Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. Advertisement for New South Wales' first baby week, 'Long Live King Baby?', Sunday News, Sydney, 24 March 1920. Cf. Anna Davin, 'Imperialism and Motherhood', History Workshop, issue 5, Spring 1978, p. 14, also p. 10, on population was power. 2. Edith Simpson, Acting Hon. Sec. Victorian Baby Health Centres, to Town Clerk, Bendigo, 16 November 1922, Baby Health Centre 1920-40, Box 1, City of Bendigo; 'Wastage of Infant Life', Sydney Mail, 24 March 1920. See also Jane Lewis, The Politics of Motherhood: Child and Maternal Welfare in England, 1900-1939, London, 1980; Deborah Dwork, War is Good for Babies and Other Young Children: A History of the Infant and Child Welfare Movement in England 1898-1918, London and New York, 1987; R. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention ofInfant Mortality, 1850-1929, Baltimore and London, 1990; Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Maternal and Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920, Ithaca and London, 1993; C.R. Comacchio, 'Nations are Built of Babies ': Saving Ontario's Mothers and Children 1900-1940, Montreal, 1993; V. Fildes, L. Marks and H. Marland (eds), Women and Children First: International Maternal and Infant Welfare, 1870-1945, London and New York, 1992. 3. P. Grimshaw, M. Lake, A. McGrath and M. QuartIy, Creating a Nation, Melbourne, 1994, p. 2. 4. Women were enfranchised in 1893 in New Zealand, and 1894 and 1899 in the colonies of South Australia and Western Australia; and ob­ tained the federal vote in Australia in 1902. 5. In New Zealand, Maori were counted by head on census night for the first time in 1926; in Australia, Aborigines were not counted till the 1971 census and all gained the vote in 1962. 6. Davin, 'Imperialism and Motherhood', p. 26. On this way of writing history generally, see Marilyn Lake, The Politics of Respectability: Identifying the Masculinist Context', HS, vol. 22, no. 86, April 1986 pp.116-31. 7. VBHCA circular, 1944, 44/2343, City of Footscray; Baby Welfare 1944-7, City of Geelong. 8. Frontispiece to F. Truby King, The Expectant Mother, and Baby's First Month, Wellington, 1925. 9. On 'fit', see Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States, Cambridge, Mass., 1992, p.54.

248 Notes 249 10. See, for example, F.B. Smith, The People's Health 1830-1910, Canberra and London, 1979, and 'Health', in John Benson (ed.), The Working Class in England 1875-1914, London, 1985, pp. 36-62; A.E. Imhof, 'From the Old Mortality Pattern to the New: Implications of a Radical Change from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century', Bulletin of the History ofMedicine, vol. 59,1985, pp. 1-29. 11. Meckel, Save the Babies; Lewis, Politics ofMotherhood; Dwork, War is Good for Babies. 12. On Britain, see Dwork, ibid. 13. F.G. Castles, The Working Class and Welfare: Reflections on the Political Development of the Welfare State in Australia and New Zealand, 1890-1980, Wellington, 1985. 14. Stuart Macintyre, The Labour Experiment, Melbourne, 1989; Erik Olssen, Building the New World: Work, Politics and Society in Caversham 1880s-1920s, Auckland, 1995. 15. Jill Roe, in Cora V. Baldock and Bettina Cass (eds), Women, Social Welfare and the State in Australia, Sydney, 1983, p. 7. 16. On the Maternity Allowance Act and maternal citizenship, see Marilyn Lake and Katie Holmes (eds), Freedom Bound II: Documents on Women in Modern Australia, Sydney, 1995, pp. 1-5; Grimshaw et al. (eds), Creating a Nation:, cf. the decision of the Liberal government in New Zealand to opt for a widows' pension; widows were the most 'deserving' of women left without a male breadwinner. 17. Examples are Meckel, Save the Babies; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers; Molly Ladd-Taylor (ed.), Raising a Baby the Government Way: Mothers'Letters to the Children's Bureau, 1915-1932, New Brunswick, 1986; Seth Koven and Sonya Michel (eds), Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States, New York and London, 1993. 18. See Koven and Michel (eds), Mothers ofa New World; Skocpol, Protec.ting Soldiers and Mothers. 19. This is consistent with Jane Lewis's reply to Koven and Michel, in Lewis, 'Gender, the Family and Women's Agency in the Building of 'Welfare States': the British Case', Social History, vol. 19, no. I,January 1994, pp. 37-55, and 'Women's Agency, Maternalism and Welfare', Gender and History, vol. 6, no. 1, April 1994, pp. 117-23. 20. see Davin, p. 29. 21. Gisela Bock and Pat Thane (eds), Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States 1880s-1950s, London and New York, 1991, p. 4. 22. The term 'mixed economy of welfare' is from Lewis, 'Gender, the Family and Women's Agency'. 23. Dorothy Porter has summarised the historiography of public health in these terms, in D. Porter (ed.), The History of Public Health and the Modern State, Amsterdam, 1994, Introduction. 24. See, for example, Grimshaw et aI., Creating a Nation; Lake and Holmes ( eds) , Freedom Bound II. 250 Notes 1. A WHITE HEALTH TRANSITION

1. The Health Transition Workshop, 'Cultural, Social and Behavioural Determinants of Health: What is the Evidence?', Canberra, May 1989, discussed this issue. The papers were published as John Caldwell, Sally Findley, Pat Caldwell, Gigi Santow, Wendy Cosford,Jennifer Braid and Daphne Broers-Freeman (eds), What We Know About Health Transition: The Cultural, Social and Behavioural Determinants of Health, Health Transition Series no. 2, vols. 1 & 2, Canberra, 1990. 2. The number of deaths under 1 year of age for every 1,000 live births. 3. Fertility has received the most attention from demographers; see, for example, Lado T. Ruzicka and John C. Caldwell, The End of Demographic Transition in Australia, Canberra, 1977; Pat Quiggin, No Rising Generation, Canberra, 1988; Ann Larson, Growing Up in Melbourne: Family Life in the Late Nineteenth Century, Canberra, 1994. 4. John C. Caldwell, 'Introductory Thoughts on Health Transition', in J.C. Caldwell et al. (eds), What We Know About Health Transition, vol. 1, pp. xi-xiii. 5. Alberto Palloni, 'The Meaning of the Health Transition', John Cleland, 'The Idea of the Health Transition', and Joseph E. Potter, 'Parallels between the Health Transition and the Fertility Transition', in ibid., pp. xvi-xix and ch. 4. 6. John C. Caldwell, Theory ofFertility Decline, London, 1982. 7. The term is Etienne van de Walle's. 8. Francine van de Walle, 'Infant Mortality and the European Demographic Transition', in Ansley J. Coale and Susan Cotts Watkins (eds), The Decline of Fertility in Europe, Princeton, 1986, pp. 211-15 (quotation from p. 211). Trends in European infant mortality rates are outlined in R. Woods, P. Watterson andJ. Woodward, 'The Causes of Rapid Infant Mortality Decline in England and Wales, 1861-1921. Part 1', Population Studies, vol. 42, no. 3, November 1988, pp. 348-50. 9. W.P.D. Logan, 'Mortality in England and Wales from 1848 to 1947', Population Studies, vol. 4, 1950-1, p. 135, and H.O. Lancaster, 'Infant Mortality in Australia', MfA, 21 July 1956, p. 101, observed that infant mortality rates in England and Australia respectively halved about every 25 years. 10. John Powles gives a similar description of the underlying trend, in 'Keeping the Doctor Away', in Verity Burgmann and Jenny Lee (eds), Making a Life: A People's History of Australia since 1788, Melbourne, 1988, pp. 74-5. 11. Douglas Gordon, Health, Sickness, and Society, Brisbane, 1976, p. 188. 12. Compare the situation in England, in Woods, Watterson and Woodward, 'Causes of Rapid Infant Mortality Decline', pt 1, p. 348; also Naomi Williams and Graham Mooney, 'Infant Mortality in an "Age of Great Cities": London and the English Provincial Cities Compared, c.1840-1910', Continuity and Change, vol. 9, no. 2, 1994, pp. 185-212. 13. A.R. Omran coined the term 'epidemiologic transition' in 1971, to de­ scribe 'long-term changes in patterns of morbidity, disability and Notes 251 causes of death that have been obseIVed in populations as they experi­ ence transformation in their demographic, economic and social struc­ ture'. Lado Ruzicka and Penny Kane, 'Health Transition: The Course of Morbidity and Mortality', in Caldwell et al. (eds), What We Know About Health Transition, vol. 1, p. 1. The original source is Omran, The Epidemiologic Transition: A Theory of the Epidemiology of Population Change', Milbank Memorial Fund QJ.larterly, vol. 49, no. 4, 1971. 14. J.H.L. Cumpston and F. McCallum, The History of the Intestinal Infections (and TyphusFever) in Australia 1788-1923, Melbourne, 1927, pp. 390-1. Cumpston's view of infant mortality trends is summarised in J.H.L. Cumpston (introduced and edited by MJ. Lewis), Health and Disease in Australia. A History, Canberra, 1989, ch. 7. 15. Gordon, Health, Sickness, and Society, p. 189. 16. Wray Vamplew (ed.), Australians: Historical Statistics, Sydney, 1987, p.57. 17. Calculated from T.A. Coghlan, The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales, 1900-1, pp. 999,1009. 18. Review of P.E. Muskett, The Feeding and Management of Australian Infants in Health and Disease, 5th edn, in AMG, 21 May 1900, p. 215; P.E. Muskett, An Australian Appeal, cited in 'Infantile Mortality in Tasmania', AMG, 20 April 1907, p. 205. 19. Life expectancy at birth in Australia is graphed in Vamplew (ed.), Australians: Historical Statistics, p. 60. 20. F.B. Smith, 'Health', in John Benson (ed.), The Working Class in England 1875-1914, London, 1985, p. 38. 21. See, for example, Bock and Thane (eds), Maternity and Gender Policies; Koven and Michel (eds) , Mothers of a New World. 22. See Woods, Watterson and Woodward. 23. Reproduced in Vamplew (ed.), Australians: Historical Statistics, p.325. 24. Michael Durey, 'Infant Mortality in Perth, Western Australia, 1870-1914: A Preliminary Analysis', Studies in Western Australian History, no. 5, December 1982, pp. 62-71. 25. Cumpston and McCallum, History of the Intestinal Infections, pp. 208-12. 26. On urban rates in Britain, see Woods, Watterson and Woodward, pt 1, p. 359; Williams and Mooney, p. 191. 27. Victorian Year-Books; W.G. Armstrong, [Sydney] Metropolitan Combined Sanitary Districts, Annual Report of the MOH, 1903, p. 3; on topography and social class, see Peter Spearritt, Sydney Since the Twenties, Sydney, 1978. 28. Philippa Mein Smith and Lionel Frost, 'Suburbia and Infant Death in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Adelaide', Urban History, vo!' 21, pt 2, October 1994, pp. 251-71 and errata, vol. 22, pt 1, May 1995, pp. 167-8. 29. Ibid., pp. 269-70. 30. Michael R. Haines, 'Socio-economic Differentials in Infant and Child Mortality during Mortality Decline: England and Wales, 1890-1911', Population Studies, vol. 49,1995, pp. 297-315. 252 Notes 31. Ann Larson, 'Socio-Economic Differentials in Child Mortality in Third World Cities: Lessons from the Past', paper, Fourth National Conference of the Australian Population Association, Brisbane, August-September 1988. On similar patterns in Britain and the United States, see P.A. Watterson, 'Infant Mortality by Father's Occupation from the 1911 Census of England and Wales', Demography, vol. 25, no. 2, May 1988, pp. 289-306; Douglas C. Ewbank and Samuel H. Preston, 'Personal Health Behaviour and the Decline in Infant and Child Mortality: The United States, 1900-1930', in Caldwell et al. (eds), What We Know About Health Transition, vol. 1, ch. 7. 32. Ruzicka and Caldwell, The End of Demographic Transition in Australia, p. 26; Vamplew (ed.), Australians: Historical Statistics, p. 42, is a useful summary source. 33. See, for example, John C. Caldwell, 'Routes to Low Mortality in Poor Countries', Population and Development Review, vol. 12, no. 2,June 1986, pp. 171-220, also inJohn C. Caldwell and Gigi Santow (eds), Selected Readings in the Cultural, Social and Behavioural Determinants of Health, Health Transition Series no 1, Canberra, 1989, ch. 1. 34. On recent arguments about the role of education for women, see Health Transition Review, vol. 3, no. 2, October 1993 and vol. 4, no. 2, October 1994. For an analysis of the actual experience of women and home ownership, see Philippa Mein Smith and Lionel Frost, 'Home Ownership in Adelaide, 1881-1911', AEHR, March 1995, pp.40-56. 35. F.B. Smith, The People's Health, Canberra, 1979, p. 122; see also R. Reves, 'Declining Fertility in England and Wales as a Major Cause of the Twentieth Century Decline in Mortality', American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 22, no. 1, 1985, pp. 112-26. 36. Ruzicka and Caldwell, pp. 174-5; cf. Jones, 'Fertility Decline in Australia and New Zealand', pp. 315-16. 37. Larson, Growing Up in Melbourne, ch. 2. 38. W.J. Gardner, Colonial Cap and Gown, Christchurch, 1979; Alison Mackinnon, 'The State as an Agent of Demographic Change? The Higher Education of Women and Fertility Decline, 1880-1930', Journal ofAust. Studies, vol. 37, 1993, p. 58. 39. Caldwell, Theory ofFertility Decline, p. 191. 40. Larson, Growing Up in Melbourne, ch. 2; Ellen McEwen, 'Family History in Australia: Some Observations on a New Field', and Patricia Grimshaw and Charles Fahey, 'Family and Community in Nineteenth­ century Castlemaine', in P. Grimshaw, C. McConville and E. McEwen (eds), Families in Colonial Australia, Sydney, 1985, chs. 9 and 16. 41. RCDBR, vol. 2, Minutes of Evidence, Evidence of Dr C.W. Morgan, 24 September 1903, qq. 1091-2. The important secondary source is N. Hicks, ' This Sin and Scandal': Australia's Population Debate 1891-1911, Canberra, 1978. 42. Ibid., Evidence of Dr Ralph Worrall, 2 November 1903, q. 2933, q. 2961, Snr SgtJ.E. Stawell, 1 October 1903, qq. 1937-8, Dr Watson Munro, 29 October 1903, qq. 2668-71,2698-702, Dr John Harris, 19 November 1903, qq. 3888, 3912. Methods are summarised in P. Mein Notes 253 Smith, 'Contraception', in Graeme Aplin, S.G. Foster and Michael McKernan (eds), Australians: A Historical Dictionary, Sydney, 1987, p. 91; and in detail in Hicks, 'This Sin and Scandal'; Ruzicka and Caldwell, End of Demographic Transition; Larson, Growing Up in Melbourne; Quiggin, No Rising Generation. 43. Gigi San tow, 'Coitus Interruptus in the Twentieth Century', Population and Development Review, vol. 19, no. 4, December 1993, pp. 768, 772, 783. 44. Judith Allen, 'Octavius Beale Re-considered: Infanticide, Babyfarming and Abortion in NSW 1880-1939', in Sydney Labour History Group, What Rough Beast? The State and Social Order in Australian History, Sydney, 1982, pp. 127-8. 45. Larson, Growing Up in Melbourne. The crucial source on respectability is Janet McCalman, Struggletown: Public and Private Life in Richmond 1900-1965, Melbourne, 1984. See also Grimshaw et aI., Creating a Nation, esp. ch. 5. 46. Larson, ch. 2. 47. Smith, The People's Health, p. 122, in Benson, (ed.), The Waffling Class in England, p. 56, and The Retreat of Tuberculosis 1850-1950, Beckenham, Kent, 1988, pp. 8-9; Bryan Gandevia also suggested a relation between fewer children, more time and money to feed them, in Tears Often Shed, Sydney, 1978, p. 93. 48. Quiggin, No Rising Generation, ch. 4, esp. p. 56; Larson, Growing Up in Melbourne, ch. 2. 49. Ruzicka and Caldwell, End of Demographic Transition, p. 22. Education Acts were passed in the Australian colonies between 1871 and 1880 and in New Zealand in 1877. 50. See V. Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child, New York, 1985. 51. On Australia, see Larson; on England, Ellen Ross, Love and Toil: Motherhood in Outcast London, 1870-1918, New York, 1993. 52. Powles, 'Keeping the Doctor Away', p. 83. 53. Anna P. Stout, 'The New Woman', in Hocken Library, Women and the Vote, Dunedin, 1986, pp. 16-20. 54. Jessie Ackermann, Australia from a Woman's Point of View, Sydney, 1981 (1st pub 1913), ch. xxi. 55. Hicks, 'This Sin and Scandal'. 56. Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Maternal and Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920, Ithaca and London, 1993; also Koven and Michel (eds), Mothers of a New World, ch. 5. 57. F.S. Hone, 'Infantile Mortality', AMG, 13 July 1912, p. 25. 58. See, for example, Milton J. Lewis, '''Populate or Perish": Aspects of Infant and Maternal Health in Sydney, 1870-1939', PhD thesis, ANU, 1976, p. 166. 59. W. McLean, 'The Declining Birth-Rate in Australia', [MfA, 20 March 1904, p. 125. 60. Hicks, 'This Sin and Scandal', p. 99. For the contemporary debate about the association between birth and infant death rates, see Hone, 'Infantile Mortality', AMG, 13 July 1912, p. 28; W. McLean, 'The Declining Birth-Rate in Australia', IMfA, 20 March 1904, 254 Notes

pp. 109-26, 'A Rejoinder', 20 June 1904, pp. 311-16;John B. Trivett, 'The Decline of the Birth-Rate in New South Wales', IMJA, 20 May 1904, pp. 238-48. 61. On Canada see Comacchio, 'Nations are Built of Babies'. 62. R. Arthur, 'Increase of Population Through a Diminished Death­ Rate', AMG, 25 January 1901, p. 43, also quoted in Arthur's evidence, RCDBR, vol. 2, q. 5244, 7 December 1903; RCDBR, vol. 1. The essen­ tial secondary source is Hicks, 'This Sin and Scandal', esp. p. 51. Maternal ignorance is discussed comprehensively by Lewis, Politics of Motherhood, ch. 2. 63. F. Truby King, Save the Babies, Auckland, 1917. 64. Royal Commission on the Decline of the Birth-Rate and on the Mortality of Infants in New South Wales, vol. 1, Report, Sydney, 1904. 65. Hicks,' This Sin and Scandal'. 66. Judith Allen, Sex & Secrets, Melbourne, 1990, p. 67. 67. Ibid., p. 68. 68. RCDBR, vol. 1, Report. The exception was W.A. Holman, husband of the feminist Ada Holman. 69. See, for example, S. Sheridan, in Susan Magarey, Sue Rowley and Susan Sheridan (eds), Debutante Nation, Sydney, 1993. 70. Stephen Garton, 'Sound Minds and Healthy Bodies: Re-considering Eugenics in Australia, 1914-1940', AHS, vol. 26, no. 103, October 1994, pp. 163-81. 71. Ibid. 72. Stephen Garton, 'Sir Charles Mackellar: Psychiatry, Eugenics and Child Welfare in New South Wales, 1900-1914', HS, vol. 22, no. 86, April 1986, pp. 21-34. 73. W. Perrin Norris, Chairman of the Victorian Board of Public Health, Infant Life Protection, 1907, p. 5 [my emphasis]; A. Jeffreys Wood con­ curred that the illegitimate deserved a 'fair chance', 'Preservation of Infant Life', IMJA, 20 March 1908, p. 141. 74. L. Emmett Holt, 'Infant Mortality, Ancient and Modern. An Historical Sketch', Archives ofPediatrics, December 1913, p. 886. 75. 'The Protection of Children', AMG, 21 June 1909, p. 321. 76. Hicks' focus was on Divisions Band E of the Report, not C, on infant mortality, N. Hicks, 'Evidence and Contemporary Opinion About the Peopling of Australia, 1890-1911', PhD thesis, AND, 1971, p.119. 77. RCDBR, vol. 2, Evidence of G.E. Ardill, Director, Sydney Rescue Work Society and Babies' Home, Newtown, 29 October 1903, p. 2876, W.G. Armstrong, MOH, Sydney, 7 December 1903, pp. 5180-1. 78. Ibid., Evidence of W.G. Hayes-Williams, Registrar-General, 27 August 1903, qq. 57, 60, 62, 67-8, F.G.C. Hanslow, Secretary to Trustees of ... Cemeteries, 26 November 1903, qq. 4273,4280,4296, Dr J.M. Creed, MLC, 26 November 1903, q. 4194, who cited the case of a midwife certifying as stillborn a child who 'died in a woman's arms on a steamer in the harbour'. See also Allen, 'Octavius Beale Reconsidered', pp. 114-16, and Sex & Secrets. Notes 255 2. THE MAJOR THREAT TO BABIES

1. W.G. Armstrong, 'Some Lessons', TAMe, 1905, p. 394; A. Jeffreys Wood, 'PreseIVation ofInfant Life', IMfA, 20 March 1908, pp. 129-30. 2. The term is Hicks'. Here it is applied in a more recent historiograph­ ical context. 3. See, for example, Lewis, '''Populate or Perish"'. 'Obituary. William George Armstrong', MfA, 28 February 1942, pp. 272-4. 4. Gordon, Health, Sickness, and Society, pp. 188-9l. Gandevia cautioned there was 'no simple or single answer'. He suggested that altered social circumstances, assisted by medicine, limited the opportunities for micro-organisms. Gandevia, Tears Often Shed, pp. 133-4. 5. See Janice Reid and Peggy Trompf (eds), The Health of Aboriginal Australia, Sydney, 1991. 6. G.E. Immerwahr and M.P. Pollack, Health and Population Problems in Sri Lanka, American Public Health Association, 1983, p. 29; Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 1987, Colombo, May 1988, pp. 107-8. Courtesy ofKH.W. Gaminiratne. 7. Powles makes this general point, in 'Keeping the Doctor Away', in Burgmann and Lee (eds), Making a Life, p. 72. 8. Ibid., p. 71. Powles' argument (akin to McKeown's) is that economic and social changes were more important than deliberate efforts to control disease. For McKeown's argument see T. McKeown, The Origins ofHuman Disease, Oxford, 1988, esp. ch. 3. 9. On the presence of upper respiratory symptoms, see 'Rotavirus Diarrhoea: A Brief Outline of the Illness', Glimpse, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Newsletter, vol. 7, no. 5, September-October 1985, p. 2. 10. G.E. Cussen, 'Infantile Gastro-Enteritis', AMG, 20 May 1899, p. 189; D. Morley, Paediatric Priorities in the Developing World, London, 1973, p.188. 11. 'Rotavirus Diarrhoea', Glimpse, September-October 1985, p. 3; Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey 1987, p. 107. 12. RCDBR, vol. 1, Exhibit no. 49, p. 78, no. 101, p. 81, no. 153, p. 195; W.S. Byrne, 'Infant Mortality and Infant Feeding', AMG, 20 February 1904, p. 56. Milton Lewis has also made this point, in 'Sanitation, Intestinal Infections, and Infant Mortality in Late Victorian Sydney', Medical History, vol. 23, no. 3,July 1979, pp. 326-7. 13. RCDBR, vol. 1, Exhibit no. 127, p. 88; Department of Trade and Customs, Report on Infantile Mortality, pp. 24-5; NSW Official Year Book, 1915,p.148. 14. RCDBR, vol. 2, Evidence of A.W. Green, Chief Boarding-out Officer, State Children's Relief Department, 1 October 1903, qq. 2044-5, Mrs Rebecca Graham, Matron, Benevolent Society, 30 November 1903, qq. 4489-91 (also cited in vol. 1, pp. 41-2), W. Eury, 1 October 1903, q. 2235, W.F. Litchfield, q. 2399; Australian-born Dr Agnes Bennett used the term 'bond of sympathy' in Baby's Welfare. Practical Hints to Mothers, Wellington, 1907, p. 4. 256 Notes

