UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI
Date:______August 12, 2008
I, ______,Heather Farrell-Lipp hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of: Master in Architecture in: The School of Architecture and Interior Design
It is entitled: Strategies between old and new: adaptive use of an industrial building
This work and its defense approved by:
Chair: ______Michael McInturf ______Jeffery Tilman ______
Strategies between Old and New: Adaptive Use of an Industrial Building
A thesis submitted to the
Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati
for partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Architecture
In the School of Architecture and Interior Design
August 12 2008
By
Heather Farrell-Lipp
Thesis committee: Michael McInturf, Jeffery Tilman Abstract ▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄
In the complex, fast-paced environment of this country, we have often disposed of building stock that could have been potentially adapted to meet our changing needs leaving environments with no connection to the past or local identity. This haphazard way of approaching our environment takes no advantage of our ability as sentient beings to truly engage in eloquent, sustainable combinations of the old and new.
Through engaging the question of what we truly value in this country and how that can be defined through architectural quality, we look at a series of case studies that have successfully expressed a combination between the old and the new. This thesis defines some guiding principles inherent in successful resolutions. It does not give specified stylistic requirements but rather suggests that the old be fully understood, respected and engaged as part of a final combination with a clear hierarchy culminating in a unified expression. This set of principles will then be employed in the adaptive reuse of an abandoned industrial building into a contemporary mixed-use facility. The expressive dialogue between the old and the new is potentially the architectural expression of a new sustainable age.
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iv Special thanks to…
Aarati Kanekar Gordon Simmons Udo Greinacher
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Table of Contents ▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄
Introduction 1-10 Time and place 2 Our contemporary environment 3 Chapter summery 6
Chapter One: Conservation 11-28 The History of American Conservation Developing & Defining Values 13 Timeline of Developing American Conservation Values 27
Chapter Two: Synergy of Addition 29-35
Chapter Three: 20th Century Combined Works 36 Maison de Verre 40 Allen Memorial Art Museum 43 The Hubertus House 46 The Lyon Opera house 50 Representational Architecture of Imitation: Celebration 53 Sculptural Representation: Eero Saarinen’s TWA Terminal 55 Deconstructivism: Fred and Ginger 57 Abstract Expressionism: Falkestrasse 6 60
Chapter Four: Adaptive Reuse of Industrial Buildings 63-81 Adaptive Reuse of Industrial Buildings 64 The Social Costs of Vacant Properties 66 Additive Reuse and Development Strategies 68 Adapted Industrial :The Tate Modern Museum 71 Adapted Industrial :Torpedohallen Torpedo Hall Apartments 74 Adapted Industrial: Sibelius Hall 78
Chapter Five: Design Phase 82-103
Chapter Six: The History & Evolution of the Jackson Brewery Complex 86 Introduction 87 The Making of Beer in Cincinnati: German &English 89 The Jackson today 103
Chapter Six: The History & Evolution of the Jackson Brewery Complex 86 Introduction 87 The Making of Beer in Cincinnati: German &English 89 The Jackson today 103
Thesis Design 104-133
vi List of Images ▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄
Marcel Breuer’s proposal for Grand Central Station P26 From: The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation
A detail of Frank Lloyd Wright's home in Oak Park, Illinois. P39 From
The Piazza d'Italia by Charles Moore, New Orleans 1976 – 1979 P39 From: < http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/george/material.html>
Maison de Verre, Pierre Chareau’s addition at 31, Rue Saint-Guillaume, Paris, Farnce1928 P43 From: The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation
Maison de Verre pre-addition and Pierre Chareau’s 1928 addition P44 From: The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation
Diagram of Maison de Verre, Pierre Chareau’s addition at 31, Rue Saint-Guillaume, Paris, Farnce1928 P44 Drawn by Heather Farrell-Lipp
1917 Cass Gilbert museum and the 1977 Robert Venturi and John Rauch addition; including the gallery P46 building and the artist studio wings From: The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation
Cass Gilbert museum Venturi addition Connection detail P46 From: The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation
Diagram of decorative hierarchy at the Cass Gilbert Museum P48 Drawn by Heather Farrell-Lipp
The Hubertus House by Aldo Van Eyck’s addition P49 From The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation
The Hubertus House Plan P51 By Heather Farrell-Lipp
Diagram of the Hubertus House elevation patterning the new P51 By Heather Farrell-Lipp
1830 Lyon Opera house designed by A.M. Chenavard and J.M. Pullet’s P53 From: The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation
The Lyon Opera house after Jean Nouvel’s addition P53 From: The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation
Lyon Opera House designed by Jean Nouvel, seen at night P55 From: The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation
Diagram showing geometric forms P55 Drawn by Heather Farrell-Lipp
Downtown Celebration, Florida P57 From: < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebration,_Florida>
Eero Saarinen’s TWA Terminal building as a bird in flight P58 Image taken by Ezra Stoller and found on line at the AIArchitect
vii The Milk Bottle Diner in Spokane WA P58 From: PreservationDirectory.com “Spokane WA: Historic Photo Gallery”
Gehry’s design for the Dancing house in Prague (Fred and Ginger) P59 From: The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation
Dancing House context (crashing the party) From: The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation P61
The sketch “Angle of Built Death” by Coop Himmelblau –for Falkestrasse 6. P62 From: The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation
Image of Coop Himmelblau penthouse addition at Falkestrasse 6 P62 From: The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation
The Baroque interior of the Augustinian Monastery Church in Mainz. P64 From: < http://graymonk.mu.nu/archives/2005/09/>
The adapted Tate Modern Museum in London, 2000 P73 From: http://arts.kypros.com/art_links1.htm & http://www.gerrieelfrink.sp.nl/weblog/category/boekfilmkunstzo/page/2/
Sections of Tate Modern P74 From:
Details of the Tate Modern P75 From: http://www.gerrieelfrink.sp.nl/weblog/category/boekfilmkunstzo/page/2/
Torpedohallen (torpedo apartments) Copenhagen Denmark P76 Photo by Heather Farrell-Lipp
Torpedohallen (torpedo apartments) Copenhagen Denmark sections and plan P77 From:
Torpedohallen (torpedo apartments) Copenhagen Denmark design models showing individual bays. P78 From:
Torpedohallen (torpedo apartments) Copenhagen Denmark interior promenade. P79 From:
Torpedohallen (torpedo apartments) Copenhagen Denmark image of water entry. P79 Interior of The Forest hall From:
Torpedohallen (torpedo apartments) Copenhagen Denmark from the water. P80 From:
Sibelius Hall From Lake Vesijärvi P81 From:
View from the interior of Sibelius Hall looking toward new addition. P81 From:
Image from computer model of Sibelius hall P82 From:
Image of Forest hall P82 From:
viii Image of Forest hall P83 From:
Sibelius hall as seen from the street P83 From:
Image of early brewery structure P89 From: Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati
Lithograph showing early brewing process P89 The Cincinnati Brewing industry: social and economic history
Marketing Image of the Jackson brewery complex during the ownership of Weber (pictured twice) P91 Courtesy of The Cincinnati Historical society
The Park Brewery P92 From: Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati
Existing Façade P93 Photo by Heather Farrell-Lipp
Detail of brickwork at the Jackson brewery P93 Courtesy of Denny Dellinger
Park Brewery Front and Back P94 From: Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati
Print showing lager vault construction P94 From: Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati
Section drawn by Fred W. Wolfs drawing for the Wiedemann Brewery Co. P96 From: Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati
Diagram of Façade symmetry P97 Drawn by Heather Farrell-Lipp
Partial Diagram of Façade P97 Drawn by Heather Farrell-Lipp
Ice Machine at The Fitger’s Brewing Co. Minnesota P87 From: www.Fitgers.com/History
Marketing Image of the Jackson brewery complex during the ownership of Weber P100 Courtesy The Cincinnati Historical society
Asymmetry of the eastern end of the front façade P100 Photo by Heather Farrell-Lipp
Marketing Image of the Jackson brewery complex during the ownership of Weber & a later Marketing image P111 showing new construction. Courtesy of The Cincinnati Historical Society
Marketing Image of the Jackson brewery complex during the ownership of Weber (Malt house) P111 Courtesy of The Cincinnati Historical Society
Images of Complex taken in 1933 P113 Courtesy of The Cincinnati Historical Society
Image of the front façade of the building today P115 Courtesy of Denny Dellinger
ix Introduction ▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄
In America, the population lives under the assumption that there is something a little better over the next hill. As a result we now have an environment shaped by want, not resolution. This cultural impatience has offered nothing but isolation and alienation with communities that have lost touch with the natural world. We isolate ourselves in our air-conditioned homes in our ever-widening rings of the expansion of the fittest. We spend our short time on this planet darting back and forth without deep purpose mindlessly consuming.1
This mindset of man over nature (unemotional, hyper-progressive and self- fulfilling) was spurred on by the rise of industry, the views of modernism. It was further fueled by capitalism. We are not a part of the natural environment that grows and develops slowly and organically, over time. Our environment is ours to do with as we choose and we choose to fuel the mechanism of our economy. Our collective, cultural values are based on the emotionless, forward-looking, entitled self-fulfillment at an ever increasing speed. We have no time for the deeper emotive contemplations. This perception is a mirage, ultimately, providing fewer fulfillments and a lower quality of life.
1 George Burton Brewster , “A Better Way to Build,” Urban Land (June 1995) Feature 1
Time & Place
We have managed to separate our consciousness from real time by maintaining an unnatural pace. We are perpetually on the way somewhere else. There is really no time to contemplate a better way.
As you move through space at varying degrees of speed you are more or less aware of your surroundings. This can be clearly understood comparing the experience of slowly strolling to that of driving on the highway. A type of awareness can be achieved by simply standing still. When you stand in one place you become aware of it.
When you intellectually engage your surroundings, you notice textures and sounds. You delineate the subtlety of the shape of things. You smell the air and feel the ground under your feet. In time observations may lead to conclusions.
If you were informed of what had come before (the discourse and progress of events), you would have an even deeper understanding of the context in which you exist. You would no longer be static but aware of your place in a continuum of experience. If the surroundings included artifacts of expression from those that had stopped in the past, your intellectual interplay would be richened by this expression.
This wizened perception would become more complex and multi-faceted and hence your reaction to your surroundings would echo this sophistication. All of this takes time and effort; time to stop and observe and time to intellectually develop and understand what is being observed and the willingness to engage.
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In this fast paced, quick-fix, self-seeking culture of ours, we often fall short of greatness in ventures that require time to develop. We fill our stillness with media stimuli instead of contemplative silence. We have become accustomed to dispose of aspects in our environment no longer of use or without easy resolutions. In this way, we forget the potential lessons that could be learned from the wisdom of our experience and repeat great follies. We neglect our potential as sentient, thinking creatures to come up with new and better solutions. This plays out over-and-over in the way we manage our environment.
The problems facing our contemporary environment are widely understood today. People in almost every field have begun to address their areas of expertise with sustainable strategies. The counter pressures often are prohibitive. We invest our time, intelligence and energy too often in short-term, fiscal gains instead of long term solutions. Valuing the pursuit of short-term acquisition often overshadows values such as protection of our environment (the betterment of the human condition) including artistic and intellectual expression.
Our Contemporary Environment
Our current way of building is an outgrowth of the industrial age, when we assumed the earth offered an unlimited supply of cheap energy, unlimited material resources and an infinite capacity for disposing of waste in the land, the sea and the air.
According to Worldwatch Institute, as much as 40 percent of the materials entering the world's economy (up to 75 percent of the world's lumber production) and one-third of the
3 global energy used are dedicated to the construction and operation of buildings.2 With the great rate of consumption attributed to the construction and operation of buildings alone. It is vital that we consider that these materials are being used for sustainable construction. We must utilize what we already have when possible.
One central problem is that there is no overriding vision for what we are making.
In the wake of this unforgiving drive for progress, design strategies are often quick, cheap, short-term solutions without consideration for their long term effects on our environment. We have created an uncohesive and disconnected scattering of uninspired repetition while consuming more and more of our natural habitat. In the wake of this expansion, underutilized and obsolete areas are abandoned or demolished to make way for even more short-term development. This leaves areas that have little connection with the past and little investment in our future. The quality of our environment and our experience in it decreases every year. It is time for us to stop and evaluate what we have and what can be done to improve it.
It is vital that we begin to perceive our environment as precious. It is time for thoughtful and informed forward looking strategies that will serve us all for generations.
These strategies can be pursed through every field and focus. As architects, we have the opportunity to begin this process by figuring out solutions to our growing needs, utilizing what we already have in creative innovative ways to use and reuse materials.
One vital approach to this problem is the development of strategies for “adaptive reuse” of existing buildings and infestructure. This approach provides continuity with the
2 George Burton Brewster, “A Better Way to Build,” Urban Land (June 1995) Feature 4 past as well as material conservation, while providing the necessary flexibility for a contemporary population. Through this strategy we can return to the cities and transition them to meet our contemporary needs. This can be thought of as a perpetual process carried on generation to generation in the pursuit of quality and function. Each generation engaged in the betterment of there surroundings will leave the mark of there time before passing the torch to the next generation. Through this perpetual process of transformation we will create an expression of our true identity Americans. This requires us to abandon our value for quick-fixes in favor of long term resolution.
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Chapter Summary
This thesis aims to develop an understanding of criteria for the successful adaptive reuse of old buildings. The context is our modern conflict between the values related to conservation and the driving forces of change in our modern society. The intention of this exploration is to give neither conservation nor new construction dominance. This document is weighted more heavily towards conservation merely due to the fact that our culture is more weighted towards change which needs little to no defense. The intended focus is on the possibility for resolution between the two. It is vital that we not forget our potential as sentient, thinking beings with the capability to innovate resolution in our environment without completely wiping the slate clean.
