The Indian Army and the End of the Raj Daniel Marston Index More Information

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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-89975-8 - The Indian Army and the End of the Raj Daniel Marston Index More information

Index

Abell, G. E. B., 170 concerns over occupation zones, 153, Aiyar, Swarna, 316, 335 156–7, 165, 167, 170, 186, 193, 198 Alanbrooke, Lord, 76, 166, 193, 274 concerns over Transfer of Power Alexander of Tunis, Earl, Field Marshal, announcement, 289–90 57, 76 criticised by colleagues, 138–9, 265 Alexander, Horace, 220 criticisms of Chatﬁeld Report, 43 Amery, Leo, 80, 91, 103, 107, 241–2 dealings with Indian politicians, 1946–7, comments on/dealings with Auchinleck, 207 57, 78, 86–7, 109 end of tenure, 343–8 criticisms of London government, 91–2, fears for (post-independence) future, 109 250–2, 266, 270, 343, 345, 347 favourable comments on Indian troops, ﬁnal report, 344–5 63, 96 handling of civil unrest (1946–7), 203 role in Indianisation process, 98–9 handling of demobilisation, 241, 243, 247 Amritsar Massacre (1919), 38, 40, 208, 210 handling of INA trials, 119, 130–1, Anderson, Perry, 1 133–8, 140–2, 147–50 Arakan region (Burma) handling of North African campaigns, 54 Allied counteroffensive, 71, 73, 124 handling of Punjab crisis (1947), 302, Allied reverses in, 68–9 309, 312, 316, 321 Ardene, E. A., Brig., 62 Indian politicians’ attacks on, 266, 269, artillery units, development of, 32 271–2, 344, 346 assamis, 36 Indian politicians’ positive assessments Attlee, Clement, 137, 193, 203–4, 234, of, 247 247, 276, 285 misjudgements of political situation, 131, statement on Transfer of Power, 288–9, 295 265, 349 Auchinleck, Sir Claude, Field Marshal, objections to Breakdown Plan, 233–4 33, 84, 98, 145, 266, 273, 303, 342 opposition to division of army, 254–5, 1936 reform proposals, 41–2 257–8, 265–6 acceptance/handling of partition, 258–9 opposition to release of INA prisoners, and famine relief, 109 285–7 anti-discriminatory measures, 84, 86–7, plans for Gurkhas, 274, 277 90, 94 plans for post-war army, 94–5, 98–9, 112, appointment to India Command, 57, 70, 136–7, 142, 246, 249 86, 92–3 progressive approach, 4, 76, 351 biographical background, 41 proposals for nationalisation/division, change of departure date, 345–6 248–9, 261–7, 280 comments on civil–military situation, recruitment policy, 78–81 1946–7, 205, 217, 222, 226, 235, refusal of peerage, 347 308–9, 319, 321, 323, 332 sense of failure/betrayal, 343–4, 346–7 comments on Indianisation, 121–42 Supreme Command of joint force, 267, comments on loyalty/morale, 113–14, 345 269–70

375

376 Index

Auchinleck, Sir Claude, Field Marshal Burhanuddin, Mohammed, Capt., 140 (cont.) Burma, see Arakan region; First Burma tributes from military colleagues, 70, 85, campaign; Second Burma campaign 94, 97, 263, 347–8 Burrows, Sir Frederick John, 221, 291 Ayyangar, Sir N. Gopalaswami, 251 Azad Hind Fauj, see Indian National Army Cabinet Mission, 203–4 Azad, Dr Abul Kalam, 111 major parties’ objections to, 206 Calcutta, violence in (1946–7), 290–5 Barkawi, Tarak, 100 August 1946 riots, 215–22 Barker-Wyatt, D. A., Brig., 325–6 casualties, 219–20 Barton, T. A. J., Maj., 79 early reports/responses, 217–18 Bayly, Christopher, Prof., 118 involvement of ex-army/INA members, Bell, J. C., Lt Col, 341 218, 220 Bengal, see Bengal Army; Bengal famine; performance of army, 221–2, 294–5 Calcutta; East Bengal political background, 215–16 Bengal Army, 9 strengthening of military presence, 293 class structure (to 1840), 7–8 Callahan, Raymond, Prof., 76 post-war calls for, 259 Campbell-Johnson, Alan, 330 recruitment practices, 8–10 Candeth, K.P., Lt Gen., 29, 95, 97 suppression of Mutiny (1857), 9 Cariappa, Kodendera Madappa, Brig., 253, Bengal famine (1943), 107–10 257, 272 casualties, 108 Cassels, Sir Robert, Gen., 41, 84, 86, 102 Government of India’s response, 108–9 Cassino, 1st–4th battles for, 60–2 London government’s indifference, 109 cavalry units, military relief operation, 109 see also assamis provincial government’s failure to deal costs of equipment, 35 with, 108 inter-war reforms, 37 Bevin, Ernest, 234–5 irregular, 23 Bhanot, B. D., Col, 251, 268 organisational problems, 35–6 Bien Hoa, battle of (Jan. 1946), 173 Central India Horse Regiment, 1940 Bihar, violence in (1946–7) ‘mutiny’, 102 ‘Anti-Smuggling Corps’, 292 Central Java, 183–5 casualties, 226 conflicts with nationalist groups, 184–5, deployment of troops, 227–8 189 evacuation of refugees, 229 relations with Japanese, 184 foreshadowings, 226–7 Chamberlain, Neville, 48 October 1946 outbreak, 226–30 Chatfield Committee/Report, 42 responsibility of local/national criticisms, 43 government, 228–9 Chatterjee, A. J., Maj. Gen., 154 resumption of hostilities (March 1947), 291 Chetwode, Sir Philip, Gen., 46 scale of violence, 227 Chopra, R. B., Brig., 95, 97 Bombay Army, recruitments, 13 Christison, Sir Philip, Lt Gen., 178–80, Boon, George, Supt, 292 186, 189, 193, 195 Bose, Sarat Chandra, 286 Churchill, Winston, 76, 99, 109, 113, 238 Bose, Subhas Chandra, 117, 120, 122–8 criticisms of Indian Army, 68, 77, 80, 91, Breakdown Plan, 232–4 107 objections to, 233–4 Indian Army officers’ objections to, 107, role of army, 233 109 Briggs, Harold, Maj. Gen., 56 civil power, aid to, see internal security Bristow, R. C. B., Brig., 2, 40, 127, 190, civil war (1947), 4, 273, 343, 345 197, 324, 327, 330–1, 335 civil–military co-operation Brown, Judith, Prof., 103 breakdown, 325–6 Bruce, J. C., Maj. Gen., 5, 351 definitions/procedures, 210–11, 213, Bucher, Roy, Maj. Gen., 216, 218–19, 301 221–2, 225 problems of, 210–11