15. Litchfield, 'Diet, Dystrophy and Diarrhoea in Infants', AMG, 27 December 1913, p. 582. On Litchfield, see 'Obituary. William Frederick Litchfield', MJA, 8July 1922, pp. 49-51. 16. Because the monthly infant death rates by cause were not available, he plotted the average rates by reported cause for people at all ages in Sydney from 1875 to 1904, which was reasonable because 90 per cent of deaths from diarrhoeal diseases in New South Wales at the time were attributed to infants. 17. Armstrong, 'Some Lessons', p. 515. 18. Lewis, 'Sanitation, Intestinal Infections, and Infant Mortality in Late Victorian Sydney', p. 327; RA. Cheney, 'Seasonal Aspects of Infant and Childhood Mortality: Philadelphia, 1865-1920', Journal of [nterdisciplinaryHistary, vol. 14, no. 3, Winter 1984, pp. 561, 571, 573. 19. Gordon, Health, Sickness and Society, p. 161. 20. Litchfield, 'Summer Diarrhoea in Infants', TAMC, 1905, p. 421. Byrne, 'Infant Mortality', AMG, 20 February 1904, p. 56, reached the same conclusion. 21. Presumably the majority of these very young babies died from causes other than gut infections. Data from P. Mein Smith, infant survival project, unpublished material, Flinders University, 1991. 22. For earlier estimates of diarrhoea's contribution, see P. Mein Smith, 'Infant Welfare Services and Infant Mortality: A Historian's View', Australian Economic Review, 1st quarter 1991, p. 27. 23. A useful overview of improvements in medical knowledge in Australia is given in 'Infantile Mortality and Summer Diarrhoea: A Retrospect', [MJA, 20 May 1908, pp. 249-52. The rubber teat was in fact unpopular when it first appeared because of its rigidity, taste and smell. Ian G. Wickes, 'A History of Infant Feeding', Archives of Disease in Childhood, vol. 28, 1953, p. 421. On the views of British doctors, see Smith, The People's Health, pp. 85,88. 24. Henry H. Hayter, 'Infantile Mortality in South Australia', and SJ. Magarey, 'Our Climate and Infant Mortality', Transactions and Proceedings, Philosophical Society ofAdelaide, 1878-9, vol. 2, pp. 1-9, 68. 25. J.T. Mitchell, 'Summer Diarrhoea in Infants', AMG, 15 July 1893, p. 235; RCDBR, vol. 2, Evidence of W.F. Litchfield, 8 October 1903, q. 2387. In the late 1870s, Dr Magarey had noted correspondingly that in South Australia twice as many babies died in December, January, February and March as in June, July, September and October, Magarey, 'Our Climate', p. 4. 26. RR Stawell, 'Summer Diarrhoea and Its Treatment', [MJA, 20 December 1897, p. 795 and 'Summer Diarrhoea: A Review of Facts and a Study in Statistics', [MJA, 20 March 1899, pp. 146-58. Newsholme's address to 'Society of Medical Officers of Health', BMj, 25 November 1899, pp. 1477-8, and Newsholme, Fifty Years in Public Health, London, 1935, pp. 351-6. On the status of this address, see Lewis, '''Populate or Perish"', pp. 13-14; M.John Thearle, 'Dr Alfred Jefferis Turner, 1861-1947: His Contribution to Medicine in Queensland', MD thesis, University of Queensland, 1987, p. 197. Notes 257 27. RCDBR, vol. 2, Evidence of Litchfield, 8 October 1903, qq. 2388-9; Litchfield, 'Summer Diarrhoea in Infants', TAMC, 1905, pp. 422-3, also Litchfield, 'The Gastro-Intestinal Troubles of Infancy', TAMC, 1920, p. 475. 28. Armstrong, 'Some Lessons', TAMC, 1905, pp. 390, 393 and AMG, 20 October 1905, p. 517; Stawell, 'The Etiology of Summer Diarrhoea', [MfA, 20 January 1908, p. 31; A. Jeffreys Wood, 'The Prevention of Summer Diarrhoea in Children', [MfA, 20January 1908, p. 41. 29. He was not disposed, however, to believe that the majority of cases of summer diarrhoea were due to this organism. Jefferis Turner, 'Some Practical Observations on the Management of the Diseases of Infancy', AMG, 21 August 1905, p. 377. 30. W. Morrison, 'The Summer Diarrhoea of Children', AMG, 20January 1905, p. 8. A useful overview of improvements in medical knowledge is given in 'Infantile Mortality and Summer Diarrhoea: A Retrospect', [MfA, 20 May 1908, pp. 249-52. 31. D. Dwork, War is Good for Babies and Other Young Children, London and New York, 1987, p. 36. 32. Armstrong used this term in 1905, in 'Some Lessons', p. 391. This paragraph summarises the views contained in Muskett, An Australian Appeal, p. 24; T.H.R Willis, 'Pathologic Conditions in Cases of Summer Diarrhoea', AMG, 20 May 1901, pp. 187-8; Morrison, 'The Summer Diarrhoea of Children', p. 9; A. Jefferis Turner, 'Some Practical Observations on the Management of the Diseases of Infancy', AMG, 21 August 1905, p. 377, 'Infantile Mortality', 20 June 1910, p. 279; T.H.R. Mathewson, 'Some Notes on the Prophylaxis and Treatment of Gastro-Enteritis', MfA, 26 October 1918, pp. 345-6; Selwyn Harrison, 'The Digestive Disorders of Artificially-Fed Infants', MfA, 6 December 1919, pp. 475-9; R Donald Luker, 'The Food Factor in Gastro-Intestinal Diseases', ibid., pp. 480-5. 33. RR Stawell, 'The Etiology of Summer Diarrhoea', [MfA, 20 January 1908, pp. 28-31. 34. Litchfield and Hipsley, 'The Relation of Shiga's Bacillus to the Summer Diarrhoea of Infants', AMG, 20 January 1905, pp. 10-12. Litchfield and Hipsley gave the date of Shiga's discovery as 1897. For an overview of the rapid bacteriological discoveries from the 1870s (including Shiga 1898) see Erwin H. Ackerknecht, A Short History of Medicine, revised edn, Baltimore and London, 1982, pp. 180-85. 35. RCDBR, vol. 2, Evidence of Tidswell, 3 December 1903, qq. 4667, 4669. 36. The debate came to a head in the Medicalfournal of Australia in 1919 when Dr Selwyn Harrison, physician to the Renwick Hospital for Infants, and Dr R. Donald Luker of Sydney disputed Litchfield's em­ phasis on a theory of infection and promoted a pathology of digestive disorders which they thought were the real cause of gastroenteritis. Harrison, 'The Digestive Disorders of Artificially-Fed Infants', MfA, 6 December 1919, pp. 475-9, Luker, 'The Food Factor in Gastro­ Intestinal Diseases', ibid., pp. 480-3, and Litchfield, 'Some Notes on 258 Notes

Infant Mortality', ibid., p. 479. See also the editorial, The Feeding of Infants', ibid., p. 488. 37. Ackerknecht, p. 184. 38. J.S.B. Bray, 'Bray's Discovery of Pathogenic Esch. coli as a Cause of Infantile Gastroenteritis', Archives ofDisease in Childhood, vol. 48, 1973, pp.923-6. 39. A useful summary of contemporary evidence is given by Cumpston (edited by Lewis), Health and Disease in Australia, p. 227. 40. Litchfield, 'The Gastro-Intestinal Troubles of Infancy', TAMC, 1920, discussion, p. 480. 41. Ross Shepherd, Current Diagnosis and Management of Acute Diarrhoeal Disease and Its Consequences in Infants and Children, Brisbane, nd (1980s). Copy courtesy of MJ. Thearle. 42. C.A. Thelander, 'Notes on Infantile Diarrhoea in Brisbane', AMG, 21 March 1914, p. 248. 43. Discussion, AMG, 20 May 1901, p. 188; Litchfield, 'Prevention and Treatment', TAMC, 1914, p. 524. See Black's Medical Dictionary, 34th edn, London, 1984, pp. 156,594. 44. Giorgio Solimano and Marty Vine, 'Malnutrition, Infection and Infant Mortality', in Samuel H. Preston (ed.), Biological and Social Aspects of Mortality and the Length of Life, Liege, 1980, p. 95; interview with Dr Lado Ruzicka, ANU, 22 August 1985; interview with Dr Zia Ahmed, University of Adelaide, 6 May 1986. Contemporary sources include Mitchell, 'Summer Diarrhoea ofInfants', AMG, 15July 1893, pp. 236-7; Thelander, 'Notes on Infantile Diarrhoea in Brisbane', p. 248. 45. See the discussion in N.S. Dye and D. Blake Smith, 'Mother Love and Infant Death, 1750-1920', Journal of American History, vol. 73, no. 2, September 1986, pp. 329-53; Daniel Scott Smith exposes the 'straw­ man' in family history, of the mythical evolution from extended to nuclear families, in The Curious History of Theorizing about the History of the Western Nuclear Family', Social Science History, vol. 17, no. 3, Fall 1993, pp. 325-53. His argument has implications for the debate about the supposed shift from fatalism to parental, and so women's, agency in the care of sick infants. 46. R. Meckel, Save the Babies, p. 5 and ch. 1. 47. Armstrong, TAMC, 1905, p. 392 and AMG, 20 October 1905, p. 519. 48. Gresswell's report to the Board of Public Health, Report on the Sanitary Condition and Sanitary Administration of Melbourne and Suburbs, by D. Astley Cresswell, Melbourne, 1890; Gresswell's report is discussed by David Dunstan, 'Dirt and Disease', in Graeme Davison, David Dunstan and Chris McConville (eds), The Outcasts of Melbourne, Sydney, 1985, pp.167-70. 49. Dan Coward, Out of Sight, Canberra, 1988, pp. 69-71, 226. 50. T. Stevenson, 'Light and Living Conditions: Mortality in Nineteenth Century Adelaide', paper, ANZAAS, January 1979; John R. Laverty, The History of Municipal Government in Brisbane 1859-1925: A Study of the Development of Metropolitan Government in a Context of Urban Expansion', PhD thesis, University of Queensland, 1968, pp. 211-15, 414; Su:Jane Hunt and Geoffrey Bolton, 'Cleansing the Notes 259 Dunghill: Water Supply and Sanitation in Perth 1878-1912', Studies in Western Australian History, no. 2, March 1978, pp. 1-17. 51. D. Dunstan, Governing the Metropolis, Melbourne, 1984, p. 288. 52. Commonwealth Year Book, 1901-14, pp. 873-89; B. Barrett, The Inner Suburbs, Melbourne, 1971, p. 136; Dunstan, Governing the Metropolis, p. 288; Stuart Macintyre, The Oxford History of Australia, vol. 4, 1901-1942, p. 39. For descriptions of country towns see RJ. Millard, 'Typhoid Fever in New South Wales, 1898-1904', TAMC, 1904, pp.404-16. 53. Dunstan, Governing the Metropolis, pp. 138, 273-5, 281, also 'Dirt and Disease', p. 169. Coward, Out of Sight, gives examples of faulty plumb­ ing, e.g. p. 94. See also Laverty, p. 400. 54. Laverty, p. 408. 55. A.R. Chalmers, The Health of Glasgow 1818-1925: An Outline, Glasgow, 1925. 56. For a detailed discussion, see Mein Smith and Frost, 'Suburbia and Infant Death'. 57. James Jamieson, 'Twenty Years of Sanitary Progress in Melbourne', TAMC, 1905, p. 427. Jamieson was health officer to the City of Melbourne. 58. Dairies Supervision Act 1886, 50 Vic No. 17; Kendall, 'Sanitary Supervision of Dairies', AMG, October 1885, pp. 10-13. The essential secondary source on the state of the Sydney milk supply is Milton Lewis, 'Milk, Mothers, and Infant Welfare', in Jill Roe (ed.), Twentieth Century Sydney: Studies in Urban & Social History, Sydney, 1980. On the Dairies Supervision Act, see p. 197. Other sources include 'Polluted Milk and Enteric Fever', from the report by Dr Ashburton Thompson, chief medical inspector to the NSW Board of Health, AMG, June 1886, p. 233, July 1886, pp. 265-6; Milk and Dairy Supervision Act 1905, 5 Edw VII No. 2011. Victoria did introduce some reforms in the Health Act of 1890 but Dr W.A.N. Robertson, the Chief Veterinary Officer, con­ sidered the system before 1906 'a complete failure'. Robertson, 'The Source of Our Milk Supply', The Milk QJJ-estion, Melbourne, 1921, p. 6. 59. RCDBR, vol. 2, Evidence of C.P.B. Clubbe, 30 November 1903 qq. 4409, 4414, Mrs R. Graham, Matron, Benevolent Society Institutions, 30 November 1903, qq. 4536-8, Dr Frank Tidswell, Microbiologist to Board of Health, 3 December 1903, q. 4649; Sydney Jamieson, 7 December 1903, qq. 5273, 5278-9, A. Murray Oram, 7 December 1903, qq. 5055, 5095; w.G. Armstrong, 3 December 1903, qq. 4833-9. 'Preservatives in Food', AMG, 21 December 1903, p. 572, 'Bacteria in Milk', p. 575, 'BMA News ... Victoria', AMG, 20 July 1908, p. 369, 'Infant Life Saving', 20 November 1911, p. 682; also 'The Adulteration of Milk', AMG, 20 September 1902, p. 467, 'The Sydney Milk Supply', AMG, 20 January 1905, pp. 28-9, 20 February 1908, pp. 85-6. CfLewis, 'Milk, Mothers, and Infant Welfare', pp. 198-9. 60. Jeffreys Wood, 'Preservation of Infant Life', INVA, 20 March 1908, pp. 130, 132. On the price of milk, 1901-12, see Royal Commission of Inquiry as to Food Supplies and Prices, Sectional Repurt, Sydney, 1914, p. xxxv. For details of controls on the milk supply and their coverage 260 Notes

in each state see Commonwealth Year Book, 1901-14, pp. 972-4. Revealing testimony is given in FSP, Sectional Report, Evidence ofW.G. Armstrong, 3 February 1913, qq. 220,234; G. Saunders, Secretary, Milk & Ice Carters & Dairymen's Employee's Union, 17 February 1913, qq. 2310-14. 61. Ibid., Evidence ofT. Brenton, dairyman, Clarence Park, 30 May 1913, qq. 6317-18. McCalman, Struggletown, p. 48. 62. FSP, Sectional Report, Evidence of Brenton, 30 May 1913, q. 6329, A.H. Collett, 14 February 1913, qq. 2258-9. 63. Lewis, 'Milk, Mothers, and Infant Welfare', p. 196; sources of milk are from FSP Sectional Report, pp. xiii, xxiii. See also ibid., Evidence of Jeffreys Wood, 23 May 1913, q. 6032,]. Shinkfield, 27 May 1913, q. 6132,]]. Farmer, qq. 6175-9. 64. W.G. Armstrong, 'Annual Report of the MOH ... for the Y/E 31 December 1898', AMG, 20 July 1899, p. 310 (of 495 dairies inspected in Sydney 117 were 'good', 321 'fair' and 57 'positively bad'). On Adelaide, see T. Geo. Ellery, The Administration of the Health Act, 1898, in Adelaide', TAMC, 1905, p. 432. 65. A. Jefferis Turner, 'Infantile Mortality', AMG, 20 June 1910, p. 280; Dr Edith Barrett later described how her father, Dr ].W. Barrett, 'took every child that he treated off milk until after April', The Medical Aspect of the Question', The Milk (btestion, p. 388. 66. Department of Trade and Customs, Report on Infantile Mortality, 1917, p. 36; RJ. Millard, 'Typhoid Fever in New South Wales, 1898-1904', TAMC, 1905, p. 411. 67. This finding is developed in chapter 7. 68. RCDBR, vol. I, p. 40; vol. 2, Evidence of Drs S.H. MacCulloch, 26 October 1903, qq. 2496, 2506, R Worrall, 2 November 1903, q. 3028,]. Harris, 19 November 1903, qq. 3914-15, C.P.B. Clubbe, 30 November 1903, qq. 4377-8, 4396, R Arthur, 3 December 1903, q. 4946. The Report, however, did not cite MacCulloch's view that he did not think women were any more disinclined to breast-feed, q.2499. 69. 'Infant Life Protection', AMG, 21 December 1908, p. 675; Byrne, 'Infant Mortality', AMG, 20 February 1904, pp. 56-7. 70. Bryne, 'Infant Mortality', AMG, 20 February 1904. pp. 57-8; E.A. Officer, Perth, 'Gastro-Enteritis in Children', AMG, 20 October 1908, p. 539; G.E. Cussen, 'Infantile Gastro-Enteritis', AMG, 20 May 1899, p. 188; T.H.R. Willis, 'Pathologic Conditions in Cases of Summer Diarrhoea', AMG, 20 May 1901, p. 187; C.P.B. Clubbe made a similar remark about the 'ignorant nurse' who fed the child improper food, often septic milk, in RCDBR, vol. 2, Evidence of Clubbe, 30 November 1903, q. 4396. Also ].S.C. Elkington, The Feeding and Care of Babies Hobart, 1906. For further details on infant feeding see Milton Lewis, The Problem of Infant Feeding: The Australian Experience from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the 1920s', Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, vol. 35, no. 2, April 1980, pp. 180-2. See also the American study by RD. Apple, Mothers and Medicine, Madison, 1987, ch. 1; and on Britain, Smith, The People's Health, pp. 850-101. Notes 261 71. E. Ken Herring, 'Infantile Diarrhoea', AMG, 20 October 1900, p. 409. The estimate is Byrne's, who added, 'of every hundred bottle-fed babies at least 75 die before reaching the age of one year'. AMG, 20 February 1904, p. 56. 72. RCDBR, vol. 2, Evidence of Armstrong, 7 December 1903, q. 5165A, Armstrong, 'Some Lessons' TAMC, 1905, pp. 388, 391 and AMG, 20 October 1905, pp. 516, 518, Metropolitan Combined Sanitary Districts, Annual Report of MOH, 1903, p. 15. Newsholme reported his results as 'Domestic Infection in Relation to Epidemic Diarrhoea', Journal of Hygiene, vol. 6, no. 2, April 1906, pp. 139-48. Litchfield, 'Summer Diarrhoea in Infants', TAMC, 1905, pp. 423,425. 73. Lewis, 'The Problem of Infant Feeding', p. 185. 74. Litchfield, 'Summer Diarrhoea in Infants', TAMC, 1905, pp. 422-3. 75. RCDBR, vol. 1, p. 44. The Federal Government did not consider pro­ hibition until 1911 and sale of the bottles was not banned in Tasmania until 1912, 'Infant Life Saving', AMG, 20 November 1911, p. 682 'Public Health ... Tasmania', 17 February 1912, p. 170. RCDBR, vol. 2 Evidence of C.P.B. Clubbe, 30 November 1903, q. 4432. On working­ class mothers, see Morrison, 'The Summer Diarrhoea of Children', AMG, 20 January 1905, p. 9; and on old bottles, E.A. Officer, 'Gastro­ Enteritis in Children-Causes-Prophylaxis and Treatment', AMG, 20 October 1908, pp. 538-9. Dr Usher assumed the mother would use a bottle with tubes, in].E. Usher, The Perils of a BaITy, Melbourne, 1888, pp. 13-14; it was also known as the 'Alexandra bottle', F. Godfrey, 'Food. In Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence', Parents' Review, vol. 7, 1896, p. 102. 76. W.G. Armstrong, 'Extracts from the Second Annual Report of the MOH [Sydney], for the Year 1899', AMG, 20 December 1900, p. 532, Annual Report of the MOH, 1904, p. 15, 'Some Lessons', TAMC, 1905, p. 393 and AMG, 20 October 1905, p. 520 (the source of the quota­ tion); Jeffreys Wood, 'The Prevention of Summer Diarrhoea in Children', IMJA, 20January 1908, pp. 38-42.

3. 'LONG LIVE KING BABY

1. MBHA, Jubilee: The First Fifty Years, Adelaide, 1959, p. 15. 'Help the mothers and save the babies' was the slogan of New South Wales' baby week in 1920 as well as the motto of the Tasmanian and New Zealand infant welfare movements. 2. Gisela Bock, 'Poverty and Mothers' Rights in the Emerging Welfare States', in G. Duby and M. Perrot (eds), A History of Women in the West: Vol. v, Toward a Cultural Identity in the Twentieth Century, F. Theobaud (ed.), Cambridge, Mass. and London, 1994, p. 420. 3. Sunday News, 24 March 1920. 4. For some international comparisons, see Valerie Fildes, Lara Marks and Hilary Marland (eds), Women and Children First: International Maternal and Infant Welfare, 1870-1945, London, 1992. As they note in 262 Notes their introduction, 'The international maternal and infant welfare movement. .. was a direct response to high maternal and infant mor­ tality rates and falling marital fertility in most countries of the world'; and 'Imperialist concerns were bolstered by a range of economic, social, and humanitarian motivations.' Local conditions and inter­ state differences are considered in chapter 6. 5. Smith, The People's Health, p. 94. 6. 3rd Annual Report of Adelaide School for Mothers, August 1911-August 1912, p. 9. 7. 4th Annual Report of Adelaide School for Mothers, August 1912-August 1913, p. 4. 8. New Zealand did not take to this concept with the same alacrity as did Australia because it was less urbanised and so afflicted to a lesser degree by the evils of dirty milk. It also lacked the concentration of people in large cities to make such initiatives worthwhile. 9 G.F. McCleary, Infantile Mortality and Infants Milk Depots, London, 1905, pp. 57-60, The Maternity and Child Welfare Movement, London, 1935, pp. 8-9,38; W.G. Armstrong, 'The Infant Welfare Movement in Australia', MJA, 28 October 1939, p. 642; Deborah Dwork, 'The Milk Option: An Aspect of the History of the Infant Welfare Movement in England 1898-1908', Medical History, vol. 31, no. 1, January 1987, pp. 63-5; Thearle, 'Dr Alfred Jefferis Turner', pp. 196-7. 10. See, for example, Cone, 200 Yean ofFeeding Infants in America, pp. 30, 32. 11. Muskett, Feeding and Management, 1900, p. 225; on the expense of milk prescriptions, see H. Douglas Stephens, 'Some Impressions of Pediatric Work Abroad', IMJA, 20 January 1908, p. 13. 12. Apple, Mothers and Medicine, p. 29. 13. Meckel, Save the Babies, p. 47. 14. T.M. Rotch, 'The Essential Principles of Infant Feeding and the Modern Methods of Applying Them', Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 41, no. 6,8 August 1903, pp. 349-50. Rotch's method was also discussed by Philip Muskett, in The Feeding and Management of Australian Infants in Health and Disease, 5th ed., Sydney, 1900, p. 220; Dorothy F. Hollingsworth, 'Developments Leading to Present-Day Nutritional Knowledge', in Derek Oddy and Derek Miller (eds), The Making of the Modern British Diet, London, 1976, p. 191. See also T.B. Mepham, "'Humanizing" Milk: The Formulation of Artificial Feeds for Infants (1850-1910)', Medical History, vol. 37, no. 3, July 1993, pp.225-49. 15. T.M. Rotch, 'Notes on Infant Feeding' (2 parts), Archives of Pediatrics, vol. 6, no. 7, July 1889, pp. 476-85, no. 8, August 1889, pp. 536-48, 'The Essential Principles of Infant Feeding and the Modern Methods of Applying Them', pp. 349-54, and his textbook, Paediatrics: The Hygienic and Medical Treatment of Children, 34th edn., Philadelphia, 1901; Cyclopaedia details from Stawell, 'Infant Feeding by Prescription', p. 458. F. Truby King, 'Physiological Economy in the Nutrition of Infants', NZMj, vol. 6, no. 24, November 1907, pp. 71-103 drew on the work of Rotch and Holt. See also Editorial, 'Diet of Infants: A Reply', AMG, 15January 1894, p. 206. Notes 263 16. Rotch, 'Notes on Infant Feeding', p. 481. 17. Jane Lewis, 'Gender, the Family and Women's Agency in the Building of 'Welfare States': the British Case', Social History, vol. 19, no. 1, January 1994, pp. 37-55. 18. On the distinctions between visitor and inspector and their duties, see Celia Davies, 'The Health Visitor as Mother's Friend: A Woman's Place in Public Health', Social History of Medicine, vol. 1, no. 1, April 1988, pp. 39-58; on duties, Smith, The People's Health, pp. 114-15; McCleary, The Maternity and Child Welfare Movement, pp. 8, 25-7. 19. On the St Pancras School for Mothers, see Anna Davin, 'Imperialism and Motherhood', History Workshop Journal, issue 5, Spring 1978, pp. 38-43. 20. ARSM, 4th Annual Report, 1911-12. 21. Armstrong, Annual Report of the MOH, 1904, p. 15. Armstrong's message is reproduced as an appendix in Victoria Cowden, '''Mothers, as a Rule, Do Not Know ... ": Mothercraft Campaigns in the Inner Suburbs of Sydney 1904-1914', BA(Hons) thesis, University of New South Wales, 1980. See also Jan Kociumbas, 'Children and Society in New South Wales and Victoria 1860-1914', PhD thesis, University of Sydney, 1983, pp. 186-8. 22. Lewis, '''Populate or Perish"', p. 132. 23. Benevolent Society of NSW, Annual Reports, 1905, pp. 13, 30, 1906, pp.6, 10, 1908,p. IS, 1909, pp. 8-9. 24. This custom itself originated in the English philanthropic model where titled patronesses attracted funds and women's voluntary work. On its precedents in Australia, see Elizabeth Windschuttle, '''Feeding the Poor and Sapping their Strength": The Public Role of Ruling-Class Women in Eastern Australia, 1788-1850', in Windschuttle (ed.), Women, Class and History: Feminist Perspectives on Australia 1788-1978, Melbourne, 1980, pp. 61-2. 25. ARSM,' Save the Children for the Nation', nd, 4th Annual Report, 1911-12; G.J. [Grace] Boelke, Quinquennial Report for 1919. Public Health Standing Committee, vol. 48X, NCW ofNSW Papers, ML MS 38. 26. Notice Paper of meeting of the local Board of Health, 23 December 1912, Adelaide City Archives; 3rd Annual Report of Adelaide School for Mothers, August 1911-August 1912. 27. Helen Mayo, autobiographical notes, Mayo Family Papers, PRG 127/6, Mortlock Library. 28. Adelaide School for Mothers, Minute Book, vol. 1, 23 September, 26 November, 15 December 1909,27 January, 7 April 1910, SRG 199/1, Mortlock Library. 29. Ibid., second meeting, 20 October 1909, SRG 199/1. 30. Ibid., inaugural committee meeting, 23 September 1909, SRG 199/1. 31. Anthea Hyslop, 'The Social Reform Movement in Melbourne, 1890 to 1914', PhD thesis, La Trobe University, 1980, pp. 236-7. Jeffreys Wood, 'Preservation of Infant Life', IMJA, 20 March 1908, pp. 130, 132, FSP, Sectional Report on the Supply and Distribution of Milk, Minutes of Evidence, Sydney, 1914, Evidence, 23 May 1913, qq. 5982-3, Evidence ofJeffreys Wood, 13 May 1913, q. 5987; BMA (Vic Branch), 'Ordinary 264 Notes

