active immunization, is the pro- light many times brighter than the sun, and cess of protecting the body against disease by actually eject most of their mass. Tycho Brahe's means of inoculating an individual with a modi- sighting of a supernova in 1572 helped disprove fied form of the disease-causing material. This the idea that no change could occur in the process was discovered by Edward Jenner in heavens beyond the orbit of the moon 1796 and has led to vaccinations at,ainst such diseases as poliomyelitis, typhus, and yellow fever.

THE "PILL" VITAMINS The ' pill" is the common name for a large number of hormonal compounds used to prevent In 1912, a Polish biochemist, Casimir Funk, pregnancy by suppressing ovulation. Although coined the term "vitamine," meaning amine various kinds of contraception have been used essential to life, since their deficiency resulted in for centuries, oral contraceptives, developed in nutritionaldiseases.Vitaminsarecarbon- 1960 and now taken by over 50 million women containing substances (not necessarily amines) worldwide, contributed to a dramatic change in that the body requires for normal metabolism but the role of women in some societies and a new in general are not synthesized in the body and era of health research. thus must be obtained from outside sources. Working as co-factors in the body, vitamins are required to carry out enzymatic processes in an TRANSISTORS AND SILICON CHIPS expedient manner.

A transistor is an electrical valve that can control the flow of electricity. It usually has three metal X-RAYS contacts, and the current flowing between two of the contacts is controlled by the voltage applied to X-rays refer to the electromagnetic radiation (like the third. The transistor, invented by a group of visible light) but with extremely short wave- researchers at Bell Laboratories (Brattein, Shock- lengths (less than 100 angstroms) which are pro- ley, and Bardeen) in 1947, not only replaced the duced by bombarding a target with electrons in a vacuum tube in radio and television but also vacuum. In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen of Wurz- made possible tremendous advances in such berg, Germany, discovered X-rays accidentally fields as computers and communications, partly while experimenting with a vacuum tube and because it can be made so small that thousands observing the fluorescence emanating from a spot can be built on a tiny "chip" of silicon. where the cathode ray struck the tube. X-rays have been used extensively in medical applications and also in such far-reaching fields as UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE anthropology.

Developed by Werner Heisenberg, the uncertainty principle states that the position and the YOUNG'S MODULUS velocity of an electron in motion cannot simultaneously be measured with accuracy. Heisen- Developed frominvestigationsby Thomas berg's research provided the foundation for the Young, Young's modulus is a measure of how more precise theory of atoms called the quantum well a solid resists deforming forcesor a ratio theory. of stress to strain. A solid with a large modulus value would have a strong resistance to stress.

12 Model Curriculum Guide Scientific Literature 113

APPRTNv SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE (That Elementary Students Should Read)*

Adams, A.(1982). Poetry of Earth. NY: Arnosky, J.(1982). Freshwater Fish and Fish- Charles Scribner's Sons. ing. NY: Four Winds Press.

This is a collection of nature poems which were The reader is free to enjoy the wonders of the chosen and illustrated by the author and arefreshwater world by looking at habitats of suitableforallelementary students. The different kinds of freshwater fish.For grades selections, including works by Sandburg, Frost, four to six, it also includes instructions on how Dickinson, and others, &low the reader to sense to catch fish, tie flies, and make fish prints. our relationship with the earth.

Asimov, I.(1969).Great Ideas of Science. Adamson, J.(1961). Living Free: The Story of Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Elsa and Her Cubs. NY: Harcourt, Brace and World. Asimov relates the development of scientific ideas through historical accountings of great For upper elementarystudents,thisstory scientists. From the Greek Thales's concept of explores the very special relationships between science to Darwin's ideas on evolution, he shows human and animal.It follows Born Free, which how scientific theories were used to develop new described how a lion cub was brought up with ones. (Ages ten to adult) humans.

Asimov, I.(1981).How Did We Find Out Adkins, J. (1975).Inside: Seeing Beneath the About Solar Power? NY: Walker. Surface. NY: Walker. For the upper elementary student, Asimov's This book, a visual experience in cross-section book presents a very readable history of and showing objects from apples to airliners as they possible future for our greatest power source, the would look if cut in half, is suitable for ages sun. This is one of a series written by Asimov eight to twelve. It allows the development of per- (How Did We Find Out?), all of which give a ceptionin how natural objects, such as a tree or historical basis for the process of discovery in valley, or human-made objects, such as a pen or scientific fields. house, are constructed.