Index 377

Coalition Government (Punjab) military opposition, 254–5, 258, 265–6, composition, 296 268, 340 criticisms/proposals for reform, 296, 299 Muslim demands for, 255–6, 260, 265 dissolution, 298–9 official announcement, 264 need for, 299 phases of, 267 Cockin, C. M., Maj., 133 rejection of proposals, 257 Colville, Sir John, 306 restrictions on Muslim/Hindu service, Condon, W. E. H., Col, 171, 174, 195–6 268 Copland, Ian, Prof., 284, 335–6 secret plans for, 255 Cotton, J. C., Col, 336 shift in government position, 258–9 courts martial, see trials of INA members Dogras, transfer/division of army units, Cowan, David ‘Punch’, Maj. Gen., 30, 67 341–2 crowds, defined as hostile, 219 Dow, Sir Hugh, 226–7, 230 Cunningham, Alan, Gen., 54 Dunn, Maj., 86 Cunningham, Sir George, Governor, Dutch forces (in Java), indiscipline of, 182 134–5, 250 Duties in the Aid of the Civil Power (1937 manual), 208–9 Das, Rai Bahadur Badri, 130 see also Military Training Pamphlet No.11 Das, Suranjan, 215, 335 Dutt, M. R. Lt Col, 94 Davis, Patrick, Capt., 197 demobilisation, 4, 239–48 East Bengal, violence in (October 1946), cash grants, 241 222–6 delays, 243 authorities’ pro-Muslim bias, 225 demobbed soldiers’ role in 1946–7 casualties, 225 violence, 201, 218, 279, 283, 297–8, East India Company, 23 301, 350 recruitment practices, 7 employment following, 244 Eastern Java, 185–92 fears over impact on society, 241, 245 British/Indian captures, 187 flaws in procedure, 279 conflict with local forces, 188–9, 191–2 intended numbers, 247 deployment of British/Indian troops, land grants, 241 185–6, 190 of officers, 248–9, 252, 307–8 failure of communication between HQ post-1918, 17–18 and ground troops, 188 re-enlistment following, 247–8 murder of British officers, 189–90 skills training, 245 talks with local leaders, 186–9 specific procedures, 244 Eden Commission report (1879), 10 Desai, Shri Bhulabhai, 130, 132 Ekin, R., Maj. Gen., 227 desertions, 3, 110–11, 114 engineering units, 11 in Indonesia, 195–7 Evans, Sir Geoffrey, Gen., 50 Dewey, Thomas, Lt Col, 164 Dhillon, G. S., Lt (Col), 126, 131, 138 first Burma campaign (1941–2), 3, 66–8, Din, Hayaud, Lt Col, 171 113 District Soldier Boards (DSBs), 18–19 lessons learned from, 68–70, 73 division (of army), 340–2 First World War acceleration of process, 260–1, 264 aftermath, 15–17, 21, 35–7 appointment of new commanders-in- demobilisation following, 17–18 chief, 270–1 scale of Indian involvement, 14–15 complexity of issues, 261–2, 265, 280 Free India Legion, 117 Congress opposition to, 260 French Indo-China, Indian Army difficulty of carrying out alongside occupation, 153, 158–74 nationalisation, 259–61 burning of buildings/villages, 169 disposition of units, 270–1 casualties, 169, 173 guiding principles, 267–8 civil authority, 160 initial proposals, 240, 254 conduct of French troops, 163 joint (interim) control, 266–7 conflict with nationalist groups, 168–74

