Notes INTRODUCTION 1. Advertisement for New South Wales' first baby week, 'Long Live King Baby?', Sunday News, Sydney, 24 March 1920. Cf. Anna Davin, 'Imperialism and Motherhood', History Workshop, issue 5, Spring 1978, p. 14, also p. 10, on population was power. 2. Edith Simpson, Acting Hon. Sec. Victorian Baby Health Centres, to Town Clerk, Bendigo, 16 November 1922, Baby Health Centre 1920-40, Box 1, City of Bendigo; 'Wastage of Infant Life', Sydney Mail, 24 March 1920. See also Jane Lewis, The Politics of Motherhood: Child and Maternal Welfare in England, 1900-1939, London, 1980; Deborah Dwork, War is Good for Babies and Other Young Children: A History of the Infant and Child Welfare Movement in England 1898-1918, London and New York, 1987; R. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention ofInfant Mortality, 1850-1929, Baltimore and London, 1990; Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Maternal and Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920, Ithaca and London, 1993; C.R. Comacchio, 'Nations are Built of Babies ': Saving Ontario's Mothers and Children 1900-1940, Montreal, 1993; V. Fildes, L. Marks and H. Marland (eds), Women and Children First: International Maternal and Infant Welfare, 1870-1945, London and New York, 1992. 3. P. Grimshaw, M. Lake, A. McGrath and M. QuartIy, Creating a Nation, Melbourne, 1994, p. 2. 4. Women were enfranchised in 1893 in New Zealand, and 1894 and 1899 in the colonies of South Australia and Western Australia; and ob­ tained the federal vote in Australia in 1902. 5. In New Zealand, Maori were counted by head on census night for the first time in 1926; in Australia, Aborigines were not counted till the 1971 census and all gained the vote in 1962. 6. Davin, 'Imperialism and Motherhood', p. 26. On this way of writing history generally, see Marilyn Lake, The Politics of Respectability: Identifying the Masculinist Context', HS, vol. 22, no. 86, April 1986 pp.116-31. 7. VBHCA circular, 1944, 44/2343, City of Footscray; Baby Welfare 1944-7, City of Geelong. 8. Frontispiece to F. Truby King, The Expectant Mother, and Baby's First Month, Wellington, 1925. 9. On 'fit', see Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States, Cambridge, Mass., 1992, p.54. 248 Notes 249 10. See, for example, F.B. Smith, The People's Health 1830-1910, Canberra and London, 1979, and 'Health', in John Benson (ed.), The Working Class in England 1875-1914, London, 1985, pp. 36-62; A.E. Imhof, 'From the Old Mortality Pattern to the New: Implications of a Radical Change from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century', Bulletin of the History ofMedicine, vol. 59,1985, pp. 1-29. 11. Meckel, Save the Babies; Lewis, Politics ofMotherhood; Dwork, War is Good for Babies. 12. On Britain, see Dwork, ibid. 13. F.G. Castles, The Working Class and Welfare: Reflections on the Political Development of the Welfare State in Australia and New Zealand, 1890-1980, Wellington, 1985. 14. Stuart Macintyre, The Labour Experiment, Melbourne, 1989; Erik Olssen, Building the New World: Work, Politics and Society in Caversham 1880s-1920s, Auckland, 1995. 15. Jill Roe, in Cora V. Baldock and Bettina Cass (eds), Women, Social Welfare and the State in Australia, Sydney, 1983, p. 7. 16. On the Maternity Allowance Act and maternal citizenship, see Marilyn Lake and Katie Holmes (eds), Freedom Bound II: Documents on Women in Modern Australia, Sydney, 1995, pp. 1-5; Grimshaw et al. (eds), Creating a Nation:, cf. the decision of the Liberal government in New Zealand to opt for a widows' pension; widows were the most 'deserving' of women left without a male breadwinner. 17. Examples are Meckel, Save the Babies; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers; Molly Ladd-Taylor (ed.), Raising a Baby the Government Way: Mothers'Letters to the Children's Bureau, 1915-1932, New Brunswick, 1986; Seth Koven and Sonya Michel (eds), Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States, New York and London, 1993. 18. See Koven and Michel (eds), Mothers ofa New World; Skocpol, Protec.ting Soldiers and Mothers. 19. This is consistent with Jane Lewis's reply to Koven and Michel, in Lewis, 'Gender, the Family and Women's Agency in the Building of 'Welfare States': the British Case', Social History, vol. 19, no. I,January 1994, pp. 37-55, and 'Women's Agency, Maternalism and Welfare', Gender and History, vol. 6, no. 1, April 1994, pp. 117-23. 20. see Davin, p. 29. 21. Gisela Bock and Pat Thane (eds), Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States 1880s-1950s, London and New York, 1991, p. 4. 22. The term 'mixed economy of welfare' is from Lewis, 'Gender, the Family and Women's Agency'. 23. Dorothy Porter has summarised the historiography of public health in these terms, in D. Porter (ed.), The History of Public Health and the Modern State, Amsterdam, 1994, Introduction. 