Attenborough, D. (1979). Life on Earth: A Anderson, N. D., and W. R. Brown. (181). Natural History. Boston: Little, Brown. Halley's Comet. NY: Dodd, Mead. Adapted into a television series, Attenborough's The authors give a historical accounting of the work presents a comprehensive history of nature, comet as well as an explanation of its properties. from single-celled animals to primitive man. He For upper elementary grades, the book also traces the most significant thread in the history of discusses how to view the comet, which was each major group of living things. (Ages ten to particularly significant to its 1985-86 appearance. adult)

*Some of these recommended readings are currently out of print. It is hoped that their appearance here will create a demand for reissuance.

Science 1.21, 114 Appendix

Atwood, A.(1971).Haiku: The Mood of the Earth. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons Bendick, J.(1951).All Around You: IA First Look at the World. NY: Whittlesey House. This book of Haiku poems, ail of which have themes of nature, is classically illustrated by This book provides a basic look at natural science photograph and word. It explores the beauty and for the young reader, grades one to three.It design of the natural world.Included are pic- answers questions about the world we live in, tures of birds, sea shells, and waves which are such as why we need the sun and how plants described in the poetry.(All ages) take care of themselves.

Ault, R.(1983). Basic Programming for Kids. Berger, M. (1930). The New Earth Bock: Our Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Changing Planet. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell.

Ault's book allows students to have fun with Written as an introduction to earth science, this computers while learning fundamentals of pro- book explains how the earth has changed and is gramming concepts. As computers become inte- changing and how pollution affects it. Simple grated into their classroom experiences, this book earth science experiments are provided for the will be especially useful for students in grades young reader in grades two to six. four six. Bixby, W. (1964). The Universe of Galileo and Newton. NY: American Heritage. Barton,J.G.(1963).Wildflowers. London: Spring Books. Bixby presents a historical account of Galileo's and Newton's attempts to understand the uni- Following an introductory explanation of flower verse. With great illustrations, the book covers parts and their development, the book is con- astronomical and scientific instrumentation em- structed like a field guide with pictures and ployed by these two scientists and others of their descriptions. For ages ten to adult, this British time, including Robert Hooke and Edmund publication helps in recognition cf wild herba- Halley. (Grades four to six) ceous flowering plants.

Black, H. (1981). Animal Cooperation: A Look Baylor, B. (1975). The Desert Is Theirs.NY: at Sociobiology. NY: William Morrow. Charles Scribner's Sons. Based on Darwin's theories on natural selection, This book depicts life in the desert and is this book discusses the controversial idea that appropriate for grades two to six.It stresses the behavior patterns have some value for survival. interrelatedness of plants, animals, and Native Black discusses inherited animal behaviors as Americans in this often harsh environment. well as the idea that human behavior may also be inherited. (Grades four to six)

Becker, R. W. (1969). Through My Window. Minneapolis: T. S. Denison. Blough, G. 0.(1958). Young People's Book of Science. NY: Whittlesey House. Through My Window is a collection of poetry for the curious child, grades one to three, and what In this book, scientific things we use such as he or she might see as he or she looks out his or lenses for seei,ig and radios for communication her window. Most poems are about insects and are explained to provide an understanding of the small animals. world.Included are scientific explanations of living things, atoms, the sea, and space. (Grades three to six)

Model Curriculum Guide 122 Scientific Literature 115

Blow, M. (1960). Men of Science and Invention. Carson, R.(1956). The Sense of Wonder. NY: NY: American Heritage. Harper and Row.

For grades four to six, this book isa compre- Carson allows us to discover the mysteries of the hensive historical reference.It traces scientific earth, sea, and sky through exceptional photo- achievements in America from colonial days graphs and text.Suitable for ages ten to adult, through the development of spacecraft. the book follows the journey of discovery with sight, smell, sound, and feeling. Boeke, K. (1957). Cosmic View: The Universe in 40 Jumps. NY: John Day. Colbert, E. H. (1983). Dinosaurs: An Illustrated History. Maplewood, N.J.: Hammond. Suitable for ages nine to twelve, this booksuses a metric scale to observe almost limitless views This book takes a historical approach to dino- of living worlds. It provides an unusual experi- saurs' beginnings, their habitat, and diversity. enr- in perception by changing orders of The superior illustrations are a complement to the magnitude. comprehensive text (grades four to six).

Borland, H. (1977).The Golden rircle: A Considine, D. M., ed.(1980). Van Nostrand's Book of Months. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell. Scientific Encyclopedia.NY:Van Nostrand Reinhold. With unique illustrations, The Golden Circle provides descriptions of the natural worldas it This two-volume set provides an exceptional looks and as it changes through theseasons. standard reference for all areas of science. For Primarily a picture book, it includesan essay ages ten to adult, it is the book of choice for describing how the natural world looks from library and home rat.. ze. month to month and is suitable for kindergarten to third grade. Daly, K. N. (1980). Body Words: A Dictionary of the Human Body, How It Works, and Some Burton, V. L. (1962). Life Story. NY: Houghton of the Things That Affect It. Garden City, N.Y.: Mifflin. Doubleday.