The first chapter, The Modern Conservation Movement: The Process of
Developing Values, looks at the development of the American ideals in relation to historical preservation and conservation vs. the great drive for progress. This chapter begins with the nationalistic desire to protect significant monuments which marked the birth of conservation in this country. The question was for the first time asked, what is historically significant? Once colonial sites were deemed of value, pre-colonial and pre- historic sites were also seen to have value. These needs to protect our heritage led to the first documentation of significant sites and implementation of legislation to protect them.
With the influence of European writers, such as Ruskin, came deeper discourse about how restoration efforts should be approached and implemented. The true nature
6 of the conflict between history and progress became apparent at the beginning of the twentieth century with the widespread influence of The Modern Functionalist movement which devalued the past in pursuit of a new utopian future that led to the demolition of large swaths of our urban cores to make way for its renewal efforts. This mass demolition spurred on a counter-movement that brought a new vigor to the efforts to protect our built environment, which led to the writing of laws that further defined in greater detail what we, as Americans, considered worthy of protection. These laws also defined to what degree these structures could and should be protected.
The next chapter, The Synergy of Addition, explores the expressive dialogue of combined works and the measure of success. Combined works are buildings that have an existing built component and an addition of new construction. The way that the old and new components of a structure interact creates an expressive dialog. The assertion is made that the quality of this expressive dialog can have a positive effect on a community in its formulation of local identity.
With the broadening range of expressive possibility brought about by denying convention promoted by Modernists, there was the reintroduction of ornament without rules by Post-Modernists. The possibilities for expression became seemingly endless.
By observing the outcome of this great range of possible expression it became possible to define criteria for success. The most basic realization being that success was not dependent on architectural style but how the project was approached. Successful works share some simple characteristics. The architect understood the existing building and
7 used it as a starting point for the combined dialog; and, in the end, the new and the old must service a common goal functionally and intellectually.
The next chapter, The 20th century Combined Works, looks specifically at the driving forces of twentieth century expression. The case studies that follow show the wide range of 20th century expressive approaches to the problem of reconciling the old and the new successfully. The case studies include modernist design at the Maison de
Verre (the House of Glass) by Pierre Chareau & Bernard Bijvoet, the Post-Modernist expression of the Gilbert Allen Memorial Art museum addition by Robert Venturi and
John Rauch in 1977, the humanist expression of the Hubertus House by Aldo Van Eyck in 1979 and a new expressive direction with Jean Nouvel’s design for the Lyon Opera
House in 1993.
The next chapter, Further Expressive Innovations Late 20th Century, specifically focuses on the latter part of the twentieth century and the innovations that further broaden the scope of expression available to the architect. These types of expression include the architecture of imitation, sculptural representation, Deconstructivism and abstract expressionism. Some examples that are explored include; Frank Gehry’s 1996
Deconstructivist office building nicknamed Fred and Ginger and the 1989 abstract expressionist addition designed by Coop Himmelblau at Forfalkestrasse 6.
In Adaptive Reuse of Industrial Buildings, the scope is narrowed to look at the adaptive reuse of industrial buildings specifically. This section looks at the reality that
8 most cities around the country have industrial centers that are now abandoned. The assertion is made that adaptation is a sustainable, feasible approach that connects our environment to its past. It also acknowledges the obstacles. The main obstacle in many cases to be overcome is the strong negative public opinion of the appearance of these industrial buildings and a stigma about abandoned properties.
The potential reality is that adaptive reuse can turn a blighted area into a vibrant, economically viable, environment without erasing the character of the place. This is exemplified in three specific case studies that look at the adaptive-reuse of industrial buildings ( the Tate Modern, Torpedohallen [the torpedo hall] and the Sibelius Hall).
These buildings show three very different approaches to adapting an old building with an obsolete function into new and vibrant uses.
The section, Design Phase Strategy, outlines the intention to complete an adaptive reuse design for the Jackson Brewery building in Cincinnati’s historical and crumbling Over-the-Rhine neighborhood. This abandoned historically significant building will be transformed into a mixed use facility for Art, entertainment and living. As part of a community that has the potential to be brought back from brink of total decay, this new facility would be a vital hub. The next section, The Development and Demise of the
Jackson Brewery Complex, chronicles the history The Jackson Brewery complex as it relates to the development of the Brewing industry in Cincinnati. This section shows the way the complex itself was transformed through its history to allow for the needs of the developing industry and technologies. This story brings us to the present state of the
9 building as it stands abandoned overlooking the City of Cincinnati ripe with potential and short on time.
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CHAPTER ONE ▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄
Conservation
The Modern American Conservation Movement derived its main principles, concepts and expression from the European context beginning in the eighteenth century. The concepts and debates span back to the Italian Renaissance and even earlier in some select writings. The development of objects and structures of past heritage and policies related to their protection, restoration and conservation have evolved with modernity. In the context of built history, the concept of conservation is a comparatively new one. 3
Since the eighteenth century the goal has been to protect cultural heritage. This cultural heritage has been gradually expanded to include ancient monuments, works of art, newer buildings, structures and sights of local historical context, aesthetic value, and sundry districts in their entirety. Some motivations and values promoting the development of conservation include historicity and romantic nostalgia meaning esteem for past quality and methods, lessons that can be learned from the past, local identity, and conserving place. Often these movements have been born out of shock when beloved sites have been demolished to make way for the new. 4
Valuing related to conservation seems to be such a part of collective consciousness today. In truth, what we understand as conservation today is a relatively
3 Jukka Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation (Oxford MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999) Pg 1. 4 Jukka Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation (Oxford MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999) Pg 1.
11 new idea in this country. In the early years of the American conservation movement, our national consciousness was dominated by a sense of abundant resources in an endless landscape. This was unlike Europe where there was limited space and resources and a long history of active contemplation and debate about restoration and conservation issues. How does such a young nation deal with heritage? How old does something have to be in order to have historical significance?
Jukka Jokilehto clearly describes the United States’ evolving attitude and dialog about conservation in his book, History of Architectural Conservation. The early conservation movement in the United States was primarily in the hands of private citizens. These concerned citizens organized and formed influential nationwide societies and organizations. That contributed greatly to disseminating knowledge about the importance of heritage. This knowledge has in large part been a continuation of the debates begun in Europe. It began humbly arguing for the protection of one building. It grew into a fairly defined value system that affects our entire built fabric. Much of what we understand as our national identity today is rooted in what has been saved by the conservation movement. The value system and the intellectual fury derived along the way attempts to resolve the inherent conflicts summoned up in the process.
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The History of American Conservation Developing and Defining Values
Preservation as an organized movement in the United States can most clearly be attributed to Ann Pamela Cunningham. In 1853 she began her campaign to preserve
Mount Vernon. Her argument for its preservation was that Mount Vernon was part of our national historical heritage. In this way American nationalistic pride gave birth to a new appreciation of our own history. The Mount Vernon Ladies Association was founded in1856. This group became the model for many other groups around the country.
Leading to the preservation of individual buildings deemed of value across the nation.
Value at this time was primarily attributed to associating with famous people or events.
In 1889 the United States Congress took action to establish a Federal archeological reservation primarily to conserve the prehistoric ruins of Casa Grande and the adjoining lands in Arizona. This lead to the 1906 Antiquities Act that authorized the president to establish national monuments in order to preserve historic or prehistoric structures or other objects of scientific interest for the benefit of the nation.
This act added a new twist to the idea of what is valuable. Archeologists preserved history with connections to famous people or events, and they promoted study and memory of cultural heritage including vernacular structures. There was, however, no ambiguity about archeological sites being old. They were so old that the only way to learn about the cultures that utilized them was from the ruins they left behind. The very designation, prehistory, denoted a separate history removed from our own. The idea of age and how old something was added to its value. Another clearly
13 stated value was that the protection of these sites had a potential impact on knowledge and the greater good of the nation.
Prior to the 1920s, the Conservation Movement focused primarily on colonial or precolonial sites. Jokilehto attributes the next evolution in thought about American conservation to the writings of Henry Russell Hitchcock. In 1928 Hitchcock, an architectural historian, was one of the first to voice a desire to preserve architecture of the nineteenth-century. During this time buildings from the nineteenth-century were rapidly being demolished to make way for the modern development. Hitchcock’s writings inspired a new public dialog about broadening the criteria for conservation. The
Architectural Record and the publications of American Society of Architectural Heritage also joined the discussion in support of preserving the nineteenth-century structures.
The Park Service took on the role of guiding the preservation of historical properties at its formation in1916. By the 1930s The National Park Service had become the main employer in conservation projects in the United States and made major contributions to defining preservation policies. The 1933 Historic American Buildings
Survey (HABS) began to archive historical sites which in turn provided the Historic
Preservation Movement with a database of information. Also In the mid 1930’s The
Historic Sites Act of1935 was enacted. The historians who ran the park service had studied the English Conservation Movement and were influenced by the1931 Athens
Declaration.
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The 1931 English Athens Declaration was an international declaration calling for the protection of cultural monuments throughout the world. This charter recommended the identification and archiving of monuments for restoration. This charter contained statements on the aesthetics of the surrounding areas of ancient monuments calling for care in the development of construction near them citing that “surroundings should be given special consideration”. Surroundings were to be preserved with picturesque intent, avoiding power poles, signs and other distracting elements. Ornamental vegetation around monuments was to be “given special study” to preserve the “ancient character” of the monuments.5 The ideas about conservation were evolving into a complex conversation including not only structures but site and historical character.
In 1947, The National Council for Historic Sites was established. Its mission was
“to mobilize sentiment and opinions, to inform about the needs and methods of preservation, to examine and support specific projects, and to conduct research and surveys.”6 The National Trust for Historic Preservation was chartered by Congress in
1949, modeled after the English National trust. This marked a new evolution in developing universal values, definitions, methodologies and applications of conservation.
A counter evolution of thought was brewing in Europe in the functionalist movement that rejected history and embraced the new forms of the machine age. CIAM
5O’Donnell, Patricia M., “Understanding the Threats & Defining Appropriate Responses The Evolving Concept of Cultural Landscapes as Settings: From the Athens & Venice Charters to the 2004 Combined World Heritage Criteria Section II: Vulnerabilities within the Settings of Monuments & Sites” publication from ICOMOS (The International Council on Monuments and sites) General Assembly (Xi’an, China, 2005). 6 Jokilehto, Jukka, History of Architectural Conservation (Oxford MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999) 265. 15 was a European modernist think-tank that published the Athens Charter which was conceived in 1933 and published in 1942. The Athens Charter claimed that the problems faced by cities could be resolved by strict functional segregation and with distribution of the population into tall apartment blocks at widely spaced intervals separated by expanses of green space, “the city-in-the-park”. The implementation of this recommended urban ideal form required a clean slate. The messy jumble of the old world city with all of its phases of development was in the way of the new and improved ideal urban form. The Urban approach of CIAM would be widely implemented in the
United States. This conflict remains at the core of the conservation debate to this day.
As the modernist movement marked its influential beginnings, other European conservation values and the discourse on the topic were beginning to come to light in the United States. This was due to lectures, writings and increasing numbers of
Americans traveling abroad. William Sumner Appleton, the founder of the society called
The Preservation of New England Antiquities, was one such traveler. He had contact with the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) in the UK, the English
National Trust, The French Monuments Historiques and the Skansen Open Air Museum in Stockholm. Jokilehto says of Appleton that “he preferred the teachings of Ruskin and
Morris and became a pioneer in promoting restoration based on accurate recording and research.”7
John Ruskin (1819-1900) was a nineteenth century critique of restoration. His criticisms of restoration practices led to the widespread distain for the word restoration
7 Jukka Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation (Oxford MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999) 265. 16
(especially in England) and its subsequent substitution with the term conservation. This substitution gives the movement its name today: The Conservation Movement. In the mid-nineteenth century, criticism was directed at the fashion of stylistic restoration in
Europe and the often arbitrary reconstruction of historic fabric. These ideas were now influencing the American conservation development. By this time the conservation movement had spread across Europe to France, the German countries, Greece, Italy and India.
Ruskin saw historic buildings as a unique creation by an artisan in a specific historical context. He defended the material truth of historical architecture. One such truth was derived from the aging process. Age, in itself, contributed to beauty marks and thus could be seen as an essential element. Ruskin recommended maintenance in order to avoid restoration. Ruskin was also concerned about new development in urban areas, and the chance of losing local identities as old buildings were demolished to make way for new ones. He valued old districts. He viewed a city as not existing in one moment but being an ensemble of different types of buildings, spaces and details.
William Morris (1834-1896), a contemporary of Ruskin, was an English artist, writer and socialist activist. He was one of the principal founders of the British Arts and
Crafts movement. Morris was greatly influenced by Ruskin’s writings. He was elected by a group of esteemed peers including Ruskin in 1877 to the post of History Secretary in
The Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB). Morris drafted a manifesto for SPAB in which he condemned modern restoration as arbitrary.
17
Ancient buildings, whether artistic, picturesque, historical, antique
or substantial: any work in short over which educated, artistic people
would think it worthwhile to argue, were to be regarded as a whole with
historical alterations and additions and the aim was to conserve them
materially and hand them down instructive and venerable to those that
come after us. 8 --- Jokilehto
This manifesto became the formal basis for modern conservation policy.
Conservation was based not on style but on critical evaluation. Ancient buildings remained materially intact. Any attempt to copy or restore them would result in a loss of authenticity.
Quite a different pursuit was being embarked upon at Colonial Williamsburg. In the mid to late twenties the conservation of Colonial Williamsburg began with the goal of returning the city to its eighteenth-century form for educational and memorial purposes.
This lead to the realization that a great deal of research had to be done in order to accurately recreate a period. The first priority was historical representation and authenticity. This meant that the oldest structures had to be returned to their period conditions regardless of commonly held conventions about beauty.
8Jukka Jokilehto, History of Architectural Conservation (Oxford MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999) 185. NOTE: This quote is Jokilehto’s interpretation of outtakes from Morris’s Manifesto for SPAB(The Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings ) 18
Fiske Kimball and Lawrence Kocher, the editor of the Architectural Record at the time, were the consulting architects.9 “Kimball insisted on retaining important buildings of later dates that would be lost under the initial concept. In order to allow for this, the scope had to be broadened to include buildings existing from 1699-1840.10 With reverence for the structures that they were conserving, the architects insisted on emulating the English method of clearly delineating the new material from the old during the restoration process. They also demanded that old materials be retained regardless of cost. Documentation was used when available such as drawings, descriptions from the era, paintings, photographs and information from architectural plans and surveys.