378 Index

French Indo-China, Indian Army Haig, H. G., Governor, 48 occupation (cont.) Haines, Sir Frederick, 10 delineation of zones, 158–9 Hamid, Shahid, Maj. Gen., 141–2, 144, increase in violence, 164, 167 149, 224, 245, 251, 263, 307–8, 316, objectives, 160, 162 344 operational difficulties, 160–2 Hamilton, G. J., Maj. Gen., 34 (plans for) withdrawal, 167, 172–4 Hastings, Robin, 34 response in India, 194 Hawthorn, D. C., Maj. Gen., 188–9, 319 similarities with Burma campaigns, 173 Himatsinhji, K. S., Col, 132, 142 similarities with Netherlands East Indies Hindus operation, 175 organised violence by, 230–1 French troops, in Indo-China prohibition on service in Pakistan Army, arrival, 168–9 268 complaints of indiscipline, 163, 170, 172 violence directed against, 219–20 handover of control to, 171–4 Hiroshima, bombing of, 155 Fujiwara, Iwaichi, Maj., 119, 121 Ho Chi Minh, 154, 160 Holworthy, A. W., Maj. Gen., 63 Gandhi, Mohandas K. (Mahatma), 18, 100, Horrocks, Lt Gen., 58 103, 303 Howlett, Hank, Capt., 82, 97 hunger strikes, 104 Garhmukteswar, violence in (Nov. 1946), Imperial Cadet Corps, 7 230–2 Imperial Japanese Army Gates, L. D., Maj., 169 disarmament, 153, 169 Gaylor, John, 341 post-war use for security purposes, 161 George VI, King, 137, 145 relations with British (post-war), 161, Government of India Act 1919, 25 171, 174 Government of India Act 1935, 35, 47 relations with INA, 119–25 Gracey, Sir Douglas, Maj. Gen., 159–66, security duties in occupied zones, 184 170–4, 347 support for anti-colonial movements, Griffiths, Sir Percival, 319–20 165, 175–7, 182–3 Grigg, Sir J., 99 Imperial Policing (manual), see Gwynn, Grimshaw, E. H. W., Maj. Gen., 33, 97 Charles Gupta, Brig., 97 Imphal plain (Burma), fighting in, 71–3, Gurgaon region, disturbances in, 306–9 124–5 see also Meo rising casualties, 125 Gurkhas, 8 Indian Army as special case, 274 (alleged) communal bias, 340 British–Indian negotiations over, 276–7 class composition, 13, 16, 37, 112, 243 deployment in Punjab, 331 commanders’ commendations, 147, 201, discussions on post-independence role, 221–2, 226, 351 273–8 concluding ceremonies, 272–3 distribution among national armies, condition in 1939, 43 277–8, 342 conduct in difficult circumstances, 150, internal security role, 218 197–9 language, 87–8 divisions, 13–14 lateness of decision on, 278 education/literacy levels, 19 (near-)mutiny (Nov. 1947), 342 esprit de corps,19–20 plans for transfer to British Army, 275–6 final order, 273 post-1948 service in Far East, 275 impact of Second World War, 2–4, 44–7, recruitment, 9, 273, 277 112–14 relations with British officers, 88 impossible demands placed on, 348–9 role in Central Java, 183 inter-war reorganisations, 35–7, 41–3 role in Western Java, 182–3 lack of communalism, 229–30, 234–7, Gwynn, Charles, Maj. Gen., Imperial 239 Policing, 208–10 language of commands, 88

Index 379

military decorations, 154 recruitment base/numbers, 117, 119–20, numerical strength, 247 123 organisational flaws, 35 reorganisation, 122–3 overseas deployment (post-war), 244 secondary role to IJA, 123–4 peacetime mandate, 37–9, 41–2 see also trials of INA members post-war reorganisation, 239 Indian National Congress (party), 18 professionalism, 2–4, 45–7, 65, 76, attitudes to 1946–7 violence, 226, 228–9, 113–14, 154, 198–9, 212, 234–7, 232 240, 334–7, 350–1 boycotting of army parade, 145 progressive nature of leadership, 4, 76 criticisms of army, 303 proposals for post-war size/role, 242–3 disputes with Muslim League, 206 regional commands, 201 imprisonment of leaders, 204 relationship with Congress, 20 military indifference to, 103, 107 repatriation of British personnel, 156–7 opposition to Indian involvement in war, response to post-war political 47, 103, 204 developments, 206 pre-partition talks, 204–5 wartime expansion/difficulties, 51–3, 77, relations with army, 20, 107 82–3, 104, response to naval mutiny, 144 see also demobilisation; division; stance on South East Asian occupation, Indianisation; nationalisation; officer 153 corps; recruitment practices; Second support for INA, 129–30, 132, 150 World War see also Quit India movement; Indian Cadet College, Indore, 24 names of individual politicians especially Indian Civil Service, 33–4, 202 Nehru breakdown during 1947 violence, Indian officers 310–11, 314 acceptance in new posts, 30–1 manpower shortages, 283 admission to Sandhurst, 25 Indian Independent League, 119 allegations of communal bias, 301 relations with INA, 122 command posts in field, 23 Indian Military Academy (Dehra Dun), 87 difficulty of recruitment, 251–2 courses/student quotas, 29 disciplinary powers, 90–2 creation, 28–9 discrimination against, 25, 34, 83, 94 quality of intake, 251–2 eligibility for commissions, 24–5 training officers, 30 lack of senior command posts, 253–4 Indian Mutiny (1857), 9, 23, 208 mistrust, 24 Indian National Army, 4, 34, 72, 113 personal recollections, 96–8 Allied counter-propaganda, 138 political views, 33–4, 101–3, 115, 206, 230 battlefield performance, 118, 124–5 ranks/terminology, 22 calls for release of prisoners, 284–8 rates of pay, see pay, rates of casualties, 125 relations with British colleagues, 96–7 classification of prisoners, 128–9 restricted to command of Indian troops, defections from, 124, 127 28–9 defections to, 28 service with British regiments, 30 disintegration/surrender, 127 shortage of applicants, 28, 32 dissolution of first version, 122 training, 88, 95–6 ex-members’ role in 1946–7 violence, Indianisation, processes of, 3, 22–5, 32 118–19, 135, 220, 292 attitudes of COs, 30–1 Indian Army attitudes to, 126 criticisms/flaws, 31–2 (limitations of) officer training, 123 desertions in protest at, 121–42 nationalist politicians’ attitudes to, 118 eight-unit scheme, 25–8 proclamation of Provisional Government, criticisms, 27 122–3 placement of officers, 27 propaganda, 125 proposal, 26 reasons for failure, 123 recruitment policy, 26–7 reasons for joining, 120–42 selected units, 26