Monthly Meeting', 3 June 1908, IMJA, 20 June 1908, p. 322, 'Ordinary Meeting', 1 July 1908, IMJA, 20 July 1908, p. 368; 'A Pure Milk Depot', AMG, 20 June 1908, p. 304, 'The Talbot Milk Institute', AMG, 20 December 1910, p. 673. 32. 'The Month. Victoria. Pure Milk Supply', AMG, 21 December 1908, p. 696; 'The Talbot Milk Institute', Una, 27 February 1909, p. 186; 'Wholesome Milk', AMG, 14 September 1912, p. 288. 33. 'The Lady Chelmsford Milk Institute in Brisbane', AMG, 20 November 1909, pp. 622-4. 34. ].S.c. Elkington, The Feeding and Care ofBabies, Hobart, 1906. 35. D. Dwork reported that the word 'mothercraft' was invented in 1910 by Dr John Sykes, Medical Officer of Health for St Pancras, who helped found the St Pancras School for Mothers in 1907. War is Good for Babies, p. 145. Davin found her earliest reference to the word, also by Sykes, in 1911, Davin, 'Imperialism and Motherhood', pp. 39,63. 36. See, for example, Dwork, War is Good for Babies; Meckel, Save the Babies. 37. FSP, Sectional Report, Evidence ofJeffreys Wood, 23 May 1913, q. 5988; 'The Lady Chelmsford Milk Institute in Brisbane', AMG, 20 November 1909, pp. 622-4. 38. 'The Pasteurisation of Milk', AMG, 5 July 1913, p. 7, reporting Argyle's evidence before the NSW inquiry as to food supplies and prices; FSP, Sectional Report, Evidence of Argyle, 2 June 1913, qq. 6386-7, 6391, 6403,6407-9. 39. FSP, Sectional Report, Evidence of A.H. Collett, Dairyman, 27 March 1913,qq.5674-7,5681-5. 40. 'The Talbot Milk Institute', AMG, 20 December 1910, pp. 673-4; 'Infantile Mortality', AMG, 16 March 1912, pp. 277-8. 41. Quotations are from advertisement for NSW's first baby week, 'Long Live King Babyl', Sunday News, 24 March 1920; also Bathurst Times, 3 September 1919, DT, 1 October 1918, 5 November 1918, Bystander, 24 October 1918, Ashfield Advertiser, 2 November 1918, Sunday Sun, 29 February 1920, Sydney Mai~ 24 March 1920, RSWMB, 11/1. On the percentage assessed as unfit, see Claudia Thame, 'Health and the State', PhD thesis, AND, 1974, p. 29; in Britain, 36 per cent ofrecruits were classified AI, or fit and healthy, and in New Zealand, 34 per cent. 42. This theme is developed in chapter 6. 43. A narrative history of baby clinics in New South Wales is given in K. O'Connor, Our Babies: The State's Best Asset, Sydney, 1989. 44. NSW Dept of Public Health, Report of DGPH, 1913, pp. 10-11, 1915, pp.158-9. 45. Lucy Spencer to Minister of Public Health, 1 May 1914, 2/8566.2, AONSW; Flowers, Minister of Public Health, Interim Report, 21 June 1914, p. 2; NSW Dept of Public Health, Report of DGPH, 1915, p.162. 46. The changing nature of priorities in maternal and child health is developed in ch. 8. 47. Acting Under Secretary to G. Griffiths et ai., circular letter, 27 May 19142/8566.2; Flowers, Interim Report, 21 June 1914, p. 2; Report of DGPH, 1914, p. 141. Notes 265 48. Notification of Births Act 1915, 5 Geo V No.4, Statutes of NSW, 1913-15; MBHA, Jubilee; typescript, 'History of the Maternal, Infant and Pre-School Movement in Victoria', nd (1950s), p. 16, HCS Victoria; Dwork, War is Good for Babies, pp. 138-9. Dwork maintains that the British Act was pivotal to the success of mothercraft and health visiting. Marland's interpretation of the ineffectiveness of the Huddersfield scheme - of which a plank was early notification of births - conflicts with this argument. It is not supported in Australia where the passage of Acts for early notification of births was as uneven as the spread of mothercraft institutions. See Marland, 'A Pioneer in Infant Welfare'. 49. For biographical details, see Lysbeth Cohen, Dr Margaret Harper: Her Achievements and Place in the History of Australia, Sydney, 1971; also O'Connor, p. 31. 50. PRG 127/6, Mortlock Library. 51. For example, see Skocpol, pp. 490-u. 52. On baby shows in the United States, see Meckel, Save the Babies, pp. 146-8; Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion, Ithaca, 1993, p. 76. 53. Annual Reports of the School for Mothers (Inc), August 1917-August 1918 and August 1918-July 1919. 54. On Britain see Lewis, note 17 above. 55. Pritchard, Truby King's English rival, features in chapter 4. 56. MDNS, Minutes, 20 February 1917, 27 February 1917, 13 March 1917, 20 March 1917, 7 August 1917, 14 August 1917; the charity women presented a minority report to the Government, VMWS, Minutes, 16 April 1917, SLV MS 11710 Box 1879/1; Argus, 29 June 1917, p. 6, 8 August 1917, p. 12. 57. M.V. Primrose, 'Save the Babies', Una, 30 April 1917, pp. 46-7; Richmond, Carlton, City and North Melbourne Baby Clinic Centres, First Annual Report, 1917-18, VBHCA, First Annual Report, 1918-19; VBHCA, The Story of the Baby Health Centre Movement in Victoria'. On Primrose, see Gibbney and Smith, A Biographical Register, vol. 2, p.190. 58. VBHCA,FirstAnnualReport,1918-19. 59. 'Visiting Trained Nurses', Una, vol. 17, no. 8, October 1919, p. 244. 60. Wendy Selby, 'Motherhood in Labor's Queensland 1915-1957', PhD thesis, Griffith University, 1992, pp. 223-4. 61. On the Child Welfare Association, see The Health of Tasmania', MfA, 8 March 1919, p. 205, The Care of Babies in Tasmania', MfA, 10 January 1920, p. 34; Hobart Mercury, 8 October 1919; on Edith Waterworth, see Jill Waters, 'Edith Waterworth', in Heather Radi (ed.), 200 Australian Women: a Redress Anthology, Sydney, 1988, p. 95. 62. Dr J. Dale at meeting of WA Branch, BMA, MfA, 18 August 1923, p. 183; Davis, 'Infant Mortality and Child Saving', in P. Hetherington (ed.), Childhood and Society in Western Australia, Perth, 1988, pp. 168-71 and O'Hara, 'Child Health in the Interwar Years, 1920-1939', ibid., pp.179-80. 63. This finding is in disagreement with Koven and Michel's generalisa­ tion about Australia that women's movements contributed little to 266 Notes welfare state development - rather governments did, especially state govern men ts: Koven and Michel (eds) , Mothers of a New World, p. 7. 64. Quotation from F. Fox Benson, in Bystander, 24 October 1918. 65. See Marland, 'A Pioneer in Infant Welfare', pp. 27-8. 66. RSWMB, Minute Books, 4/1, AnnualReport, 1919-20. 67. VBHCA, Annual ReportS; on the role of women doctors in the Victorian movement see Reiger, Disenchantment of the Home, ch. 6. 68. This report was published as Legislative Assembly of NSW, Public Health. Report of the Commissioner, Mr Neuille Mayman, on the Inquiry into the Welfare ofMothers and Children in New Zealand, Sydney, May 1918. 69. Aims and Objects, RNZSHWC, Annual ReportS; VBHCA, Annual Reports (the debt to New Zealand was acknowledged in VBHCA, First Annual Report, 1918-19). 70. 'Vesta', 'A School for Mothers. The New Zealand Scheme', Argus, 19 September 1917, p. 12. Vesta (Stella Allan), the woman correspon­ dent on the Melbourne Argus, was an influential expatriate New Zealand feminist. One of the three Henderson sisters, who were all 'New Women', educated at Christchurch Girls' High School and the University of Canterbury, she had been New Zealand's first woman law student, and was sister of New Zealand's first woman Member of Parliament. See P. Keep, 'Stella May Allan', ADB, vol. 7, 1891-1939, p. 39; M. Wilson and B. Labrum, 'Stella Henderson', in C. Macdonald, M. Penfold and B. Williams (eds), The Book of New Zealand Women, Wellington, 1991, pp. 285-9.

4. PROPHETS, LADY DOCTORS AND PRESCRIPTIONS

1. See chapter 5. 2. 'Vesta', 'A School for Mothers. The New Zealand Scheme', Argus, 19 September 1917, p. 12. 3. On his wife's work see Mein Smith, 'Isabella Truby King', in C. Macdonald et al. (eds) , Book ofNew Zealand Women, pp. 354-6. 4. Quoted in Linda Bryder, 'Perceptions of Plunket: Time to Review Historians' Interpretations?', in L. Bryder and D. Dow (eds), New Countries and Old Medicine, conference proceedings 1994, Auckland, 1995, p. 99. 5. Gordon Parry, A Fence at the Top: The First 75 Years of the Plunket Society, Dunedin, 1982, p. 47. 6. See, for example, Ann Dally, Inventing Motherhood, London, 1982. 7. Sunday News, 20 March 1927; Sunday Telegraph Pictorial, 13 May 1928, AMS, Newspaper Cuttings, for example; Mrs M. Worden, interview by author, Adelaide, December 1992. 8. Dominion, Wellington, 14 February 1938. A. Jefferis Turner remarked on his 'great driving power' in 'Experiences in Preventative Medicine', MfA, 12 November 1938, p. 810; see also SMH, 1 September 1934, RSWMB, 11/2; 'Obituary' NZMj, vol. 37, no. 198, April 1938, p. 96. Mary Truby King, Truby King the Man, London, 1948, p. 208, and Notes 267 Dr A.E. Wilmot, interview, Melbourne, 5 September 1985, described his musical voice. 9 F. Truby King, Application for Position of RMO to Wellington Hospital, King Family Papers ATL MS 1004, F 4; Mary Truby King, Truby King the Man. 10. Barbara L. Brookes, 'Frederic Truby King and the Seac1iff Asylum', in H. Attwood, R. Gillespie and M. Lewis (eds), New Perspectives on the History of Medicine, 1st national conference of Aust. Society of History of Medicine 1989, Melbourne, 1990, p. 6. 11. Sally White, correspondence with author, 1986. 12. Truby King, The Story of the Teeth and How to Save Them, Auckland, 1935 (1st published 1917), p. 3. 13. Truby King, The Feeding ofPlants and Animals, Wellington, 1905, p. 5. 14. Truby King, The Feeding ofPlants and Animals, pp. 2-5, The New Zealand Scheme, p. 10; RNZSHWC, Annual Report, Central Council, 1930, pp. 8, 14-15. On this paragraph in general and tartans in particular see Mary Truby King, Truby King the Man. 15. Truby King, Save the Babies, Auckland, 1917, p. 5; Committee of Inquiry into Mental Defectives and Sexual Offenders, Evidence, 1924, pp. 573A, 615, NA H3/13, Wellington. 16. Committee of Inquiry into Mental Defectives and Sexual Offenders, Evidence 1924, pp. 573A, 615, NA H3/13. 17. Truby King, 'Eugenics', TAMC, 1914, pp. 83-4. 18. Truby King, The Expectant Mother, 1916,1923and 1925eds. 19. l.W. Barrett, The Necessity for the Practical Application of Available Knowledge, Melbourne, 1914, p. 7, subsequently quoted by Truby King in A Plea for the Drawing Up and Circulation Throughout the Whole Community of Simple Reliable Consistent Standards for Guidance in the Rearing of Normal Infants, Victoria League, Report of Proceedings of Imperial Health Conference, 1914, p. 10; Holman in 'Discussion', TAMC, 1914, pp. 90-1. 20. Fron tispiece to Truby King, The Expectant Mother, and Baby's First Month. 21. Argus,5 December 1919, p. 6; Mein Smith, Maternity in Dispute, p. 1l0. 22. Truby King, The Beautiful Babies. What Becomes of Them? The Purpose of the Plunket Society, reprinted in The Story of the Teeth, p. 3. 23. Truby King, Feeding of Plants and Animals, p. 5, Feeding and Care, 1917, p. 19; Truby King to ed. Argus, 17 February 1923 in City of St Kilda Papers, and City of Footscray, H/6, SHWC, 1922-6; Truby King's draft letter, worded slightly differently is filed with Dr Springthorpe's Communications, Being Papers Connected with the Setting Up of the SHWC in Victoria, Australia 1919-29, PS AG7 /127/923. 24. Truby King, Feeding of Plants and Animals, pp. 6-8, Natural Feeding of Infants, Dunedin, 1917, p. 8, Feeding and Care of Baby, 1917 edn., p.152. 25. Truby King, The Components of Various Milks, bound with Natural Feeding ofInfants. 26. Truby King, Feeding and Care of Baby, 1917, pp. 23-5, 29; in his early version of this recipe, the mother left the milk to set for 9 hours; The Feeding and Care of the Baby, 1908, pp. 5, 7. 268 Notes

27. Truby King, The New Zealand Scheme, p. 11, Feeding and Care, 1917, p.55. 28. Truby King, Feeding and Care, 1917, p. 19; 'Don't Experiment' was first ordered in the 1910 edn., p. 17; SMH, 18 December 1919; DT, 19 December 1919, RSWMB, 11/1. 29. Truby King, Feeding and Care, 1910, p. 53,1917, p. 19. 30. Truby King, The Components of Various Milks. 31. Truby King, draft letter to Argus, nd (February 1923), PS AG7 /127 /923. 32. Erik Olssen, 'Truby King and the Plunket Society: An Analysis of a Prescriptive Ideology', NZJournal of HisttYry, vol. 15, no. 1, April 1981, pp.3-23. 33. Truby King, Feeding and Care, 1908, p. 32, 1917, pp. 81, 86,104,149; that the phrase was Horsfall's is revealed in 'Table Showing the Excessive Deaths .. .', nd, PS AG7 /127 /923. 34. Truby King, Feeding and Care, 1910, 1913 and 1917 eds, The Expectant Mother, 1916, p. 36. 35. Truby King, Feeding and Care, 1910, pp. 135-6, 1917, pp. 36-7, 149, Expectant Mother, 1916, pp. 36, 50; Olssen, 'Truby King and the Plunket Society', p. 4. 36. Truby King, Feeding and Care, 1908, p. 20, 1917, pp. 62, 110, Expectant Mother, 1916, p. 37; Olssen, 'Truby King and the Plunket Society', p. 14. 37. Truby King to Mrs M.B. Bean, Killara, Sydney, 5 July 1920, PS AG7/128/931; also Feeding and Care, 1910, p. 30, Natural Feeding of Infants, pp. 7, 22-4. 38. Truby King, Expectant Mother, 1916, p. 50, Feeding and Care, 1917, pp. 127, 140-1. 'Dummy' was a pejorative term, dating from 1845. 39. Truby King, Feeding and Care, 1917, pp. 64-6 and frontispiece. 40. Truby King, Plea for the Drawing Up, p. 3, New Zealand Scheme, p. 4. 41. Truby King, Natural Feeding of Infants, p. 7; Argus, 2 December 1919, p. 7; Una, 30 December 1919, p. 310; 'Great Expert's Visit', PS AG7 /127 /923; Dominion, 29 August 1921, 27 April 1922. 42. Mary Truby King, Truby King the Man, chs. 24-6; Duffus and Emmett Holt Jr, L. Emmett Holt, pp. 233-7, 248-9, 252-3; M. Liddiard, The Mothercraft Manua~ London, 1924; Lewis, Politics of Motherhood, p. 102. Liddiard's version of the Truby King code is discussed in J. Newson and E. Newson, 'Cultural Aspects of Childrearing in the English­ speaking World', in M.P.M. Richards (ed.), The Integration of a Child into a Social World, Cambridge, 1974, pp. 59-63. Prescriptions for British mothers generally are reviewed in C. Hardyment, Dream Babies: Child Care from Locke to Spock, London, 1983, and C. Irwin and E. Sharland, 'From Bodies to Minds in Childcare Literature', in R. Cooter (ed.), In the Name of the Child: Health and Welfare 1880-1940, London, 1992, ch. 7. 43. Truby King, Save the Babies, pp. 3, 9. 44. RNZSHWC, Annual Report, 1912-13, p. 8; Administrative Secretary, Plunket Society to Minister of Health, 10June 1930, NA HI, 127 B. 81; Truby King League of Victoria, Annual Report, 1936-7, p. 7; Olssen, 'Truby King and the Plunket Society', p. 6. Notes 269

45. Truby King, Plea for the Drawing Up, p. 3. 46. Truby King, 'Physiological Economy', NZMJ, vol. 6, no. 24, November 1907, p. 89. 47. Olssen, 'Truby King and the Plunket Society', pp. 10, 2l. 48. A. Cochrane, 'King, Sir (Frederic) Truby', Dictionary of National Biography, London, 1949. 49. Worden, interview, December 1992. On mothers' practices, see chapter 7. 50. The Karitane products necessary for his recipes, 'Karilac' (sugar of milk) and 'Kariol' (an emulsion of fats and oils) retailed at a price of 1/5 and 2/6 a pound in New Zealand in the 1920s. Truby King, Feeding and Care, 1908, p. 8, 1917, p. 20, New Zealand Scheme, p. 5; The Karitane Products Society, pp. 3, 5. Women guessed when using a wood stove, inserting a hand to check the oven temperature; wood stoves were hard work and took an hour to clean before use early in the morning. Mrs M.1. Smith, interview by author, 16 February 1987. 51. Pritchard, Introduction to Emmett Holt, Care and Feeding of Children, 1906, p. 11; 'Harley Street Calling'; Infant Education, pp. ix-xii; 'A Local Metropolitan Health Society', BMJ, 2 March 1907, p. 506; "'Infant Consultations" at the St Marylebone General Dispensary', Lancet, 22 June 1907, p. 1724; j.W. Dunbar Hooper, Infant Mortality. Second International Congress of the Society for the Protection of Child Life, Brussels, 1907, Australian Medical Pamphlets, vol. 25, NLA; McCleary, The Maternity and Child Welfare Movement, p. 40; Wickes, 'A History of Infant Feeding', p. 500. 52. Pritchard, 'Some Practical Points in the Management of Breast­ Feeding', Archives of Pediatrics, March 1913, p. 164, Infant Education, pp.56-8,60,62,78,82,85-6. 53. Pritchard, Character Training, NA HI, 13/19, Wellington, also Infant Education, p. viii. 54. Pritchard, Infant Education, p. 64; also quoted in Davin, 'Imperialism and Motherhood', p. 34. 55. Pritchard, Infant Education, p. 68. 56. Truby King, A Plea for the Drawing Up, pp. 5, 9-10; Mary Truby King also cited extracts from A Plea in Truby King the Man, pp. 216-7; Pritchard, 'Some Practical Points', Archives of Pediatrics, March 1913, pp.173-4. 57. Truby King, A Plea, pp. 7-8; Pritchard, 'Some Practical Points', pp. 172-3; Mary Truby King, Truby King the Man, pp. 214-6. 58. Truby King, Infant-Welfare Work in Australia, 1923, St Kilda file. 59. Armstrong, 'The Infant Welfare Movement in Australia', MfA, 28 October 1939, pp. 643, 647-8. 60. Ibid., pp. 643-4. Examples of works that reproduce Armstrong's figures and his argument are M. Lewis, 'The Problem of Infant Feeding: The Australian Experience ... " p. 186; Gandevia, Tears Often Shed, p. 125; Ailsa Burns, 'Population Structure and the Family', in Ailsa Burns, Gill Bottomley and Penny Jools (eds), The Family in the Modern World: Australian Perspectives, Sydney, 1983, p. 53; O'Connor, Our Babies, p. 16. 270 Notes 61. Burne, Report on Health-Visiting and Baby Clinics, NSW Dept of Public Health, Report of DGPH, 1914, p. 43; Armstrong, Report, 1909, p. 13, 1910, p. 12, 1911, p. 12; Mein Smith, 'Reformers, Mothers and Babies', pp. 123-6. 62. ARSM, Annual Reports, 1911-12, pp. 5-7,1912-13, pp. 3,6,1913-14. 63. Useful biographical sources on Helen Mayo are Alison Mackinnon, The New Women: Adelaide's Early Women Graduates, Adelaide, 1986, pp. 60-72; South Australian Medical Women's Society, The Hands of a Woman: Stories of South Australian A1.edical Women and their Society, Adelaide, 1994, pp. 36--45. 64. Helen Mayo, The Place of Women in the Medical Profession', paper, PRG 127/12, Mortlock Library. 65. Helen Mayo, autobiographical notes, January 1959, PRG 127/6, Mortlock Library. 66. RCH, Evidence of Mayo, 14 May 1925, q. 13650. 67. Mayo, autobiographical notes, PRG 127/6. 68. Vera Scantlebury Brown, Diary B6, Vera Scantlebury Brown Papers, Melbourne University of Archives. 69. Victorian Medical Women's Society Papers, MS 11710, 1880/4b, SLV. 70. Thea Wilkinson, Vera Scantlebury Brown Papers; see also chapter 9. 71. Scantlebury Brown, Diary A15, letter 4, 28January 1919. 72. Kerreen Reiger, 'Vera Scantlebury Brown: Professional Mother', in M. Lake and F. Kelly (eds), Double Time, Ringwood, Vic, 1985, ch.31. 73. Scantlebury Brown, Diary B4, letter 18,19,1929. 74. Vera Scantlebury Brown Papers, especially interviews by Wendy Kapper, 1976; Cath James, interview by author, Melbourne, 12 September 1985. 75. Ibid. 76. Vera Scantlebury Brown, A Guide to Infant Feeding, 1st edition, Melbourne, 1929, pp. 3-4, 6-7, 8, Alfred Derham Papers, 5/7-5/8; Department of Health, Victoria, Leaflet no. 3D, Melbourne University Archives. 77. For an example of a simpler, Australian clock, see Reiger, Disenchantment of the Home, opp. p. 135. 78. Muriel A. Peck, Your Baby: A Practical Guide to Mothers and Nurses, Melbourne, 1929, p. 23. 79. Ibid., pp. 33, 37, 51; also Margaret Harper, The Parents' Book, Sydney, 1926, p. 69, RSWMB, Annual Report, 1924--5, p. 15.

5. STORM IN A FEEDING BOTTLE

1. On his missing suitcase and memory loss, see Dr Guy Springthorpe, interview by Wendy Kapper, 1976, Melbourne University Archives; Mary Truby King, Truby King the Man, pp. 334--5,347. 2. Meckel, Save the Babies, p. 9; on Canada, see Comacchio, 'Nations are Built of Babies', pp. 150-1. Notes 271 3. Argus, 2 December 1919, p. 7; also Sunday News, 30 November 1919, RSWMB, 11/1. 4. Lady Munro Ferguson to Truby King, 15 April 1919,5 May 1919, 31 July 1919, PS AG7 /127/923, and 20 July 1920, PS AG7/128/93l. The sisters, Victoria and Helen, were daughters of the Marquess of Dufferin and Ava, a former Governor-General of Canada and Viceroy of India, and Lord in Waiting from the coronation of King George VI, in December 1936, to the new Queen Elizabeth. 5. SMH, 29 November 1919, Sunday News, 30 November 1919, RSWMB, 11/1; Argus, 2 December 1919, p. 7;]. Hume Cook to ed., Argus, 4 May 1923; Lady Plunket to Truby King, 1917, King Family Papers, ATL MS 1004, F4. 6. See, for example, VBHCA, 1st Annual Report, 1918-19, p. 7; Sunday News, 30 November 1919, RSWMB, 11/1. 7. Argus, 2 December 1919, p. 7, 5 December 1919, p. 6; Brunswick & Coburg Leader, 5 December 1919; Una, 30 December 1919, p. 310; 'Welfare ofInfants. Great Expert's Visit', PS AG7 /127/923. 8. S.R. Innes-Noad, RSWMB, General Council, Minutes, Report B (unex­ purgated version), 6January 1920,18 February 1920, 4/1. 9. DT, 20 October 1925, RSWMB, 11/2. 10. Truby King, Infant-Welfare Work in Australia, reprinted from AJHR, 1923, H-31, pp. 24-9; ].W. Springthorpe, presidential address to SHWC of Vic, Herald, 30 November 1923, Age, 1 December 1923, clip­ pings in Footscray, H/6; S.R. Innes-Noad, president, RSWMB, Sydney to ed., Age, 14 October 1924; RSWMB, Annual Report, 1923-4, pp. 9-10; W.G. Armstrong to ed., DT, 22 October 1925, RSWMB, 11/2, 'The Infant Welfare Movement in Australia', p. 648. 11. Litchfield, Clubbe et aI., RSWMB, General Council, Minutes, Report B, 6January 1920,18 February 1920, 4/1. 12. W.G. Cuscaden, City of South Melbourne, Health Officer's Report, 1918-19, p. 3. Cuscaden was later president of the VBHCA. 13. Helen Mayo, Adelaide, 'Infant Feeding: Its History in Relation to Present Day Methods', MJA, 21 November 1925, p. 600; cf. A. Jefferis Turner, Brisbane, 'Infant Feeding', MJA, 12June 1926, pp. 670-1. 14. Vera Scantlebury Brown, Diary B4, 12 February 1929, p. 73, Melbourne University Archives; Sunday Times Pictorial, 17 February 1929; Guardian, 2July 1929, RSWMB, 11/2. 15. Sun, nd (November 1923); ].W. Springthorpe, L. Levy and]. Hume Cook assumed Plunket would become the 'accredited Australasian system', circular letter, 14 December 1922, Footscray, H/6. 16. RSWMB, General Council, Minutes, Report B, 6January 1920, also 12 February 1920, 4/1; RSWMB, Annual Report, 1924-5, p. 16, taken from 'Carysfort', in Bulletin, 5 November 1925, RSWMB, 11/2. 17. Margaret H. Harper, Report on the Work of the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children, Sydney, 1920, PS AG7/ 128/931. 18. Sunday News, 4 September 1921; SMH, 8 September 1921; DT, 8 September 1921; Sunday Times, 11 September 1921, RSWMB, 11/1. Also RSWMB, Tresillian Mothercraft HomesJubilee, pp. 1,8. 272 Notes