24. See, for example, Grimshaw et aI., Creating a Nation; Lake and Holmes ( eds) , Freedom Bound II. 250 Notes 1. A WHITE HEALTH TRANSITION 1. The Health Transition Workshop, 'Cultural, Social and Behavioural Determinants of Health: What is the Evidence?', Canberra, May 1989, discussed this issue. The papers were published as John Caldwell, Sally Findley, Pat Caldwell, Gigi Santow, Wendy Cosford,Jennifer Braid and Daphne Broers-Freeman (eds), What We Know About Health Transition: The Cultural, Social and Behavioural Determinants of Health, Health Transition Series no. 2, vols. 1 & 2, Canberra, 1990. 2. The number of deaths under 1 year of age for every 1,000 live births. 3. Fertility has received the most attention from demographers; see, for example, Lado T. Ruzicka and John C. Caldwell, The End of Demographic Transition in Australia, Canberra, 1977; Pat Quiggin, No Rising Generation, Canberra, 1988; Ann Larson, Growing Up in Melbourne: Family Life in the Late Nineteenth Century, Canberra, 1994. 4. John C. Caldwell, 'Introductory Thoughts on Health Transition', in J.C. Caldwell et al. (eds), What We Know About Health Transition, vol. 1, pp. xi-xiii. 5. Alberto Palloni, 'The Meaning of the Health Transition', John Cleland, 'The Idea of the Health Transition', and Joseph E. Potter, 'Parallels between the Health Transition and the Fertility Transition', in ibid., pp. xvi-xix and ch. 4. 6. John C. Caldwell, Theory ofFertility Decline, London, 1982. 7. The term is Etienne van de Walle's. 8. Francine van de Walle, 'Infant Mortality and the European Demographic Transition', in Ansley J. Coale and Susan Cotts Watkins (eds), The Decline of Fertility in Europe, Princeton, 1986, pp. 211-15 (quotation from p. 211). Trends in European infant mortality rates are outlined in R. Woods, P. Watterson andJ. Woodward, 'The Causes of Rapid Infant Mortality Decline in England and Wales, 1861-1921. Part 1', Population Studies, vol. 42, no. 3, November 1988, pp. 348-50. 9. W.P.D. Logan, 'Mortality in England and Wales from 1848 to 1947', Population Studies, vol. 4, 1950-1, p. 135, and H.O. Lancaster, 'Infant Mortality in Australia', MfA, 21 July 1956, p. 101, observed that infant mortality rates in England and Australia respectively halved about every 25 years. 10. John Powles gives a similar description of the underlying trend, in 'Keeping the Doctor Away', in Verity Burgmann and Jenny Lee (eds), Making a Life: A People's History of Australia since 1788, Melbourne, 1988, pp. 74-5. 11. Douglas Gordon, Health, Sickness, and Society, Brisbane, 1976, p. 188. 12. Compare the situation in England, in Woods, Watterson and Woodward, 'Causes of Rapid Infant Mortality Decline', pt 1, p. 348; also Naomi Williams and Graham Mooney, 'Infant Mortality in an "Age of Great Cities": London and the English Provincial Cities Compared, c.1840-1910', Continuity and Change, vol. 9, no. 2, 1994, pp. 185-212. 13. A.R. Omran coined the term 'epidemiologic transition' in 1971, to de­ scribe 'long-term changes in patterns of morbidity, disability and Notes 251 causes of death that have been obseIVed in populations as they experi­ ence transformation in their demographic, economic and social struc­ ture'. Lado Ruzicka and Penny Kane, 'Health Transition: The Course of Morbidity and Mortality', in Caldwell et al. (eds), What We Know About Health Transition, vol. 1, p. 1. The original source is Omran, The Epidemiologic Transition: A Theory of the Epidemiology of Population Change', Milbank Memorial Fund QJ.larterly, vol. 49, no. 4, 1971. 14. J.H.L. Cumpston and F. McCallum, The History of the Intestinal Infections (and TyphusFever) in Australia 1788-1923, Melbourne, 1927, pp. 390-1. Cumpston's view of infant mortality trends is summarised in J.H.L. Cumpston (introduced and edited by MJ. Lewis), Health and Disease in Australia. A History, Canberra, 1989, ch. 7. 15. Gordon, Health, Sickness, and Society, p. 189. 16. Wray Vamplew (ed.), Australians: Historical Statistics, Sydney, 1987, p.57. 17. Calculated from T.A. Coghlan, The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales, 1900-1, pp. 999,1009. 18. Review of P.E. Muskett, The Feeding and Management of Australian Infants in Health and Disease, 5th edn, in AMG, 21 May 1900, p. 215; P.E. Muskett, An Australian Appeal, cited in 'Infantile Mortality in Tasmania', AMG, 20 April 1907, p. 205. 19. Life expectancy at birth in Australia is graphed in Vamplew (ed.), Australians: Historical Statistics, p. 60. 20. F.B. Smith, 'Health', in John Benson (ed.), The Working Class in England 1875-1914, London, 1985, p. 38. 21. See, for example, Bock and Thane (eds), Maternity and Gender Policies; Koven and Michel (eds) , Mothers of a New World.