380 Index

Indianisation, processes of (cont.) mutinies among, 77, 101–2 extent of progress, 32–3, 43–4 (presumed) military qualities, 11, 17 fulfilment of pre-war plans, 88–90 recruitment, 17, 77 instructional pamphlets, 89–90 Java, see Central Java; Eastern Java; Western organisational issues, 90–2 Java personal recollections, 96–8 Jenkins, Sir Evan, 221, 294, 296–9, 302–4, post-war completion, 98–9, 239, 248–9 306, 309–11, 320 response of London government, 99 commendations of army, 321 selection of units, 30 criticism of nationalist leaders, 317 timescale of transition, 98, 113 self-contradiction, 332–3 wartime, 77, 82–96, 113 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali, 148, 204–5, 215, 260 Indonesia, see Netherlands East Indies calls for military intervention, 302 infantry units demands for military action, 310–11, 347 inter-war reorganisation, 37 meetings with British leaders, 256–8, 266 platoonisation, 31–2 jungle warfare Interim Government inexperience of Indian Army, 69, 124 composition, 206–7 training for, 67, 69–70 formation, 207, 215 handling of INA issue, 284–8 Kalha, Sarbjit Singh, Lt Col, 153 plans for, 205–6 Katoch, K. S., Lt Gen., 30, 97 requests for Gurkha troops, 275 Keren, battle of, 49 internal security, 6, 279 Khan, Akbar, Brig., 257 army exercise (1946), 212 Khan, Liaquat Ali, 256, 258, 265, 286, co-operation between services, 39–40 306–7, 346 distinguished from war, 212–13 Khan, Mohammad Ayub, Brig. (later effectiveness, 41 president), 332 governing principles, 209 Khan, Mohammad Sher, Col, 339–40 intelligence gathering, 219 Khan, Sher Ali, Lt Col, 33, 94 inter-war incidents, 39–41 Khan, Yasmin, 299 manuals/guidelines, 102–3, 212–13 Kido, Maj., 183 military procedures, 40 Kirby, S. Woodburn, Maj. Gen., 174 phases of military involvement, 209 Kirti Lehar group, 101–2 (theoretical) role of army, 207–14, 233 Kitchener, Earl, Field Marshal, 13 vital role of army, 202–3 Korla, Siri Kanth, Maj., 86, 94 wartime use of troops for, 68, 106 Kudaisya, Gyanesh, Dr, 41 see also civil–military co-operation; minimum force Lawford, J. P., Lt Col, 341 Internal Security Instructions (1937), 208, 211 Lawson, Jack, Secretary of State for War, Iran, see Persia 166, 177, 180 Iraq, fighting in (1941–2), 51–2 Leclerc, Philippe, Gen., 165, 167, 171–2 Ismay, Lord, 260, 264–5, 345 ‘Lectures for Officers Joining the Indian Italian campaign (1943-5), 59–64 Army’ (pamphlet), 89 battles for Cassino, 60–2 Legislative Assembly, creation of, 25 fighting in Adriatic sector, 62–3 Linlithgow, Marquess of, 48, 70, 91–2, Iwakuro, Hideo, Col, 121 104–8, 242 Listowel, Earl, 276 Jalal, Ayesha, 245 Lockhart, Sir Rob, Gen., 143, 145, 247–8, James, P. H., Maj., 326 268, 270, 309, 323, 344, 347 Jammu/Kashmir crisis (Oct.–Nov. 1947), loyalty (of Indian troops), 1, 100–10 346–7 concerns expressed over, 104, 147 Japanese Empire, post-war occupation, impact of INA trials, 136 see South-East Asia personal vs ideological, 120 Jat Sikhs vouched for by senior officers, 104 demobilisation, 245 Luthera, A. K., Maj. Gen., 97 involvement in 1946–7 violence, 283–4 Lyne, Lewis, Maj. Gen., 276