When this was not available, comparisons to other buildings of the same period and type were used to draw educated conclusions about what may have been.
Colonial Williamsburg became an important reference for all future period restoration. Articles were published about the project and the dialogue that went along with it in The Architectural Record and National Geographic. Williamsburg was an exemplar for restoration practices plus the educational and programmatic policies that went along with it. Partly due to its accessibility to the public, Colonial Williamsburg deepened the dialogue about value systems in relation to restoration in a way that
America had not seen to date.
In 1963 Ada Louise Huxtable, an architecture critic, warned that “the term
‘Historic District’ had come to mean a treatment similar to Williamsburg, thus creating museum areas with a ‘Disneyland Syndrome’”. Such areas became targets for
9 Jokilehto, Jukka, History of Architectural Conservation (Oxford MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999) 266-267. 10 Jokilehto, Jukka, History of Architectural Conservation (Oxford MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, , 1999) 266.
19 commercial tourism promoting environments which were far from living districts.11 In
1972, William J. Murtagh, one of the world's leading historic preservationists, redefined historic districts as being “areas that impact human consciousness with a sense of time and place.” The 1930s and 1940s marked the beginning of the preservation of whole historic communities such as Charleston. After the Second World War a growing of historic districts were identified and protected including Philadelphia, Annapolis,
Savannah and Provence.
In 1961, Jane Jacobs published The Death and Life of Great American Cities.
This book proved to be one of the most influential books written in the twentieth century about our built environment. Jane Jacobs strongly criticized the modern urban planners and their urban renewal projects. She thought of the urban environment as a living ecology or a “habitat for living”. The environment we live in is not just an intellectual activity to be solved but directly connected with and intertwined with our human experience. The modernist practice of clearly defining and separating districts had directly affected that balance. She called for dense mixed-use neighborhoods that provided all of their inhabitants needs and preserved the uniqueness of the urban aesthetic that already existed. She also called for the conservation of old buildings that had no significant architectural or historical value.
Cities need old buildings so badly it is probably impossible for
vigorous streets and districts to grow without them. By old buildings I
mean not museum-piece old buildings, not old buildings in an excellent
11 Jokilehto, Jukka, History of Architectural Conservation (Oxford MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999) 267. 20
and expensive state of rehabilitation—although these make fine
ingredients—but also a good lot of plain, ordinary, low-value old buildings,
including some rundown old buildings. 12
--- Jacobs
She argued that they provided spaces that could be utilized by lower income groups such as artist that invigorated a community’s economy and social fabric.
Buildings such as abandoned industrial buildings were often utilized this way.
James Marston Fitch was another writer who identified the Modern Movement as often being responsible for the destruction of our heritage. In the mid 1960s he was involved in initiating The Historic Preservation Program at Columbia University, which was the first such program in the United States. Fitch suggested that “architectural distinction notwithstanding, structures should sometimes be preserved and appreciated simply as valuable representations of the cultures that erected them”. Fitch appreciated that cities inevitably grew and changed. He did not seek to preserve buildings merely by virtue of their age.13 In 1982 he published his book, Historic Preservation; Curatorial
Management of the Built World which for the first time clearly defined the field of historic preservation.
By the 1960s the effect of the urban renewal projects inspired by the
12 Jacobs, Jane, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random house Inc., 1961) 13 Sterling, Kristin, “Architecture School Honors Legacy of Preservationist James Marston Fitch” Columbia News the Public Affairs and Record Home Page Columbia University(Published: Oct 31, 2002 Last modified: Nov 25, 2002)
Functionalists laid out in the Athens Charter had become vivid and permanent. The post war American confidence in the virtues of the new had begun to falter. The national urban policy of slum clearance based on functional zoning had subsidized the demolition of buildings that did not meet the intended function for a given area. Too often the land cleared was not redeveloped leaving urban cores empty. When the urban renewal ventures did succeed it turned the cities into placeless, inactive districts. “The featureless towers and windy plazas were wrecking the Particularity of Place identified by old architecture… The shock and waste of demolition made it “hard to feel good about the prospect of life as a member of a simplified, universal, and timeless middle- class multitude.”14
The converse effect of all of this demolition in pursuit of a new utopia was a renewed appreciation and nostalgia for what had been lost. This reinvigorated the argument that old buildings should be saved. This led to defining of rehabilitation in urban law. Preservation was defined as “the process of returning a property to utility, through repair or alteration, which makes possible an efficient contemporary use while retaining the proportions and features of the property which are significant to its historic, architectural, and cultural value”15 With the addition of this definition the preservation practice was acknowledging the need for continued transformation to promote vitality.
The addition was also a subtle criticism of the conservative definitions in the past that desired only to return to a bygone era. This was the reacceptance of the passing effects of time and the authenticity and vitality it offered instead of attempting to stop it or
14 Byard, Paul Spencer, The Architecture of Addition: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 78. 15 Jokilehto, Jukka, History of Architectural Conservation (Oxford MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999) 268. 22 sanitize it.
During the 1960s the issue of conservation versus the drive for new development was further clarified in the wording of laws meant to protect any thing of “special character.” Every city was free to define priorities in relation to this venture. In some cases the regulations were very specific calling for a particular sort of architectural expression. The wording New York used to describe its standard for new work was
“appropriate” (New York City Charter and Administrative Code, Section 25-307a). By using this word the code omitted any implication of requiring sameness and enforced instead a connection between conditions presumed to vary. The freedom in this wording allowed architectural evolution while allowing the definition of “appropriate” to evolve decision by decision. 16
The preservation laws were enforced in order to ”…prevent nuisances, the harms wrought by private activities on recognized values that the public has acquired over time the right to protect.” It had to be proven that expression was the right of the pubic to protect. In order to do this the law makers wanted to stay on the regulatory side of the distinction between regulations and taking as described by the United States
Constitution.
16 Byard, Paul Spencer, The Architecture of Addition: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 80. 23
The manifestation of this varied in different cities. Some cities did not go very far and just enforced delays before alterations could continue. In New York the project was indefinitely delayed until they could meet the test of “appropriateness” as required by the code or prove economic hardship due to the requirement, which ---New York City Landmark Preservation was difficult.17 Commission Decision Nos. LPC 69005, 66006
Because preservation laws impose controls on private conduct, they have been strongly contested. One notable test came in the case of Grand Central Station. The building was slated for substantial alteration when the Preservation Commission found
Marcel Breuer’s proposal for new construction did not meet the standard of
“appropriateness”. The reasoning was described thusly…“to balance a 55-story office tower above a flamboyant Beaux-Arts facade seems nothing more than an aesthetic joke…The ‘addition’ would be four times as high as the existing structure and would reduce the landmark itself to the status of a curiosity. “18
The owner of the land won in a lower court when the Judge ruled that the Grand
Central Building was long-neglected and didn’t deserve protection; the intermediate
17 Byard, Paul Spencer, The Architecture of Addition: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 81. 18 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Addition: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 82. 24 appellate court reversed the ruling and upheld the Preservation Commission’s decision due to the value of the station as part of the city’s identity. The case went all the way to the Supreme Court. In 1978 the Supreme Court found that Penn station was of value and should be preserved.
During the 1970s and 1980s changing pubic policy that had previously supported preservation laws in relation to the collective public interest began to restore sovereignty to the individual property owner. “There was clearly a need for an accessible preservation principle both to help bring it about and to know when it had been achieved.”19 In 1983 The New York Landmarks Board rejected a modernist design by
Ulrick Franzen on a vacant site in New York’s south seaport. The language used on this rejection provided the framework used on subsequent applications. What emerged was a value based on the way the two expressions treated each other and, in the end, which one was honored in the combined expression. 20
The old and the new are the components of combined works. The success of the combination of the two is in the way the hierarchy is managed in the combined expression. A successful design is one that manages to maintain the accessibility of the original buildings’ expression in this new hierarchy. The old building can be a background for the combined expression, or it may be the controlling presence. In this way the place the original takes in the new hierarchy is a variable. Buildings that have
19 Byard, Paul Spencer, The Architecture of Addition: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 82. 20 Byard, Paul Spencer, The Architecture of Addition: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 84. 25 been designated for preservation have been judged on their potential value and importance. The public judgment in these cases would require the old to be put ahead of the new in the hierarchy of the current combination. The variable depends on the potential of the original to contribute to the combined expression. It is important that in deriving the design that the architect understand and respect the original in order to find this balance.21
This new thinking reintroduced the idea of change as a natural occurrence in a living environment. In order to provide for a teaming population, change must be accommodated. By realizing this, we situate ourselves in a continuum of progression instead of pinpointing significant moments in the past or demolishing the past in pursuit of autonomous newness. This new perspective was not destructively progressive but rather added value to the conservation of historically significant monumental sites with ordinary structures like industrial buildings. It became the modern vernacular. This modern vernacular can more easily return to the process of generational adaptation.
The controlled conception of conservation in the early debates remains appropriate in approaching preservation of monuments, works of art, antiques and anthropologically significant sites and artifacts.
21 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Addition: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W Norton & company, 1998) 84-85. 26
Timeline of Developing American Conservation Values ▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄
---The chronological development of American conservations values are shown below in white letters along the black band. Above the band are the European influences sited in the text.22 Below are shown the American events that contributed to the dialog and development of American conservation values.
22 This is not a comprehensive list of influences on the American conservation movement. The only ones shown hear are the ones mentioned in this text. 27
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CHAPTER TWO ▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄
Synergy of Addition
Each creative act involves exchange. Each new work of art is
supported and enriched by its’ sources and its’ cultural and physical
context…the new work in turn revises its’ sources and context… The
appreciation of a new work of art thus involves understanding its’
particular meaning as well as the tradition and form that give value to its
novelty… (In this way) in each creative act the old and the new are
23 inescapably beholden to each other. --- Byard
The first and primary value of buildings and the incentive for their construction is the functional support they provide our lives. This support comprises basic elemental functions, such as keeping the rain off, to complex and specific functional programs.
The second value exists in what the structure has to say about who we are, our capacities and our purposes. Without this second aspect, “the worth in meaning”, the building is not architecture. In this definition the art of architecture finds its meaning in the quality of its expression. The expression the building communicates not only tells what it is doing but also the story of the individuals that created it and their views of the world. A value that can be derived from this is that the quality of a work of architecture can be judged by the quality of its dialogue. Paul Spencer Byard asserts, in his book,
23 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 11-12. 29
The Architecture of Additions, that ”…the displays buildings make of ourselves to ourselves are among our most important public opportunities to learn.”24
If this statement is to be accepted as truth, the public value of architecture requires its protection. Byard points out that our public policy has accepted these truths to the extent that laws have been made to this very end.
These laws seek to protect particularly valuable understandings
about the human condition expressed by existing architecture to ensure
continued public access to them. They also take into account the
contribution good buildings make as rich and satisfying environments for
the discharge of the business of living…attributes of the fixed and durable
buildings… persist in particular places and give those places their identity;
local identity that that in turn help individuals and societies organize there
personal identities.25 --- Byard
In Byard’s description of the laws devised to protect architecture is a clear set of values. The first value is that the preservation of existing buildings of worth can have a positive effect on the public over time by maintaining our built history and understanding of the human condition. The question becomes, “what is of worth?” In the previous section the evolving understanding of worth in this country was chronicled leading from
24 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 11. 25 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 11-12. 30 the narrow definition of worth as associated with famous people and events to preservation of districts as a whole. Worth can also be found in more vernacular functional sites such as industrial or institutional buildings with the potential for adaptation.
The process of identifying values in an environment comes back to the idea of local identity and specific circumstance. This value is seated in the idea that the architectural expression of a local area can benefit the public in the formation of a local identity. This remaining fabric can befit the individual in its connection with this local identity. Without access to this display of the local expression of our predecessors we have nothing to latch onto and grow out of in our own expressive dialogues. In this way architecture exists in a state of communication about its inception as well as affecting our contemporary expressive process through continued dialogue in the creation of expressive identity.
…the meaning offered by any building to any interested observer
taking in the various impacts of its form and ornamentation and integrating
them into an understanding of the proposal the building as a whole makes
to the observer’s intelligence26
--- Byard
26Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 12. 31
People have the capacity to partake in fulfilling dialogs with their surroundings provided they take an active interest. The environment makes an impression on us whether we are aware of it or just passively interacting with it. In this case we absorb information subliminally memorizing it and our place in relation to it. A deeper potential exists when the observer truly engages their environment intellectually. This process requires time and contemplation. Byard describes this interaction as a process of reading the elements of the expression of the building and understanding the building and all of its elements, the order set by the hierarchy of the composition and the internal systems that control its outcome. The sophistication of the expressive work and that of its observer leads to unique conclusions being drawn at different times by different individuals.
This progression of expression did not start with the designer of that building for that design was immersed in the context of his own time and point-of-view as well as the knowledge of context and what came before him. Once a building or a work of art is created and displayed it then stands on its own. The meaning of this building, although it encapsulates an intended purpose, continually changes because the context in which it exists is in constant change. The progressions of willing participants examining dialogues with this remnant of expression bringing with them their own complex histories, life views, knowledge base and subjective aesthetics. As an environment becomes more complex the level of sophistication and the potential dialogs about it become more complex.
32
In remembering that the functional support that buildings provide us is their primary purpose, it is also true that with the passing of time more practical realities may make buildings obsolete functionally. This incentive can lead to the need to add onto or adapt an existing building.