In full-color paintings, this book traces changes Body Words isa guidebook for the young on the earth from its beginnings. The book is reader's discovery of self and is suitable for ages written as a five-act play. With simple text and nine to twelve. It include' answers to frequently sketches, the reader is drawn to the action on the asked questions about the human body and its stage. (Ages nine to twelvt, functions.

Carle, E.(1981). The Very Hungry Caterpillar. Dowden, A. 0. (1975). The Blossom on the NY: Philomel Books. Bough:A Book of Trees.NY: Thomas Y. Crowell. This book gives an excellent pictorial explanation of the three processes of metamorphosis. The This book btgins with a look at structure, bold illustrations make it a delight for children, function, and the growth cycle of the tree. kindergarten to third grade. Dowden also discusses the significance of the forest in ecological terms and pr-,sents different types in the form of a field guidewith pictures and descriptions.(Grades four to six)

Scieoce 123 116 Appendix

Elwood, A., and L. C. Vv ood (1982). Windows Gardner, R.(1980). This Is the Way It Works: in Space. NY: Walker. A Collection of Machines.Garden City, NY: Doubleday. This book of astronomy and space ;light covers the interesting advances in our knowledge since For the curiouswith descriptions and illus- the space age began. From walking on the moon trationstheauthorexplainshowmany to the possibility of living in space, the reader commonly used machines and tools work. Each discovers that space exploration is fast becoming explanation is coupled to historical information a reality.(Grade. four to six) on how the machines were developed. (Grades four to six',

Facklam, M. (1976). Frozen Snakes and Dino- saur Bones:Exploring a NaturalHistory Gottlieb, W. P.(1983). Science Facts You Museum. NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Won't Believe. NY: Franklin Watts.

Facklam gives his readers an opportunity to see In an easy to understand style, many miscon- what a museum looks like behind the scenes. He ceptions about science are explained, such as that also explains how objects are prepared and bats are not blind and shooting stars are not stars. displayed. (Grades four to six) For readers of all ages, this book is fascinating and informative.

Flanagan, G. L.(1975). Window into a Nest. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Greenberg, P. (1983). Birds of the World. NY: Platt and Munk. For age:: nine to twelve, this is an intriguing photop-phic view of the process of mating and This book discusses habits and habitats of birds. development in a bird family. It is accompanied It further shows how many have become threat- by personalized and detailed text. ened because of the destruction of their habitats, pollution, or disease. (Grades four to six)

Ford, A.(1981). Weather Watch. NY: Lothrop, Lee, and Shepard. Grosvenor, M. B., ed.(1971). As We Live and Breathe: The Challenge of Our Environment. Pro Ading a comprehensive look at the weather Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. with bold illustrations, this book discusses the atmosphere,temperaturevariation,different Suitable for ages ten to adult, this book takes an kinds of clouds, rain, and dew. It also looks at expansive look at air and water pollution, over- the processes of forecasting and predicting population, and extravagant uses of energy, as changes in the weather.(Grades four to six) well as possible solutions. The book focuses on how Americans are accepting their ecological responsibilities for environmental problems. Gallob, E. (1972).City Leaves, City Trees. NY: Charles Scribner's Sons. Grosvenor, M. B., ed. (1976). Our Continent: A By using a simple key, the reader can identify Natural History of North America. Washington, common trees found in the city as opposed to the D.C.: National Geographic Society. forest or other environment.Pictures of their leaves, fruit, and buds, along with descriptions, Complete with poetry and comprehensive text, make this book useful in identification of trees this book presents an outstanding visual experi- typically found in cities. (Ages eight to twelve) ence in exploring the natural wondersof our continent, such as the Cascade volcanoes, the Rocky Mountains, and the Grand Canyon of the 14 Model Curriculum Guide Scientific Literature 117

Colorado River. For readers aged tento adult, it grade three. provides an exceptional reference forany library collection. Hutchins, R. E. (1965). The Amazing Seeds. NY: Dodd, Mead. Haines, G. K. (1982). Test-tube Mysteries. NY: Dodd, Mead. This book contains strange and interesting facts about seeds. Photographs are used to illustrate This is a fascinating collection of fourteenper- their unique differences.It explains how seeds sonal accounts of scientific detection, including perpetuate plant life, are a food source, and have the finding of remedies for diseases and discov- unique properties. (Grades three to six) ery of organisms which cause them. The stories show how scientists work and theprocess of discovery. (Grades four to six) Kadesch, R. R.(1970). Math Menagerie. NY: Harper and Row.