Index 381

MacArthur, Douglas, Gen., 155, 157–8 Montagu-Chelmsford Report (1918), 21, 24 Macartney, Fergus, Lt Col, 316, 327 Monte Cassino, battle of, see Cassino MacKinlay, James Patrick, Brig., 215, 220 Montgomery of Alamein, Viscount, Field MacMunn, Sir George, Maj. Gen., 27 Marshal, 57–9, 76, 275, 277, 293 Madras Army morale, 110–12 downsizing, 12 during 1946–7 violence, 229–30 mistrust among senior officers, 11–12 impact of INA trials, 131–2, 135, 139, post-First World War divisions, 16 141, 147–9, 196 Madras, recruitment from, 80 impact of Punjab crisis, 305, 307–8, 345 Malayan campaign (1941), 3, 65–6, 113, 121 in Indonesia, 196 reasons for failure, 65–6 (non-)impact of naval mutiny, 144–5 Malik, Col, 130 Moreman, Tim, 66 Maling, John, Col, 29 Morton, S., Supt, 301 Mallaby, A. W. S., Brig., 185–9 Mountbatten, Lord Louis, Admiral, 70, murder/repercussions, 189–90 156, 195, 248, 257 Manekshaw, S.H.J.F. ‘Sam’, Capt. (later assumption of viceroyalty, 289 Field Marshal), 30, 86 brokering of release of INA prisoners, Mansergh, E. C., Maj. Gen., 190–5 287–8 Manual of Military Law (1929), 210 comments on civil authorities, 319–20 martial law handling of Auchinleck’sdeparture,344–7 debates on, in 1947 Punjab, 301–2, 313 handling of events in occupied zones, imposition in inter-war period, 208 155, 156–7, 162, 164, 167, 171, martial race theory, 8, 10–12, 15–17, 29 178–9, 189, 193 moves away from, 78–81 handling of partition, 256–67, 269–72, Mason, Philip, 98, 138 276, 292, 294, 308, 323 Maunsell, F. K. S., Brig., 162, 174 meetings with Indian leaders, 256–8, 266 Member for Defence or War, position of, 207 moves to contain violence, 303–5, Meo rising (March 1947), 306–7 310–11, 314, 321–2 Messervy, Frank, Lt Gen., 54, 247–8, 270, Mudie, Sir Francis, 145, 326, 337 300–2, 310, 312–13, 347 Muslim League, 18 Middle East, Indian successes (1940–1), attitudes to 1946–7 violence, 225–6, 51–2 228–9, 232 see also Iraq; Persia calls for division of army, 255–6, 260, 265 Military Evacuation Organization, 339 calls for independent state, 204 Military Training Pamphlet No. 11 (‘Notes calls for military intervention, 306 on Training for Duties in the Aid to disputes with Congress, 206 the Civil Power 1941’), 211 electoral successes, 296 Military Training Pamphlet No. 11a paramilitaries (volunteers/guards), 297–8 (‘Platoon Commander’s Guide to rejection of Cabinet Mission plan, 215 Duties in the Aid to the Civil Power’, role in Interim Government, 207 1946), 212–13 support for war effort, 47, 204 minimum force, 209–10 talks with Congress, 204–5 (calls for) relaxation of standards, see also names of politicians especially 212–13, 230, 300, 310 Jinnah definitions in military manuals, 210, Muslims 212–13 (in army), concerns as to loyalty, 17–18, individual commanders’ interpretations, 301 229 (in army), development of nationalist key principles, 213 sentiment, 324, 326 practical application, 210 military resources, 256 problems of definition, 208 organised violence by, 224 Moestopo, Dr, 186–8 prohibition on service in (new) Indian Mohammad, Ishaq, Maj., 350 Army, 268 Molesworth, G. N., Gen., 79, 93 violence directed against, 219–20, 230–1, Montagu, Sir Edward, 25 306–7, 318