19. Truby King to ed., Argus, 17 February 1923, Footscray, H/6, and St Kilda file. 20. The centre had been organised by the women of Coburg's Visiting Trained Nurses' Committee; 'Visiting Trained Nurses', Una, 30 October 1919, p. 244; Brunswick and Coburg Leader, 5 December 1919. 21. VBHCA, Minutes, Sub Committee, 25 July 1919; the VBHCA used Truby King's impending visit to postpone talk of merger, Minutes, Executive Council, 1 August 1919. Lady Munro Ferguson to Mrs Truby King, 14January 1920, Lady Munro Ferguson to Truby King, 20 July 1920, PS AG7/128/931; Brunswick & Coburg Leader, 2 January 1920, 16 July 1920; VBHCA, Minutes, Special Meeting, 19 December 1919, Executive Council, 7 April 1920, 4 May 1920, 27 August 1920; SHWC of Vic, Report of the Provisional Counci~ Footscray, H/9. 22. ].W. Springthorpe, Diary 13, 20 July 1929, MS 9898, State Library of Victoria. 23. ].W. Springthorpe, Diaries, esp. Diary 9, 11 February 1921, 30 July 1921, Diary 13, 3July 1929, MS 9898. On Springthorpe's memorial to his wife, see MS 1650, AMA Library, Melbourne. 24. D. Dyason, personal communication. 25. Biographical details are from ADB, vol. 8, 1891-1939; R. White, Inventing Australia, Sydney, 1981, p. 144. 26. Scantlebury Brown, Diary B8, 8 December 1929, pp. 21-2. 27. E.g., Truby King to ed., Argus, 17 February 1923, 'Essentials for Insuring Good Nutrition in Infancy as Bearing on the Prevention of Infantile Diarrhoea', TAMC, Suppl. to MfA, 12July 1924, pp. 481, 485. 28. Argus, 20 October 1925, p. 10,21 October 1925, p. 30; the latter item is taken from Truby King to Stanley Argyle, 17 October 1925, PS AG7/128/931; also Truby King to Town Clerk, Footscray, 23 November 1925, Footscray, H/6. 29. DT, 27 October 1925; Herald, 27 October 1925 (perfervid omitted), RSWMB,11/2. 30. Sunday Times, 25 October 1925, 8 November 1925, RSWMB, 11/2. 31 'Conquer' was his first choice of verb, but he crossed this out. Truby King to Mayor of Footscray, 23 November 1925, Footscray, H/6. 32. The fiasco is documented in Footscray H/6; also ].W. Springthorpe, SLV MS 9898, Diary 10, 19 November 1925, 20 November 1925, 21 November 1925. 33. Truby King League of Victoria, Annual Report, 1935-6, p. 1, 1945-6, p.l1. 34. Scantlebury Brown, Diary B9, 8 February 1930, p. 87; motto from Truby King League of Victoria, Annual Report, 1935-6, p. 2; on Primrose's writings, see Reiger, Disenchantment of the Home, pp. 136, 139, 142. 35. ODT, Dunedin, 17 October 1921; Evening News, Sydney, 14 September 1921, RSWMB, 11/1; Truth (nd, 1925); DT, 10 November 1929, RSWMB, 11/2; HJ. Gibbney and A.G. Smith, A Biographical Register 1788-1939, vol. 2, Canberra, 1987, p. 67. Notes 273 36. Elizabeth McMillan to Mrs Truby King, 10 April 1920, PS AG7/ 128/931. 37. The women were Mrs P.Wilson and Mrs W.A. Leitch. Who's Who in the World of Women, vol. 2, Melbourne, 1934. 38. Truby King League of Victoria, Annual Reports, 1935-48 (quotation from 1935-6, p. 4); Herald, 9 May 1931, in Springthorpe, Diary 14. 39. Truby King Mothercraft League of SA, Minutes of Meetings, 1934-45, SRG 9, Mortlock Library. 40. J. Romanis, Town Clerk, Prahran, to Municipal Clerks, circular, 15 May 1923, St Kilda file. 41. See, for example, VBHCA, Executive Council, Minutes, 1923, Box 3, Book 1; Town Clerk, Bendigo, to Hon. Sec. Infant Welfare Conference, Town Hall Melbourne, 22 February 1924, Bendigo Box 1; City of Fitzroy, Minute Books, 25 February 1924, PRO 4544/12. 42. Scantlebury Brown, Diary E, Visit to New Zealand and America, 14January 1924, pp. 2-3. 43. Jefferis Turner, 'Infant Feeding', MfA, 12 June 1926, p. 670, RCH, Evidence, 18June 1925, q.18796. 44. Innes-Noad quoted in DT, 8 November 1925, RSWMB, 11/2. Australians opposed vegetable oils because they believed them to be an inferior source of vitamins, Margaret Harper, The Parents' Book, Sydney, 1926, p. 41; she clashed with Truby King in 1923 over a rickety baby fed humanised milk with New Zealand emulsion, Harper, 'Rickets', TAMe, Suppl. to MfA, 5 July 1924, p. 480. See also Matron McMillan to J.H.L. Cumpston, 27 September 1927, CRS A1928, Item 680/12, Australian Archives, Canberra. 45. DT, 25 October 1925; SMH, 23 October 1925, RS\VMB, 11/2. Also Innes-Noad to Truby King, 18 May 1922, PS AG7/128/931; RSWMB, Minutes, 8June 1922, 12July 1922,4/1. 46. RSWMB, Minutes, 17 October 1922, 10January 1923, 24January 1923, 14 February 1923, 27 February 1923, 4/1; Evening News, 19 February 1923; SMH, 23 February 1923; Sun, 23 February 1923; DT, 24 February 1923, RSWMB, 11/1. 47. McMillan to Town Clerk. Footscray, 19 November 1925, Footscray, H/6; 'The Karitane-Sydney Mothercraft Training Centre', DT, Woman's Supplement, 25 February 1926; Labour Daily, 16 July 1927. RSWMB, 11/2. Dame Margaret Davidson was a lifelong friend of Lady Plunket; 'Training School for Infant Welfare. First Under Karitane System in Australia', Sunday Times. 11 September 1921, RSWMB, 11/1. 48. A.P. Derham, Lecture to Vic Branch, BMA, 19 June 1930. A.P. Derham Papers. 5/2/2, Melbourne University Archives; on Kate Campbell see Radi (ed.). 200 Australian Women, p. 208. 49. Scantiebury Brown, Diary B6. 25 July 1929, p. 29. Dr M. Tweed, medical adviser to the NZ Plunket Society. subsequently objected to the use of the term 'low protein' to describe the 'human or Truby King standards of milk'; he suggested 'normal protein'. SHWC of Vic, Annual Report, 1936-7. pp. 6-7. 50. Truby King, 'Physiological Economy in the Nutrition ofInfants', NZM], vol. 6, no. 24, November 1907, pp. 75-7, 86; 'The Application of 274 Notes

Science ... to Artificial Feeding during Infancy', NZM], vol. 20, no. 95, February 1921, pp. 34, 45-8; Components of Various Milks; Feeding and Care, 1917, p. 111. At .the Australasian Medical Congress in Melbourne in 1923, he insisted: 'It is against all the probabilities to suppose that Nature's average proportion of protein in human milk is not the optimum for the average baby.' Truby King, 'The Establishment of Breast Feeding', TAMC, Suppl. to MjA, 5 April 1924, p. 188. 51. Kate Campbell, Session 1,jubilee Conference on Maternal and Child Health, April 1976; Wendy Kapper, Interview with Dame Kate Campbell, nd (1976), Scantlebury Brown Papers. Reiger has cited another description of this incident, in Disenchantment of the Home, p. 145. 52. Scantlebury Brown, Diary B6, 25 July 1929, p. 29. 53. V.H. Wallace, Patient History Cards, 17/1, Melbourne University Archives. 54. F.N. Le Messurier, 'Modern Aspect [sic] of Artificial Infant Feeding', MjA, 21 November 1925, pp. 603-7; Scan tie bury Brown, 'Experiences Abroad, With Special Reference to Infant Welfare', MjA, 8 January 1927, pp. 42-6 and Una, 1 July 1927, pp. 124-7; for a range of views arising from her paper see MjA, 8January 1927, pp. 62-3; Truby King, 'Infant Feeding', TAMC, Suppl. to MjA, 3 September 1927, pp. 119-21 and discussion, pp. 121-2; AAAS, Hobart, MjA, 25 February 1928, pp. 252-3. Stewart Ferguson, 'President's Address. Some Remarks on Diet and Nutrition', TAMC, 1929, pp. 416-9, and H. Boyd Graham, 'Infant Feeding to the Age of Six Months', pp. 444-8 and discussion, pp. 451-3, opted for high protein feeding. 55. See chapter 9. 56. Hilda Kincaid, 'The Principles of Artificial Feeding', MjA, 16 August 1930, p. 224; Kate Campbell, 'A Method of Feeding Concentrated Milk Mixtures to Infants', MjA, 28 April 1934, pp. 557-60; Helen Mayo, draft paper, Mayo Family Papers, PRG 127/7/3. These points are taken up in chapter 9. 57. On the dangers of setting milk see RCH, Evidence of A. Jeffreys Wood, 10 February 1925, q. 2097, Helen Mayo, 14 May 1925, q. 13650; Jefferis Turner, 'Infant Feeding', p. 670. 58. RCH, Evidence of A. Jeffreys Wood, 10 February 1925, q. 2097. 59. 'Vesta', Argus, 9 May 1923. 60. RCH, Evidence ofJeflreys Wood, 10 February 1925, q. 2097. 61. RCH, Evidence ofW. Kent Hughes, 11 February 1925, qq. 2233-4. 62. Andrew Spearritt, 'The Electrification of the Home in New South Wales, 1920-1960', BA(Hons) thesis, University of Sydney, 1983; Cohen, Dr Margaret Harper, p. 25; Humphrey McQueen, Social Sketches of Australia, 1888-1975, Ringwood, Vic., 1980, (1st published 1978), p.189. 63. A.P. Derham, 'Lectures to Nurses on Infant Feeding', 1931, Lecture 2, p. 3, 5/2/1. 64. Anne Purcell made her remark in Purcell, The Australian BalYy, Melbourne, 1928, pp. 80-1. 65. Truby King dismissed the 'old slipshod way of infant feeding' in A7gUs, 17 February 1923. Notes 275 66. Springthorpe documented the Melbourne establishment's attitude, in Diary 12, 26 December 1927, Diary 13, 5 December 1929, Diary 14, 28 July 1930. Litchfield described Truby King as a 'free lance', in RSWMB, General Council, Minutes, 6 January 1920, Report B, 4/1; Truby King denigrated Jeffreys Wood's child specialist view in Argus, 17 February 1923; see also RSWMB, Annual Report, 1923-4, pp. 9-10; DT, 7 November 1925; Truth, 8 November 1925, RSWMB, 11/2. 67. Ed, MfA, 23 November 1918, p. 436, 6 December 1919, p. 488; RSWMB, Annual Report, 1923-4, pp. 9-10. 68. Morris, Conference of Representatives of AMS, 16 May 1930, 2/8566.1; Main and Scantlebury observed that dieting at Karitane was entirely in the hands of the matron, Report to the Minister of Public Health, p. 29. 69. Bulletin, 5 November 1925, RSWMB, 11/2. 70. Scantlebury Brown, Diary B9, 8 February 1930, p. 88. 71. Scantlebury Brown, Diary B8, 28 November 1929, p. 16, 8 December 1929, p. 21. 72. Scantlebury Brown, Diary B9, 7 February 1930, p. 81. 73. Scantlebury Brown, Diary B6, 8 July 1929, pp. 26, 30, 25 July 1929, p.29. 74. Springthorpe, Diary 13, 15 July 1929, 18 July 1929, 20 July 1929; Scantlebury Brown remarked on the same episode that he 'absolutely seethed', Diary B8, 25 July 1929, p. 28. 75. Scantlebury Brown, Diary B8, 8 July 1929, pp. 25-6, 25 July 1929, p.29. 76. Scan tie bury Brown, Diary B6, 25 July 1929, p. 28. 77. DGPH to Minister, Proposed Appointment of MO in Charge of BHCs, 10 November 1925, 2/8566.2, AONSW; Guardian, 24 March 1926; Who's Who in Australia, 1955. Like Truby King in New Zealand, Morris was an authority on mental health and simultaneously Inspector­ General of Mental Hospitals (1941-52). 78. Morris to DGPH, 30 April 1926, Morris to Under-secretary, Department of Public Health, 24 April 1930, Conference of Representatives of AMS with DPH ... Director of Maternal and Baby Welfare ... 16 May 1930, 2/8566.1. 79. E.S. Morris, Director of Maternal and Baby Welfare, NSW to J.H.L. Cumpston, Federal Director-General of Health, 6 November 1931, AA, CRSA1928, Item 155/1 sect 1. 80. 2/8566.1, AONSW. 81. Commonwealth Year Book, 1944-5~ p. 267; Commonwealth Dept of Health, The Infant WeLJare Centre as a Community Service, Canberra, 1944, p. 10. 82. Vic Dept of Public Health, Reports of the Director ofInfant WeLJare. 83. Truby King Mothercraft League of South Australia, Minutes of Meetings, 1934-45, SRG 9, Mortlock Library. 84. On the development of the movement, see chapter 6. 85. Una, 1 April 1927, p. 53; RSWMB, Annual Report, 1928-9, pp. 9-10, 1932-3, p. 6; the Victorian Baby Health Centres and Sydney's Royal Society avoided the term mothercraft nurse because of its possible 276 Notes

confusion with infant welfare nurse, VBHCA, Minutes, 29 September 1931; the fee for the infant welfare course was £10 lOs by the Second World War; advertisements in Una, 1 March 1940, p. 94, 1 May 1942, p.iii. 86. On Canada, see Comacchio, 'Nations are Built of Babies'; Arnup, Education for Motherhood. 87. Scantlebury Brown wrote the book so that the young men of the medical faculty at the Melbourne Children's Hospital in particular would accept it, Diary B4, 4 February 1929, p. 60. 88. The actual number sold of the 1923 edition was 7,288, while Truby King purchased 9,496 copies in 1926, letter from Angus and Robertson, publishers, 4 March 1987. 89. Her articles began in September 1933. On Primrose in the New Idea, see Reiger, Disenchantment of the Home, pp. 139, 142. 90. Sunday Times Pictoria~ 17 February 1929, RSWMB, 11/2.

6. MOVEMENT OR MOVEMENTS?

1. O'Connor, Our Babies, Preface; M. Lewis, 'Some Infant Health Problems in Sydney, 1880-1939', fRAHS, vol. 68, pt 1, June 1982, p. 70, also Lewis, '''Populate or Perish"', pp. 40, 65, 72, 98; cf., on Britain, Dwork, War is Good for Babies, p. 220. 2. For example, Skocpol, p. 539; Koven and Michel (eds), Mothers of a New World, p. 336; Molly Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work: Women, Child Welfare, and the State, 1890-1930, Urbana, 1994. This American world­ view is challenged hy J. Lewis, in Politics of Motherhood and most re­ cently, in 'Women's Agency, Maternalism and Welfare', Gender and History, vol. 6, no. 1, April 1994, pp. 117-123. 3. See also Mein Smith, 'Infant Welfare Services and Infant Mortality'. 4. J.H.L.Cumpston and F.McCallum, The History of the Intestinal Infections (and Typhus Fe/ler) in Australia, 1788-1923, Melbourne, 1927; Gordon, Health, Sickness, and Society, pp. 188-91. 5. W.F. Litchfield, 'Some Notes on Infant Mortality', MfA, 6 December 1919, p. 480, and Litchfield in discussion of Purdy's paper, 'BMA News', MfA, 18 March 1922, p. 308. 6. Ibid.; also quoted by Gordon, Health, Sickness, and Society, p. 190. 7. B.S. Hetzel, Health and Australian Society, Melbourne, 1974, pp. 60-1. 8. First Lecture given by Muriel Peck, Asst to the Director of Infant Welfare, AMA Library, Melbourne. 9. See F.G. Castles, The Working Class and Welfare, Sydney, 1985, esp. ch.4. 10. RCH, Evidence of Constance Ellis, 19 February 1925, qq. 3930, 3956. 11. Circular, nd (1920s), Baby Health Centre, 1920-40, Bendigo, Box 1. 12. On the 'mother influence' in politics, see Carol Bacchi, Same Difference, Sydney, 1990, ch. 1. 13. Edith Simpson, Acting Hon. Sec., VBHC, to TC, Bendigo, 16 November 1922, Bendigo, Box 1. Notes 277 14. Marilyn Lake, 'Mission Impossible: How Men Gave Birth to the Australian Nation - Nationalism, Gender and Other Seminal Acts', Gender and History, vol. 4, no. 3, Autumn 1992, p. 307. 15. David Thomson, Selfish Generations? The Ageing of New Zealand's Welfare State, Wellington, 1991. 16. RCH, Evidence of Geo. Armstrong, 10 March 1925, q. 6289. 17. See Reiger, Disenchantment of the Home, p. 151, and opp. p. 134. 18. Meckel, Save the Babies, p. 17. 19. RCH, Evidence of Ellis, 19 February 1925. 20. RCH, Evidence of Cumpston, 17 February 1925, q. 3386; Report of the Royal Commission on Health, 1926, CPP, 1926--8, vol. IV, pp. 1247-370, esp. part VIII. 21. DameJanet Campbell, Report on Maternal and Child Welfare in Australia, 12 December 1929, Canberra, 1930. 22. Helen Crisp and Lorna Rudduck, The Mothering Years: The Story of the Canberra Mothercraft Society 1926-1979, Canberra, 1979. 23. 2/8566.1, AONSW. 24. 'History of the Maternal, Infant and Pre-School Movement in Victoria', typescript, nd (1950s). 25. Scantlebury Brown, Diaries; also 'Infant Welfare Work - Victoria', MJA, 25 February 1928, pp. 251-3. 26. Geelong, Baby Welfare, 1927-34, 1935-43, 1944-7. 27. RCH, Evidence of E.B. Harkness, Under-Secretary, Depts of Chief Secretary and Public Health, Sydney, 19 March 1925, qq. 8330-75. 28. RSWMB, Minutes, 2nd annual meeting, 28 October 1920, 4/1; 2/8566.1, AONSW. 29. 2/8566.1, AONSW. 30. 2/8564.1,2/8564.2,2/8564.3, AONSW. 31. Short Resume of the Development of the BHCs in NSW, nd (1940s), 2/8566.2, AONSW. 32. RCH, Evidence ofC. Chuter, 15June 1925, qq. 18061-196. 33. See Selby, 'Motherhood in Labor's Queensland'. 34. Ibid. 35. Phyllis Cilento, Lady Cilento: My Life, Sydney, 1987, ch. 12. 36. See Adelaide School for Mothers and MBHA, Annual ReportS; MBHA, MBHAJubilee: The First Fifty Years, Mortlock Library. 37. MBHA, Annual Reports. 38. Adelaide School for Mothers and MBHA, Annual Reports. 39. See Mary Anne O'Hara, 'Child Health in the Interwar Years, 1920-1939', in Hetherington (ed.), Childhood and Society in Western Australia. 40. E.M. Stang, 'An Infant Health Correspondence Scheme', Health, vol. 11, no. 7,July 1933, pp. 57-60; RCH, Evidence of]. Dale, WA, 19 May 1925, qq. 14417-52; Roberta M.Jull, MJA, 18 August 1923, pp. 161-{i; O'Hara, ibid. Dr Dale was described by Dr Betty Wilmot, interview by author, Melbourne, 5 September 1985. 41. RCH, Evidence of Mrs Blanche Boyes, President Baby Health Association, Launceston, 27 April 1925, qq. 11767-8; Child Welfare Assn Hobart, 29th Ann Report for y/e 30June 1946, p. 3. 278 Notes

42. Notes on Talk to be given by Director of Maternal, Infant and Pre­ School Welfare (Dr Vera Scantiebury Brown), 27 May 1945, Address to 'Our Mothers of the Outback', Vera Scantiebury Brown Papers. 43. Ibid.; on the women's advocacy of the scheme, see VBHCA, Minutes, Executive Committee, 24 August 1922, 29 July 1924 and VBHCA, Council, Minutes, 5 August 1924. Also 'Report of the Victorian Railways Commissioners for y/e 30 June 1925', VPP, 1925, vol. 2, no. 19, pp. 932-3. 44. S.G. Drummond, 'The Far West Children's Health Scheme', Health, vol. 11, no. 7, July 1933, pp. 54-6; 'Clinic on Wheels', Sunday Sun, 4 February 1934. 45. Selby, 'Motherhood in Labor's Queensland', p. 234. 46. MBHA, Annual Reports; Mail, 19 November 1932, Advertiser, 25 November 1932, SRG 199/16. 47. Anne H. Dreyer, 'Infant Welfare Goes to the Bush', Health Bulletin, no. 74,January-:June 1943, pp. 1993-2007 (quotation from p. 1998). 48. CWA, 'Travelling Baby Health Centre', Country Crafts, vol. 8, no. 11, 1 November 1938, pp. 264-5. 49. Dreyer, 'Infant Welfare Goes to the Bush', pp. 1994-5. 50. Stang, 'An Infant Health Correspondence Scheme', pp. 57-60. 51. CWA of Vic, Official Annual 1929-1938; see also E.K. Teather, 'The Country Women's Association of New South Wales in the 1920s and 1930s as a Counter-revolutionary Organisation',jnl of Aust. Studies, no. 41,June 1994, pp. 67-78. Additional sources are Country Crafts, vols. 1 and 2,1931-2; CWA of Vic, Years of Adventure: Fifty Years ofSeroice by the Country Women's Association of Vic, 1928-1978, Melbourne, 1978. 52. 2/8565.2, AONSW. 53. Skocpol, pp. 490-6; on the English baby week, see chapter 5. 54. Bendigo Baby Health Centre, 1st Annual Report, 1921-2, Bendigo, Box 1. 55. The phrase is from Lake, 'Mission Impossible'. 56. Correspondence, Bendigo, Box 1. 57. Lake, 'Mission Impossible', p. 319. 58. Bendigo, Box 1. 59. The reference is to Grimshaw et aI., Creating a Nation. 60. Scan tie bury Brown, Diaries. 61. See Meredith Foley, 'The Women's Movement in New South Wales and Victoria, 1918-1938', PhD thesis, University of Sydney, 1985. 62. Leila Ramsay, interview by author, Geelong, 19 December 1984. 63. Ibid.; correspondence and memoranda, St Kilda file. 64. Applications for Position of Baby Health Centre Nurse, St Kilda, 1921; List of Applications for Position of Sister-in-Charge, Baby Health Centre, Geelong, 1940, Geelong, Baby Welfare, 1935-43; Division of Maternal and Baby Welfare, Baby Health Centres, 7/10000, AONSW. 65. Edith Dawson, interview, and Dawson, 'The Maternal and Infant Welfare Movement', Vera Scantlebury Brown Papers. 66. Scantlebury Brown, Diaries. 67. 'BMA News', MjA, 29 November 1930, p. 741. Notes 279

68. VBHCA, Exec Committee, Minutes, 30 May 1922, 20 February 1923, 10 April 1923, 28 October 1924, 25 May 1926; City of Maryborough, Minutes ofBHC Committee, 7 December 1926.