Heller, R. (1982).Chickens Aren't the Only Math Menagerie examines how mathematics Ones. NY: Grosset and Dunlap. work through simple experimentation. Students from grades four to six can decipher mathe- This is an excellent picture book presenting dif- matical hieroglyphics, maps, and graphsall ferent kinds of animals which reproduce by necessary skills for the scientist. laying eggs, such as fish, snails, and turtles. Boldly illustrated, it is a delight for the kindergarten to grade three reader. Kendall,J. (1953). Great Discoveries by Young Chemists. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell. Herbst,J.(1983).Sky Above and Worlds The author shows examples from throughout Beyond. NY: Atheneum. history that support the contention that thecrea- tive period of many chemists' lives has been the Herbst'scomprehensiveview of astronomy period of early youth.Besides the discoveries includes historic aspects as wellas how to ex- made by these young scientists, he describes the plore the heavens for oneself.It explores plans formation of the first chemical society and jour- for future space travel and the search forextra- nal. (Grades four to six) terrestrial life. (Grades four to six)

Kipling, R. (1948). The Jungle Books. Garden Hoban, T. (1971). Look Again. NY: Macmillan. City, NY: Doubleday.

Hoban takes photgraphs of naturalobjects, This series of animal stories for readers, ages zeroes in on a limited view, and then the whole eight to adult, is in two volumes. The central object and its surroundings.Using no words, character is the small boy Mowgli, brought up by the book is totally dependent on visual develop- Mother Wolf and instructed in jungle lore. ment of young curious minds, grades kindergarten to three. Kohl, J., and H. Kohl. (1977). A View from the Oak. San Francisco: Charles Scribner's Sons. Horsfall, R. B., and C. E. Horsfall (1978). Bluebirds Seven. Portland: Audubon Society. Inspiredby Jacob von Uexkull's A Stroll Through the World of Animals and Men, this This story relates the growth and development of charming book allows the reader to sense the a bluebird family.Illustrated with watercolors unusual habits and behaviors of living things in by the author, it is suitable for kindergarten to the environment.Human behaviors could be

SCIence 125 118 Appendix positively influenced by its philosophical nature. London, J.(1964). The Call of the Wild and (Ages nine to adult) White Fang. N": Washington Square Press.

London's famous tales of the Yukon are classics. Lambert, D. (1981). The Active Earth. NY: One involves a dog set free to become leader of a Lothrop, Lee, and Shepard. wolf pack; the other tells of a wolf tamed into the likeness of a dog. (Ages nine to adult) This book discusses the forces, such as continental drift, vulcanism, and wind and stream action, which shape the earth. Provided for the Mabey, R.(1983).Oak and Company. NY: reader are investigative projects to see how land- Greenwillow Books. forms are made. (Grades three to six) Dynamically illustrated, this book traces the growth of an oak tree from a single acorn. As it Lambert, M. (1980). All Color Book of ages, interrelationships develop between it and Science Facts. NY: Arco. other plants and animals: birds eat insects from its leaves, mice live in its hollows, squirrels eat This book givesaconcise,well-illustrated its acorns. (Grades three to six) coverage of science, including earth, plants and animals, humans, and technology. For grades three to six, it attempts to explain some of the McClung, R. M. (1980). The Amazing Egg. mysteries of science.J the natural world. NY: E. P. Dutton.

From chickens to humans, this book explains the Lampton, C.(1983). DNA and the Creation ofprocess of reproduction. For grades four to six, New Life. NY: Arco. it shows the development of baby animals and the diversity of life cycles. Lampton gives the young reader (grades four to six) a basic understanding of the gene and how genetic engineering has developed.He also McCoy, J.J.(1978). In Defense of Animals. addresses the controversial topic of recombinant NY: Seabury Press. DNA research. This unusual book is a contemporary approach to problems in the humane treatment of animals. It Leakey, R. E. (1982). Human Origins. NY: shows how animals have been abused and traces Lodestar Books. the rise of the animal protection movement.