382 Index

mutinies, 101–2, 142–5 casualties, 195 suppression, 143, 214 desertions to nationalist side, 195–7 see also Royal Indian Navy mutiny disposition of British/Indian troops, 185 final plans/measures, 193–5 Nabha, Maharaja of, 284 handover to Dutch, 192 Nagano, Lt Gen., 186 interim administration, 192 Nair, M., Capt., 94 response in India, 186, 190–4 Nakamura, Kotaro, Maj. Gen., 183 scale of operation, 174 nationalisation (of Indian Army) shortage of intelligence reports, 177–9 advisory committee, 251 similarities with French Indo-China calls for slowing down, 266, 280 operation, 175 Congress calls for, 268–9 see also Central Java; Eastern Java; Java; dissatisfaction with process, 252–4 Western Java first announcement, 249 Noronha, R. S., Maj., 73 need for British officers, 250–4, 261–2, North African campaign (1940–3), 49, 53–9 264, 269–70 Allied gains, 55–9 (projected) timescale, 253–4 Allied reverses, 53–6 nationalist movements, 18 role of Indian troops, 49–50, 54–9 clashes with military, 19–20 North-West Frontier, operations on, 38 colonialist counter-strategies, 19 ‘Notes for Guidance of Commanding discontent with army, 43 Officers, Staff and Regimental electoral gains, 35 Officers’ (pamphlet), 89–90 officers’ sympathies with, 19, 33–4, 102–3, 107, 115 O’Connor, Sir Richard, Lt Gen., 133, 250, varying attitudes to war, 103 333, 345 see also Indian National Congress O’Dwyer, Sir Michael, Lt Governor, 15, 21 (party) officer corps Nawaz, Shah, Capt., 131, 138 all-white composition, 22–3 Nehru, Jawarhalal, 34, 205 expansion, 6, 92–3 calls for military intervention, 298–300, post-war loss of numbers/experience, 301, 302, 310–11 248–52 calls for nationalisation, 268–9 post-war proposals for, 243 changes of position, 293, 298–9, 310–11 proportion of British to Indian officers, comments on Punjab crisis, 332 89 criticisms of army/officers, 266–7, 271 see also Indian officers; Indianisation, criticisms of INA, 266–7 processes of criticisms of local government, 317 Omissi, David, Dr, 19, 39 defence of INA members, 130 discussions over INA trials, 148–50 Pakistan Army failure to comprehend Indian Army, 150, calls for, 265 154, 246, 269 creation, 270 plans for post-independence Army, 246 numerical strength, 247–8 political use of INA, 118, 129–30, 150, Palit, D. K., Maj. Gen., 11, 31, 84, 97 154, 245, 286–8 partition positive comments on army, 295 acceleration of process, 264 requests for non-use of British troops, announcement of plans for, 292, 308 293, 331 breakdown of law and order, 2, 4, role in Interim Government, 207, 215, 118–19, 273, 322 229 see also Punjab, violence in talks on partition/division of army, 260, governmental recognition of need for, 276 258–9 Nepal, Maharaja of, 274 Muslim calls for, 204 Netherlands East Indies, Indian Army outlining of plans for, 262–3 occupation, 153, 158, 174–81 prohibition of British military presence attitudes of Dutch government, 180 following, 339

Index 383

response of army, 2, 311, 349, Punjab see also division (of army) partition, 268 Pathans recruitments from, 8–11, 15, 331 (alleged) ancestry, 11 Punjab and Bengal Boundary Commission, raids on frontier, 38 308, 311 Patiala, Maharaja of, 284, 310 publication of findings, 322 Patterson, W. R., Rear-Admiral, 178 Punjab Boundary Force (PBF), 1–2, pay, rates of 312–30 differential, 24 (alleged) communal bias, 318–19, moves towards equalisation, 86–7, 90 329–32 Peel Commission, 9, 11 battles with police, 320 Perkin, John, Col, 252, 317 breakdown of relations with civil Persia (Iran), fighting in (1941–2), 52 authorities, 325–6 Persia and Iraq Force (Paiforce), 52 casualties, 329 Pethick-Lawrence, Lord, 135, 219–20, 222, commendations by military/political 225, 229, 232, 234, 246, 275, 286 leaders, 282, 321–3, 329–31 and INA trials, 130 composition, 314 handling of civil unrest (1946–7), 203 conflicts with local paramilitaries, 282–4 handling of events in occupation zones, criticisms by politicians/media, 314, 322, 165, 167, 182, 191–3 329, 339 Phillips, William, 110–11 degree of success, 334–7 platoonisation, 31–2 disbandment, 284, 330, 339, 343 objections to, 32, 86 disputes with Princely States, 316 police final report, 333 active engagement in violence, 318, 320 formation, 268, 312 (alleged) communal bias, 290–1, 301, geographical/numerical demands, 320, 320, 328 334 (alleged) corruption, 219 internal conflicts/divisions, 320, 322–6, commendations, 301 330 criticisms of efficiency, 218–20, 225, 227, media commentary, 332 237, 316, 320, 340 numerical strength, 334 fears for safety, 231, 237 planning specifics, 313 role in internal security operations, 217, problems with intelligence gathering, 292 316–17 self-justifications, 317 psychological strains on, 333–7 strikes/mutinies (March 1947), 291 racial/religious composition, 315 politics, separation from army life,112, 115, reasons for use of local troops, 331 279, 350 reinforcement, 321–2 see also Indian officers, political views; remit, 314–15 nationalist movements source of personnel, 314 Potter, David, 283 Punjab Disturbed Areas Act/Ordinance Powell, Enoch, Brig. (later Rt Hon.), 98 1947, 302, 310 Prasad, N., Maj. Gen., 30–1 Punjab Irregular (later Frontier) Force, 9, 13 Princely States Punjab National Unionist Party allegations against State Forces, 306 electoral reverses, 296 differences with PBF, 316 formation, 22 raising of arms/armies, 283–4 support for war effort, 47, 103, 204 private armies Punjab regional government moves against, 297–8 criticisms, 317 role in 1947 violence, 296–8 elections, 296 see also Princely States sectarianism, 296 Pugh, Col, 187 see also Coalition Government (Punjab) punishment, Indian officers’ powers of, 90–2 Punjab, violence in (1947), 201, 282–4, governmental objections to, 91–2 295–312 granting of, 92 attacks on trains, 321