…however they arise, they represent in the best instances the work
of successive intelligences taking advantage of and adding to existing
expressive materials and generating in the process valuable new
combined meanings. In each case their success is the function of the
value received, value added, and the value generated by the interaction of
the two27 --- Byard
Prior to the modern movement, the progression of stylistic change and the subsequent degree of expressive reach when creating additions was within a conceivable range. Modernism, with its quest for innovation and ideals based on new paradigms of perfection, vastly extended the expressive reach of architecture. The effect of this broadened and innovative approach to architecture created a new expressive distance, new works and the works of their predecessors. Modernism does have its critics who claim that modern architectural theory devalues the traditional. It promises a new utopian based on the machine that is largely to blame for the schism in our modern environment.28 Modern buildings in many cases were designed with the
27 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 14. 28Thomas L Schumacher, “Contextualism: Urban ideals and deformation(1971),” Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture, an Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-1995 ed. Kate Nesbitt (New York: Princeton Architecture Press, 1996) 294-308 33 ideal of internal generation unaffected by context and complete in themselves, as exemplified by Le Corbusier’s quote…
A building is like a soap bubble. This is perfect and harmonious if
the breath has been evenly distributed from the inside. The exterior is the
result of the interior.29
---Le Corbusier
Whether one is supportive of the modernist approach or critical of it, it is true that
Modernism’s broadening of the range of expression has forced clarification in the measures for success in these combined works. From these modern projects we can begin to glean principles that have no limitations on the kind of expression. Success is instead measured in the way it is done. Byard states that combined works are successful when”the new and the old must play a role in the hierarchy of the combined work that appropriately contributes to the new combined meaning”.30 Three basic principles can be derived. Firstly, the architect must understand the meaning of the existing building. Secondly, the architect must use the understood meaning of the original building to illuminate their work and their design to illuminate the original work.
Finally, the new and the old should service a common goal in their outcome.
29 Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard Jeanneret), Toward a New Architecture, (England: Dover Publications, 1923). 30 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 32.
34
In conclusion, buildings express function and meaning. The quality of a design can and should be judged by the quality of its dialogue. This value as a conveyer of culture is one argument for the protection of older structures. The existence of older structures assists in the formation and maintenance of local identities. The Local identity of the environment provides architects with a launching point for there expressive dialogs. Each creative act leaves its own mark and adds to the accumulative environment. Although, the modern idealists would have it so; nothing is created in a void. Even the most passive observer is affected by their context even more so when they consciously engage it. When architects are presented with the task of combining an existing structure with a new function a successful outcome is reliant directly on the level to which they engage and understand the existing. It is not the stylistic language that is the measure of success, but the quality of the dialogue.
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CHAPTER THREE ▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄
20th Century Stylistic Freedom
-- Post-Modernism- The Piazza d'Italia by Charles Moore, -- Modernism-A detail of Frank Lloyd Wright's home in Oak Park, 31 New Orleans 1976 - 1979 Illinois.
During the early part of the 20th century the spread of Modernist Architecture and its acceptance of abstraction freed the architect from the widely excepted conventions that previously controlled the language of expression. Prior to Modernism the practice of architecture was founded in mastery and application of a clearly defined expressive language derived from historical forms. The new language of abstraction was spare, unadorned, internally generated and expressive of the form and function of the building.
The architect was now freed to express personal interpretation of functional form.
With all of the freedom from convention that modernism offered in its’ simplicity and denial of ornament, it was such an idealistic, self fulfilling, purist approach. Some thought it created yet another stagnating set of conventions. This effect spurred on a post-modernism countermovement. One such post-modern critic was Colin Rowe who authored The Collage City published in 1975. Thomas L. Schumache,a student,
31Image from: DOE Lecture: Architects, Josef Plecnik and Sigurd Lewerent < http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/george/material.html> 36 published his own manifesto, Contextualism: Urban Ideals and Deformation, in 1971. In his manifesto Schumacher lays out prescriptively the ideas of Colin Rowe.32
Rowe and Schumacher denounced the modern design premise that a building can exist in the round, internally generated without preferential faces. The progressions of the renaissance led to typefication of ideal form. Ideal form, “the soap bubble” as perceived by Le Corbusier’s analogy, is the central idea of modern architecture.
Schumacher states that the modernists fail to realize that ideal forms can exist in fragments collaged into the empirical urban environment. Idealized form is logically impossible because pressures always influence the design. The subsequent deformation is not a bad thing, but rather the result of responding to the necessary restraint in order to maintain a healthy environment.
We were interested in urban texture; what the Italians call “tessuto
urbano” (more literally “Urban Fabric”). We were not interested in style…
The inadequacies of modern architecture are urban, not stylistic…It is
possible to make good cities using modern architecture. As the
Amsterdam school proved in the 1930’s33
---Schumacher
32Nesbitt, Kate, Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture: An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-1995, (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996) 53. 33 Nesbitt, Kate, Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture: An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-1995, (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996) 294. 37
Another post modernist critic of modernism was Robert Venturi who was famous for stating "Less is a bore." Venturi reintroduced history and its multiplicity of solutions to the mix and argued for what he called "the messy vitality" of the built environment.
We were calling for an architecture that promotes richness and
ambiguity over unity and clarity, contradiction and redundancy over
harmony and
simplicity. 34 ---
Venturi
The effect of Venturi’s writings was a reintroduction of ornament as a part of architectural expression unleashed from the conventions once associated with it. Unlike the conventional ornament of the past Venturi’s expressive language utilized popular symbolism introducing kitsch, humor and exaggerated or stylize cultural icons resulting in a proliferation of possibilities. With this new freeing set of possibilities architecture could now take on “substantial, even violent, expressive incongruities”35
In his acceptance speech for the 1991 Pritzker Prize, Venturi summarized his perspective thusly…
34 “1991 Robert Venturi of the United States presented at Palacio de Iturbide, Mexico City, Mexico.” Complete List of Pritzker Architecture Prize Laureates 1979 – 2005” last viewed September 17th 2006
35 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998)32 38
Frank Lloyd Wright said architects should design from the inside
out. But we now accept within our more complex view of things, as we
acknowledge context as an important determinant of design, that we
design from the inside out and the outside in, and … this act can create
valid tensions where the wall, the line of change between inside and out,
is acknowledged to become a spatial record — in the end, an essential
architectural event. 36 ---Venturi
In conclusion, modernism introduced abstraction and Post-Modernism reintroduced ornamentation with a touch of contemporary irony. Pop-culture, as a result of our Modern palette of expressive languages, is infinite. In the practice of addition or adoption of existing buildings this new set of possibility wildly expanded the way a designer could relate to existing building successfully. The new can extend the meaning of the old, deriving new meaning from the old or go as far as to transforming the meaning of the old. The next section is a series of case studies that all involve the combination of old buildings with new construction. These successful designs exemplify the wide range of expressive languages available.
36 “1991 Robert Venturi of the United States presented at Palacio de Iturbide, Mexico City, Mexico.” Complete List of Pritzker Architecture Prize Laureates 1979 – 2005” last viewed September 17th 2006
Maison de Verre Designed by Pierre Chareau and Bernard Bijvoet, Paris, France 1928.
-- Maison de Verre, Pierre Chareau’s addition at 31, Rue Saint-Guillaume, Paris, Farnce1928 Above left shows the original courtyard pre-addition. Above right shows the addition after construction as seen in 1928. Above center is an axonometric of the full building addition.
Above is the 1928 Pierre Chareau and Bernard Bijvoet design of the House of Glass (Maison de Verre) in the modernist functionally expressed style. This addition was in a typical Parisian courtyard. The programmatic implications had some unique complexities. The building itself was to serve two functions, a doctor’s office and a private residence. A further complication developed when a third floor resident of the existing structure refused to move, thus requiring the addition to accommodate by staying below her. The courtyard setting also presented some design problems. It was up to Chareau to find a way to allow enough light to penetrate the structure while allowing privacy to its inhabitants.
40
-- Maison de Verre, Pierre Chareau’s addition at 31, Rue Saint-Guillaume, Paris, Farnce1928. The façade of the building lit at night.
The way light enters the buildings and the need for varying degrees of visibility lead to the building’s main organizational pattern. The main wall surface was comprised of stacked, structural, translucent glass block that allowed light to be emitted at night and penetrate during the day. The glass blocks and their structural support system became the basic organizing unit that all other elements fit. On the service wing two long ribbon windows allowed visibility to the outside. At the entry, set back into the structure at a right angle, clear glass panels infill the structural system welcoming visibility.
-- Diagrams of Maison de Verre, Pierre Chareau’s addition at 31, Rue Saint-Guillaume, Paris, and Farnce1928. Left: shows the clearly delineated geometric fragment of the façade Right: shows how he design respectfully fit into the site restraints.
41
This example clearly shows how even a clearly Functional, Modernist design is molded by its context. While there was no attempt to reproduce the style or feel of the existing buildings the inherent quality of the courtyard was maintained. The addition was not integrated into the existing buildings but clearly applied to it so that the viewer could delineate the new from the old as it is enclosed by it.
42
Allen Memorial Art Museum Designed by Robert Venturi and John Rauch, located in Oberlin, Ohio 1977
--- above top shows the 1917 Cass Gilbert museum (left) and the 1977 Robert Venturi and John Rauch addition; including the gallery building (center) and the artist studio wings (right). Above bottom: shows the connection detail of the Robert Venturi and John Rauch addition; the original building (left) including the gallery building (center) and the artist studio wings (right)
The post-modern addition to the Gilbert Allen Memorial Art Museum was designed by Robert Venturi and his partner John Rauch in 1977. The original Museum was a Tuscan renaissance palazzo designed by Cass Gilbert exactly sixty years earlier.
The existing traditionally conventional museum on its pristine college green was inescapably part of the American condition. This reality was due to the fact that it shared its lot with a corner filling station. This contextual conflict and rich opportunity for comment was not lost on Venturi and Rauch.
The architects designed a series of asymmetrical plan boxes to address the complexities of the site. A small square box gallery attached to the original building and a larger box attached to house art studios and workrooms. The asymmetry was a way to avoid addressing the symmetry of the original building in order not to disrupt it while addressing the scattered landscape comprised of the filling station, a generic modern hotel, a random American streetscape and the grand Wallace Harrison Auditorium
43 across the green. There was no attempt to integrate the forms or to fool the viewer into thinking that this was the product of one conception. The new elements were blatantly new.
This design was not in any way disrespectful of or confrontational with the original building. Venturi said, “we tried to harmonize with his masterpiece in ways not too obvious.”37 In response to the existing building the architects chose to use pink granite and red sandstone cladding similar in appearance to the original building. The decorative facade played with composite elements that could be read like words and directly referenced and reinterpreted the original building's character. The thin billboard- like walls displaying these surface elements were formally in contrast to the solidity of the original structure.
In addition to responding to the context and the existing building, Venturi chose to address the polemic between art and architecture. The architects tried to please the occupants by not infringing on their creativity by an excess of architectural zeal. This idea of infringement of architecture was often a critique of designs for art display spaces. To make these bohemian occupants feel at home, loft buildings that housed studios for artists were formally simulated. This was achieved by using open plans and a ribbon window often seen in the functionalist style of industrial buildings that artists haunted. Although this is a sensitive embrace of the occupants, there seems to have been a slight tinge of sarcasm in the presumption of the artist in a natural habitat.
37 Von Moos Stanislaus, Venturi, Rauch & Scott Brown: Buildings and Projects. (New York: Rizzoli, 1987) 180. 44
Venturi also set up a clear hierarchy in his combination of these structures. This progression went from the old traditional that Byard called “fancy” style of Gilbert’s building, to the new gallery building that, with its thin surface, displayed a commentary about the original while formally reaffirming its connection to the plain factory-like workshop. This hierarchy was in itself derived from the greater hierarchy identified by
Venturi in the context including the filling station.
--- Diagram shows the formal and decorative hierarchy that creates new space while responding to and respecting the existing building ( creating and expressive bridge)
In the original evaluation of the context, the Gilbert building was already a complete element to be reacted to. In respect to this completeness Venturi had expressed a symbolic bridge between this original building and its local context, leaving the original completeness intact. In a grander sense, this Tuscan renaissance, Euro- traditional building had been given a connection symbolically to the American contemporary context. This concept of greater context became important when it is considered that the connection to the local context was likely to change over time. If this hierarchy was dependent on the local contexts for meaning it would not be sustained.
The most important and required element in the hierarchy remained the original museum building to which the subsequent addition responds.
45
The Hubertus House Designed by Aldo Van Eyck, in Amsterdam, Netherlands 1979
--Aldo Van Eyck’s addition (center) to the Hubertus House. The original building is on the right.
Aldo Van Eyck was a theoretically dynamic designer. Van Eyck began his theoretical development as a member of CIAM. This hugely influential modernist group that sought to divert architecture from academic preoccupations stressed rigid functional zoning and a single type of urban housing. The theories of this movement were widely adapted around the world and, particularly in the United States, they were often poorly implemented. Many of the original members theoretically shifted away from many of the key concepts.38
Aldo Van Eyck was one of these dynamic thinkers who eventually lectured around Europe and in the United States about the need to reject functionalism. In 1954, he co-founded Team Ten. This had a major impact on the development of post-war architecture and urbanism. They questioned the large-scale, technocratic and abstract nature of modernist architecture and argued for the introduction of the human scale, the
38The Columbia Encyclopedia Online, Sixth Edition Columbia University, September 2006,
In 1979, Aldo Van Eyck was assigned the task of expanding the masonry townhouse that held the Hubertus House, a home for single mothers in
Amsterdam. He approached this design from his humanist principles. To connect the old and the new, Van Eyck used a stair tower as a device which served the practical function of resolving the variance in floor heights between the old and the new sections. The new elevation that also faced the street was proportioned like a townhouse. Unlike the solid surface of the existing townhouse, Van Eyck’s façade was a delicate metal frame supporting large areas of glass. The decorative elements of the original building were mimicked with tracery over the glass. While the composition of the old building was vertical, the new structure emphasized horizontal. The organizational device in the original building was in three even rows of four large windows. The new section also played with numbered proportions dividing its façade into three side by side sections with one, two, and then three windows, progressively. Horizontally, there were two, three, and then four windows.