The son of the famous archaeologist L. S. B. Leakey gives us clues to the past via the fasci- Milne, L., and M. Milne.(1980).Gadabouts nating, often controversial field of paleontology. and Stick-at-Homes. San Francisco: Sierra Club He looks at the special way in which humans Books. have evolved from primates by developing uniquely different behaviors. (Grades four to six) In ten chapters, this book discusses ten different wild animals and their habitats. It illustrates the diversity of animal behavior. (Grades three to six) Leopold, A.(1966). A Sand County Almanac. NY: Oxford University Press. Mowat, F.(1963).Never Cry Wolf.Boston: Through his essays, Leopold relates the value of Little, Brown. natural ecosystems. For ages ten to adult, it is a powerful book about the land ethic. This powerful true story of the wolf and its habitat clarifies some of our misconceptions

12,b Model Curriculum Guide Scientific Literature 119 about this animal.With increased knowledge for expanding humanity's domain.The book and understanding of the wolf, perhapswe can covers the new area of scientific research, study- avoid its extinction. (Ages ten to adult) ing systems that imitate life. (Grades fourto six)

Sattler, H. R.(1983). The Illustrated Dinosaur Silverstein, A., and V. Silverstein. (1980). Dictionary. NY: Lothrop, Lee, and Shepard. Nature's Champions: The Biggest, the Fastest, the Best. NY: Random House. This handy reference is an alphabetical listing of dinosaurs, related animals like the saber-toothed Nature's Champions provides concise descrip- tiger, and terms used in the study of these tions and statistics on unique plants and animals. creatures. The author also includes recent discov- Included are tales of the fastest and the slowest eries about them. (Grades three to six) animals as well as the smartesthuman beings. (Grades three to six)

Schneider, H., and N. Schneider. (1952).Fol- low the Sunset. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Simon, S.(1983). Hidden Worlds: Pictures of the Invisible. NY: Morrow. Simple and beautifully illustrated, Follow the Sunset explains day and night around the world. This book traces the development of technology Largely a picture book, it is most suitable for for viewing very small or very faraway objects. kindergarten to grade three. The reader can view both worlds via the photographs in this book. Suitable for grades fourto six, it discusses the instruments which have been Selsam, M. E. (1966). Benny's Animals and developed for these observations. How He Put Them in Order. NY: Harper and Row. Smith, II E., Jr. (1982). Living Fossils.NY: In a charming story, Selsam cleverly reveals how Dodd, Mead. living things are classified. Fora beginning science student, grades one to three, it integrates the This book takes a look at plants and animals story of a curious young boy and the scientific which have changed little over time, such as the process of classification of living things. cockroach and lioibchoe crab, providing clues to earth's natural history.It examines the luck or design by which these creatures have endured. Schapiro, I.(1977). Darwin and the Enchanted (Grades three to six) Isles. NY: Coward, McCann and Geoghagen.

From Darwin's diaries and writings comes this Taylor, R. (1981). The Story of Evolution. NY: story of his voyage on the Beagle and his Warwick Press. findings.It traces the route of the Beagle and discusses Darwin's decision to becomea scien- Powerfully illustrated, this study discusses the tist. (Grades four to six) theories of Darwin, Wallace, and other scientists. It offers explanations for how living things have changed, what causes variety, and how modern Silverstein, A., and V. Silverstein.(1979). The technology may influence change. (Grades four World of Bionics. NY: Methusen. to six)

Good ideas from nature, such as the development of airplanes from birds, or seeing machines from animal eye research, are put to use by scientists

Science 127 120 Appendix

Trefil, J. S. (1983).The Unexpec,ed Vista: A Wells, H. G. (1960). The War of the Worlds. Physicist's View of ivatwe. iv is Charles Scrib- NTY: Random House. ner's Sons. This science fiction classic is an exciting story of With an inquiry approach, Trefil examines a space. It explores the possibility of life in other dozen simple questions, such as why the sky is worlds. (Ages ten to adult) blue or why there are no rainbows in winter, from a physicist's point of view. He gives the Wilson, M. (1960). American Science and In- reader awareness of the interrelatedness of vention. NY: Bonanza. natural laws. (Ages ten to adult) This book provides a pictorial, historical accounting of those who have influenced our knowledge Visner, IL, and A. Hectlinger.(1971). Simple of American physical science. For grades four to Science Experiments. Palisades, N.J.: Franklin. six, this book provides a handy reference because of its thorough coverage of American sci- Frequently asked science questions are answered entists and their inventions. for fourth to sixth graders.Experiments are outlined which explain some scientific principles. Wilson, R. (1980). How PlantsGrow. NY: Larousse. Walters, D.(1982). Chemistry. NY: Franklin Watts. This book gives concise explanations and illustrations of the development and strucmre of plant This introductory book covers basic aspects of life. Wilson discusses plant ceiis, photosynthe- chemistry (chemical change, acid/base, elements, sis, respiration and transpiration, and ecological atomic structure), incorporating simple experi- relationships and conservation. ments and illustrations.It is easy to understand for the young scientist, aged eight to twelve. Wolff, A. (1984). A Year of Birds. NY: Dodd, Mead. Weiss, M. E. (1982).Sky Watchers of Ages Past. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. This charming picture book of birds which can be seen each month shows the continuity of time, Astronomy is the oldest of the sciences. Weiss's shared patterns of life, and a loving family who book explains how native peoples of the western observe the birds.The pictures are beautiful world studied the heavens and what they learned. watercolors. (Kindergarten to grade three) (Grades four to six)