384 Index

Punjab, violence in (1947) (cont.) Reynolds, R. N. P., Lt Col, 328 (attempted) border crossings, 322 Riches, Peter, Maj., 316 breakdown of civil administration, Ritchie, Neil, Gen., 54 210–11, 311, 316–17, 332–3, 348, Roberts of Kandahar, Lord, Field Marshal, 350 10–12, 22 casualties, 303 Rodham, C. H. B., Brig., 168 fears/foreshadowings, 236, 247–8 Rommel, Erwin, General, 53–7 impact on morale, 345 Roy, P. L., Mr, 96 increases in intensity, 317–18 Royal Air Force, mutinies among, 142–3 military reinforcement from other areas, Royal Indian Army Service Corps, 1939 309 mutiny, 101–2 performance of army, 2, 302–3, 305, Royal Indian Navy mutiny (1945), 143–5, 307–8, 334–7 214 political background, 295–6 casualties, 144 role of army/INA veterans, 297–8, 301 civil disturbance in support of, 144 role of private armies, 283–4, 296–8 suppression, 143–4 strategy for dealing with, 312 Rudra, A. A., Maj. Gen., 24–5, 27, 93–4 (temporary) containment, 302–3 rural areas, military ethos, 19–20 tension between major outbreaks, 304, Russell, E. H., Lt Col, 161, 167, 169 311–12 use of decommissioned weaponry, 298 Saghal, P. K., Capt., 131, 138 weaknesses in civil administration, Sandhurst Royal Military College, Indian 299–300 trainees at, 25 failure rates, 26 Quereshi, Ibrahim, Brig., 84 shortage of applicants, 28 Quetta, Indian Staff College, 95–6 Sapru, Sir Tej Bahadur, 130 Quit India movement, 68, 96, 104–7, 136 Savory, Sir Reginald, Lt Gen., 4, 29–30, 76, governmental response, 105–7 146–7, 221, 254, 263, 268, 271–3, linked with INA trials, 132 280, 324, 326, 329, 340, 342, 347–8 military response, 212 Scoones, Geoffrey, Lt Gen., 133, 254–5, military suppression, 106 290, 343, 345 post-war legacy, 237 second Burma campaign (1944–5), 71–6, 112 Radcliffe, Sir Cyril, 308–9 Allied gains, 127 Ram, Sita, Subedar, 8 IJA/INA defences, 125–6 Rangoon impact on morale, 111 Allied recapture, 76 Japanese retreat, 73, 75 Japanese capture, 67 reasons for Allied success, 73, 76 Ranking, R. P. I., Maj. Gen., 223, 294 use of Indian reinforcements, 75 Rao, Shiva, 135 Second World War Rashid, Abdul, Capt., 140 expansion/overstretching of Indian Army, Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh (militia), 231 51–3 Rawlinson, Sir Henry, Field Marshal, 26 impact on Indian Army, 2–4, 44–7, Raza, A. M., Brig., 273 112–14 recruitment practices, 6 Indian losses, 77 bias towards northern India, 10–13 (initial) non-engagement of Indian class divisions, 81 troops, 48 impact of First World War, 14–17 ‘phoney war’,49 pre-1914, 6–14 recruitment policy/drives, 48–51, 77–82 streamlining of process, 15 significance of Indian role, 45, 64, 76 war-time, 48–9, 77–82 unilateral British involvement of India, Rees, T. W. ‘Pete’, Maj. Gen., 1, 56, 47 282–337, 339 see under names of specific campaigns refugees, protection of, 339–40 Semarang (Central Java), fighting around, Reid, Denys, Maj. Gen., 62 185