7. MOTHERS' PRACTICES

1. 'The Clinic Way with Babies', SMH, 8 February 1934, RSWMB, Press Cuttings, 11/2, Sydney. 2. D. Ewbank and S. Preston, 'Personal Health Behaviour and the Decline in Infant and Child Mortality: The United States, 1900-1930', in Caldwell et al. (eds), What We Know About the Health Transition, vol. I, pp. 116-49. 3. J.M. Winter, 'Infant Mortality, Maternal Mortality, and Public Health in Britain in the 1930s' ,Journal of European Economic History, vol. 8, no. 2, 1979, pp. 439-62, emphasises the secular trend towards improvement in infant survival and life expectancy. On disparities by social class, see C. Webster, 'Healthy or Hungry Thirties?', History Workshop Journal, no. 13, 1982, pp. 110-29, Webster, 'Health, Welfare and Unemployment during the Depression', Past and Present, no. 109, 1985, pp. 204-30; also Margaret Mitchell, 'The Effects of Unemployment on the Social Condition of Women and Children in the 1930s', History Workshop Journal, no. 19, 1985, pp.l05-27. 4. G. Spenceley, A Bad Smash: Australia in the Depression of the 1930s, Melbourne, 1990. 5. Five-yearly averages and rates of decline have been calculated from Victorian Year-Books. 6. J. Mackinolty, 'Woman's Place .. .', in J. Mackinolty (ed.), The Wasted Years? Australia's Great Depression, Sydney, 1981, pp. 105-10. For British evidence of the poor health of married women in the Depression, see Lewis, Politics ofMotherhood, pp. 46-7. 7. J. McCalman, Struggletown: Public and Private Life in Richmond 1900-1965, Melbourne, 1984, pp. 201-2. 8. D. Maidment, letter to the author, 20 July 1987. 9. For example, in New Zealand in 1930-5, 138 of 176 deaths attributed to septic abortion were in married women. Of 109 women who died from abortion sepsis in this period leaving motherless 338 children, a majority had husbands in working-class occupations. P. Mein Smith, Maternity in Dispute, Wellington, 1986, p. 107. 10. City of Melbourne, Annual Report of MOH, 1932, City of Melbourne Council Proceedings, 1932-3, p. 464. 11. R.1. Woods, P.A. Watterson andJ.H. Woodward, 'The Causes of Rapid Infant Mortality Decline in England and Wales, 1861-1921. Part II', Population Studies, vol. 43, no. I, 1989, pp. 113-32. 12. J.C. Caldwell and G. San tow (eds), Selected Readings in the Cultural, Social and Behavioural Determinants of Health, Health Transition Series no. I, Canberra, 1989, esp. ch. 1. 280 Notes 13. Commonwealth Year Book, 1901-20, p. 116, 1929, p. 971; Victorian Year­ Book, 1930-1, p. 65, 1940-1, p. 95. 14. Victorian Baby Health Centres Association, Executive Council, Minutes, 29 March 1927; Town Clerk, Wonthaggi, to Secretary, Ladies' Committee, 1 April 1930. 15. lowe thanks to Sister Helen Keltie who found the reports at the back of the baby health centre. 16. Wonthaggi Centre, Borough of Wonthaggi, Nurse's Annual Reports, 1927-8, 1928-9. 17. Wonthaggi Centre, Nurse's Annual Report, 1928-9. 18. Ibid., 1936-7, also North Wonthaggi Centre, Nurse's Annual Report, 1934-5, 1936-7. 19. Bendigo Centre, Nurse's Annual Report, 1927-8; 5th Annual Report of Bendigo Baby Health Centre, Y/Efune 1926, Bendigo City Archives, Baby Health Centre, 1920-40, Box 1. 20. Wonthaggi Centre, Nurse's Annual Report, 1928-9. 21. J. Powles, 'Keeping the Doctor Away', in V. Burgmann and J. Lee (eds), Making a Life: A People's History of Australia since 1788, Melbourne, 1988, p. 71. 22. For example, Bendigo Centre, Nurse's Annual Report, 1927-8; Wonthaggi Centre, Nurse's Annual Report, 1934-5. 23. From a systematic analysis of the death certificates of children under 2 years who died in South Australia in 1911 and 1912, I have been able to confirm that there was a pattern of recurrent and secondary infections. Data collected by author, with assistance from Flinders University, 1991. 24. Hilda Kincaid, Report to MOH, 1930, CMCP, 1930-1, pp. 422-3. 25. Ibid. 26. Margaret Harper, 'Gastro-Enteritis or Epidemic Diarrhoea: A Review of an Epidemic', MfA, 16 April 1932, pp. 538-43. 27. Ibid., pp. 540-l. 28. Wonthaggi Centre, Nurse's Annual Reports, 1927-4l. 29. J. E. Mechling, 'Advice to Historians on Advice to Mothers',fournal of Social History, vol. 9, no. 1, 1975, pp. 44-63. 30. C. Hardyment, Dream Babies: Child Care from Locke to Spock, London, 1983, and Dally, Inventing Motherhood, are examples. 31. R.D. Apple, Mothers and Medicine: A Social History of Infant Feeding, 1890-1950, Madison, Wisconsin, 1987, pp. 138, 151. However Apple's latest research suggests mothers were selective in the adoption of advice, according to their circumstances; see Apple, 'Constructing Mothers: Scientific Motherhood in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries', Social History of Medicine, vol. 8, no. 2, August 1995, pp. 161-78. See also Reiger, Disenchantment of the Home, pp. 146, 148-9, 151. 32. M. Penhaligon, conversation with the author, ANU, 10 June 1988. This section is derived from interviews and correspondence (n = 55), as follows: interviews with women at Rose Cottage and Wonthaggi Hospital, Wonthaggi, Victoria, May 1986 (13); correspondence with women contacted through the Australian Women's Weekly, 1987 (20); questionnaires, 1988 (10); and additional interviews (12). Notes 281 33. O. Lowe, Y. Tierney, H. Beresford, questionnaires, 1988. 34. Interview by author, Wonthaggi, 16 May 1986. The nurse considered that she did not need to read books as she was trained. 35. Another mother interviewed, Mrs C., was a trained nurse who emi­ grated from England in the late 1940s. Widowed young, she returned to nursing to support herself and her daughter. She too advocated regularity, describing herself at the time as a 'martinet', Mrs Philp and Mrs C., interviews by author, Wonthaggi, 16 May 1986. 36. Interviews, Wonthaggi, 16 May 1986. 37. Ibid. 38. Wonthaggi Express, 28 March 1956, Press Clippings, Box 1, Doris Hamilton Papers, Melbourne University Archives. 39. C. B. Stendler, 'Psychologic Aspects of Pediatrics: Sixty Years of Child Training Practices: Revolution in the Nursery', Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 36, no. 1, January 1950, pp. 131-4; Mechling, 'Advice to Historians on Advice to Mothers', p. 44. One instance is M. Ribble, The Rights of Infants: Early Psychological Needs and their Satisfaction, New York, 1944. Ribble had studied psychoanalysis with Anna Freud in Vienna. 40. Mrs Edwards, interview by author, Wonthaggi, 16 May 1986. 4l. N. Shirt, letter to author, 1 June 1987, Y. Wenholz, letter to author, 2June 1987. 42. B. La Nauze, letter to author, 1 September 1987. Z. Benjamin, You and Your Children, Sydney, 1944. 43. Wenholz, letter, 2June 1987; Morris, questionnaire, June 1988. 44. M. Haverfield, letter to author, 1 June 1987. 45. Haverfield, letter, 1 June 1987; Mrs D., interview by author, Wonthaggi, 16 May 1986. 46. W.F. Litchfield, 'BMA News', MedicalJournal of Australia, 9 October 1915, p. 352. 47. Report of MOH, 28 January 1933, City of St Kilda Archives, Melbourne; City of Fitzroy, Minutes of Committee of Whole Counci~ 5 March 1934, Public Record Office 4544/14, Melbourne. 48. Morris, questionnaire. 49. K.S. Inglis, interview with R. Inglis, December 1984;]. Ellerman, letter to author, 19 August 1987; E. Dixon, letter to author, 7 June 1987; H. Beresford, questionnaire, August 1988. 50. N. Mann, letter, nd,June 1987. 5l. Tierney, questionnaire, August 1988. Similarly, Mrs Morris tried the centre in 1942 when her son at 4 months weighed 10 pounds and screamed on feeding, and found after a test feed that she was 'starving the babe - they put him on cow's milk and water', Morris, question­ naire. 52. V.C. Dobson to Chamberlin, Town Clerk, St Kilda, 7 December 1925, City of St Kilda; Sister Muriel Newton, Report to Baby Health Centre Committee, City of Maryborough, Minutes of BHC Committee, January 1927. 53. McCalman, Struggletown, p. 209. 54. Reiger, Disenchantment of the Home, p. 149. 282 Notes

55. A. Smith, letter to author, 10 June 1987. M. Harper spelt out the ad­ vantages to the mother as well as the baby's digestive system, in The Parents' Book, Sydney, 1926, p. 24. 56. J. Ellerman, letter to author, 19 August 1987. 57. Wenholz, letter, 2June 1987, Penhaligon, 10June 1988. 58. Maidment, letter, 9 June 1987. 59. Haverfield, letter, 1 June 1987. 60. Reiger, Disenchantment of the Home, p. 143. Also Apple, Mothers and Medicine, pp. 159-64. 61. Interviews, Wonthaggi, 16 May 1986. 62. The child had contracted a skin disease in hospital and the mother lost her milk. The outbreak closed the hospital. E. Dixon, letter to author, 7 June 1987. 63. Dr H. Boyd Graham demonstrated the difference in weight and height for age by class, between working-class babies' measurements recorded by Sister Purcell at the VBHCA training school, and 1,727 babies seen at baby health centres, 'whose parents were in a position to seek private medical assistance', in Statement of Boyd Graham, Select Committee of the Legislative Assembly on Child Endowment, 2 August 1939, Boyd Graham Papers, AMA MS 1822, Melbourne. 64. Shirt, letter, 1 June 1987; Penhaligon, 10 June 1988. 65. M. Truby King, Mothercraft, 15th printing, Melbourne and Sydney, 1944, p. 83. 66. N. Parker, letter to author, 9 June 1987. 67. H.Jolly, Book of Child Care, London, 1975, p. 88. 68. Parker, letter, 9June 1987, Shirt, letter, 1 June 1987. 69. Haverfield, letter, 1 June 1987, Dixon, letter, 7 June 1987, Asmussen, letter, 27 June 1987, Wenholz, letter, 2 June 1987, E. Farrell, letter, 23 June 1987. Nappy shortage is from Morris, questionnaire. In the war, when napkins were rationed, 3 dozen nappies required 18 coupons; Telegraph, Brisbane, 13 June 1942, p. 4. 70. Shirt, letter, 1 June 1987, Asmussen, letter, 27 June 1987. This finding endorses that of Reiger, p. 147. 71. Maidment, letter, 9 June 1987, Haverfield, letter, 1 June 1987, Wenholz, letter, 2June 1987, questionnaires. 72. An invaluable contribution to the literature on breast-feeding is H. E. Williams and A. Carmichael, 'Nutrition in the First Year of Life in a Multi-Ethnic Poor Socio-Economic Municipality in Melbourne', Australian Paediatric Journal, no. 19, 1983, pp. 73-7. Their results support those here; i.e. in a study of 304 consecutively born infants in Brunswick, 'nutrition was suboptimal in approximately 50% [because of] a high failure rate in establishing effective lactation in the 82% of mothers who commenced breast feeding, [and] the early and fre­ quent feeding of solids .... Successful breast feeding was positively correlated with better education and working skills while early intro­ duction of solids and canned food was negatively correlated. Professional advice and influence in breast feeding was very limited as most mothers decided their feeding methods on their own prefer­ ences or their experience with other children, or on advice from their Notes 283 mothers or relatives.' Part of the responsibility for early failure of lac­ tation rested with obstetric hospitals. 73. McCalman, esp. p. 51; Alice Rawson School for Mothers, Annual &pori, 1913-14, Mitchell Library, Sydney. 74. Alice Rawson School, Annual Reports; 'Nurse's Annual Report', in South Melbourne, City Suroeyor's Report, 1919-20, City of South Melbourne; Kincaid, &pori toMaH, 1930, CMCP, 1930-1. 75. M. Sutton, questionnaire, August 1988; H. Beresford added, 'I cannot imagine that [condensed milk] would have been given to us as a food ... ', questionnaire, August 1988. 76. Tierney, questionnaire. 77. Penhaligon, 10 June 1988; questionnaires and correspondence by mothers to author. 78. Commonwealth Year Book, 1953, p. 297. 79. MBHA, Annual &poris; Selby, ch. 5. 80. H. Kincaid, Report of MO in Charge of.. Child Welfare, 1929, CMCP 1929-30, p. 535; E.S. Morris, 'Correspondence. Infant Mortality', MfA, 8 June 1929, pp. 788-9; Conference of Reps. of Aust. Mothercraft Society with Director-Gen. of Public Health ... , May 1930, Department of Public Health, Division of Maternal and Baby Welfare, 2/8566.1, AONSW, Sydney. 81. The calculation is as follows: let total births in suburbs with centres be y, and total cases of diarrhoea among them be x. 'Attenders' = 0.7y and 'non-attenders' = 0.3y. Cases of diarrhoea in 'attenders' = 0.2x, and 'non-attenders' = 0.8x. Diarrhoea rates are, for 'attenders', 0.2x/0.7y and for 'non-attenders', 0.8x/0.3y. Ratio of rates ('non­ attenders' /'attenders') = 0.8x/0.3y x O. 7y /0.2x, i.e. 0.56/0.06 = 9 times. Nurse Inspector Williams' testimony is from Williams to Sandford Morgan, Director of Maternal and Baby Welfare, 30 October 1935,2/8564.1, AONSW. 82. These issues are examined in detail in Mein Smith, 'Reformers, Mothers and Babies', ch. 4, esp. pp. 124-9. 83. V. Fildes, 'Breast-feeding in London, 1905-19', J. Biosoc. Sci., no. 24, 1992, pp. 53-70, provides a basis for comparison. 84. City of Melbourne, Health Committee's Reports and Annual Reports of MOH. 85. H. Kincaid, 'Child Welfare Work in the City of Melbourne', Health Bulletin, no. 19,July-September 1928, p. 634, also &Pori, 1928, CMCP, pp.479-81. 86. L. Marks has considered the question of ethnicity and variations in immigrant childrearing practices. She finds that Jewish immigrants in London had lower infant mortality, which observers attributed to good breast-feeding habits and care of infants, in Marks, 'Ethnicity, Religion and Health Care', Social History ofMedicine, vol. 4, no. 1, April 1991, pp. 123-8. For Kincaid's observations, see Kincaid, &port, 1930, pp. 420-1, and 1936, p. 26, CMCP. 87. Reiger has established this point on the basis of the Victorian evidence for babies under 9 months old, in Disenchantment of the Home, p. 143. Percentages of infants exclusively breast- or bottle-fed in the United 284 Notes

States, 1917-48, are given in Apple, Mothers and Medicine, p. 153. The decline in breast-feeding was more marked in the United States than in Australia. 88. McCalman, p. 209. 89. City of Fitzroy, Report of MOH, 1944, Minutes of Health and Public Works Committee, 5 March 1945, Public Record Office 4544/18, Melbourne. 90. VBHCA, Minutes of Central Council, 4 August 1942, MS 11019, SLV; Vic. Department of Public Health, Reports of the Director of Infant Welfare, 1927-45. 91. On Britain, see F.B. Smith, The Retreat of Tuberculosis 1850-1950, Beckenham, Kent, 1988, p. 189. 92. These thoughts have benefited from Caldwell's argument about ma­ ternal education. Ibid. 93. Henderson, interview by author, Wonthaggi, 16 May 1986. 94. In a typical example, a nurse disputed the competence of a grand­ mother, a mother of 16, to dissuade the daughter from attending, when the grandmother had lost six of her children. 'Baby Health. Grandmother to the Rescue. Her Sixteen Children', Cootamundra Liberal, 7 September 1927. 95. Mein Smith, 'Infant Welfare Services and Infant Mortality'. 96. An earlier version of this chapter was published as Mein Smith, 'Mothers, Babies, and the Mothers and Babies Movement: Australia through Depression and War', Social History of Medicine, vol. 6, no. 1, April 1993, pp. 51-83. See also Mein Smith, 'Reformers, Mothers and Babies', ch. 7. Wendy Selby has since produced results for Queensland which support the findings on mothers' practices in this chapter; see Selby, 'Baby Clinics, Infant Mortality and Mothers: Another Side of the Story', Oral History Association of Australia Journal, no. 15, 1993, pp. 64-73, and '''Raising an Interrogatory Eyebrow"', in G. Reekie (ed.), On the Edge: Women's Experiences of Queensland, Brisbane, 1994, ch. 6. 97. Cf., on England, Lewis, Politics of Motherhood. The Canadian studies by Comacchio and Arnup also reveal parallels with these findings in Australia.

8. THE NEWBORN AND NEONATAL PAEDIATRICS

1. Irvine Loudon, Death in Childbirth: An International Study of Maternal Care and Maternal Mortality 1800-1950, Oxford, 1992, ch. 28. 2. P. Mein Smith, Maternity in Dispute: New Zealand 1920-1939, Wellington, 1986, ch. 1. The statistics that alarmed New Zealand politicians are depicted in Skocpol, pp. 498-9. 3. RCH, Evidence of Clubbe, 10 March 1925, q. 6395; R. Marshall Allan, 'Listerian Oration. The Future of Obstetrics', MJA, 25 June 1927, p.915. 4. Calculated as one-third of 76,960 infant deaths, 1920-9, Vamplew (ed.), Australians: Historical Statistics, p. 57. Notes 285 5. About one-fifth of maternal deaths were due to toxaemia, J.C. Windeyer, 'The Toxaemias of Pregnancy with an Analysis of 158 Cases of Eclampsia', TAMC, suppl. to MIA,S April 1924, p. 179 (18-20 per cent), A.M. Wilson, discussion following, p. 185 (22 per cent); Marshall Allan reported 18 per cent, Frank M.C. Forster, 'One Hundred Years of Obstetrical and Gynaecological Teaching in Victoria', Aust & NZ I of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, vol. 6, no. 2, May 1966, p. 168. 6. Mein Smith, Maternity in Dispute, ch. 6; Loudon, 'Deaths in Childbed from the Eighteenth Century to 1935', Medical History, vol. 30, no. 1, January 1986, pp. 1-41. 7. Rates are from Commonwealth Year Book. 8. Loudon, Death in Childbirth, p. 494. 9. Mein Smith, Maternity in Dispute. 10. Selby, 'Motherhood in Labor's Queensland'. 11. Mein Smith, Maternity in Dispute, ch. 5, esp. p. 85. 12. On the international trends, see Loudon, Death in Childbirth. 13. Age, 17 June 1980, p. 15; Memorial album presented by Dr ].W. Springthorpe to Dr Felix Meyer, AMA MS 1650. Dr Springthorpe jr. grew up to preside over the Tweddle Hospital and later Melbourne's Lady Gowrie Child Centre (discussed in ch. 9). 14. Contemporary sources include Morris, 'An Essay on the Causes and Prevention of Maternal Morbidity and Mortality', MIA, 12 September 1925, pp. 301-45; Henry Jellett, The Causes and Prroention of Maternal Mortality, London, 1929. Recent sources include Mein Smith, Maternity in Dispute, Loudon, Death in Childbirth. 15. This has been argued in Australia by Milton Lewis. See Lewis, 'Maternity Care and the Threat of Puerperal Fever in Sydney, 1870-1939', in Fildes, Marks and Marland (eds), Women and Children First, ch. 2. Also Loudon, 'Some International Features of Maternal Mortality, 1880-1950', in ibid., ch. 1. 16. Mein Smith, Maternity Dispute. 17. VBNA, Annual Reports. 18. Lake and Holmes (eds), Freedom Bound II, p. 4. 19. Annette Summers, 'For I Have Ever So Much More Faith in Her Ability as a Nurse: The Eclipse of the Community Midwife in South Australia 1836-1942', PhD thesis, Flinders University, 1996. 20. Mein Smith, 'Maternity in Dispute: the Women's Contribution', paper to NZHA Conference, September 1994. Cr., on the United States, J.W. Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America 1750 to 1950, New York and London, 1986. 21. P.L. Hipsley, 'Stillbirths and Early Infantile Mortality', MIA, 20 February 1925, pp. 203-7. 22. Morris reviewed the inadequacies of medical students' education in 'An Essay', pp. 327-9. The Australian student was required to attend 20 labours. This requirement proved difficult to meet, however, and medical training remained inferior to that of the midwife who at­ tended 50 women under supervision, 20 cases personally, and had to pass an examination. Nurses Registration Act 1923, Victorian Statutes, 286 Notes

14 Geo V No. 3307; Main and Scan tie bury, Report to the Minister of Public Health, p. 13. 23. R. Marshall Allan, 'Report on Maternal Mortality and Morbidity in the State of Victoria', MJA, 2June 1928, p. 675. 24. J.S. Purdy, 'Maternal Mortality in Childbirth', MJA, 15 January 1921, pp. 44-5. The proportion of hospital births was probably exaggerated in New South Wales by the narrow definition of a 'hospital', as having one or more beds. This sweeping definition that covered any house or building, or even a tent, was designed to catch midwives suspected of acting as abortionists, Private Hospital Act 1908, Statutes ofNSW, 8 Edw VII No. 14; and Milton Lewis, 'Hospitalization for Childbirth in Sydney, 1870-1939: The Modern Maternity Hospital and Improvement in the Health of Women', JRAHS, vol. 66, pt 3, December 1980, pp.202-3. 25. Marshall Allan, 'Interim Report on Maternal Mortality and Morbidity', p. 6; VBNA, Annual Reports; Mein Smith, 'Childbirth', in Aplin, Foster and McKernan (eds), Australians: A Historical Dictionary, p. 75. 26. Mein Smith, 'Maternity in Dispute: the Women's Contribution'. 27. D. Maidment, letter, 9 June 1987. 28. Sources include Loudon, Death in Childbirth; Mein Smith, Maternity in Dispute; Leavitt, Brought to Bed. 29. First lecture given by Muriel A. Peck, Assistant to the Director of Infant Welfare, 'A Study of Principles and Purposes of the Infant Welfare Movement in Victoria', nd (1927), H. Boyd Graham Papers, AMA MSS 1822; Main and Scantlebury, Report to the Minister of Public Health on the Welfare of Women and Children, p. 9. 30. In New Zealand the ante-natal clinic sister tested blood pressure and took pelvic measurements. Main and Scantlebury, p. 11; Mein Smith, Maternity in Dispute, ch. 6. 31. Peck, First Lecture. The BMA had wanted more than this; it preferred that the nurse not see the expectant mother at all until she had gained the approval of the mother's doctor or hospital, VBHCA, Executive Committee, Minutes, 28 September 1926. 32. RCH, Evidence of Marie Brown, 14 May 1925, q. 13670; also Mayo, 14 May 1925, q. 13648. Vic Dept of Public Health, Report of the Director ofInfant Welfare, 1928-9, p. 698. 33. Peck, First Lecture. 34. RCH, Evidence of Fourness Barrington, 9 March 1925, q. 6040. 35. Dawson, in Mein Smith, Maternity in Dispute, pp. 96-7. Dawson had travelled to Europe as an honorary commissioner for South Australia in 1924 to report on ante-natal clinics, MJA, 20 September 1924, p.312. 36. RCH, Evidence of Spencer, 10 June 1925, qq. 16859-61, Harper, ques­ tioned by Hone, 10 March 1925, q. 6519. 37. Vera Scantlebury Brown, 'Education in Health (Relating to Mothers and Young Children)', HB, no. 72, July-December 1942, p. 1933. 38. RCH, Evidence of Lucy Spencer, 10June 1925, q. 16857. 39. Main and Scantlebury, p. 11; RCH, Evidence of Mayo, 14 May 1925, qq. 13648-9. Notes 287 40. RCH, Evidence of Emily Irvine, Secretary, CWA, NSW, 23 March 1925, q.8788. 41. RCH, Evidence of R. Fowler, Council, Vic Brch BMA, 29 Jan 1925, q.1270. 42. T.G. Wilson, 'Some Remarks on Ante-Natal Supervision', MJA, 16 January 1937, p. 86; 'Fifty Years of Ante-Natal Care', MJA, 25 August 1962, p. 309. On the history of ante-natal care in Britain, see Ann Oakley, The Captured Womb: A History of the Medical Care of Pregnant Women, Oxford, 1984. 43. The QVH clinic opened in July 1920, VBHCA, Executive Council, Minutes, 6 July 1920, while the Melbourne Women's Hospital opened an ante-natal department at the end of the war which saw very few women, A.M. Wilson, 'Antenatal Study', MJA, 15 Aug 1925, p. 192. There is a discrepancy whether this clinic opened in 1919 or 1920; I have assumed Scantlebury Brown was right. Main and Scan tie bury, Report to the Minister of Public Health, p. 13; RCH, Evidence of Fourness Barrington, 9 March 1925, q. 6039,John Dale, Officer of Health, WA, 19 May 1925, q. 14426; J.H.L. Cumpston and F. McCallum, Public Health Services in Australia, Geneva, 1926, p. 51. 44. Mein Smith, Maternity in Dispute, chs. 2,6. 45. Main and Scantlebury, p. 13; 999 women visited the Padding ton clinic in 1922, H.A. Ridler, 'An Outdoor Ante-Natal Clinic', MJA, 18 October 1924, p. 393. The percentage is Morris's, Report of the Director ofMaternal and Baby Welfare, in Report ofDGPH, NSW, 1928. 46. Cumpston, Report Upon the Activities of the Commonwealth Department of Healthfrom 1909 to 1930. 47. RCH, Evidence of Fourness Barrington, 9 March 1925, qq. 6005, 6007. 48. Sums calculated from Ronald Mendelsohn, The Condition of the People: Social Welfare in Australia 1900-1975, Sydney, 1979, pp. 374-90; the editors of the Medical Journal thought that £7.75 million had been spent by 1924, 'Maternity Benefit', MJA, 9 May 1925, p. 485. 49. Cumpston, Report Upon the Activities of the Commonwealth Department of Health from 1909 to 1930. 50. 'Maternity Benefit', MJA, 9 May 1925, p. 485. 51. NCW cited by Cumpston, in Report Upon the Activities ... from 1909 to 1930. 52. DT, 21 March 1923, RSWMB, 11/1. Conference papers are printed in Health, vol. 1, no. 5, May 1923. Findings of Sydney's nurse inspectors are from Report ofDGPH, NSW, 1913, p. 49. See also RCH, Evidence of Dr Grace Boelke, NCW, NSW, 23 March 1925, qq. 8862, 8864; Cumpston, Report Upon the Activities .. from 1909 to 1930. Cumpston had proposed dividing the money among the states to establish maternity centres on the British model, SMH, 22 May 1922. By 1925 he had become more influenced by United States and New Zealand initiatives after an overseas trip in 1924, RCH, Evidence of Cumpston, 17 February 1925, q. 3386. 53. RCH, Evidence of Marie Brown, 14 May 1925, q. 13670; Main and Scan tie bury reported six weeks' residence, in Report to the Minister of Public Health; but Morris, trained at Sydney, understood that practical 288 Notes obstetric experience for the Australian medical student ext.ended to no more than three weeks. See his important 'An Essay', p. 328. Dr Beatrice Holt (Sharwood), who acted as locum medical officer to the VBHCA for Scantlebury Brown in 1924, became President of the Canberra Mothercraft Society, and completed her training between 1918 and 1925, remembered that there was 'remarkably little' in the medical course on infant hygiene. B. Holt, interview by author, Canberra, 18 February 1986. 54. Dr [Dame] Mary Herring, who had opened Melbourne's first subur­ ban clinic in Prahran, had first to convince the local division of the BMA that only working-class mothers would be nursed and that Lodge patients would be notified to the Lodge doctor, MDNS, Minutes, 9 November 1937. Clinic estimates are from Scantlebury Brown, 'Education in Health (Relating to Mothers and Young Children)', p. 1934. Ellerman, letter, 19 August 1987. 55. Parker, letter, 9 June 1987; Lowe, questionnaire, August 1988. 56. This was embodied in the replacement of the term 'albuminuria' by 'toxaemia of pregnancy'; Mein Smith, Maternity in Dispute, pp. 92-3. The NSW Branch of the BMA heard at its meeting in July 1936 that blood pressure was the first sign to appear, 'BMA News', MfA, 23 January 1937. That this knowledge had not become general in Australia before 1940 is illustrated by Dr George Simpson's stressing the importance of blood pressure readings and demonstration of a mercurial sphygmomanometer to his Victorian colleagues in April 1940; Simpson, in Vic Branch BMA, Meeting, MfA, 1 June 1940, p. 773. Simpson, a pioneer of ante-natal care, ran the Melbourne District Nursing Society's clinic in Collingwood from its opening in 1930; Norman Rosenthal, People - Not Cases: The Royal District Nursing Service, Melbourne, 1974, ch. 5. 57. Victoria, Midwives Act 1928, 19 Geo V No. 3734, Nurses Act 1928, 19 Geo V No. 3744, which consolidated earlier legislation dating from 1915 for midwives and 1923 for nurses; New South Wales, Nurses' Registration Act 1924, Geo V No. 37. In New Zealand, all registered midwives had to undergo a period of training at a Karitane hospital, RCH, Evidence of Cumpston, 17 February 1925, q. 3386. 58. RSWMB, Annual Report, 1925-6, p. 12; Alison Cox, 'Historical Outline ofTresillian', draft paper, Sydney,January 1983. 59. RCH, Evidence of Harper, 10 March 1925, qq. 6591, 6593; O'Hara, in Hetherington (ed.), Childhood and Society in Western Australia, p. 180. 60. RCH, Evidence of Clubbe, 10 March 1925, qq. 6399-40l. 6l. Marshall Allan, 'Report on Maternal Mortality and Morbidity', p. 677. 62. Maidment, letter, 9 June 1987; there is a photograph of this practice, in Aplin, Foster and McKernan (eds), Australians: A Historical Dictionary, p. 75. 63. RCH, Evidence of Mayo, 14 May 1925, q. 13649. 64. A.P. Derham, 'Lectures to Nurses on Infant Feeding', Children's Hospital, Carlton, 1931, A.P. Derham Papers, 5/2/1; J.F. Sinclair, 'The Problem of the Premature Infant', Archives of Pediatrics, vol. 37, 1920, pp. 141-2. Notes 289 65. Derham Papers, 5/2/1, 'Notes on the Care and Feeding of the Premature Infant', Lecture 7, 1931. The Presbyterian Babies' Home was donated two electric cots on its opening in 1929, First Annual ~Qrt, 1928-9,p.22. 66. Mary Truby King, Mothercraft, Sydney, 1944, pp. 207-8; M. Harper de­ tailed the standard treatment at the Tresillian mothercraft training school, of breast-feeding, warmth and isolation from infection, in 'Causation and Prevention of Mortality During the First Month of Life', MfA, 20 February 1926, pp. 207-11; C.E. Card, Lectures in Mothercraft [1935], Exercise Books, Foundling Hospital and Infants' Home, Berry St, East Melbourne. 67. See Thomas E. Cone, History of the Care and Feeding of the Premature Infant, Boston, 1985. 68. Shirt, letter, 1 June1987. 69. Cone, History of the Care and Feeding. 70. Discussion, MfA, 20 February 1926, p. 225. 71. Cone, History of the Care and Feeding. 72. P.L Hipsley, 'Natal and Neonatal Mortality and Morbidity', TAMC, 1929, p. 93, Tables I and II, provided for Hipsley by Dr Margaret Harper. 73. RSWMB, Annual Reports, 1932-3, p. 5, 1936-7, p. 4, 1940-1, p. 16; Presbyterian Babies' Home (bl,arterly, vol. 1, no. 3,July 1933. 74. SHWC of Vic, Annual~Qrt, 1942-3, p. 10. 75. A. Jefferis Turner, 'Maternal Nutrition and Neonatal Deaths: A Comparison of the Neonatal Mortality Rates of Queensland and South Australia', MfA, 12 March 1938, p. 490-3. 76. Barbara Meredith, 'Ante-Natal Care', HB, no. 82, January:June 1945, pp. 2204-10. 77. Young and Ruzicka, 'Mortality', in UN ESCAP, Population of Australia, vol. 1, Table 95, p. 164. 78. Janet McCalman, personal communication. 79. Mrs N. Parker reported that women who entered private hospitals considered themselves lucky that they were not objects of charity and believed that they paid for superior care, Parker, letter, 9 June 1987. 80. Grace Cuthbert, Report of the Director of Maternal and Baby Welfare, 1942, typescript, 7/9994, AONSW. 81. F.W. Clements, A History of Human Nutrition in Australia, Melbourne, 1986, p. 134; H. Beresford added that although people were fright­ ened, 'the basic foods were plentiful', questionnaire, August 1988. 82. Kate Campbell, biographical file, SLY.