Yates, M.(1982). Sun Power: The Story of Wells, H. G.(1968). The Time Machine. NY: Solar Energy. Nashville: Abington. Bantam. As the sun explodes, great amounts of energy are Wells's science fiction classic tells of a time trav- released in space. This current book on energy eler traveling into the future. During his trip, he from the sun traces the history and future of solar visits stages in the evolutionary degeneration of power. life on earth. (Ages ten to adult)

Model Curriculum Guide 12 Science Materials 121

APPENDIX IV:SCIENCE MATERIALS MATERIALS LIST K-3

aluminum foil marking pens apples matches aquarium meter sticks microscope bags, lunch mirrors bags, plastic sar.dwich bags balloons rails balls napkins bean seeds needle, steel newspapers cans, coffee cans, empty tin cans paper, butcher, construction, drawing chalk, white paint clay paper clips cloth, different materials 20 cm sq. paper towels coins paste cotton, balls pencils crayons pie pans, metal cups, measuring plants, live cups, plastic plates, paper

detergent, liquid record player rocks, samples egg cartons, empty rubber bands eye droppers rulers, wooden

fish from store salt fish food sand flashlight sandpaper flowers, assorted scale, bathroom food coloring scale, kitchen foods with distinct odors scissors seeds, asserted globe shoe boxes glue sponge spoons hammer stopwatch hand lenses straws string ice sugar index cards tape, masking jars, large glass tape, plastic jars, wide mouth thermometer (0C) thumbtacks knife toothpicks knives, plastic vinegar lamps leaves, different shapes washers waxed paper magazines wire, copper insulated magnets woodblocks marbles yarn

Science 12 122 Appendix

MATERIALS LIST 4-6

aluminum foil marking pens apple measuring cup aquarium meterstick microscope baking soda microscope slides balances milk containers balloons balls nails, iron battery (dry cell, 1.5 volt) newspapers batteries (D cell) blocks of wood paper (construction, drawing, tracing) buttons paper towels pencils cans, tin petroleum jelly cardboard plaster of Paris chalk plastic wrap clay pins compasses potatoes coins Pots cotton cloth, wool rock samples (granite, limestone, cover slips marble, sandstone, slate, cups, paper volcanic)

egg whites salt elodea plant sand eyedroppers sandwich bags scissors flashlight seeds, beans food coloring shells, mated funnel soap, liquid soil, potting glasses, drinking spoons glue spoons, measuring gravel Maws string hammer hand lenses tape, masking and plastic test tubes ice cubes toothpicks iodine tweezers iron filings thermometers

keys vinegar knife wire cutter lamp wire stripper light bulbs and sockets wire, telephone lime juice washers

magazines magnets, bar

130 Model Curriculum Guide Science Materials 123

MATERIALS LIST 7-8

acetate, clear sheet electrolysis kit acetic acid elodea alcohol lamps Epsom salts alcohol, rubbing-isopropyl, ethyl erasers, rubber aluminum foil ammonia, household filter paper aquarium, glass flashlight flasks, Erlenmeyer, 250 mL bags, plastic sandwich flour balance, triple beam flower samples balls, different sizes food coloring batteries, D size and 6 volt forceps beakers, graduated, 150 mL funnels, plastic beakers, graduated, 250 mL beakers, graduated, 500 mL gastric juice Benedict's solution glucose bleach, liquid blocks, wood 4x4 cm hand lenses blood pressure cull (sphygmomanometer) hot plate borax hydrelloric acid, dilute bowl, large mixing hydrogen peroxide, 3% Bunsen burner ice cardboard index cards 3x5 chalk iodine solution chicken leg bones juice, lemon or grapefruit clay, modeling clock with second hand lamp base, miniature club soda lamps, miniature, 1.5 volt compasses, drawing lens, 10-cm focal length compasses, directional light bulb, 200 watt corn starch limewater cotton balls litmus paper cover slips magnet, bar cultures, living: marble chips amoeba marbles, 1.2-cm glass daphnia markers, felt pens hydra marshmallows mealworms maps, weather Parameciums matches, safety earthworms measuring cups yeast metersticks microscopes cups, paper microscope slides cups, Styrofoam microscope slides, depression cylinders, graduated, 50 mL mineral samples cylinders, graduated, 100 mL mirror, small square or rectangular cylinders, graduated, 250 mL nails, 6d steel dishes, rectangular nails, 16d finishing dissecting needle needle, sewing droppers, medicine newspaper nylon stocking