Index 385

Sharma, Gautum, Lt Col, 83, 94 controversial elements, 153 Shingal, H. N., Brig., 96 extent of British remit, 163 Showers, L. C. J, Lt Col, 59 performance of Indian Army, 197–9 Siddeq, Mahammed, Lt Col, 326 political complexities, 197–8 Sikhs political repercussions, 349 British talks with leaders, 310 poor relations between Allies, 157 (in Army), conflict with other troops, 326 response of nationalist politicians, 153 organised violence by, 316, 318 strategic context, 155–8 (presumed) military qualities, 11, 17 strategic flaws, 153, 198 recruitment to Bengal Army, 8 see also French Indo-China; Netherlands transfer/division of Army units, 341–2 East Indies violence directed against, 299, 303 Spector, Ronald, Prof., 156 see also Jat Sikhs Stewart, Brig., 319 Simon Commission on Army Recruitment Stopford, Sir Montagu, Lt Gen., 195–6 (1930), 16–17 Suhrawardy, Huseyn Shaheed, 225, 259, Singh, Giani Pritam, 119 290 Singh, Gurbachan, Lt Col, 326 Sukarno, 175–6, 180, 189 Singh, Gurharpal, 202 Sumatra, occupation of, 181 Singh, Harbarkash, Lt Gen., 29–30 Sundaram, Chandar, 118 Singh, Kirpal, Dr, 1 Surabaya (Eastern Java), fighting in/around, Singh, Mohan, Capt. (Maj. Gen.), 28, 184, 188–9, 191–2 119–22 Singh, Nand, Cpl, 71 Talbot, Prof. Ian, 202 Singh, Parkash, Jemadar, 74–5 tanks, use in IS operations, 219, 231 Singh, Sardar Baldev, 207, 236, 239, 251, Taunton, D. E., Brig., 167 269 Terauchi, Hisaichi, Field Marshal, 157, 171 arming of Sikh militants, 258, 304, 329 Thapar, Pran Nath, Brig., 224–5 attacks on Auchinleck, 271–2 Thimayya, Kodendera Subayya, Brig., demands for release of INA prisoners, 251–3, 257 284–7 Third Burma War (1885), 11–12 support for Auchinleck, 247 Tiwana, Sir Khizr Hayat, 296–9 Singh, Tara, 299 trains, attacks on, 321, 339–40 Sinha, S. K., 226, 229 Transfer of Power, announcement of, Sixsmith, Eric, Brig., 215 288–9 Slim, Sir William, Field Marshal, 4, 40, 52, civilian responses, 289 127 impact on army, 289–90 command in post-war occupation zones, trials of INA members, 119, 127–42, 156, 158, 160, 164, 166, 178 147–50 command of Burma Corps, 67, 71, 73–4 adjournment, 132 comments on colleagues, 70, 174 (calls for) abandonment, 129–30, 148–50 progressive approach, 76 calls for severity, 133–5, 138–9, 141 Smith, Sir Arthur, Lt Gen., 253, 269, 304, concerns of military/political leaders, 323 133–7, 140–2 Soerio, Dr, 187 Defence Committee, 131 South East Asia Command (SEAC), 159 dropping of charges, 140 assumption of responsibilities in French/ first defendants, 131 Dutch colonies, 152, 155 location, 131 contradictory directives, 162 proposals/practice of leniency, 133–4, differences with India Command, 198 137–8, 140–2 lack of intelligence, 177–9, 183 protests/threats of violence, 133, 135, misjudgements of situation on ground, 140–1 188, 198 response among Indian Army, 131–2, South East Asia, occupation of French/ 139–42, 147–8, 150 Dutch colonies, 4, 152–5, 279 response of civilian population, 132, changes in command structure, 195 137–8, 142

386 Index

trials of INA members (cont.) response of Army, 234–7 selection of prisoners for trial, 128–9 response of London government, 238 sentencing, 128–9, 138 see also names of towns/regions especially use for political propaganda, 129–30, 132 Punjab Tuker, Sir Francis, Lt Gen., 55, 57–8, 60–1, 135, 143, 215–19, 224, 231, Wade, D. A. L., Maj Gen., 251 286, 291–2, 328–9 Wainwright, Mary Doreen, 290 agreement with Auchinleck, 264, 266 Wallis, J. R., Capt., 82 disagreements with Auchinleck, 138–9, Wavell, Archibald, 1st Earl, Field Marshal, 147, 254, 265, 349 54, 80, 109, 147, 153, 252 hostility to INA, 134–5, 138–9, 143 Breakdown Plan, 232–4 key themes of command, 293–4 civilian appeals to, 224, 226–7, 296, 299 meeting with Bengal government, 294 comments on 1946–7 violence, 219–20, pessimistic assessments of civil situation, 222, 225, 228–30, 232, 235, 237–8, 2, 218, 221, 223, 227, 236, 293, 334 290, 299 positive comments on army, 201, 285, comments on Indian Army, 46, 69, 91, 295–6, 307 104, 107, 111–12, 145, 221, 235 proposed extension of command, 294 concerns over occupation zones, 170, Twyman, Sir Henry, Governor, 134 175, 182, 190, 193–4 end of tenure as viceroy, 234, 287, 289, Urdu, training of ofﬁcers in, 88 302 US Army handling of demobilisation, 241–2, 274 British/Indian relations with, 157 handling of INA trials, 129–30, 132, 135, weapons dumps, 298 137–8, 140, 148–9 handling of moves towards Indian Van der Plas, C. O., Dr, 180 independence, 205–7 van Mook, H. J., Dr, 178 opposition to release of INA prisoners, Venning, Lt Col, 229 285–7 Vietminh role in Indianisation process, 98 attacks on British/Indian troops, 167 Wedemeyer, Albert, Gen., 157 hardening of anti-British attitudes, 164 Western Java, 181–3, 193 military qualities, 173 clashes with local forces, 181–3 negotiations with Allied leadership, 166 relations with Dutch troops/civilians, 182 operations against, 160, 162–3, 168–74 relations with Japanese, 182–3 proclamation of independence, 161 Wilson, James, Major (later Lt Gen.), 235, recruitment/propaganda, 162 252 violence, rising levels of (1946–7),2,4,201–2 Wingate, Orde, Maj. Gen., 69 criticisms of civil authorities, 237 women/children, violence directed against, delay in calling in Army, 214 218, 224, 227, 230–1, 318, 332 military preparations for, 213–14, 216–17 Yong, Tan Tai, Prof., 15, 20, 296 numbers of paramilitaries, 297 political background, 203–7, 215–16 Zahir-ud-Din, Lt, 101