The original townhouse was knocked slightly off-center compositionally by the placement of its entry. The addition echoes this asymmetry in its off center entry recess that divides the facade into two major unequal sections. “Behind the
39 “In search of a Utopia of the present” Disturb: TEAM TEN 1953-81 (Rotterdam: NAi publishers, 2005) 370
--image of the Hubertus House plan the addition is shown --image of the Hubertus House elevation patterning the in gray and the original townhouse in black. new addition (left) the old townhouse (right)
“In his derivation of elements of connection, contrast and hierarchy in the expression of his addition, Van Eyck manages the relationship of the old and then new within the institution and at the same time brings out the institution as a whole within the context of the street.”41The importance of the building’s bright unabashed colors went much deeper than their pleasant decorative value. The bold unabashed colors resonated with the understanding that the single mothers and poor women that reside in this building were no longer a culturally shameful reality in our modern world. The colors also resonated with the children that grew and matured and formed memories within the
40 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998)54. 41 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998)54. 48 walls of this safe place. By maintaining the original townhouse as the head of the composition with color Van Eyck honored the institution for its history and its impact on the community.
49
The Lyon Opera house Designed by Jean Nouvel, in Lyon, France 1993
---Left: 1830 Lyon Opera house designed by A.M. Chenavard and J.M. Pullet’s. Right: The Lyon Opera house after Jean Nouvel’s addition
Jean Nouvel had a stylistic language separate from that of modernism and post- modernism. Modernist architects regarded post-modern buildings as vulgar and loaded with decorative trinkets. Post-modern architects often regarded modern spaces as soulless and bland. The divergence in opinions came down to a difference in goals.
Modernism was rooted in minimal and true use of material as well as absence of ornament, while post-modernism was a rejection of strict rules and sought exuberance in the use of building techniques, angles and stylistic references. Nouvel also rejected the strict obedience of modernists such as Le Corbusier. He tried to initiate each project
50 with his mind cleared of any preconceived ideas. Although he may have borrowed from traditional forms, he created a building that stretched beyond traditional constraints. 42
Jean Nouvel in 1993 was given the task of adapting the 1830 Lyon Opera House designed by A.M. Chenavard and J.M. Pullets, who had in turn chosen to build their structure on the site of the 1780 J.G. Soufflot’s Theater. This site was very prominently situated near the rivers edge and directly across from Hardouin Mansart’s Hôtel de Ville.
Soufflot’s Theater situated itself on the Place Bellecoure (the largest clear square in
Lyon) as an autonomous solid like a cathedral or palace.43 By the time that Jean Novel took on its’ renovation the scale of the city had changes and the building had declined in importance.
Novel chose to preserve the prominent neo-classical arcade and infill it with an entirely new block of building. This new block began well under the old walls, under the ground and rose up through and above the walls in a huge glass and metal half cylinder. This new vault was at least as high again as the original building, doubling its overall height. This increase in height returned the structure to the appropriate prominence in the cityscape. This treatment of infilling greatly increased the interior volume while maintaining the footprint and recognizable street facades. The new dome’s surface was treated with low relief that did not compete with the classical arcades below. The strong geometric form of the new half cylinder resolved and closed
42 “Jean Nouvel 1994-2006” Great buildings on line (Kevin Matthews and Artifice, Inc. 2006)
43 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998)70. 51 in relation to the generating rectangle of the original walls. The new addition accentuated the strength of the original as the obvious progenitor of the new form. At the same time the original structure was merely a neo-classical skin that could not fully encompass the high tech contemporary infill. 44
--Lyon Opera House designed by Jean Nouvel, seen at night
It was clear, in looking at the exterior of the building, that there was something going on inside that was not expected or ordinary. At night, the opera house announced the activity within by lighting its’ dome with red. This red lighting was often used in opera. The lighting itself paid homage to the decadent, drama of Opera, summoning the curiosity of the city to its doors.
44 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998)72. 52
---In response to the original architecture, the building was derived from simple geometric forms. The original neo-classical arcade became a skin for the new modern infill.
Further Expressive Innovations of the Late 20th Century
If the greatest addition to the expressive language of modernism was that of abstraction, the counter reactive movements favored the return of expressive conventions. Fragments of these old expressions could be brought back in pieces as seen in the post modernist buildings as parts of a new language or they could be reproduced nostalgically. The extreme orthodox side of this reintroduction denied completely any value in the modernist contributions to expression including its adherence to functional clarity and truth. 45
45 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998)161. 53
Representational Architecture of Imitation
-- Downtown Celebration, Florida46
The effect of this representational architecture on combined works was potentially harmful in its ability to mask reality. Often the questions became: what is truly the old architecture and what is the imitation? The superficial compatibility with old buildings and the marketability of nostalgia made this representational architecture extremely popular. One such pervasive imitation was the mass production of Tudor revival buildings with their half-timbering which mimiced medieval heavy timber framing.
They were merely veneers over stucco on a brick structure. Another example of the suburban proliferation of reproduction was Levittown’s colonial designs. Disney’s contributed the aesthetic nostalgia with the constructing of Celebration and Seaside communities and the retro-urban planning of the New Urbanist.
The success of imitation architecture says many things about the
society that welcomes it—notably, the society’s discomfort with reality and
the length to which it will go to escape it…To the extent the imitation
46Image from: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia “Celebration, Florida” (September 2006) < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebration,_Florida> 54
succeeds in obscuring the difference, it dishonors the past that it profits
from.47 ---Byard
Sculptural Representation
While some representational architects were reproducing nostalgic forms of the past some more forward looking architects began representing other inspirations. These artists embraced the new found freedom in the architectural expression and expanded the metaphorical meaning of their buildings sculpturally. One example was Eros
Saarinen’s TWA Terminal at the Kennedy Airport in New York where he artfully represented a bird in flight. Architecture taking the form of things was in part inspired by the vernacular buildings in the form of milk bottles and animals.
-- Eero Saarinen’s TWA Terminal building as a bird in flight48 --The Milk Bottle Diner in Spokane WA49
47 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998)162. 48 Image from: AIArchitect “Ezra Stoller, Architect-Photographer, 1915–2004” (2004)
Where shaped architecture meets old buildings in combined works,
it raises the opposite issue from the architecture of imitation, not a
problem of sameness but the need to exploit or reconcile differences that
are obviously vast.50
-
Byard
50 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998)164. 56
Deconstructivism Fred and Ginger Designed by Frank Gehry, Prague, Czech Republic, 1994-1996
--Frank Gehry’s design for the Dancing house in Prague (Fred and Ginger)
Frank Gehry is generally considered a Deconstructivist architect .
Deconstuctivsm is a school of modern architecture that began around the 1980s.
Deconstructivism does not follow the rules of modernism including: form follows function, purity of form, material truth and expresion of structure. Much of this movment was inspired by the writings of Jacque Derrida and his ideas on the subject of deconstruction. Which involved “discovering, recognizing and understanding the underlying — and unspoken and implicit — assumptions, ideas, and frameworks that form the basis for thought and belief“.51 Deconstuctivist architects have also found inspiration in the geometric imbalance of the Russian Constructivist Movement as well as the Cubist Movement in art and sculture. Its stylistc langage is characterised by fragmentation, the use of non-linear form, non-euclidean geometries, manipulation of structure as skin, and the distorting and dislocation of architectural elements (such as
51 “Jacque Derrida.” The Columbia Encyclopedia Online, Sixth Edition Columbia University, September 2006,
In 1997 Frank Gehry and Croatian architect, Vladimir Milunic, designed the
Dancing House (Tančící dům) due to the fact that it has been nicknamed Fred and
Ginger after Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. The city fabric that these two dancers joined was populated with Baroque, Gothic and Art Nouveau static buildings. This project was conceived as an extension of the city of Prague’s old baroque leavings including an abundance of sensuous statuary. The original sketch for the site drawn by
Milunic was a heroic colossal nude. Gehry abstracted giant human forms into two distorted cylinders that seemed to dance with each other. “Ginger”, the female form, had a thin1950s style waist and was clad in transparent glass. “A combination of finery and nakedness” as Gehry said. She leaned into the male figure in an apparent spin. 52
“Fred” was more solidly anchoring the pair. Byard appreciated “the plastic evocation of motion and dance and the human body” and how that was a “…wonderful twentieth- century extension of the local baroque”. He criticized its literalness. He also criticized the ”shoddy-seeming skin, the hokey windows, and the wavy pencil lines of decoration pulled from the local streetscape, flattening itself into what seems perilously a billboard about itself“. He categorized this building as being “somewhere between a joke and a
52 Paul Spencer Byard , The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998)166. 58 commentary”. 53 It could be criticized that this building had nothing to do with the function of the building, the people who are to occupy it.
--Dancing House context (crashing the party)
There is a definite component of humor in this building. The aesthetic is almost cartoon-like. Whether or not that whimsical, irreverence offended is, to a large degree, subjective. Without the personified literal reading of the building’s figural elements, the strongest implication was that it deformed the surrounding formality as though it were defying it. There was a lot of dynamic, visual strength in that. It was possible that in its context it inappropriately swallowed up all of the attention like a child. This contrast was in large part due to the homogeneity of its context. It is as though these dancers have come to dance in a place where not only was no one else dancing but it was not really appropriate to do so. This building was ultimately assessed. It did introduce yet another expressive possibility to our ever widening contemporary language. Its rebelliousness may have more to say about contemporary culture.
53 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998)167. 59
Abstract Expressionism FALKESTRASSE 6 Designed by Coop Himmelblau in Vienna, Austria1983-89
--The sketch “Angle of Built Death” by Coop --Image of Coop Himmelblau penthouse addition Himmelblau at Falkestrasse 6 , Vienna, Austria 1983-1989 The inspiration for the design of Falkestrasse 6.
A rebellious form that Byard found to be a success can be seen in the Abstract
Expressionist design at Falkestrasse 6, Vienna, Austria. Abstract contemporary architecture further extended the possible language of architectural expression by introducing the elements of chance or unpredictability with regard to the design process.
Unlike Venturi’s analytical process of contextual consideration, the partnership of Coop
Himmelblau based their design process on a series of intense discussions which eventually led to a sketch. This invigorated artistic expression, in turn, led to a fully formed model. The team rarely altered the design from the initial sketch phase. Instead, they transfered it virtually line for line into a working drawing. The direct translation of the concept sketch to the final realization of the building could be seen by comparing the idea sketch (above left) inspired by a poem to the photo of the completed addition at
Falkestrasse 6 (above right).
60
Byard described the addition to this Baroque style office building in Vienna as “a rooftop assembly of sticks and glass that spills over the parapet…to threaten the street below”.54 This dynamic and theatric description spoke volumes about this futuristic sculptural addition to a somewhat ordinary Vienna building. Byard went on to draw parallels to the baroque ceiling paintings in palaces and churches that “open up to the imagined riots of divine activity in the heavens above.”55 In this parallel with the aesthetic of baroque architecture Byard emphasized that this heavenly riotous excess of imagery sometimes came down into the house itself to move the inhabitants or even disturb them while trumpeting their self importance by association with this sublime excess. By this association, Byard considered this expression of abstract contemporary true Modern Baroque.
Coop Himmelblaus manifestation at Falkestrasse 6 was itself a sublime creature
“brought down upon the roof like a disaster …this angle of built death” (Byard pg 49) appropriately found itself on the rooftop of a lawyer’s office. Without misfortune there would be no law. In this way the architects had incorporated the new inhabitants into the symbolic meanings of the structure. Coop Himmelblau made cultural stylistic parallels by creating equivalent emotional content without utilizing any of the language provided by the existing building. They had managed to resolve the connection between the stylistic leavings of the baroque fashion with the contemporary realities that include
54 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 48. 55 Paul Spencer Byard, The Architecture of Additions: Design and Regulation (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998) 49. 61 structures constructed of glass and sticks freed from historic convention and conceived in chance. In this way the architects had managed to elevate the contextual dialogue.
Why was this building a success? Other than subjective judgments of beauty, it could be said that this building met the requirement of a quality dialogue. By addressing and responding to the sublime nature of the baroque environment as well as referencing the inhabitant’s functional place in our contemporary culture, the addition had further invigorated the idea of place and local identity. The local identity of Vienna as a baroque city in a contemporary world was more clearly expressed with the addition of this stylistic combination. It was clear that the architects deeply understood the meaning of the existing buildings. They used that understanding to illuminate the spirit of their design. Their design in turn illuminated and resonated with the original building and in the end the new addition. The original building came together with the new to serve a common expressive purpose while still providing the functional support required by the tenants. --The Baroque interior of the Augustinian Monastery Church in Mainz.56
56 Image found On line Graymonk.com
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Adaptive Reuse of Industrial Buildings
This section narrows the focus from combination of Old and New construction to look specifically at adaptive reuse of existing buildings. Over time older buildings can outlive the purpose for which they were constructed. When this happens the building often falls into disuse unless they can be adapted to serve a new function. Adaptive reuse is the process of converting a building or part of a building to a use significantly different from that for which it was originally designed. Simply put Adaptive reuse is the reuse of old buildings for new purposes. The recycling of buildings has long been an important and effective historic preservation tool. This method of preservation is rehabilitation in contrast to pure conservation. The Urban Land Institute defines rehabilitation as “a variety of repairs or alterations to an existing building that allow it to serve contemporary uses while preserving features of the past.”57
Adaptive use or adaptive reuse (as it is commonly referred to in this country) is a method of intervention in a wider spectrum of approaches to preservation. Levels of intervention can range from pure preservation with only the intervention necessary to protect the original buildings from any further degradation to complete reconstruction or re-creation of a building. Adaptive reuse is in the middle of this range of approaches.
While it conserves some of the older building is does not attempt to preserve its function.