9. THE PRE-SCHOOLER AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT

1. Scantlebury Brown, A Guide to Infant Feeding, Melbourne, 1929, Scantlebury Brown and Kate Campbell, A Guide to the Care of the Young Child, Melbourne, 1947. 2. Reiger, Disenchantment of the Home, p. 153. 290 Notes 3. Gisela Bock, 'Poverty and Mothers' Rights in the Emerging Welfare States', in G. Duby and M. Perrot (eds), A History of Women in the West, Vol. v: Toward a Cultural Identity in the Twentieth Century, F. Thebaud (ed.), Cambridge, Mass. and London, 1994, p. 424. 4. T.H. Hull, 'Sex Differentials in Child Mortality, Australia, 1909-1984', Research Note on Child Suroival, no. 13CS, 26 November 1986, IPDP, ANU. 5. City of Melbourne, Report of MOH, 1938, CMCP, 1938-9, p. 486. 6. Caldwell, 'Family Change and Demographic Change'; Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child. 7. RCH, Evidence of J.H.L. Cumpston, where he answered in the affirmative a question by F.S. Hone, 10 February 1925, q. 2012. The best source on Cumpston and his conservative social theory is Michael Roe, Nine Australian Progressives, Brisbane, 1984, ch. 5. 8. RCH, Report, 1926, CPP, 1926-8, Vol. 4, p. 39 (1285) and Minutes, Evidence of W. Kent Hughes, 11 February 1925, q. 2241, Sir George Cuscaden, 12 February 1925, qq. 2774-7, V. Scantlebury, 17 February 1925, qq. 3317-21; J.H.L. Cumpston, The History of Diphtheria, Scarlet Fever, Measles, and Whooping Cough in Australia 1788-1925, Canberra, 1927, pp. 102, 107; Hilda Bull, 'The Control of Diphtheria by the New Methods', TAMC, 1934, p. 326. 9. Christine Heinig, 'Education in the Lady Gowrie Child Centres', Australian Institute of Anatomy, Pre-School Child Bulletin, vol. 2, no. 1, April 1940, p. 3. 10. Historical overviews of the kindergarten movement are given in Peter Spearritt, 'Child Care and Kindergartens in Australia 1890-1975', in Peter Langford and Patricia Sebastian (eds) , Early Childhood Education and Care in Australia, Melbourne, 1980, pp. 10-38; Deborah Brennan, The Politics ofAustralian Child Care, Melbourne, 1994, ch. l. 11. Sydney Mail, 26 October 1921; Sunday Times, 12 June 1922; RSWMB, Annual Reports. 12. Christine Heinig, 'Education in the Lady Gowrie Child Centres', Australian Institute of Anatomy, Pre-School Child Bulletin, vol. 2, no. I, April 1940, p. 3. 13. Madeleine Mayhew, 'The 1930s Nutrition Controversy', Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 23, no. 3, July 1988, pp. 445-64. 14. Scan tie bury Brown, Diary B6, 23 September 1929, p. 5. 15. Vera Scantlebury Brown joked that this was a 'common' pun, Diary B6, 25 July 1929, p. 28, 23 September 1929, p. 4; also Herald, 11 June 1929, in j.W. Springthorpe, Diary 13. Dale was described by Dr A.E. Wilmot, the first dietitian to the Lady Gowrie Child Centres and Victoria's third Director of Maternal, Infant, and Pre-School Welfare, interview, Melbourne,S September 1985. 16. Commonwealth Enquiry into Problems of Nutrition, 1st meeting, 17 April 1936, AA, CRS A1928, Items 726/3 sect. 1, 726/5 sect. 2. 17. F.W. Clements, draft paper to Australian Medical Congress, Adelaide, 1937, Cumpston to Min. of Health, 18 October 1937, AA CRS A1928, Item 726/3 sect. 5. Clements has charted his treks, in F.W. Clements, A History ofHuman Nutrition in Australia, Melbourne, 1986, p. 97. Notes 291 18. These conclusions are based on Clements, A History of Human Nutrition in Australia, pp. 102-6. 19. C.C.Jungfer, Child Health in a Rural Community. Report of the Work of a Health Surocy in the Adelaide Hills District, Canberra, 1944. 20. There were only four infant welfare centres, two introduced by the survey, and yet infant mortality was low. Jungfer, Child Health in a Rural Community, p. 39. 21. Kincaid, Report on Child Welfare, 1932, CMCP, 1932-3, pp. 477-8. 22. Scantlebury Brown, Diary B10, 20 April 1930, p. 64. 23. Kincaid, Report on Child Welfare, 1933, CMCP, 1933-4, p. 481; on ma­ ternal inefficiency see Lewis, Politics of Motherhood, p. 68; Jones, Social Hygiene in Twentieth Century Britain, pp. 79-81. 24. Dale, Report of MOH, 1936, CMCP, 1936-7, p. 544; Kincaid, Report on Child Welfare, 1930, CMCP, 1930-1, p. 421, 1936, p. 557; Extract from Dr Heycock's School Medical Report, Wellington, 30 April 1935, NA HI, 35/65, Wellington. 25. F.W. Clements, 'Some Observations upon the Relationship of Food Intake to Malnutrition in Sydney', draft report, 12January 1938, AA CRS A1928, Item 726/3 sect. 6; Clements, A History of Human Nutrition, p. 109. 26. Richard J. Bernstein, 'John Dewey', Encyclopedia of Philosophy, pp. 380-5; I. Broinowski, interview with Mary Gibson, September 1985; Biographical Sketch, American Association of University Women, both courtesy of AECA. 27. Resolution no. 6, Hygiene of Childhood, NHMRC, Minutes, 1st session, Hobart, 1-3 February 1937, health no. 131, AA CRS A1928, Item 690/4; Richard Casey, Treasurer, Budget Speech, CPD, vol. 154, 27 August 1937, p. 270;]. Lyons to Premier, SA, 6 October 1937, CRS A 1928, Item 726/3 sect. 5; also 155/1 sect. 2, 155/17/1 sect. l. On Cumpston and national hygiene see James A. Gillespie, The Price of Health, Melbourne, 1991, pp. 51-6. 28. Reports of the Director of Infant Welfare. 29. FKU of Vic, Annual Report, 1936-7, p. 46; Biographical Sketch, American Association of University Women. 30. Brennan credits Lady Gowrie with the centre's formation, in Politics of Australian Child Care, pp. 36-9. Lady Gowrie declared herself a Truby King disciple. Truby King League of Vic, Annual Report, 1940-1, p. 5, 1941-2, p. 4. Spearritt also observed that the Lady Gowrie Centres 'were not a complete break from ... traditions', in 'Child Care and Kindergartens in Australia', p. 22. 31. Mary L. Walker, 'The Development of Kindergartens in Australia', MEd thesis, University of Sydney, 1964, p. 193; Brennan, p. 37. 32. AA CRS A 1928, Items 155/1 sects 2 and 3, 155/17/1 sect. 1; Scantlebury Brown's memorandum of 8 October 1937, which took its title 'Requirements for Adequate Supervision of Bodily Development of Children Before School Age' from the NHMRC resolution and thereby directly addressed Cumpston's query, was published in the Reports of the NHMRC, 3rd session, Sydney, 12-13 November 1937, pp. 35-9, and as an appendix to the Report of the Director of Infant 292 Notes

Welfare, 1936-7. Scantlebury Brown opted for the term 'child develop­ ment centre' in a subsequent memorandum, Scantlebury to CHO, Vic, 20 December 1937. This listed her Melbourne group of friends and colleagues. She attached KTC building requirements for a demonstration nursery school, 11 December 1937. 33. AACRSAI928, Item 155/17/1 sect. 1. 34. Incomes in 1940-1 ranged from £3/12/0 a week in Brisbane to £4/13/0 in Melbourne and Perth. In 1941 the reported basic wage was £4/9/0 in Queensland and £4/8/0 in Perth. Christine Heinig, 1st Annual Report, 1941, AA CRS A1928, Item 155/17/1 sect. 3; Commonwealth Year Book, 1944-5, pp. 426-7. For a detailed description of the centres, see J.H.L. Cumpston and Christine M. Heinig's Pre­ school Centres in Australia, Canberra, 1944. 35. R. White, Inventing Australia, Sydney, 1981, p. 140. 36. F.W. Clements and Margaret MacPherson, The Lady Gowrie Child Centres. The Health Record, Canberra, 1945, p. 11. 37. Ibid., p. 23. 38. Vera Scantlebury Brown, 'Nutrition of the Pre-School Child', MfA, 30July 1938, p. 153. 39. Webster, 'Healthy or Hungry Thirties?', p. 121; Mayhew, The 1930s Nutrition Controversy', p. 457. 40. Clements and MacPherson, The Health Record, pp. 14-26. Heinig, 1st Annual Report, 1941. 41. Clements and MacPherson, p. 15. 42. Ibid., pp. 23, 26; also LGCC Adelaide, 5th Annual Report, 1945, p.l0. 43. I found the Sydney medical histories in the Psychology Department at the Australian National University. They have since been returned to the AECA, Canberra. lowe a debt to Ms E.T. Mellor, Director of the Adelaide Lady Gowrie Centre, for the care that she has given to pre­ serving the Adelaide records, and thanks to the Melbourne Lady Gowrie Centre for access to case studies which are stored at the Centre. Edna Hill observed in 1948 that the best records were in Perth, in The Lady Gowrie Child Centres: A First Analysis of Case History Records of Children Attending the Lady Gowrie Child Centres (1939-1946), Canberra, 1949, pp. 3-4. Patricia Crawford has concluded from the Perth case records that 'the staff exceeded their original brief of demonstrating methods of child care and studying problems of behav­ iour, and were inculcating working-class children with middle-class values'; Crawford, 'Early Childhood in Perth, 1940-1945: From the Records of the Lady Gowrie Child Centre', in Hetherington (ed.), Childhood and Society in Western Australia, p. 204. 44. Hill, First Analysis, Table 11, p. 19. These findings tally with the Adelaide Hills Survey of the same period, which found that 84 per cent of children inspected were from families of one to three chil­ dren. Jungfer, Child Health in a Rural Community, pp. 13, 16. 45. LW, 327, Melbourne. 46. Commonwealth Year Book, 1944-5, p. 1l01; M. McKernan, All In! Australia During the Second World War, Melbourne, 1983, p. 158. Notes 293 47. On bread and dripping, see Judy Mackinolty (ed.), The Wasted Years? Australia's Great Depression, Sydney, 1981, p. 105. 48. F.W. Clements, 'The Medical Programme to be Carried Out at the Lady Gowrie Child Centres', PrtrSdwol Child Bulletin, vo!' 2, no. I, April 1940, p. 8. 49. IW, lOA, MS, 19A,JR, 93A,JD, 96A, KB, lOlA, AT, 124A, GK, 300A, Adelaide, DS, 305, Melbourne. 50. IW, lOA, Adelaide. 51. DG, Sydney; AT, 249A, Adelaide is another example. 52. PS, 249, Melbourne. 53. MM, Melbourne. 54. Hill, The Lady Gowrie Centres. A First Analysis of Case History Records, p.105. 55. J. Spence, W.S. Walton, F J.W. Miller and S.D.M. Court, A Thousand Families in Newcastle upon Tyne: An Approach to the Study of Health and Illness in Children, London, 1954, p. 61. 56. GH, 56A,JR, 93A, Adelaide. 57. GB, Sydney. 58. AB, BR, 80A, Adelaide; ED, Melbourne; DG, Sydney. 59. MS, 19A, Adelaide; LS, 287, Melbourne. 60. CH, 300A, Adelaide. 61. CH, 125A Adelaide. 62. Crawford, 'Early Childhood in Perth', p. 204. 63. CW, 36A, Adelaide. 64. See Brennan, p. 47. 65. WP, 227, BR, 228, GP, 244, Melbourne. 66. RP, 242, Melbourne. 67. BW, 226, Melbourne. 68. A. Constance Duncan and Christine Heinig, 'War Time Children's Centres', 8July 1943, CRS A1928, Item 155/19. 69. RB, PR, Sydney, KB, 25A, Adelaide. 70. 1M, 49A, Adelaide. 71. See also Arnold Gesell and Frances Ilg, who advised that instead of 'striving for executive efficiency', mothers should be perceptive to their children's behaviour, in Infant and Child in the Culture of Today: The Guidance ofDevelopment in Home and Nursery School, 21st edn., New York, 1943, p. 57. 72. See C. Urwin and E. Sharland, 'From Bodies to Minds in Childcare Literature', in R. Cooter (ed.), In the Name of the Child: Health and Welfare 1880-1940, London, 1992, ch. 7. 73. Truby King, Story of the Teeth, pp. 42-3. 74. On the shift to psychology, see Reiger, ch. 7. 75. Cedric Swanton, 'Psychology, Baby Health and Child Welfare', MJA, 13 August 1938, pp. 235-8; Australian Institute of Anatomy, PrtrSchool Child Bulletin, vo!' 2, no. 1, April 1940, pp. 10-11. 76. Benjamin Spock, The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care, New York, 1946 (1st published 1945). 77. One was Mary Catherine Bateson, daughter of Margaret Mead, born in 1939, who put herself on a regular schedule. Bateson, With a 294 Notes

Daughter's Eye: A Memoir of Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, New York, 1984; also Dally, Inventing Motherhood, p. 84. 78. Swanton, 'Psychology, Baby health and Child Welfare', p. 239. 79. Clements and MacPherson, The Health Record, p. 8. 80. Urwin and Sharland, 'From Bodies to Minds', p. 175. 81. Case study 267, Perth, courtesy of Patricia Crawford. See also Crawford, 'Early Childhood in Perth', pp. 190-1. 82. '£500 Gift to Creche by Matthews Family Acclaimed at Meeting', Bendigo Advertiser, 7 March 1945. 83. Bowlby's report, Maternal Care and Mental Health, WHO, 1950, became the book, Child Care and the Growth of Love, 1st published 1953. Dally asserts that Bowlby exerted more influence on professionals, govern­ ments and mothers than any manual writer; her thesis is that 'mother­ liness' should be spread, and her book an exercise in how Bowlby was misrepresented, Inventing Motherhood, pp. 84-111. 84 IG, 260, ED, Melbourne. In 1943-4 Amirah Inglis's little brother had a sandpit, 'the latest educational amenity for kindergarten children', and the two Jewish children in the Melbourne sample were similarly advantaged. Amirah Inglis, Amirah. An un-Australian Childhood, Melbourne, 1983, p. 149. 85. JP, 266A, Adelaide. 86. JD, 90, Melbourne. 87. LW, 327, Melbourne. 88. Ian W. McLean and Jonathan J. Pincus, 'Did Australian Living Standards Stagnate between 1890 and 1940?', Journal of Economic History, vol. XLIII, no. 1, March 1983, pp. 193-202. 89. Ibid., p. 198; also McLean and Pincus, 'Living Standards in Australia 1890-1940: Evidence and Conjectures', ANU Working Papers in Economic History, Can berra, 1982, pp. 13-14. 90. This is the view presented by Brennan, pp. 42-3. Bibliography

1. PRIMARY SOURCES

Unpublished Official Records

Australia Federal The files listed below are held by the Australian Archives, Canberra. AA, CRSA1928 Series 155 - Child Welfare Series 680 - Motherhood Endowment and Child Welfare Series 690 - National Health and Medical Research Council Series 726 - Nutrition. Commonwealth Enquiries into Problems of

Lady Gowrie Child Centres Adelaide Case study records, 1940-5 Sample size: 30. Social histories only. Medical histories are absent (they were sent to Canberra so that the studies could be written). General Committee Minutes, 1940-5, and LGCC, Annual Reports Melbourne Case study records, 1940-5 Sample size: 20. Social histories only. Medical histories absent. Committee Minutes, 1943-52 Minutes of Annual Meetings, 1940-5 Welfare Seroice Account Book, 1940-54 Sydney Case study records, 1940-6. Found at the Australian National University. Sample size: 20. Medical histories only. Social histories destroyed, 1975.

State

Archives Office of New South Wales Department ofPublic Health - Division of Maternal and Baby Welfare 2/8564.1, Papers Relating to the Chippendale Baby Health Centre, 1917-40 2/8564.2, Papers Relating to the Paddington Baby Health Centre, 1917-57 2/8564.3, Papers Relating to the Alexandria Baby Health Centre, 1914-41 2/8565.1, Papers Relating to the Broken Hill Baby Health Centre, 1917-57 2/8565.2, Papers Relating to the Balranald Baby Health Centre, 1945-57 2/8566.1, Papers Relating to the History and Recognition of the Australian Mothercraft Society (Karitane), 1925-59

295 296 Bibliography 2/8566.2, Papers Relating to the Development of the Baby Health Centre Service and the Division of Maternal and Baby Welfare, 1914-39 Kingswood 7/9997, Copies of Circulars sent to Baby Health Centres, 1939-54 7/9998-10000, Reports of Staffing of Baby Health Centres, 1939-47 5/5330.2, Requests for Supply of Pamphlets on Advice to Mothers, 1914-17

South Australia Registrar of Births, Deaths and Marriages, Death Register, 1911-12 and Birth Register, 1911

New Zealand National Archives, Wellington. Health Department, HI: Registered files Series 13 - Maternity and Child Welfare Series 35 -Medical Inspections of Schools: Child Hygiene Series 127 - Plunket Society H3/13: Committee of Inquiry into Mental Defectives and Sexual Offenders, Evidence, 1924

Local Government

Victoria These sources were found in City or Town Hall Archives, unless otherwise stated. Bendigo Box 1, Baby Health Centre, 1920-40 Box 2, Baby Health Centres, 1941-57 Fitzroy City of Fitzroy, Committee Minute Books, PRO 4544 Footscray H/6, Society for the Health of Women and Children, 1922-6 H/9, Health of Women and Children Society, 1917-22 1/3 Box C41, Baby Welfare Centre Subsidy, 2nd Nurse, 1925-6 1/3 Box C41(no. 2), Infant Welfare, 1927-30 1/3 Box C59, Infant Welfare, 1931-3 1/3 Box C72, Health of Women and Children, 1935-6 1/3 Box C87, Infant Welfare, 1934-9 1/3 Box C104, Infant Welfare, 1943-5 Geelong Files Baby Welfare, 1927-34, 1935-43, 1944-7 Maryborough Minutes ofBaby Health Centre Committee, 1926-36 Melbourne Medical Officer in Charge of Child Welfare, Annual Reports on Child Welfare Medical Officer of Health, Annual Reports Bibliography 297

South Melbourne, Health Officer's Reports St Kilda, File of papers supplied by City of St Kilda Wonthaggi, Nurse's Annual Reports, 1927-40

South Australia Adelaide City Council, Annual Reports, 1901-14 --, Reports of the Medical Officer of Health, 1910-12, City of Adelaide Archives City of Port Adelaide Records, South Australian Archives City of Un ley Archives, Unley Museum

Published Official Records

Appendices to theJournals of the House ofRepresentatives, H-31, New Zealand Australian Association for Pre-school Child Development, An Analysis of the Work of the Lady Gowrie Child Centres from 1940-1952: Their Present Functions and Possible Future Development, Canberra, Government Printer, 1952 Campbell, Dame Janet, Report on Maternal and Child Welfare in Australia, 12 December 1929, Canberra, Government Printer, 1930 Clements, Frederick W. and Margaret MacPherson, The Lady Gowrie Child Centres. The Health Record, Canberra, Government Printer, 1945 Coghlan, T.A., The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales, 1900-1, Sydney, Government Printer, 1902 Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics, Demography Bulletins Commonwealth Department of Health, The Infant Welfare Centre as a Community Service, Canberra, Government Printer, 1944 Commonwealth Department of Information, Australia in Facts & Figures, nos. 10, 11, September, December 1945, Sydney, Government Printer, 1946 Commonwealth Department of Trade and Customs, Committee Concerning Causes of Death and Invalidity in the Commonwealth, Preliminary Report, 1916 ---, Report on Infantile Mortality, 1917 Cumpston, J.H.L., Report Upon the Activities of the Commonwealth Department of Health, 1909-30, 1934-5, Department of Health Library, Canberra Gresswell, D. Astley, Report on the Sanitary Condition and Sanitary Administration ofMelbourne and Suburbs, Melbourne, 1890 Harper, Margaret H., Report on the Work of the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children, Sydney, Government Printer, 1920, copy in PS AG7/128/931 Hill, Edna, The Lady Gowrie Centres. A First Analysis of Case History Records of Children Attending the Lady Gowrie Child Centres (1939-1946), Canberra, Government Printer, 1949 Joske, A.S. and R.M. Weldon, SPecial Report on the Lady Talbot Milk Institute, with some General Observations on Infantile Mortality: Its Causes and Prevention, VPP, vol. 2, no. 50,1910,957-73 Jubilee Conference on Maternal and Child Health, Melbourne, April 1976, Health Department Victoria 298 Bibliography

Jungfer, C.C., Child Health in a Rural Community. Repurt of the Work of a Health Survey in the Adelaide Hills District, Canberra, NHMRC/Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Health, 1944 ---, Child Health in a Rural Community. Part 2. A Further Report on the Work of the Adelaide Hills Children's Health Survey, Canberra, NHMRC, 1948 Main, Henrietta and Vera Scantlebury, Report to the Minister ofPublic Health on the Welfare of Women and Children, 1926, copy in Library, Health Department Victoria Metropolitan Combined Sanitary Districts, Annual Repurt of the Medical Officer ofHealth, NSW Department of Health Library Mitchell, B.R. with Phyllis Deane, Abstract of British Historical Statistics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1962 ---, and H.G. Jones, Second Abstract of British Historical Statistics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1971 New South Wales Department of Public Health, Annual Repurts of the Director­ General ofPublic Health. From 1927 these include the Reports of the Director of Maternal and Baby Welfare, which may also be found (for 1938-59) in Kingswood, 7/9994-5, AONSW New South Wales Official Year Book New Zealand Census New Zealand Official Year-Book Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia Public Health. Report of the Commissioner, Mr Neville Mayman, on the Inquiry into the Welfare of Mothers and Children in New Zealand, Sydney, May 1918, Australian Medical Pamphlets, vol. 25, National Library of Australia Public Works Report. Report from the Public Works Department, 1878-1927, Adelaide, Government Printer Reports upon the Activities of the Commonwealth Department of Health, vol. 1, 1909-30, vol. 6, 1934-5 Reports of the National Health and Medical Research Council, Department of Health Library, Canberra Repurts on the Vital Statistics of the Dominion ofNew Zealand Royal Commission on the Decline of the Birth-Rate and on the Mortality ofInfants in New South Wales, vol. 1, Repurt, Sydney, Government Printer, 1904, copy in Demography, RSSS, ANU, and vol. 2, Minutes of Evidence, microfilm, Menzies Library, ANU Royal Commission on Health, Report, and Minutes ofEvidence, 1926 Royal Commission ofInquiry as to Food Supplies and Prices, General Report, 30 July 1913, Sydney, Government Printer, 1913 ---, Sectional Report on the Supply and Distribution of Milk, and Minutes of Evidence, February:June 1913, Sydney, Government Printer, 1914 Statistical Register of South Australia Statistics of Tasmania Statutes, Commonwealth of Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia United Nations, Demographic Yearbook, New York, Statistical Office of the UN, 1951, 1957 Bibliography 299

United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States. Colonial Times to 1970, part 1, Washington DC, 1976 Victorian Department of Public Health, Annual Reports of Commission ofPublic Health Victorian Department of Public Health, Annual Reports of the Director ofInfant Welfare (from 1943-4, Victorian Department of Health, Annual Reports of the Director ofMaternal, Infant, and Pre-School Welfare) Victorian Year-Book