Science 131 124 Appendix

MATERIALS LIST 7-8 (paae 2)

pan, aluminum pie vinegar paper, graph vitamin C ;ascorbic acid) pencil, glass marking petri dishes with covers and agar washers, s: hall plastic bottles, 200 mL water, distilled plastic wrap wire, copper insulated plaster of Paris wife, gauze potassium dichromate wire, steel potassium permanganate prisms protractors pulley, single

ring stand and ring rock salt rock samples rod, glass and metal rubber bands rulers, 30 cm

safety goggles salt, table sand, find scissors seltzer tablets seeds, variety (corn, radish, pea, bean) sodium bicarbonate sodium hydroxide soil, potting splint, wood spring scale stethoscope stoppers, cork (for test tubes) straws, drinking sugar, table sulfur, small lump

tape, masking tape, transparent test tube brush, cleaning test clamps test tube rack test tubes, Pyrex, 3G mL test tube stoppers, rubber thermometer -10° C to 1000 C thumbtacks toothpicks towels, paper tripod tubing glass

Model Curriculum Guide 132 125

Publications Available from the Department of Education

This publication is onof over 600 that are available from the California StateDepartment of Education. Some of the more recent publicationsor those most widely used are the following: ISBN Title (Date of publication) Price

0-8011-0271-5 Academic Honesty (1986) $2 50 0-8011-0471-8 Addendum to the 1985-86 California Private School Directory (1986) 7 75 0-8011-0272-3 Administration of Maintenance and Operations in California School Districts (1986) 6.75 0-8011-0216-2 Bilingual-Crosscultural Teacher Aides. A Resource Guide (1984) 3 50 0-8011-0238-3Boating the Right Way (1985) 400 0-8011-0275-8 California Dropouts A Status Report (1986) 2 JG 0-8011-0472-6California Private School Directory (1986) 900 0-8011-0473-4 California Public School Directory ('987) 14 00 0-8011-0488-2 Caught in the Middle. Educational Reform for Young Adolescents inCalifornia Schools (1987) 500 0-8011-0493-9 Challenge of Excellence: Annual Report, 1986 (1987) 300 0-8011-0241-3 Computer Anphcations Planning (1985) 500 0- 8011 -0242 -I Computers in Education. Goals and Content (1985) 2 50 0-8011-0659-1Educational Software Preview Guide (1987) 200 0-8011-0243-X Elementary School Program Quality Criteria (1985) 3 25 0-8011-0041-0 English-Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools (1987) 3 00 0-8011-0663-X English-Language Arts Model Curriculum Guide (1987) 2 25 0-8011-0247-2 Handbook for Conducting an Elementary Program Review (1985) 4 50 0-8011-0248-0 Handbook for Conducting a Secondary Program Review (1985) 4 50 0-8011-0289-8 Handbook for Physical Education (1986) 4 50 0-8011-0249-9 Handbook for Planning an Effective Foreign Language Program (1985) 3 50 0-8011-0179-4 Handbook for Planning an Effective Mathematics Program (1982) 200 0-8011-0290-1 Handbook for Planning an Effective Writing Program (1986) 2.50 0-8011-0224-3 Handbook for Teaching Cantonese-Speaking Students (1984) 4 50 0-8011-0291-X Handbook for Teaching Pilipino-Speaking Students (1986) 4.50 0-8011-0204-9 Handbook for Teaching Portuguese-Speaking Students (1983) 4 50 0-8011-0250-2 Handbook on California Education for Language MinorityParentsChinese, English Edition (1985) ...... 3 25 0-8011-0227-8 Individual Learning Programs for Limited-English-Proficient Students (1984) 3 50 0-8011-0466 I Instructional Patterns: Curriculum for Parenthood Education (19R5) 12 00 0-8011-0208-1 Manual of First-Aid Practices for School Bus Drivers (1983). 1.75 0 -801 I -0209 -X Martin Luther King, Jr,, 1929.-1968 (1983) 3 25 0-8011-0358-4 Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools (1985) 3 00 0-8011-0664-8 Mathematics Model Curriculum Guide (1987) 2.75 0-8011-0252-9 Model Curriculum Standards: Grades Nine Through Twelve (1985). 5 50 0-8011-0229-4Nutrition EducationChoose Well, Be Well. A Curriculum Guide for Junior High School (1984) 8.00 0-8011-0228-6 Nutrition EducationChoose Well, Be Well. A Curriculum Guide for High School (1984).. 8.00 0-8011-0182-4Nutrition EducationChoose Well, Bc Well A Curriculum Guide for Preschooland Kindergarten (1982) 8.00 0-8011-0183-2Nutrition EducationChoose Well, Be Well. A Curriculum Guide for the Primary Grades (1982) 800 0-8011-0184-0Nutrition EducationChoose Well, Be Well A Curriculum Guide forthe Upper Elementary Grades (1982) 800 0-8011-0230-8Nutrition EducationChoose Well, Be Well A Resource Manual for Parentand Community Involvement in Nutntion Education Programs (1984) 4 50 0-8011-0185-9 Nutntion EducationChoose Well, Be Well. A Resource Manual forPreschool. Kindergarten. and Elementary Teachers (1982) 2.25 0-8011-0186-7Nutrition EducationChoose Well, Be Well. A Resource Manual for Secondary Teachers (1982) 2 25 0-8011.0253-7Nutrition EducationChoose Well, Be Well: Food Photo Cards (withnutrient composition charts) (1985) 10 00 0-8011-0254-5Nutrition EducationChoose Well, Be Well: Teaching Matelials for Preschool/ Kindergarten Curriculum Guide (in color) (1985) 7 50 0-8011-0255-3Nutrition EducationCompute Well, Be Well: Computer Activities for theClassroom. Preschool/ Kindergarten (1985) 12.50 0-8011-0256-1Nutrition EducationCompute Well, Be Computer Activities for the Classroom, Grades 1-3 (1985) 12 50 0-8011-0257-X Nutrition EducationCompute Well, Be Well: Computer Activities forthe Classroom, Grades 4-6 (1985) 12.50