57 Lloyd W Bookout Jr., Residential Development Handbook Second Edition. (Washington, D.C.: Urban Land Institute, 1990.) 63
Adaptive reuse initially became popular during the 1960s and 1970s. During this time there was a growing concern for the environment. This was in part due to high fuel and heating costs. The prohibitive costs and associated difficulties in securing building permits resulted in adaptive reuse becoming a viable alternative to new construction. At this time, the preservation movement also was gaining national attention with grassroots efforts to save SoHo and Penn Station in New York City, in the early 1960s. Also plaguing cities across the nation was the large swathes of abandoned industrial buildings often located in the metropolitan areas.
Adaptive Reuse of Industrial Buildings
…to gain insight from the commonplace is nothing new: Fine art
often follows folk art. Romantic architects of the eighteenth century
discovered an existing and conventional industrial vocabulary without
much adaptation. Le Corbusier loved grain elevators and steam-ships; the
Bauhaus looked like a factory; Mies refined the details of American steel
factories for concrete buildings. Modern architects work through analogy,
symbol, and image—although they have gone to lengths to disclaim
almost all determinants of their forms except the structural necessity and
the program—and they derive insights, analogies, and stimulation from
unexpected images. 58 ---- Venturi.
58 Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, and Steven Izenour. Learning from Las Vegas Revised edition. (Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1977) pxvii.
64
Industrial practices have changed so dramatically in the last century that different regions have been prominent at different times and presently few regions dominate anymore as industry has shifted globally. In the last half of the twentieth century, factories in the United States started to close in large numbers as corporations moved their manufacturing to developing countries with cheaper labor. The decline of heavy industry during the early and mid-twentieth century has left a legacy of abandoned, idle, and underutilized dormant sites across the American landscape.
Adaptive reuse of abandoned industrial buildings can be an effective tool in rehabilitating vacant or underutilized historic industrial buildings. The large open and unadorned spaces of industrial buildings make them well suited for adaptation, unlike monuments and architecture associated with people and events, which would demand fewer changes in order to maintain historical significance. This is not to say that industrial buildings were not of historical and architectural merit. Some of the buildings of the industrial era were actually constructed by architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Albert Kahn. Industrial buildings have a value merely for being relics from the industrial age, as an American vernacular. Preserving these industrial icons is an important part of maintaining the character of a community.
Industrial buildings encompass their own structural history from timber framing to red brick with load bearing walls, to steel frame construction at the end of the nineteenth century. During the twentieth century, the skeleton became prominent on the exterior, reinforced concrete was the material of choice, and the windows became much larger.
65
Some factories, including the Metal Blast building in Over-the-Rhine Cincinnati, encompass their own timeline of many different construction phases and numerous functional uses.
These sites have been historically ignored, unlike country homes, palaces, and castles, which early preservationists valued for their associations with famous people.
Industrial buildings are often overlooked due to their blighted surroundings and polluted landscape. The public perception is often that these areas are eyesores, which in many cases they are. Initiating the preservation of these sites becomes an act of envisioning potential for transformation. When factory architecture is saved, it is the result of its potential to be transformed. Its original purpose is no longer needed but its form lends itself to change. Successful adaptive reuse of these sites can bring redevelopment, heritage tourism, and new life into a community.
The Social Costs of Vacant Properties
Abandoned properties attract vandals, homeless, arsonists, and drug dealers, and as a result drive down property values, taxes, and services, and discourage investment in a community. Vacant and abandoned properties impose numerous social costs upon the local jurisdictions in which they are located. In addition to reducing property values and property tax revenue and attracting crime, they “strain the resources of local police, fire, building, and health departments.”59
59 Schilling, Joseph, Vacant Properties: the true cost to community’s: Revitalization Strategies (Washington: The National Vacant Properties Campaign, 2005)
Since vacant properties provide little to no tax revenue they cause a detrimental drain on municipal services. The problems created by abandoned lots and structures cannot be contained within property boundaries or city limits or stopped at county lines; they spill over to affect surrounding communities. As abandonment increases in a neighborhood, property values decline and owners become less willing, and perhaps less able, to maintain their real estate. In turn, more and more properties fall into disrepair and eventual abandonment. It is this self perpetuating dynamic that makes the word blight, with its association of disease, an apt metaphor for neighborhood distress.
In the worst cases, the downward spiral of deterioration and abandonment continues until entire blocks and neighborhoods are rendered virtually uninhabited.60 61
For the most part, when a property is occupied it will be adequately maintained in order to accommodate its use as a business or dwelling. Yet for some reason, many owners have no interest in the upkeep of their properties. Some are speculative developers sitting on their properties waiting for the real estate market in that area to pick up, while others are industrial companies forced to close their plant or warehouse as the economy has changed. Neighborhood decay and blight happens at a rapid rate in those communities plagued with abandoned buildings and vacant properties. A few abandoned buildings can quickly spread blight throughout a transitional neighborhood.
60 Bonham, J. Blaine Jr, “Urban Vacant Land: Issues and Recommendations,” (Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, 1995) 18. Last Viewed September 17,2006
Local residents start to feel unsafe and property developers and business owners become reluctant to invest in these neighborhoods. Many residents eventually leave while those who remain become accustomed to blight as the neighborhood norm.62
Additive Reuse and Development Strategies
One building adapted in isolation is likely to have little effect on an entire neighborhood. For this reason a growing number of cities have been making the adaptive reuse of vacant buildings an integral part of their infill development and affordable housing strategies under “Smart Growth.” The Smart Growth
Strategy/Regional Livability Footprint Project describes “Smart growth” by first clarifying that the meaning differs depending on the needs of the locality in question. Generally the first task in formulating Smart Growth initiatives is to define the term related to its local purpose. “The common thread among different views of smart growth is development that revitalizes central cities and older suburbs, supports and enhances public transit, promotes walking and bicycling, and preserves open spaces and agricultural lands. Focusing new housing and commercial development within already developed areas requires less public investment in new roads, utilities and amenities.
Investment in the urban core can reduce crime, promote affordable housing and create vibrant central cities and small towns.”63
62 Schilling, Joseph, “The Revitalization of Vacant Properties: Where Broken Windows Meet Smart Growth,” Last viewed as PDF September 18th 2006 (Pennsylvania: IMCA, 2002)
The opportunity to reuse obsolete factories in the urban core supports sustainability and “Smart growth” initiatives. As an alternative to our ever-increasing throw-away society, adaptive reuse offers a sustainable building site with existing infrastructure and materials. Historic buildings help define the character of our communities by providing a tangible link with the past. Historic districts around the country are experiencing unprecedented revitalization as cities use cultural anchors for redevelopment.
However, it is not easy in all cases to preserve historic buildings. Revitalization efforts run up against financial obstacles, restrictive zoning and codes, contamination, and structural problems. Fortunately, there are several planning tools and financial incentives available to make the adaptive reuse of industrial buildings more economically feasible. Industrial buildings will always have added costs associated with their reuse; but, if anticipated early on, they can be successfully dealt with through some careful planning and creativity.64
Many developers who do adaptive-reuse projects claim residential developments are a matter of necessity. The theory is that the overhead of updating these buildings is costly to the point of being prohibitive. Taking into account the specifics of the new fire code, the common need for environmental remediation, and repairing the decay left by the physical neglect over time, the quickest, easiest, and most profitable way to deal with the cost is to develop vacant industrial buildings into residential units that can be
64 Sophie Francesca Cantell, The Adaptive Reuse of Historic Industrial Buildings: Regulation Barriers, Best Practices and Case Studies, (Virginia: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2005) 69 sold.65 There are countless reuse options available for industrial buildings. Some of the more popular conversions are to museums, art studios, live-work units, offices, residential units, schools, retail, and mixed use complexes.
The next section is a series of case studies showing successful adaptive reuse of industrial sites with a variety of approaches.
65 Robin Amer, “The New Fight for Providence’s Mills.” (Providence Phoenix: 2004). 5-11 70
Adapted industrial The Tate Modern Museum Designed by Herzog and de Meuron, London, England 2000
---The adapted Tate Modern Museum in London, 2000
The Tate Modern Museum, London’s Gallery of Contemporary Art, was once a power station. This building is now one of the most famous examples of revitalization of an area by means of adaptive reuse. The museum is located in Bankside, Southwark,
England. Although the area had a rich history, the situation declined in the early twentieth century due to heavy bombing in the Second World War and urban de- industrialization, which brought economic decline. In the late 1980s, when the
Southwark council began revitalization efforts, the area had become poverty stricken, tightly packed with alleyways, factories and slums. The redevelopment of the Bankside
Power Station was key to the regeneration of the area. This was mainly due to the sheer scale of the deserted site and the visual impact of the 500-foot turbine hall on the riverfront. Many recommended the demolition of the powerhouse, but the architects
71
Herzog and de Meuron proposed that the turbine hall could become a dramatic entrance for the museum and that the industrial flavor of the building would reflect the history of the area. Tate Modern opened to the public in May of 2000 to great acclaim. 66
67
---Section through the Tate Modern Museum
Critics of the Tate Modern claim that the design of the new museum is counterproductive. Instead of celebrating art, it overshadows the collections it contains.
This is part of an existing debate about “appropriate form.” Form is an ever-present issue in adaptive reuse because it is defined by the original purpose. The challenge for a designer exists in the deconstruction of the preconceptions about form by creating interplay between existing constraints and new uses. The architects put it this way…
…The Tate Modern is a hybrid of tradition, Art Deco and super
modernism: it is a building of the 21st century… when you don't start from
scratch, you need specific architectural strategies that are not primarily
66 A. Craven, Jackie. About Architecture.com “Tate Modern: A major new gallery of modern and contemporary art.” 2004
motivated by taste or stylistic preferences. Such preferences tend to
exclude rather than include something.
---Herzog and de Meuron
“The integrity of original the building was have respected by keeping the existing structure and adding bridges, balconies, new floors and wall systems and a two-storey glass structure and light beam spanning the length of the roof. The architect’s strategy was to accept the physical power of Bankside’s massive mountain-like brick building and to even enhance it rather than breaking it or trying to diminish it. New volumes and surfaces have been created to fit in with the new function of the building avoiding major demolition of the building structure. A dialogue has been created between old and new architecture and materials enhancing the image of the building.”68
---Three images of the Tate addition: Left shows some of the modern detailing in the interior of the building. Center the new construction rising above the existing Art Deco Turbine hall. Right: the entrance into the building angles down into the ground.
68Low Waist Building Technologies and Practices: Case Studies, ”Tate Modern, rehabilitation of the Former Bankside Power Station in London, UK.” The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, 2001
73
Adapted industrial Torpedohallen Torpedo Hall Apartments Designed by Tegnestuen Vandkunsten, Copenhagen, Denmark
--Torpedohallen (torpedo apartments) Copenhagen Denmark
Copenhagen has been actively conserving its historical fabric including its’ vernacular industrial buildings. These stark structures once dominated the main waterways throughout the city. Instead of completely demolishing these structures to make way for new development and beautify the waterfront, the buildings were adapted into modern functions with distinctly contemporary aesthetics. This maintained the continuity of the history associated with this area while invigorating and transforming it into a vibrant and successful neighborhood.
The abandoned Royal Naval Dockyards (seventeenth century red brick warehouses, barracks and foundries) located along one of Copenhagen’s many canals were converted to house the Royal Academy schools specializing in drama, film, design, architecture, and music. The complex also contains theaters, galleries, restaurants, offices and shops. One of the buildings in the Royal Danish Navy complex was the old abandoned Torpedo warehouse which had been part of the far bank skyline
74 since 1952. It was decided due to the housing shortage that this building be renovated into condos.
Tegnestuen Vandkunsten, a prominent Danish architect, was hired to do the design for the old torpedo warehouse. The architect,
Vandkunste, chose to strip the existing building down to its most basic structural elements and then ---This shows a section through the entire bay (Not to in-fill the space with new program. Scale)
The old roof was removed leaving the original trusses exposed to admit daylight into the interior ---Second level floor plan of the units(Not to Scale) street. All apartments were accessed from the interior street from where a large wooden ---Full longitudinal building section(Not to Scale) staircase leads to the lower floors along the canal and connects to the former boat basin where the staircase disappears into the water. A footbridge running across and along the street connected the building to pedestrian walking traffic along the canal. The new independent concrete structure had the same five meter grid as the columns in the old hall, but, to emphasize the two independent structures, the architects shifted the grid 40 centimeters and pulled back
75 the new facades in relation to the old columns. In this way he acknowledged the original scale while exaggerating the structural mechanism that had supported it.69
---Both of the above images are of the same sectional model of one bay of the building.70
The above images of a model showing one bay of the building in section clearly show how this simple industrial bay was divided into usable space. The two lower levels are turned into parking floors. Above the parking floors the bays are divided into three sectional parts with vertical housing blocks on the outer edges and a semi-pubic promenade open to the sky running down the middle. This promenade is punctuated by the bare trusses above. The area of the outer unit walls is left open on the upper floors to allow light to enter while partial openings under tilted walls on the parking levels provided light and security as well as circulation. This model does not show the
69 Arcspace.com “Tegnestuen Vandkunsten: Torpedo Hall Apartments” Last viewed 2006
--Torpedohallen (Torpedo Apartments) light. The entry itself is off the main promenade promenade in an entry nook. Another element not shown in the model is the chimney towers that rhythmically repeat along the interior of promenade adjacent to the entrees. This play of
private space and light infiltration is --Torpedohallen (Torpedo Apartments) view looking out from the promenade to the water further echoed in the arrangement of interior walls. Notice how the walls are grouped to the one side of the unit in progression while the circulation area is left more open. The argument seen in this unit model is then repeated in progression down the length of the building as seen below in the floor plan and full building section. Each apartment unit consists of two of these bays conjoined.
77
The longitudinal section also shows the only fluid element in the design and that is the promenade that terraces downward in cascading staircases toward the water. Many of the units can be accessed from this promenade and those than can not are reached by upper level suspended exterior corridors bridges and stairways that are clearly seen in the model. On the lower levels the garage entry can be seen on the right.