Voluntary/Private Sector Records

Adelaide School for Mothers, Minute Books, SRG 199/1, MortIock Library, Adelaide ---, Annual Reports, and from 1927, Mothers' and Babies' Health Association, Annual Reports, SRG 199/2, MortIock Library Alice Rawson School for Mothers, Annual Reports, Mitchell Library, Sydney Australian Mothercraft Society (Plunket System), Annual Reports ---, Newspaper Cuttings, Karitane Mothercraft Hospital, Randwick, Sydney Barrett,J.W., Papers, University of Melbourne Archives Benevolent Society of New South Wales, Annual Reports, Mitchell Library Berry Street Babies' Home (Foundling Hospital), East Melbourne. Annual Reports Brown, Vera ScantIebury, Papers, University of Melbourne Archives ---, Biographical Notes (1 folder), State Library of Victoria Card, C.E., Exercise Books (mothercraft course), Berry St Babies' Home, East Melbourne Child Welfare Association, Hobart, Annual Reports, National Library of Australia Country Women's Association of New South Wales, Annual Reports Country Women's Association of Victoria, Archives, Toorak, Melbourne ---, Annual Reports Derham, Alfred P., Papers, University of Melbourne Archives Free Kindergarten Union of Victoria, Annual Reports Hamilton, Doris, Papers, University of Melbourne Archives King, Ethleen Bridges, Papers, MS 10682, State Library of Victoria King Family Papers, MS 1004, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington Mayo Family Papers, PRG 127, MortIock Library Melbourne District Nursing Society, Minute Books, 1885-1940, After Care Hospital, Collingwood, Melbourne Mothers' and Babies' Health Association, Newspaper Cuttings, 3 vols, 1931-46, SRG 199/16, MortIock Library National Council of Women of New South Wales Papers, MS 38, Mitchell Library Plunket Society Records, Hocken Library, Dunedin ---, PS AG7/127/923, Dr Springthorpe's Communications, being Papers Connected with the Setting Up of the Society for the Health of Women and Children in Victoria, Australia, 1919-29 300 Bibliography

---, PS AG7/128/931, Mary Truby King File: Letters and Papers in Connection with the Establishment of Truby King Work in Australia, 1919-34 --, PS AG7/30/293, Secretary, Karitane Products, 1930-3 ---, Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children, Central Council and Dunedin Branch, Annual Reports Presbyterian Babies' Home Infant Welfare and Mothercraft Training School, East Melbourne, Annual Reports, 1928-9, 1929-30, Canterbury Family Centre, Melbourne Presbyterian Babies' Home Qy,arterly, vol. 1, 1933 ---, Are We To Let a Baby Like This Die? (nd) Pritchard, G.E.C., 'Harley Street Calling: Some Reminiscences of a Medical Man', nd (1942), unpublished mss, microfilm, ANU, original in Wellcome Institute, London Royal Society for the Welfare of Mothers and Babies, Minutes of General and Executive Councils, 1918-42, Tresillian, Petersham, Sydney --, Press Cuttings, 2 vols, ll/l, 1918-25, ll/2, 1925-35 ---, Annual Reports Society for the Health of Women and Children of Victoria (Plunket System), A nnual Reports Springthorpe,].W., Diaries, MS 9898, State Library of Victoria Truby King League of Victoria, Annual Reports, National Library of Australia Truby King Mothercraft League of South Australia, Minute Books, 1934-59, SRG 9, Mortlock Library, Adelaide Victorian Baby Health Centres Association, MS 11019, State Library of Victoria ---, Annual Reports ---, Minutes of Annual Meetings ---, Minutes of Central Council, 1919-50 ---, Minutes ofExecutive Committee, 1918-50 The State Library of Victoria also holds Records of Colac Baby Health Centre, 1925-7, MS 8555, and Records of Malvern Baby Health Centre, 1920--66, MS 10828 Victorian Bush Nursing Association, Central Council, Annual Reports Victorian Medical Women's Society Papers, MS ll710, State Library of Victoria Wallace, V.H., Papers, University of Melbourne Archives

Newspapers and Periodicals

Archives ofDisease in Childhood Archives ofPediatrics Argus, Melbourne Australasian Medical Gazette A ustralasian Nurses 'Journal Australian Institute of Anatomy, Pre-School Child Bulletin British MedicalJournal Brunswick & Coburg Leader Commonwealth Department of Health, Health Bibliography 301

Glimpse, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Newsletter Intercolonial MedicalJournal of Australasia Lancet MedicalJournal of Australia New Zealand MedicalJournal The Parents' Rtroiew: A Monthly Magazine of Home-Training and Culture, vols. 1-7, London, 1891-6, Menzies Library, ANU Transactions of the Australasian Medical Congress Una - The Journal of the Royal Victorian Trained Nurses' Association Victorian Department of Health, Health Bulletin

Contemporary Books, Articles, Manuals and Pamphlets

(A number of pamphlets may be found in Australian Medical Pamphlets, vol. 25, National Library of Australia. Only articles from periodicals not already specified are included.) Ackermann, jessie, Australia from a Woman's Point of View, Sydney, Cassell Australia, 1981 (1st published 1913) Alice Rawson School for Mothers, Save the Children for the Nation, Sydney, nd, Mitchell Library Australian Association for Pre-school Child Development, Fourlh Biennial Conference, 'Needs of the Australian Family', University of Adelaide, May 1947, Malvern, McKellar Press, 1947 Australian Women's National League, Baby Week Official Programme, Melbourne, 1918 Ballantyne, J.W., Manual of Antenatal Pathology and Hygiene, Edinburgh, William Green & Sons, 1902 Barrett, l.W., Outline History of the Victorian Bush Nursing Association, Melbourne,J.C. Stephens, 1932 ---, The Twin Ideals: An Educated Commonwealth, 2 vols, London, H.K. Lewis & Co, 1918 ---, and F.W. Eggleston, The Reform of the Milk Supply, Melbourne, J.C. Stephens, 1921 Bennett, Agnes, Baby's Welfare. Practical Hints to Mothers, Wellington, Government Printer, 1907 Berkeley, Comyns, H. Russell Andrews andJ.S. Fairbairn (eds), Midwifery by Ten Teachers, 2nd edn, London, Edward Arnold & Co, 1923 Berry Street Foundling Home, Infant Welfare and Cookery Book, Melbourne, 1938 Borthwick, Thomas, A Contrifmtion to the Demography of South Australia, London, Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, 1891 Bostock, john, and Edna Hill, The Pre-School Child and Society, Brisbane, University of Queensland Press, 1946 Bowlby, john, Child Care and the Growth of Love, Harmondsworth, Pelican, 1957 (lst published 1953) British Medical Association, Victorian Branch, Notes for Mothers: Maternity and Care of the Baby, Canberra, Government Printer, 1929 (pamphlet issued by the Commissioner of Maternity Allowances) 302 BibliofS"aphy

Brown, Vera Scantlebury, A Guide to Infant Feeding, Melbourne, Government Printer, 1929, and 2nd edn, 1933 ---, A Guide and Tables for Use in Infant Feeding, 2nd edn, Melbourne, 1933 ---and Kate Campbell, A Guide to the Care of the Young Child, Melbourne, Government Printer, 1947 (also 1972 edn) Chalmers, A.R., The Health of Glasgow 1818-1925: An Outline, Glasgow, 1925 Collins, Vernon L., Infant Feeding, Melbourne, W. Ramsay (Surgical), 1941 (1st published 1939) Cumpston,j.H.L., The History ofDiphtheria, Scarlet Fever, Measles, and Whooping Cough in Australia 1788-1925, Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Health, Service Publication no. 37, Canberra, Government Printer, 1927 --- and Christine M. Heinig, Pre-School Centres in Australia, Canberra, Commonwealth Department of Health, 1945 --- and F. McCallum, The History of the Intestinal Infections (and Typhus Fever) in Australia, 1788-1923, Commonwealth of Australia, Department of Health, Service Publication no. 36, Melbourne, Government Printer, 1927 --- and F. McCallum, Public Health Services in Australia, Geneva, League of Nations Health Organisation, 1926 Department of Public Health, New South Wales, Before the Baby is Born, Sydney, Government Printer, 1914,5/5330.2, AONSW ---, Notes for Mothers, Sydney, Government Printer, 1916, 5/5330.2, AONSW Department of Public Health, Victoria, Leaflets 1-lO, 1944 ---, Maternal and Child Welfare Manual, Melbourne, Ramsay, Ware Publishing, 1942 Domestic Economy Pamphlets, vols. 1-16, State Library of Victoria Elkington,j.S.C., The Feeding and Care ofBabies, Hobart, Government Printer, 1906 ---, Infant Mortality and Its Prevention, Hobart, Government Printer, 1909 Freud, Anna and Dorothy Burlingham, Infants Without Families, New York, International University Press, 1944 Gesell, Arnold L. and Frances L. Ilg, Infant and Child in the Culture of Today: The Guidance ofDevelopment in Home and Nursery Schoo~ 21st edn, New York, Harper & Brothers, 1943 Harper, Margaret H., The Parents' Book, Sydney, RSWMB, 1926, also 19th edn, 1945 Hayter, Henry H., 'Infantile Mortality in South Australia', Transactions and Proceedings, Philosophical Society of Adelaide, 1878-9, vol. 2 Holt, L. Emmett, The Care and Feeding of Children, 3rd edn, London, Sidney Appleton, 1906 (1st published 1894) ---, The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood, 2nd edn, London, Henry Kimpton, 1903 Home Secretary's Department, Queensland, The Oy,eensland Mothers' Book, revised edn, Brisbane, 1931 Hooper, j.W. Dunbar, Infantile Mortality. Second International Congress of the Society for the Protection of Child Life, Brussels, 1907, March 1908 Bibliography 303

Kerr, K. Gardner, Amazing Facts Relating to Infant Welfare, Bendigo, Bolton Bros, 1935, Bendigo, Box 1 King, Frederic Truby, The Beautiful Babies. What Becomes of Them? The Purpose of the Plunket Society, Christchurch, The Sun, 191- ---, The Components of Various Milks, Dunedin, RNZSHWC, 1917 ---, The Expectant Mother, and Balry 's First Month, Wellington, Government Printer, 1916, also 1st Australian edn, Sydney, Angus & Robertson, 1923 ---, Feeding and Care of Balry, London, Macmillan, 1917, also Auckland, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1937, 1940; also 1908 and 1910 edns ---, The Feeding of Plants and Animals, Wellington, Christchurch & Dunedin, W&T, 1905 ---, For the Sake of Women and Children, Dunedin, Star Print, 1908 ---, Infant-Welfare Work in Australia, offprint ---, The Karitane Products Society, Wellington, L.T. Watkins, 1929 ---, Natural Feeding ofInfants, Dunedin, DDT, 1917 ---, The New Zealand Scheme for the Promotion of the Health of Women and Children, reprinted from English Speaking Conference, Manchester, 1913 ---, Plea for the Drawing Up and Circulation Throughout the Whole Community of Simple Reliable Standards for Guidance in the Rearing of Normal Infants, reprinted from Victoria League, Report of Proceedings of Imperial Health Conference, May 1914 ---, Save the Babies, Auckland, Worthington & Co., 1917 ---, The Story of the Teeth and How to Save Them, Auckland, W&T, 1935 (1st published 1917) King, Mary Truby, Mothercraft, Sydney, Angus & Robertson, 1934, also 15th printing, Melbourne & Sydney, W&T, 1944 Knibbs, George H., On the Influence of Infantile Mortality on Birthrate, Sydney, F.W. White, 1908 Liddiard, M., The Mothercraft Manual, London, Mothercraft Training Society, 1924 McCleary, George F., Infantile Mortality and Infants Milk Depots, London, P.S. King & Son, 1905 ---, The Maternity and Child Welfare Movement, London, P.S. King & Son, 1935 Magarey, S.J., 'Our Climate and Infant Mortality', Transactions and Proceedings, Philosophical Society of Adelaide, 1878-9, vol. 2 Muskett, Philip E., An Australian Appeal: The Evil - the Cause - the Remedy, Sydney, Edwards, Dunlop & Co., 1892 ---, The Feeding and Management of Australian Infants in Health and in Disease, 5th edn, Sydney, Empson & Son, 1900 Newmayer, S.W., 'The Warfare Against Infant Mortality', in American Academy of Political and Social Science, The Public Health Movement, Philadelphia, American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1911, 288-98 Newsholme, Arthur, 'Domestic Infection in Relation to Epidemic Diarrhoea', Journal ofHygiene, vol. 6, no. 2, April 1906, 139-48 Norris, W. Perrin, Chairman, Board of Public Health, Victoria, Infant Life Protection, 28 June 1907 Peck, Muriel A., Your Balry: A Practical Guide to Mothers and Nurses, Melbourne, Woman's World, 1929 304 Bibliog;raphy

Principal Women of the Empire: Australia and New Zealand, vol. 1, London, Mitre Press, 1940 Pritchard, Eric, Infant Education, 2nd edn, London, Henry Kimpton, 1920 (lst published 1907) ---, The Physiological Feeding of Infants and Children, London, Henry Kimpton, 1922 Purcell, Anne, The Australian Baby, Melbourne, 1928 Ribble, Margaret A., The Rights of Infants: Early Psychological Needs and their Satisfaction, New York, Columbia University Press, 1944 (lst published 1943) Robertson, W.A.N., W J. Penfold, W. Summons and Edith Barrett, The Milk Question: Four Lectures Delivered Under the Auspices of the University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 1921 Rotch, Thomas M., 'The Essential Principles of Infant Feeding and the Modern Methods of Applying Them', Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 41, no. 6, 8 August 1903, 349-5 ---, Pediatrics: The Hygienic and Medical Treatment of Children, 3rd edn, Philadelphia,j.B. Lippincott Co., 1901 (1st published 1895) Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children, The Work of the Plunket Society in New Zealand for the Mother and Baby and Pre­ school Child, Dunedin, RNZSHWC, 1943? ---, Rules, Christchurch, Christchurch Press Co., 1916 Ruhrah, John, A Manual of the Diseases ofInfants and Children, Philadelphia & London, W.B. Saunders & Co., 1905 Society for the Health of Women and Children, The Society for Promoting the Health of Women and Children (,Lady Plunket Nurses.? What it is Doing and Why it is Worthy of Support, New Zealand, 1908, j.W. Barrett Papers, Medicine, Box 1 Spencer, Herbert, The Study of Sociology, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1961 (1st published 1873) Spock, Benjamin, The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care, New York, Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1946 (1st published 1945) Springthorpe,j.W., Therapeutics, Dietetics and Hygiene: An Australian Text-Book, vol. 1, Hygiene and Dietetics, Melbourne, James Little, 1914 Stout, Anna P., 'The New Woman', in Hocken Library, Women and the Vote, Dunedin, 1986 Titmuss, Richard M., Birth, Poverty and Wealth: A Study of Infant Mortality, London, Hamish Hamilton, 1943 Usher,j.E., The Perils of a Baby, Melbourne, Samuel Mullen, 1888 Watt, M.H., 'Infant Mortality in New Zealand', New ZealandJournal of Health and Hospitals, vol. 4, no. 4, April 1921, 88-94 Woodbury, R.M., Infant Mortality and its Causes, Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins Co., 1926 ---, Infant Mortality and Preventive Work in New Zealand, Washington DC, Government Printing Office, 1922

Interviews and Correspondence

Ahmed, Dr Zia, University of Adelaide, interview, Adelaide, 10 May 1986 Bibliography 305 james, Cath, University of Melbourne, interview, 12 September 1985 Mellor, Elizabeth, Lady Gowrie Child Centre Adelaide, interview, Adelaide, 8 May 1986 Ramsay, Leila, retired infant welfare sister, Geelong, interview, 19 December 1984 Ruzicka, Dr Lado, Demography, RSSS, ANU, interview, 22 August 1985 Thearle, Dr M.j., correspondence,july 1987 White, Sally, correspondence, 1986 Williams, Dr Howard, Children's Hospital, Melbourne, interview, 12 September 1985 Wilmot, Dr A. Elizabeth, Retired Director of Maternal, Infant, and Pre­ School Welfare, Victoria, interview, Melbourne, 5 September 1985 With mothers: Correspondence per Australian Women's Weekly, 1987 (20 women) Interviews, Rose Cottage and Wonthaggi Hospital, Wonthaggi, May 1986 (13 women) Questionnaires, 1988 (10 women) Additional interviews (12) Total recollections: 55

2. SECONDARY SOURCES

Books

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Theses and Unpublished Papers

Caldwell,john C., 'Family Change and Demographic Change: The Reversal of the Veneration Flow', Plenary Session Address, American Sociological Conference, New York, 1986 Cowden, Victoria, "'Mothers, as a Rule, Do Not Know ... ": Mothercraft Campaigns in the Inner Suburbs of Sydney 1904-1914', BA(Hons) thesis, University of New South Wales, 1980 Foley, Meredith, 'The Women's Movement in New South Wales and Victoria 1918-1938', PhD thesis, University of Sydney, 1985 Gilding, Michael, 'Theory and History of the Family. A Case Study: Sydney from the 1870s to the 1930s', PhD thesis, Macquarie University, 1984 Hicks, Neville, 'Evidence and Contemporary Opinion About the Peopling of Australia, 1890-1911', PhD thesis, Australian National University, 1971 Hyslop, Anthea, 'The Social Reform Movement in Melbourne 1890 to 1914', PhD thesis, La Trobe University, 1980 Kociumbas, jan, 'Children and Society in New South Wales and Victoria 1860-1914', PhD thesis, University of Sydney, 1983 Laverty, john R., 'The History of Municipal Government in Brisbane 1859-1925: A Study of the Development of Metropolitan Government in a Context of Urban Expansion', PhD thesis, University of Queensland, 1968 Lewis, Milton j., "'Populate or Perish": Aspects of Infant and Maternal Health in Sydney, 1870-1939', PhD thesis, Australian National University, 1976 Lynch, Kathleen V., 'An Annotated Bibliography of the Royal NZ Society for the Health of Women and Children Inc. ("Plunket Society")', Library School, National Library of New Zealand, Wellington, 1975 Mein Smith, Philippa, 'Reformers, Mothers and Babies: Aspects of Infant Survival, Australia, 1890-1945', PhD thesis, Australian National University, 1990 Milne, Lynne S., 'The Plunket Society: An Experiment in Infant Welfare', BA(Hons) essay, University of Otago, 1976 318 Bibliography

Selby, Wendy, 'Motherhood in Labor's Queensland 1915-1957', PhD thesis, Griffith University, 1992 Smith, K.I., 'A Family Mfair: The School for Mothers Institute Adelaide 1909 to 1927', BA(Hons) thesis, Flinders University of South Australia, 1978 Spearritt, Andrew, 'The Electrification of the Home in New South Wales, 1920-1960', BA(Hons) thesis, University of Sydney, 1983 Stevenson, Thomas L., 'Light and Living Conditions: Mortality in Nineteenth Century Adelaide', paper, ANZAAS, Adelaide, 1979 Summers, Annette, 'For I Have Ever So Much More Faith in Her Ability as a Nurse: The Eclipse of the Community Midwife in South Australia 1836-1942', PhD thesis, Flinders University of South Australia, 1996 Thame, Claudia, 'Health and the State: The Development of Collective Responsibility for Health Care in Australia in the First Half of the Twentieth Century', PhD thesis, Australian National University, 1974 Thearle, M. John, 'Dr Alfred Jefferis Turner, 1861-1947: His Contribution to Medicine in Queensland', MD thesis, University of Queensland, 1987 Victorian Department of Health, 'History of the Maternal, Infant and Pre­ school Movement in Victoria', typescript, nd (1950s) Walker, Mary L., 'The Development of Kindergartens in Australia', MEd thesis, University of Sydney, 1964 Waters, Jillian C., 'To Help the Mothers and Save the Babies: An Episode in Tasmania's Population Debate', BA(Hons) thesis, University of Tasmania, 1983 Young, Christabel M., 'An Analysis of the Population Growth and Mortality of Selected Birth Cohorts in Australia, with Reference to the Relationship between Cohort and Transverse (or Calendar Year) Experience', PhD thesis, Australian National University, 1969 Index

Index entries are arranged in letter-by-letter order. Italicised entries indicate graphs or tables. The following abbreviations are used: NSW New South Wales NZ New Zealand TK Truby King

Aborigines infant welfare movement and, 68-9, excluded from 'standard' child 70-1, 78, 104 measurements, 228 Arthur, Dr Richard, 32 infant mortality and, 10, 18, 39, 194 Association for Pre-School Child infant welfare and, xv-xvi Development, 226 role in Australian national identity, 1 see also kindergartens; Lady Gowrie abortion, 27, 28 Child Centres see also contraception Association of Schools for Mothers and Ackermann, Jessie, 30 Infant Consultations (England), 102 Adelaide Australia infant mortality in, 21, 22, 23, 56 federal syst.em and infant welfare infant welfare movement in, 71-2 movement, 1,4, 143-4,224-5 milk supply, 58 hospitalisation of childbirth, 201-2 public sanitation, 54-5 infant mortality in, 2-3, 9-24, 162-4 water supply, 55-6 map, xiii see also Mareeba Babies' Hospital; problems of distance in, 152-5 South Australia; Torrens House rivalry with NZ, 2, 86, 111-34 Adelaide School for Mothers (later see also Aborigines; climate; known as Mothers' and Babies' nationalism; names of individual Health Association), 105-6, 176 states ante-natal care, 203, 205, 306 Australian Advisory Council on baby train, 153 Nutrition see Advisory Council on baby weeks, 80-1 Nutrition financial problems, 149 Australian Mothercraft Society (Sydney), founding of, 71-2 121, 123, 129 goals, 64 in Canberra, 144 TKand,121 Australian Women's National League, see also Mayo, Dr Helen (1878-1967) 156 Advisory Council on Nutrition, 222-3, 226 see also infant feeding; nutrition Babies of the Empire Society (London), Alice Rawson School for Mothers 32,99,113 (Sydney), 70-1, 78, 105 baby farming, 35, 74 Allan, Dr Robert Marshall, 201, 209 baby health centres, 78 Allan, Stella, 125 ante-natal care at, 203-4 Allen, Ethel, 121 attendances at, 175-7, 180-2, 189 anaesthesia see pain relief growth of, 136-9 ante-natal care, 203-8 in NSW, 79-80,146-7, 156 Apple, Rima, 171 objectives, 141 Argyle, Dr Stanley, 76 in Queensland, 83, 148 Armstrong, Dr W.G., 37 spread to rural areas, 154-5 infant mortality and, 41-3, 48, 54, symbolic, 155-61 57-8,60,61,135,138,182 in Victoria, 82

319 320 Index baby health centres (Cont.) see also Lady Chelmsford Milk in Wonthaggi, 165-70 Institute; Queensland; Turner, see also Karitane hospitals; Lady Dr Alfred Jefferis Gowrie Child Centres; Victorian British Medical Association, 84, 203, Baby Health Centre Association 205-6,207 baby weeks, 80-1, 84, II2 see also doctors see also National Baby Week Council Broadbent, Benjamin, 85 Ballantyne, Dr.J.W., of Edinburgh, 206 Brown, Professor Edward, 109, 157 Barrett, Dr .J.W., 73, 91 Brown, Dr Marie, 203, 206, 207 Barrington, Fourness, 204 Brown, Dr Vera Scan tie bury see Bath, Sister Annie, 165-7, 170, 172 Scan tie bury Brown, Dr Vera Beale, Octavius, 91 (1889-1946) Bendigo Bruce, Stanley, 144 baby centre, 156-7 Budin, Dr Pierre, 65, 71 nurses' comments on mothers' skills, Bull, Dr Hilda, 221 167-8 bush nurses, and childbirth, 198 wartime creche, 239 see also district nursing; midwives Benevolent Society of New South Wales, 70 Caldwell,.J.C., 9, 25, 164 Benjamin, Zoe, 174 Cameron, H.C., 106 Better Farming Train (Victoria), 153 Campbell, DameJanet, 144 birth injuries, 196, 197,202 Campbell, Dr Kate, 123, 125 see also childbirth and premature babies, 2II, birth rate see fertility decline 216-17 Bishop, Dr Ruth. identifies rotavirus, Canberra, 144 51 Cann, George, II7 Borthwick, Dr Thomas, 71, 75 The Care and Feeding of Children (Holt, bottle-feeding 1894),66 diarrhoea and, 41, 45, 47-8, 59, 60, Childbirth 165-7 birth injuries, 196, 197,202 nurses' help with, 177-8 hospitalisation and medicalisation, Pritchard's method, 102-3 192, 196-7, 199-203, 200 unclean bottles, 60-1 meddlesome midwifery, 201 .see also bottle-feeding; breast-feeding; pain relief, 197,201 milk, 'humanised' puerperal sepsis, 197-8 bowel movements in infants see toxaemias, 195-6 diarrhoea; potty training see aLso ante-natal care; infant Bowlby, John, 240 mortality; maternal mortality; Bray, Dr John, 51 maternity allowance; maternity breast-feeding, 59, 69 hospitals; multiple births; demand feeding unscientific, 67 neonatal mortality; premature diarrhoea and, 40-1 babies; stillbirths increased rates in Australia, 104-5 child rearing infant welfare movement's practice and prescription, 170-1 encouragement of, 182-6, 188 practices in Wonthaggi, 172-9 premature babies and, 212 rules change, 236-40 problems with, 177-8 social class and, 171-2, 235-6 TKand,93 TK's rules, 95-9, 110 in Wonthaggi, 172-3 women doctors' views, 105-10 see also bottle-feeding see also dummies; infant feeding; potty Brisbane training; sleeping of infants infant mortality, 21 children infant welfare movement in, 73-4 benefit from fertility decline, 218-19, public sanitation, 54-5 242 Index 321

identified with national wellbeing, impact on children's health services, 139-45,236-7,243,244 220-5 see also immigrant children; infant infant mortality during. 163-4, 169 welfare movement; fathers; mothers' health, 231 mothers neonatal mortality during, 213 children, pre-school, 7, 143, 218-43 Dewey, john, influence on Heinig, health, 230-4, 240-1 225-6 malnutrition among, 220-4 diarrhoea, 3, 39 'normal' standards, 228-9, 240 aetologies, 45-51 see also child rearing; education, pre­ among attenders and non-attenders at school; Lady Gowrie Child baby clinics, 180-2 Centres; nutrition Australia and NZ compared, 114 Children's Protection Society (Perth), death rates from, 41-5 74 effect on infants, 39-40 Child Welfare Association (Tasmania), major threat to babies, 38-9 83-4, 152 no longer a threat, 194, 211, 219, 229 cholera infantum see diarrhoea treatment, 52-3, 176 churches, support infant welfare TK's preventive system, 96-8 movement, 150 in Wonthaggi, 165-70 Cilento, Dr (Lady) Phyllis, 148 The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood Clements, Dr F.W., 216, 227, 229 (Holt, 1896),66 surveys children's nutrition, 223, district nursing, 67-8 224 see also bush nurses; Melbourne Climate District Nursing Association; effect on infant health, 39, 47-8 Victorian Bush Nursing infant feeding and, 124-6 Association milk depots and, 75 doctors Clouston, T.S., 89 attitude to ante-natal care, 204, 205-6 Clubbe, Dr, 76, 85, 114 childbirth and, 192, 196-8, 199-203, Coghlan, T.A., 10, 13 214 Contraception, 26, 27-8 infant welfare movement and, 159-60 TKon, 91 maternity allowance and, 207 ,fee aL