The following editions are also available, at the same price. Armenian / English,Cambodian/English, Hmong/ English, Korean/ English, Laotian/ English, Spanish/ English, and Vietnamese/ English

Science 133 126

0.801 1-0303-7 A Parent's Handbook on California Education (1986) 3.25 0-8011-0305-3Paths Through High School A California Curriculum Study (1987) 4.00 0-8011-0671-0Practical Ideas for Teaching Writing as a Process (1987)...... 6.00 0-8011-0309-6Program Guidelines for Hearing Impaired Individuals (1986) 6.00 0-8011-0258-8Program Guidelines for Severely Orthopedically Impaired Individuals (1985) ...... 600 0-8011-0310-X Program Guidelines for Visually Impaired Individuals (1986) ...... 600 0-8011-0213-8Raising Expectations: Model Graduation Requirements (1983i 2 75 0. 8011-0311-8Recommended Readings in Literature, K8 (1986) 2 25 0-8011-0214-6School Attendance Improvement. A Blueprint for Action (1983) 2 75 0 -8011 -0189 -I Science Education for the 1980s (1982) . 2 50 0-8011-0339-8Science Framework for California Public Schools (1978) ..... 300 0 -8011 -0354 -IScience Framework Addendum (1984) 300 0-8011-0665-6Science Model Curriculum Guide (1987) 3 25 0-8011-0262-6Secondary School Program Quality Criteria (1985) 3 25 0-8011-0315-0Selected Financial and Related Data for California Public Schools (1986) 300 0-8011-0265-0Standards for Scohosis Screening in California Public Schools (1985) 2 50 0-8011-0486-6Statement on Preparation in Natural Science Expected of Entering Freshmen (1986) 2 50 0-8011-0318-5Students' Rights and Responsibilities Handbook (1986) 2 75 0-8011-0234-0Studies on Immersion Education: A Collection for U.S. Educators (1984) ...... 5.00 0-8011-0474-2Technology in the Curriculum (5 manuals, 5 disks) (1986) 95 00 0-8011-0192-1Trash Monster Environmental Education Kit (for grade six) 23 00 0-8011-0236-7University and College Opportunities Handbook (1984) 3 25 0-8011-0344-4Visual and Performing Arts Framework for California Public Schools (1982) 3 25 0-8011-0237-5Wet 'n' Safe. Water and Boating Safety, Grades 4-6 (1983) 2 50 0-8011-0194-8Wizara of Waste Environmental Education Kit (for grade three) 20 00 0-8011-0464-5Work Permit Handbook (1985) 600 0-8011-0648-6Writing Assessment Handbook (1986) 10 00 0-8011-0270-7Young and Old Together. A Resource Directory of Intergenerational Resources (1986) 300

Orders should be directed to: California State Department of Education P.O. Box 271 Sacramento, CA 95802-0271 Please include the International Standard Book Number (ISBN) for each title ordered. Remittance or purchase order must accompany order. Purchase orders without checks are accepted only from governmental agencies in California. Sales tax should be a ded to all orders from California purchasers. A complete list of publications available from the Department, including apprenticeship instructional materials, may be obtained by writing to the address listed above or by calling the sales unit of the Bureau of Publications at (916) 445-1260.

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