---The section can be clearly seen in the façade image above. This image also shows the promenade coming down to the water and connecting to the interior circulation
78
Adapted industrial Sibelius Hall Designed by Palo Rassi, Hannu Tikka and Kimmo Lintula , Lahti, Finland
---View of Sibelius Hall as Seen from Lake Vesijärvi71
Sibelius Hall sits prominently on Lake Vesijärvi in Downtown Lati, Finland. The
Convention complex, made up of a group of industrial buildings, was combined with a new wing. The complex consists of three elements. The first is the renovated ex- carpentry factory, which has been adapted to serve a mixed program that includes living space, a restaurant, offices, rehearsal rooms, group meeting rooms and exhibition space. The second is the new Concert Hall which is highly acclaimed for its acoustics and the Congress Wing which consists of group-meeting rooms, rehearsal premises.
The third is the Forest Hall which serves as a connection between the old factory buildings and the new wing and auditorium. The Forest Hall is
---View from the interior of Sibelius Hall looking toward the new addition
71 Unstructured 3 “The Idea of the Northern Biomorphic 1: by Oliver Lowenstein.”< http://vs2.i-dat.org/unstructured03/02.html> 79 aptly named due to its towering treelike pilasters. This large forest space serves as a new outdoor space in relation to the old structures which become an indoor streetscape.
This allusion is further emphasized by the transparency of the glass façade. The canopy of the roof acts as canopies of trees while the vista beyond can be clearly seen through its trunks.
--Section showing connection between Forest hall and the carpentry factory72
Great care was taken in the way this new element contacted the old structure. Where the Forest hall and the Old factories meet, it was necessary for the architect to cut into the existing façade to allow circulation between the two spaces (this can be seen above). The ground floor level of the old factory has been striped down to mere structure. The cylindrical ---View from the interior of Sibelius Hall looking toward the old factory buildings.73 ticketing and information counter has b
72 Meinl Weston Melton “Tuba & Euphonium conference” < http://www.melton.de/blech/index.html> 73 By: Pekka Saarinen “Sibelius Hall Lobby”
---Image of The Forest Hall from the balcony looking out onto Lake Vesijärvi 74
been slid halfway into this void requiring people to walk around it on their way into the space. The façade of the first story above has also been removed but is replaced by a simple glass curtain wall. Above the building is untouched with the original window openings remaining. The façade wall of the old factory continues on beyond the great halls transparent curtain wall which quietly abuts it.
---Image of Sibelius Hall from the street75
74 Lahti - It’s All About Culture “Sibelius Hall Congress and Concert Centre”
CHAPTER FIVE ▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄ Design Phase
The next phase of this thesis will be to design an adaptive reuse of an existing unused industrial building. The building is known locally as the Metal Blast building due to the large white letters painted prominently on its façade. The Metal Blast Company was just an occupant among many in the history of this building that was originally constructed for the Jackson Brewing Company in the 1840’s. The building is located on a hill overlooking the brewery district which is the northern most section of Cincinnati’s
Over-the-Rhine neighborhood. This building is a perfect site for the exploration into the revitalization and conservation of an American abandoned industrial urban core. The approach to the design of this building will be based on the successful interventions laid out in this document and the principles developed when evaluating their success.
Before beginning the design an in-depth exploration into the building’s context will be done. This will include an exploration into the neighborhood, its history and the implications in relation to the greater American context. The question of how this building exemplifies the story of American industry and the American tendency towards disposability. At this time a model of the larger site context will be constructed. This model will be helpful for examining the geographical location which is half way between the park above and the city below. This situation gives this building great impact in its visibility to the rest of the neighborhood as well as providing it with spectacular views of the city below. The morphological history of the building and the various uses it has served in the past will also be explored in order to glean some understanding of its
82 complex internal massing. This will also be done through the construction of a model at a larger scale that can be disassembled and reassembled to show the various progressions in form of this building. This model will also be useful in examining the period of the buildings constructions and its architectural styling, construction types (for there are many) and the architectural styles of the surrounding buildings. The intention will be to gain a deep understanding of the building and its meaning.
The new understanding of the building and its meaning will be the springboard for the new design. The intention of the new design will be to resolve the hierarchy between this crumbling structure and the new modern, high tech infill. There will be no stylistic requirement as to how this is expressed. The original building may be largely gored as seen in the Lyon opera house, dependent on the usability of the complex interior spaces and the desired expression and function of the new addition. There may be an opportunity to extend the new structure beyond the old and play a game with the meaning of indoor and outdoor space as seen in the Loti Convention Center. The expression may take on metaphoric meaning or representational form like Falkestrasse
6 or Fred and Ginger. Although figural representations such as Fred and Ginger may be a little overwhelming in this context. The intention will be to respond primarily to the existing building in a way that will serve the greater good of the neighborhood, not necessarily trumpet itself indulgently.
The tangible connection detail of the old building and the new construction will be considered with great care. This was evident in all of the examples. Venturi clearly delineated the old and the new in his design for the Allen Memorial Art Museum by
83 employing a higher roof, a set back façade and an exaggerated expansion joint. The
Lahti Convention Center de-emphasized their connection by the use of transparent glass disappearing into the old wall. The Hubertus House was also set back slightly and brightly colored in contrast to the original building. A poor example is on the university campus where the new addition to the University Hall/Tangeman Center clumsily meets the corner of the original building. This overbearing corner detail screams that the architect wished he didn’t have to address the original building at all and would rather have swallowed it whole.
The intention of this design will be to find a resolution between the old building and the new construction that creates a new complete function whole. The intention is also that the new and the old be clearly delineated so that the expressive dialogue of the combination is about the transition of this building though time. This dialogue expressed in this time will then be made available to those that choose to engage it in the future and possibly choose to transform it again to meet new needs. This process will also fulfill the ethical intention to conserve and preserve materials and meaning. The conception for revitalization of this building will illuminate the possibilities for constructive change in our local urban environment to degrees that have not been done yet. If implemented this new, more contemporary, approach could make this area a very desirable place to be.
The next phase will bring with it the exploration of the existing building, its history, architectural form, the industry it housed and the evolution of construction over its active
84 lifespan before its abandonment. This will serve as the starting point in designing a new hierarchical relationship between the existing structure and the new construction.
85
CHAPTER SIX ▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄ The History & Evolution of the Jackson Brewery Complex
In the period between the Civil War and prohibition, the American brewing industry expanded vigorously. Its architecture developed in response. This development of the brewery building as a special American industrial form was well represented in
Cincinnati. Of the several important Midwestern brewing centers Cincinnati was the earliest and most significant. The first brewery was built in Cincinnati in 1810, when the population was only 2,500. By 1840 Cincinnati had grown into the sixth largest city in the United States. In 1860 the city was home to thirty-six breweries and held the title as the third largest brewing city in the United States for the next seventeen years. 76
Until the mid-nineteenth century, brewing in Cincinnati was a small-scale industry. Commercially fermented brews took a backseat to hard liquors, wines and home brews. The breweries that did exist were small operations, usually run by persons of British background, producing English-style beer in small quantities. These operations were housed in simple vernacular buildings. Although none of these early breweries have survived, the usual layout consisted of a single building or small group of structures. The brewhouse was the hub of the complex, generally only two stories high and crowned by a
76 Apple, Susan K., “Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati” (Cincinnati OH: The Cincinnati Historical Society, Queen City Heritage publication, Summer 1986) 3. 86 ventilation cupola. Inside, the brewing --An Image of an early brewery which brewed English style beer had a brewhouse generally two stories high with a ventilator cupola on equipment was largely hand operated top.77
and traditionally set up so that the developing brew flowed step-by-step from top to bottom of the brewhouse. The finished brew was generally consumed immediately and locally, rather than being stored and shipped due to the lack of refrigeration.78
The Making of Beer: German and English
The basic steps involved in making beer are malting, mashing, cooking and fermenting. Malting is the germination of cereal grains, usually barley, to produce malt. After malting the ground malt is mixed with water in --An old image of the beer production process from malting to fermentation79 a mash tub, producing a substance called wort. The wort is transferred for cooking to brew-kettle and hops are added for flavor. Then the mix is cooled and yeast is added and fermentation begins. It wasn’t until the latter part of the nineteenth century that the
77 Image found in--- Apple, Susan K., “Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati” (Cincinnati OH: The Cincinnati Historical Society, Queen City Heritage publication, Summer 1986) 3. 78 Downard, William l., The Cincinnati Brewing Industry : Social and Economic History ( Athens Ohio: 1973) 29 --- Section paraphrased from - Apple, Susan K., Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati, (Cincinnati OH: The Cincinnati Historical Society, Queen City Heritage publication, 1986) 3. 79 Apple, Susan K., “Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati” The Cincinnati Historical Society (Cincinnati OH: Queen City Heritage publication, Summer 1986) 4. 87 underlying science of this process was truly understood. This made the production of beer chancy and inconsistent.80
Different yeasts and fermentation procedures distinguished English and German style beers. English beers are made with top-fermenting yeast while German lager beers are made with bottom-fermenting yeast. The German beers are more effervescent and lighter colored with lower alcohol content than the English beers.
German lagers were first introduced in the United States around 1840 by German immigrants. Soon this style of beer was being produced commercially primarily in areas with large German populations such as Over- The-Rhine in Cincinnati. The market expanded quickly outside the German community and by 1870 the preferred beverage in America was the German style lager. In just 20 years the industry was a German dominated one.
80 Apple, Susan K., “Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati” The Cincinnati Historical Society (Cincinnati OH: Queen City Heritage publication, Summer 1986) 4. Feightner, Harold C., 150 Years of Brewing in Indiana, the Story of Politics, Prohibition and Patronage (Indianapolis: 1965) 1-2.
88
The Jackson Brewery
The Jackson brewery was one of the early large scale breweries in the Cincinnati. Due to its long life and success the structure we see today represents many phases of additions -Image that shows the Jackson Brewery over the years. The Jackson Brewery complex- original structure has been highlighted in pink. (image from a latter period under the was founded 1829 by a German ownership of Weber) by the name of Schmeltzer. A year latter brewing began. An early image of the Brewery complex from after 1873 shows a vernacular style structure still in existence along
McMicken Avenue. Note the simple structure and the four ventilation cupolas common to early vernacular, pre-war breweries.
The business was sold in1853 to The Kleiner Bros. With the Kleiner’s experience and tireless work ethic the --In this image the Brewery building constructed by the Kleiner brothers in 1859 is highlighted in business saw great success. pink. (image from a latter period under the ownership of Weber) This success necessitated the first expansion to the complex. The brothers purchased additional land. Ultimately taking control of a plot of land that was fronted by 500 feet along McMicken Avenue near Elm Street and 550 feet up the hill to the north and east to Clifton Avenue. Ground was broken for a new brewhouse in 1859 on Mohawk street which bisected the site. At this time they also constructed two family homes just east of
89 the brewery complex which can also be seen in the older images. By 1871, the Kleiner brothers owned the fifth largest brewery in Cincinnati.
As the industry in Cincinnati developed so did the breweries themselves growing larger, more complex and more decorative. From the 1850’s to the1870’s the brewery buildings showed certain consistencies in architectural form, building materials and decoration. 81 Many of the sources refer to the prevailing style of these buildings as
Romanesque Revival, but they were most likely inspired by the popular Rundbogenstil which was an architectural style that began and flourished in Germany in the second quarter of the 19th century. This style was based on the structural unit of the round arch, Rundbogen. It has frequently been confused with Romanesque Revival architecture. Rundbogenstil was among the first architectural movements to insist that form be derived not from history but according to abstract notions of utility and objectivity. This theoretical approach lent itself to utilitarian structures such as factory architecture.82 Some historians have described Rundbogenstil as a style of expression that was never fully developed and blurred the lines between expressive languages integrating other prominent stylistic languages. This may, in fact, be what we see as brewery architecture developed in Cincinnati. Romanesque Revival had more of an influence.
81 Apple, Susan K., “Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati” The Cincinnati Historical Society (Cincinnati OH: Queen City Heritage publication, Summer 1986) 5. 82 The Grove Dictionary of Art “Styles and Movements: Rundbogenstil”
Similar to the contemporary Park
Brewery (also in Cincinnati), the Kleiner
Bros. building had some simple vernacular characteristics seen in pre- war brewery buildings. These included - -Old image of the Park Brewery (above)85 the widely spaced round window and doors, the decorative cornice, ventilating cupolas and the tall chimneys rising above the roof. 83
“Stylistically the Park brewery might be called Italianate or Bracketed, but showed greater concern with --An image of the existing façade of the Jackson practicality than with specific style.” 84 Brewery building taken in 2006 (above)
Although utilitarian in function the
Jackson building served a grander purpose for the Kleiner’s through in its architectural expression they wanted the building to communicate success,
--Detail of brickwork at the Jackson Brewery86 affluence, legitimacy, and sophistication.
83 Apple, Susan K., “Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati” The Cincinnati Historical Society (Cincinnati OH: Queen City Heritage publication, Summer 1986) 5. 84 Apple, Susan K., “Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati” The Cincinnati Historical Society (Cincinnati OH: Queen City Heritage publication, Summer 1986) 5. 85 Image found in--- Apple, Susan K., “Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati” The Cincinnati Historical Society (Cincinnati OH: Queen City Heritage publication, Summer 1986) 5. 86 Image curtsey of Dellinger architecture. 91
There is no record of who actually built and designed these early breweries.
Other than speculation, they were of German decent and influenced by German brewery architecture. Considering the relatively small pool of brewery experts and qualified labor it is quite feasible that the same builders and designers would have been involved in many of the early projects and carry over knowledge and techniques into new structures. A brewery building that clearly shares characteristic with the Jackson complex is the Bellevue Brewing
Company which was built in 1869 that shares the grandeur of the aesthetic language seen in the Kleiner’s building and many of its decorative devices. --A recent images of the Park Brewery of the front and back facades. Note: the similarity of aesthetic approach(above)
The Jackson Brewery was strategically built into the hillsides to provide space underneath for the deep cave like vaults used in the production of lager beer. Lagers require fairly ---extensive Lager cellars some lengthy period of rest (called lagering) eighteen feet wide by eighteen feet high one hundred and fifty feet long were dug before the Lion Brewery in a cool place. Since heat adversely could be constructed on top.87 effects any fermentation, brewing
87 Apple, Susan K., “Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati” The Cincinnati Historical Society (Cincinnati OH: Queen City Heritage publication, Summer 1986) 8. 92 of top-fermented beers had traditionally been confined to the fall and the winter months.