Harper, Dr Margaret, 85, 209 of premature babies, 210, 211-12 and ante-natal care, 204 Pritchard on, 102-3 on deprivation in 1930s, 169 TKon, 93-4 neonatal paediatrics and, 211 in Wonthaggi, 172-5 Parents' Book, 132 see also breast-feeding; bottle-feeding; visits NZ, 115 nutrition Haverfield, Mrs M., of Carramar, 174, Infant Health Association (Western 177 Australia), 84,151 health services, and Australian federal Infant Life Protection Acts, 35 system, 4, 6, 64, 64, 74-5, 78. 143-4 inNSW,34 health transition see fertility decline; infant mortality, 2-3, 8-9, 9-24, 162-4 infant mortality; neonatal mortality in Australian states, 14-17 Heinig, Christine, 225-6, 227, 229, 238 causes of decline in, 14, 18,37-9, 170, Henderson, Mrs, of Melbourne, 116 187-91,244 Herring, Dr Ken, 59-60 changes in illnesses leading to, 124-5, Hetzel, Basil, 138 195-6,211 Hobart in Dunedin, 119 infant mortality, 119 graphs, 11-1~ 15-17 infant welfare movement, 74 in Hobart, 11 9 sewerage, 55 illegitimate babies and, 23-4, 35-6, 60, see also Tasmania 167 Holman, Ada, 79 in Melbourne, 77 Holman, W.A., 79, 85 nation-building and, 2, 30-6 Holt, Dr Luther Emmett, 66, 93-4, 95, Plunket's role in, 101, 113-14 99 relationship with fertility decline, 9, Hone, Dr F.S., 31 164,189,245 Horsfall, Rev. Dr T.C., 95 role of infant welfare movement in, 3, hospitals see Karitane hospitals; 6,9,14,38-9,103-4,135-9, maternity hospitals; see also 180-2,187-91,244 individual names oJ hospitals role of mothers, 3, 34-6,187-91, housing, changes in, 241-2 244-5, 247 'humanised' milk see milk, 'humanised' rural/urban disparities, 19-20, 22, 137, 162 illegitimacy, and infant mortality, 23-4, sanitary reform and, 54-6, 61-2, 138, 35-6,60,167 164 immigrant children, 185, 228, 241 social class and, 21, 23-4, 55-6, 162-3 imperialism, xv-xvi, 1-2, 247 in Wonthaggi, 165-70 Plunketand,88,100,247 see also diarrhoea; neonatal mortality TKand,ll1-2 infant welfare movements, 142-5 see also nationalism in Adelaide, 71-2 incubators, and premature babies, 211 and ante-natal care, 203-8 indigenous populations see Aborigines; Australian/NZ rivalry, 2, 86,111-34 Maori Australian state politics and, 6, 64, InlantEducation (Pritchard, 1907), 102 74-5, 78, 142-4 infant feeding, 59-60, 163-4 breast-feeding and, 182-6 by the clock, 95-8,101,110,172-4, in Brisbane, 73-4 176-7,209,237-8 in France, 64-5 as cause of diarrhoea, 45-7, 49-51 in Great Britain, 67-8 Dr Spock and, 237-8 in Hobart, 74-5 Mayo and Scan tie bury Brown on, imperialism and, xv-xvi, 1-2,247 106-7, 109-10 indigenous populations and, xv-xvi NZ/Australian differences, 114, in Melbourne, 72-3 122-34 neonatal paediatrics and, 209, 211-12, origins of 'scientific feeding', 65-7 216-17,244 324 Index infant welfare movements (Cont.) King, Dr Frederic Truby (1858-1938), in NSW, 78-80,146-7 34,66-7,87-91, 11~ 173,228,229 in Perth, 74-5 appeal, 100-1 pre-school children and, 7, 218-43, 244 and Australia, 85-6, 111-34, 142 problems of distance, 152-5 infant mortality and, 32, 135 purpose, 64, 70 influence in Tasmania, 145, 152 in Queensland, 83, 148-9 Pritchard's views on, 102-3, 110 response to health transition, 63-4 rules, 92-9 rise of, 3-4, 63-8, 132 rules become outmoded, 237-8 role in reducing infant mortality, 3, 6, rules on premature babies, 210 9,14,38-9,103-4,135-9,180-2, 'Truby King baby', 2, 88 187-91,244 women doctors and, 106-7 role of mothers in, xv, 1-2,6-7,140, see also Karitane hospitals; milk, 187-91, 246-7 'humanised'; Plunket Society; sectarianism in, 133-4 Seacliff Mental Asylum; Truby in South Australia, 80-1, 149-51 King leagues success of, 104-5,240-3,245 King, Isabella Truby (1860-1927), in Sydney, 68-71 89-90, 115 in Tasmania, 83-4, 152 death, 127 TK's influence in Australia, 111-34 supports husband's work, 87, 89,103, in Victoria, 81-3, 145-6 109 in Western Australia, 84, 151-2 King, Mary Truby, 128, 129, 210 see also baby health cen tres; child supports father's work in Australia, 87, rearing; education of mothers; 89, 131 infant feeding; King, Dr Frederic writes for magazines, 133 Truby; Lady Gowrie Child 'King Baby', infant welfare movement's Centres; mothers; nurses, infant; promotion of, 139-45,217, 246 state and infant welfare; TK baby, 2, 88 voluntarism see also fathers; mothers; nationalism Innes-Noad, S.R., 85, 113, 122 King Edward Memorial Hospital Isaacs, Dr Susan, 174, 226, 236 (Perth),74 ante-natal clinic, 206 Jeffreys Wood, Dr A. see Wood, nurse training in infant welfare, 209 Dr A. Jeffreys Johnston, Sister G., 120 Labour governments, and childbirth Jull, Roberta, 152 policies, 197 and infant welfare movement, 78-80, Kaibel, Matron K.., 209 83,144-5,146-9,165,246 Karitane hospitals, 90, 99, 113 Lady Chelmsford Milk Institute in Australia, 121, 131 (Brisbane), 73-4. 75 see alm Tresillian Mothercraft Home; Lady Edeline Hospital for Babies Tweddle Hospital for Babies (Sydney), 79, 211 Karitane nurses see nurses, infant Lady Gowrie Child Centres, 225-36 Kincaid, Dr Hilda, and breast-feeding, feeding children, 238-9 184-5 success, 240-3, 245 on infant mortality, 213-14, 215 Lady Talbot Milk Institute (Melbourne), on immigrant children, 185, 241 72-3,75,76,82 on malnutrition, 221-2 Larson, Ann, 28 on mothers, 224 Lathrop, Dr Julia, 142 promotes high protein diet, 125 League of Nations, and child kindergartens, 72, 219-20, 224-5 development,218,222,225,228-9 see also Association for Pre-School Lee, Dr, of NSW, 160 Child Development; Lady Gowrie Le Messurier, Mrs, 149 Child Centres Liddiard, Mabel, 99 Index 325

Litchfield, Dr W.F., 85 in Queensland, 148, 199 and infant mortality, 41, 43, 48, 50, 51, see also childbirth; midwives 60, 138 Mawson, Lady, 149 on TK and Plunket, 114-15 Mayo, Dr Helen (1878-1967), 160 Loudon, Innne, 196 and ante-natal care, 205 Lowe, Mrs 0., 171, 208 and infant feeding, 114 Lyons,Joe, 223, 228 and infant welfare movement in Adelaide, 71-2, 105-10 Mackellar, Dr Charles, 34, 57, 85, 90 and Mareeba Babies' Hospital, 80, 159 McCalman,Janet, 164, 186 and premature babies, 209-10, 211 McMillan, Florence Elizabeth Mayo Henrietta, 72 opens Karitane hospital in Sydney, Mechling,Jay, 171, 178 115, 121, 123 Melbourne writes in Australian women's breast-feeding levels, 184-5 magazines, 133 conflict with TK, 115-22 Maidment, Mrs D., 202, 209 fertility decline, 27, 28 malnutrition see nutrition infant mortality, 21,22,23, 77,163, Mann, N., of Brisbane, 175 214-15 Maori, and infant mortality, 10 infant welfare movement, 72-3 Mareeba Babies' Hospital (Adelaide), kindergartens, 219-20 80, 107 Lady Gowrie Centres during war, 235-6 Marshall Allan, Dr Robert see Allan, malnutrition in young children, 220-2 Professor Robert Marshall milk supply, 58, 72-3, 75-6 masculinism see paternalism public sanitation, 54-5 maternal mortality, 192-4, 196, 197 see also Dale, Dr John; Kincaid, Dr ante-natal care and, 207-8 Hilda; Lady Talbot Milk Institute; hospitalisation of childbirth and, 202 Scantlebury Brown, Dr Vera; reasons for decline, 216--17 Society for the Health of Women reduced in NZ, 198 and Children in Victoria; Truby see also ante-natal care; childbirth; King League of Victoria; Tweddle infant mortality; neonatal Hospital for Babies; Victorian mortality; mothers Baby Health Centres Association; maternalism Wood, Dr A.Jeffreys and ante-natal care, 205 Melbourne District Nursing Society, 67, in childbirth policies, 201 82,83,208,214 infant welfare and, 7, 35-6, 84, 135, midwives, 196, 202 140-1,144-5,149-50,161,246 and birth injuries, 197 Lady Gowrie Centres and, 225-6 eclipsed, 199-201 in NSW, 79 and puerperal sepsis, 197-9 in siting of baby clinics, 156--7 sennces to working-class women, 214 TKand,98 training in infant welfare, 209 welfare state and, 4-5 see also bush nurses; childbirth; see also feminists; Labour governments; doctors; nurses National Council of Women; milk, 'humanised', 93-4,122-6 paternalism; voluntarism milk supply, 57-9, 126, 174-5 Maternity Act, 1922 (Queensland), 197 dried milk, 186-7 Maternity allowance, 104, 197, 199-201, milk depots, 65, 72-7 207-8 pasteurisation, 75-6 Maternity and Child Welfare Act (1918), to unemployed, 213 85 see also Dairies Supennsion Act; school Maternity hospitals, and ante-natal care, milk scheme; individual milk 206 institutes appeal to mothers, 202 Millar, Isabella Cockburn see King, education of mothers, 208-12 Isabella Truby 326 Index

Mitchell, Dr ].T., 47-8 National Health and Medical Research Morris, Mrs, of Sydney, 174, 175, 281 Council, 223 n51 nationalism Morris, Dr E. Sydney, 128-9, 200, 201 children and, 1-2, 139-45, 218-19, Mortality 236-7,243,244,246-7 in children, 1-4, 218 infant welfare movement's place in, transition to old age, 18-19 1-2,64,70,160-1,245,247 see also infant mortality; maternal motherhood and patriotism, 7, 63, mortality; neonatal mortality 91-2,112-13,192,206-7,247 Mothercraft (Mary Truby King), 133 NZ/Australian rivalry, 127 Mothercraft Association (Queensland), spread of baby clinics and, 154-7 148 'White Australia', 1-2,228,247 The Mothercraft Manual (Liddiard), 99 see aifO imperialism Mothercraft Training Society see Babies neonatal mortality, 192-6,244 of the Empire Society ante-natal care and, 207-8 mothers hospital care of premature babies, attend ante-natal clinics, 204-5, 206, 211-12 208 hospitalisation of childbirth, 202-3 domestic hygiene, 60-1 reasons for decline in, 216 efforts to improve children's health, social class and, 213-15 38,53,163-4,223-4 in Victoria, 198 infant mortality and, 3, 34-6, 187-91, see also ante-natal care, infant 244-5,247 mortality; multiple births; infant welfare role, xv, 1-2,6-7,140, premature babies; stillbirths 187-91, 246-7 The Nervous Child (Cameron, 1920), 106 mother / child relationship (Bowlby), Nesbitt, Matron L.E., 210 240 Newsholme, Dr Arthur, 48, 60, 69, 99 nutrition of, 213 New South Wales paid work and, 234-5 ante-natal care, 206 as patriots, 7, 63, 91-2,112-13,192, hospitalisation of childbirth, 202 206-7,247 infant mortality, 14, 15,44,46,104, practices of, 165-8, 170-1, 172-9,244-5 138 status of, 140-1, 197 infant welfare movement, 78-80, supposed ignorance offeeding 144-5, 146-7, 153 requirements, 47, 49-50, 59-60, malnutrition in children, 223 98, 224 medicalisation of childbirth, 199-200 toxaemia and, 195-6 State Children's Relief Board, 34 welfare state, 4-5 TK's influence, 128-9 see also childbirth; child rearing; see also Benevolent Society of NSW; education of mothers; fathers; Country Women's Association; infant feeding; maternal Dairies Supervision Act; Early mortality; 'King Baby' Notification of Births Act; Far Mothers' and Babies' Health Association West Children's Health Scheme; see Adelaide School for Mothers Infant Life Protection Act; Royal multiple births, 212 Commission on the Decline of Munro Ferguson, Lady, 111-12, 115, the Birth Rate; Sydney 122, 142 New Zealand Murdoch, Sister, 167 ante-natal clinics, 206 Muskett, Dr Philip E., 18,65 hospitalisation of childbirth, 201-2 infant mortality, 9-10,12,13 National Baby Week Council (England), influence in Tasmania, 145, 152 99,102,112 influence on Victoria Baby Health National Council of Women, 70, 74, 84, Centres Association, 86 116 map, xiv Index 327 maternal mortality, 193, 198 Peck, Muriel, 156 medicalisation of childbirth, 196--7, 199 ante-natal work, 203 midwives eclipsed, 199 and Better Farming Train. 153 rivalry with Australia, 2,86, 111-34 matron of infant welfare training school milk scheme, 225 school, 82, 116 see also King, Dr Frederic Truby; Scantlebury Brown's assistant, 140, Maori; Plunket Society 145 nurses, general, and training in infant Your Baby, 110. 128 welfare, 209 Penhaligon, Mrs M., 171 nurses, infant, 67-8 Perth in Adelaide, 71 infant mortality, 21 ante-natal care, 203-8 public sanitation, 54-5 as career for women, 158-9 see also Children's Protection Society; education of mothers, 172-9 King Edward Memorial Hospital; in Melbourne, 73 Western Australia; Women's Plunket and Karitane nurses, 99, 113, Service Guild 120-1, 128-9, 133 Philp, Mrs, ofWonthaggi, 172 relationships with doctors, 126--7, 159, The Physiological Feeding of Infants 203-4 (Pritchard, 1904), 102 in Sydney, 69-70 Playford government (South Australia), training of, 149-50 149-50 travel arrangements, 153-4 Plunket, Lady, 87, 88, 99, 112 views of mothers' skills, 165-8 Plunket nurses see nurses, infant nurses' registration acts, 199,209 Plunket Society, 32, 87-8 nutrition copied by Victorian Baby Health malnutrition, 220-4 Centres, 86 of mothers, 231 imperialism and, 88,100,247 and neonatal mortality rates, 213-14, and infant mortality, 101, 113-14 215 Mayo on, 107 optimum levels for young children, patriotic goals, 91-2 218-19 successes and failures, 100-1 pre-schoolers' diets, 230-1, 238-9 see also Karitane hospitals; King. Dr see also Australian Advisory Council on Frederic Truby; nurses, infant; Nutrition; infant feeding Society for the Health of Women and Children of Victoria; Truby pain relief, and childbirth, 197,201 King Mothercraft League of gives privacy, 205 South Australia Parenthood and Race Culture (Saleeby, potty training, 96, 178 1909),98-9 Powles,].,168 Parents' Book (Harper, 1926), 132 premature babies, 194-5, 216 Parker, Mrs N., 178,208 care of, 209-12 paternalism see also multiple births; neonatal in infant welfare, 84-6, 140, 144-5, mortality 160-1, 246 pre-school children see children, pre­ in NSW, 79 school in Plunket, 87 pre-school education see education, pre­ in Queensland, 148-9 school in Royal Commission on the Decline Primrose, Sister Maude, 83,120,121, of the Birth Rate, 33, 35-6 130-1, 133 TKand,98 Pritchard, Dr Eric, 99 welfare state and, 4-5 feeding advice, 109, 110 see also Labour governments; milk formula, 122, 123 maternalism; state and infant on TK system, 102-3, 110 welfare Younger Ross attends lectures by, 82 328 Index puerperal sepsis, 197-8 municipal council work, 145 Pure Food Act (1908), 57 pre-schoolers and, 218, 220, 221 on Sister Primrose, 120 quarantine,4,143 relationship with doctors, 160 Queensland relationship with nurses, 159 infant mortality, 14, 16 on TK, 114, 117, 124, 127-8, 130 infant welfare movement, 83, 144, see also Peck, Muriel 148-9, 180 school milk scheme, in NZ, 225 malnutrition in children, 223 Seacliff Mental Asylum (Dunedin), medicalisation of childbirth, 197, 89-90,93 199-200 sewerage systems, 54-5 neonatal mortality, 213 Shirt, Mrs N., 178,210 see aLm Brisbane; Golden Caskett Simpson, Edith, 1, 141 Lottery; Maternity Act (1922); sleeping of infants, by the clock, 96-8 Mothercraft Association social class appeal of Plunket, 100-1 railways, and spread of infant welfare baby clinics and, 80 movement, 153 childbirth and, 197 Rawson, Alice, 70 economic problems and mothercraft, Reiger, Kerreen, 171, 177 224 Renwick Hospital for Infants (Sydney), fertility decline and, 26-7 70 health ofpre-schoolers, 231-4, 240-1 Ross, Dr Isabella Younger see Younger infant feeding and, 47-8 Ross, Dr Isabella infant mortality and, 21, 23-4, 55-6, Rotch, Dr Thomas Morgan, 65-7, 93-4 162-3 Royal Commission on Health (1925), infant welfare and. 2, 150-1, 245 140, 142, 143-4 Lady Gowrie Centres, 227, 235-6, Royal Commission on the Decline of the 240-1, 245 Birth Rate in New South Wales mothers' practices and, 171-2, 179, (1903-4),32-3,34-6,37,40,43,44, 185,245 59,68,138 neonatal mortality and, 213-17 Royal Hospital for Women (Sydney), 70, TKon, 98 206,209,212 in Wonthaggi, 165-70 Royal New Zealand Society for the Society for the Health of Women and Health of Women and Children see Children of Victoria, 116, 121-2, Plunket Society 130 Royal Society for the Welfare of Mothers South Australia and Babies breast-feeding levels, 182 (Sydney), 84-5,146 infant mortality, 14,16,43-5,182-3 and kindergartens, 219-20 infant welfare movement, 80-1, 144, and TK, 112, 115, 122, 123 149-51, 180 malnutrition in children, 223 St Pancras School for Mothers medicalisation of childbirth, 199-200 (London), 68, 71 neonatal mortality, 213 Saleeby, Dr Caleb W., 5, 98-9 TK's influence in, 130-1 sanitary reform, and infant mortality, see aLm Adelaide; Playford 54-6,61-2,138,164 government; Truby King Scantlebury Brown, Dr Vera Mothercraft League of South (1889-1946), 105-10, 140,212,224 Australia ante-natal care, 203, 205 South Australian Trotting Association, books by, 132 supports infant welfare, 149 infant welfare programmes, 157-8 Spencer, Herbert, 89 Lady Gowrie Child Cerltres, 225-7, Spencer, Nurse Lucy, 204 228-9 Spock, Dr Benjamin, 174, 210 Index 329

rules for child rearing, 237-8 Thomson, David, and the 'welfare Springthorpe, Annie (1867-97), 116, generation', 141-2 197 Tidswell, F., 50 Springthorpe, Dr Guy, 197 Tierney, Y., of Sydney, 175, 179 Springthorpe, Dr ].w., 116, 121, 127-8, tonsils, 229 197 Torrens House (Adelaide), 150 Stang, Dr Eleanor, 152, 154 Tresillian Mothercraft Home (Sydney), state and infant welfare 115,147,209,211,212 after Second World War, 84-6, 142 Tresillian Vaucluse, 211 coalition with women's movement, Truby King, Frederic see King, Dr 84 Frederic Truby (1858-1938) in NSW, 78-80, 144-5, 146--8 Truby King League of Victoria , 115-16, in NZ, 100-1 120-1 in Queensland, 83,144,148-9 Truby King Mothercraft League of in South Australia, 80-1 South Australia, 121, 130-1 see also federal system; Lady Gowrie Turner, Dr Alfred Jefferis, 48-9, 114, Child Centres; paternalism; 122,213 welfare state establishes milk depot, 73-4 Stawell, Dr Richard, 48, 50 Tweddle,Joseph, 121 stillbirths, 198, 202-3 Tweddle Hospital for Babies Stirling, Harriet, 71-2 (Melbourne),121 Stout, Anna, 30 Sydney United States of America breast-feeding levels, 183-4 baby weeks, 80, 156 conflict with TK, 113-22 hospitalisation of childbirth, 202 hospitalisation of childbirth, 202 incubators in, 211 infant mortality, 21, 22,23 infant mortality, 11, 162-3 infant welfare movement, 37, 68-71 infant welfare schemes, 5 kindergartens, 219 influence on nursery school milk supply, 57-8 development, 224-5 public sanitation, 54-5 milk supply, 65 see also Alice Rawson School for scientific feeding, 65-7 Mothers; Armstrong, Dr W.G.; see also Holt, Dr Luther Emmett; Australian Mothercraft Society; Rotch, Dr Thomas Morgan Lady Edeline Hospital for Babies; Litchfield, Dr W.F.; Renwick 'Vesta' see Allan, Stella Hospital for Infants; Royal Victoria Hospital for Women; Royal ante-natal care, 206 Society for the Welfare of attendance at baby clinics, 181 Mothers and Babies; Tresillian breast-feeding levels, 186, 188 Mothercraft Home; Tresillian Dairies SupeIVision Act (1905), 57 Vaucluse fertility decline, 27 hospitalisation of childbirth, 202 Tasmania infant mortality, 14, 15,44, 195 infant mortality, 14, 17 infant welfare movement, 81-3, 145-6 infant welfare movement, 83-4, 145, malnutrition in children, 223 152 'managing motherhood' project, 143 medicalisation of childbirth, 199-200 medicalisation of childbirth, 199-200 see also Child Welfare Association; neonatal mortality, 195, 198 Hobart TK's influence, 130 teeth, 219, 221, 229 see also Bendigo; Better Farming Train; Thelander, Dr CA., 52 Melbourne; Scantlebury Brown, Therapeutics, Dietetics and Hygiene Dr Vera; Society for the Health of (Springthorpe, 1897), 116 Women and Children of Victoria; 330 Index

Victoria (Cont.) Williams, Nurse, ofNSW, 153, 182 Springthorpe, Dr ].W.; Truby King Wilson, Dr T.G., 206 League of Victoria; Visiting Trained Windeyer, Dr ].C., 206 Nurses' Association of Victoria; Women Wonthaggi fertility decline, 3, 25-6, 29-30, 33 Victorian Baby Health Centres medicalisation of childbirth, 199 Association, 82, 84, 130, 141, 145, suffrage, 1,4,26,33 156, 160 welfare state and, 4-5 ante-natal care, 203 see also feminists; maternalism; Better Farming Train, 153 mothers; voluntarism NZ influence on, 86 women doctors pre-school child and, 221 ante-natal care and, 204-5 TK and, 112, 115-16, 122 and infant welfare movement, 71, 82, see also Campbell, Dr Kate 105-10,159-60,245 Victorian Bush Nursing Association, 198 see also doctors; names of individual Victorian Ladies' Benevolent Society, 82 women doctors visiting nurses see bush nurses; nurses, Women's Christian Temperance Union, infant 84 Visiting Trained Nurses' Association of women's movement see voluntarism; Victoria, 83 names of women s organisations voluntarism, 67, 70 Women's Service Guild (Perth), 74 in Adelaide, 71-2,80-1,245 Wonthaggi coalition with state, 84 infant mortality in interwar years, and Country Women's Association, 165-70 154-5 mothers' child rearing practices, in Melbourne, 72-3,81-3,144,145-6 172-9 in NSW, 78-9, 144-5 Wood, Dr A.Jeffreys, 61, 73, 75, 76, 82, in Perth, 74-5, 84 125, 159 Plunket and, 87-8 working mothers see employment of in Queensland, 148-9 mothers in Tasmania, 83-4 World Health Organisation, report on in Wonthaggi, 165 maternal care and mental health, see also feminists; maternalism 239-40 World War I, impact on infant welfare water supply, 54-6 movement, 3-4, 63, 77-8 Waterworth, Edith, 83-4 World War II welfare state, 4-5, 78-9, 140,246 Bendigo creche, 239 Wenholz, Mrs, of Queanbeyan, 174,176 fathers and children during, 241-2 Western Australia impact on mothers, 176--7, 178, 186, infant mortality, 14, 17, 137 235-6 infant welfare movement, 84, 137, 145, neonatal mortality, 216 151-2, 154 Wartime Centre (Melbourne), 235-6 medicalisation of childbirth, 199-200 see aLw Perth Younger Ross, Dr Isabella, 81-2, 85, 145, White, Mrs, of Victorian Baby Health 156 Centres Association, 156 Your Balry (Peck, 1925), llO