88This site is also rumored to have connected at one time to a network of natural caves that may have been used for lagering before the construction of the new building (but this has not been verified).89 In fact, the need for Lager valets may have been the main motivating factor for the Kleiner’s construction of a new building since the original vernacular structure was built before the beginning of lager beer production in the
United States.
This structure was approximately 200’ in length and approximately 40’ in depth.
Many brewery complexes of this time were constructed in one 100’ X 40’ feet footprint units. The Park Brewery is an example of this. The 40’ measurement was presumably a practical one relating to the saturation of natural light. When coming in through an open window natural light can only illuminate the interior of a building up to 20’ from the opening. With windows on both sides a 40’ length could be lit by natural light. The one
100’ measurement is most likely practical as well related to the amount of space needed for the brewery operations and equipment.
88 One Hundred years of brewing: A Complete History of the Progress Made in the Art, Science and Industry of Brewing in the World, Particularly During the 19th Century(Chicago: H.S.RICH & CO, 1903) 145-146 --- Apple, Susan K., “Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati” The Cincinnati Historical Society (Cincinnati OH: Queen City Heritage publication, Summer 1986) 4. 89 “Exploring Building for Cave, Say 3 Burglary Charge Police,” Cincinnati Esquire, 15 June 1960, 2A 93
The longitudinal section of the
Wiedemann Brewery is a clear example of how the brewing equipment was arranged in a brewery structure.
The product filtered down from the top to the bottom of the structure and eventually ended up in the Lager --Section of Fred W. Wolf’s drawing for the Wiedemann Brewery Company, in Newport cellars under the building. Although Kentucky 188890 there is no documentation of the specific arrangement in the Jackson brewery, it was likely to be similar. Evidence such as the openings for the equipment to span between floors can still be seen in the Jackson Brewery today.
The composition of the façade was originally symmetrically composed with a central bay flanked by two mired bays. The central bay is subtly stepping forward of the flanking bays for greater emphasis. The windows and door openings are arranged in three vertical rows that progressively get smaller up the façade and are centrally emphasized. The first floor has a large door opening at the center and two slightly smaller openings on either side.
90 Apple, Susan K., “Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati” The Cincinnati Historical Society (Cincinnati OH: Queen City Heritage publication, Summer 1986) 8.
94
--The facade symmetry of the Jackson Brewery building
On the second floor level there are three tandem, round-headed windows in the center, while there are only two tandem pared windows to either side. On the third level there are two tandem, round-headed windows in the center and individual bulls-eye windows to either side. There is always an increase in the number of elements or the scale of the elements in the center while the outer flanking elements are identical to each other. The central section is caped with a combination of a gabled roof stepped parapet and is accentuated by decorative brickwork cornices and corbel tables. This centralized symmetrical composition is then further emphasized by an observation and ventilation cupola that with the addition of the flagpole almost doubled the façade height. This copula raises high above the building and is also tapered upward to the sky like a church steeple. Unlike a church there is no cross. Instead flies the American flag trumpeting the success of the Kleiner’s for all in the city to see.
95
The two identical side bays are arranged in five vertical sections and the grand level arcade holds the most weight with the center opening being a slightly larger door opening. On the second floor aligned with the first floor openings are five evenly spaced round --Detail of the left bay and half of the Jackson Brewery. Mirrored it completes the façade. headed windows. Above those are five, evenly spaced, bulls-eye windows. Each side bay also has its own less prominent ventilation copula. The other three facades of the building are generated more by utility than aesthetic but, when possible, maintain the pattern presented on the prominent southern face.
After the Kleiner brothers’ death, George Weber gained control of the brewery in
1873 for $285,000. Under the ownership of Weber, the brewery saw its greatest success. In 1884, Weber incorporated under the name of George Weber Brewing
Company. Under the presidency of Weber, the Jackson Brewing expanded its southern export trade and solidified distribution points in Chattanooga, New Orleans, Augusta and Nashville.91 By 1885 the brewery produced 100,000 barrels a year and employed
62 men. 92 This level of success necessitated further evolution in the complex.
91 Holian, Timothy J. Over the Barrel: The Brewing History and Beer Culture of Cincinnati: Volume One 1800-Prohabiton Sudhaus Press, St Joseph, MO 2000 92 Scholle, Francis H. (The Brewmaster) A compilation of Cincinnati and Hamilton, Ohio, Northern Kentucky and Southern Indiana Breweries from the 1800’s to 1986 The Cincinnati Historical Society, Cincinnati, Ohio. No year listed 96
After the 1880’s brewery architecture evolved greatly due to the expansion of the brewery industry. Businesses were incorporating and existing plants were enlarged. At this time, advancements in scientific investigations of the fermentation process led to an understanding how the fermentation actually happened. With this knowledge came new technologies that provided better control and quality in the brewing process. With these new developments came higher levels of efficiency, safer working environments and product regularity.
The most dramatic physical modifications to the breweries were due to the adoption of steam power, new fireproof building materials, the development of architecture and artificial refrigeration.93The application of steam power to breweries required in many cases the construction of a separate engine or boiler houses to accommodate the large machines.94
Fireproofed materials were used largely after the great fire of 1881 in
Cincinnati. “Brewery builders experimented with sheet metal facings, concrete floors on brick or hallow-tile arches, and gradually --The ice machine at the Fitger’s Brewing Co. adapted iron, steel and reinforced Minnesota 96 concrete as basic structural
93 Section paraphrased in part from-Apple, Susan K., Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati, The Cincinnati Historical Society, Queen City Heritage publication, Summer 1986 p. 7 94 Apple, Susan K., Buildings and Beer: Brewery architecture in Cincinnati, The Cincinnati Historical Society, Queen City Heritage publication, Summer 1986 p. 7 97 features.”95
The big news at the Jackson Brewery in 1886 was the purchase of two Pictet ice machines that allowed production of beer year round for the first time. Before this innovation, ice
--The Jackson Brewery -the new ice house came from the Great Lakes or were highlighted cut in large chunks from the Ohio
River and stored. Ice was used to regulate the temperature of the lager vaults. The ice machines necessitated the addition of a new structure at the Jackson complex. -- Jackson Brewery showing the asymmetry of the eastern bay due the ice house connection bridges on the 2006 Alterations to the existing building were the new structure for shipping down the canal system to the old. The asymmetry of the façade from these adjustments can still be seen although the ice house no longer stands. Also the foundation and lowest level of the ice house probably still exist in the basement level of the existing building.
Another major change during this time was the development of bottled beer. Beer up to this point had only been shipped and sold in wooden kegs. In the mid 1880’s,
Weber Co. advertised five types of bottled beer including a
96 Image from Fitger’s Brewery “History”
Pilsner, Rhinegold, Doppei-bier,
Select and Export Beer. Due to all of these changes and the need for additional structures including a separate engine or boiler house, new shipping buildings, a bottling plant and an ice house. During
Weber’s ownership, the complex transformed more than once.
In addition to the Jackson -- Above are two images of the Jackson Brewery Brewery site, Weber owned a Malt complex during the ownership of George Weber. The vernacular building in the foreground is demolished and many new structures have been House located on the southeastern constructed in its place. corner of 12th and Clay with the capacity of 200,000 bushels. On the fourth of July, 1887, tragedy struck as a rouge roman candle set the malt house ablaze. In twenty minutes the nine story building began to collapse onto neighboring --This is an image of Webber’s malt house before it tragically burned in 1887. buildings. The total loss was $112,250 of which the insurance company only covered
$68,838. Due to the malt house tragedy and over expenditures in real-estate ventures,
Weber was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1887.
99
In 1889, a group of attorneys, Leo A. Brigel, E W. Kittredge and Laurence
Maxwell, purchased the brewery for a mere $130,000 and reincorporated it. They brewed the profitable Jackson Pure Old Lager Beer. Unfortunately, brewing was stopped by prohibition in 1919. The brewery stayed open during prohibition by producing various non-alcoholic beverages and other products until the repeal. At some point ownership shifted to a local conglomerate and the name was changed to Squibb-
Patterison Breweries Inc.
In 1933, they began preparations for the installation of new brewing and bottling equipment to modernize operations at the plant. This required the construction of
1,000,000 cubic feet of manufacturing space and 350,000 cubic feet of storage space.
The complete refurbishment of existing equipment including a new bottling unit, soaker and pasteurizers, filling, crowning and labeling machines, new condensers, water cooler and a new chimney on the main building. These included a new ice house at 218 West
McMicken Avenue and bottling and shipping structures that incorporated the existing stock house. At some point between Weber owning the building and this new construction in 1933, the central cupola was removed.
100
--The above image is of the new 1933 buildings along McMicken Street.
--This image shows the whitewashed post 1933 main building. The central bay has the inscription Jackson Brewery Squibb- Patterson breweries inc. founded in 1862 modernized in 1933. 97
97 Images courtesy of the Cincinnati Historical Society from the Cincinnati Brewery Images archive. 101
When Squibb-Patterison was unable to make the brewery profitable they sold the brewery to a group of Detroit investors who reincorporated under the name of Jackson
Brewing Co. Unfortunately, the business closed without fanfare in 1941. All of the brewery equipment was sold off and the building was striped and emptied. Almost all of the windows were bricked up during the 1960’s riots. Since the demise of the Jackson
Brewery, the building has been used intermittently by various businesses. One such resident was the Gibson Wine company that used the building for storage. Then the
Cincinnati Metal Blast Company, who upped the power supply, did some major alternations to sections of the building including lowering the floor and raising the ceiling in the western bay. They also painted their logo on the building over the original
Jackson Brewery sign which is why the building is commonly referred to as the Metal
Blast building today. Another occupant was the A to Z All Time Service and Supply
Restaurant Equipment Company.
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THE JACKSON BREWERY TODAY
--This is an image of the full south facing façade of the Jackson Brewery main building as it appears today. Notice that the main entry on the left bay is now lowered to ground (it used to be a loading dock level aligned with the top of the stonework). This was necessitated by the lowering of the floor in this bay. Also notice the asymmetry of the right bay due to the construction related to the ice house in 1886. 98
In 2001, a local architect named Denny Dellinger purchased the Jackson
Brewery building. Dellinger saw an opportunity to renovate this prominent landmark.
This 60,000 sq. ft. building has great potential for reuse due to its hillside site. The building can be accessed on grade to four of the five main levels. The elevation offers spectacular views for potential residents to enjoy. The building’s stone and masonry construction and its heavy timber floors and roofs are still basically sound. The building has water, gas and electric services but all interior systems need to be replaced.
Sewers are non-functional and also need to be reconstructed. Renovation and reuse of this structure are a noble cause especially considering the rich roll this structure has already played in Cincinnati History.
98 This image is courtesy of Dellinger Architects 103
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Moudon, Anne Vernez. Built for Change: Neighborhood Architecture in San Francisco. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press,1986.
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128
Scholle, Francis H. (The Brewmaster) A compilation of Cincinnati and Hamilton, Ohio, Northern Kentucky and Southern Indiana Breweries from the 1800’s to 1986 Cincinnati, OH: The Cincinnati Historical Society.
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129
Schilling, Joseph, Vacant Properties: the true cost to community’s: Revitalization Strategies. Washington: The National Vacant Properties Campaign (2005). PDF
“Smart Growth America: Social Costs of Vacant Properties.” (February 2004)
Sterling, Kristin, “Architecture School Honors Legacy of Preservationist James Marston Fitch” Columbia News the Public Affairs and Record Home Page Columbia University, Published: Oct 31, 2002
“Styles and Movements: Rundbogenstil” The Grove Dictionary of Art
The Columbia Encyclopedia Online, Sixth Edition Columbia University, September 2006,
Byard, Paul Spencer. the Architecture of Addition: Design and Regulation. New York and London: W.W Norton & Company, 1998.
Cantell, Sophie Francesca, The Adaptive Reuse of Historic Industrial Buildings: Regulation Barriers, Best Practices and Case Studies. Virginia: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2005.
Downard, William l., The Cincinnati Brewing Industry : Social and Economic History . Athens Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1973
Erder, Cevat. “Our Architectural Heritage: From Consciousness to Conservation.” Unesco The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1986.
“Exploring Building for Cave, Say 3 Burglary Charge Police,” Cincinnati Esquire, 15 June 1960, 2A
Feightner, Harold C., 150 Years of Brewing in Indiana, the Story of Politics, Prohibition and Patronage Indianapolis: 1965.
Fitch, James Marston. Historic Preservation: Curatorial Management of the Built. Charlottesville Virginia and London: World University Press of Virginia, 1998.
Florida, Richard. The Rise of the Creative Class. New York: Basic Books, 2002.
Gandelsonas, Mario Shanghai. Reflections: Architecture, Urbanism and the Search for an Alternative Modernity. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2002.
Gandelsonas, Mario. The Urban Text. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1991
Gandelsonas, Mario. X Urbanism: Architecture and the American City. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999.
130
Giedion, Siegfried. Architecture and the Phenomena of Transition. Cambridge, Massachusetts Harvard University Press,1971.
Greer, Nora Richter. Architecture transformed: New Life For Old Buildings. Gloucester, Massachusetts: Rockport Publishers Inc., 1998.
Holian, Timothy J. Over the Barrel: The Brewing History and Beer Culture of Cincinnati: Volume One 1800-Prohabiton Sudhaus Press, St Joseph, MO 2000
Jacobs, Jane, The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random house Inc., 1961.
Jokilehto, Jukka. A History of Architectural Conversation. Oxford MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.
Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard Jeanneret), Toward a New Architecture. England: Dover Publications, 1923.
Lowenthal, David. “Material Preservation And It’s Alternatives” Perspecta issue 25 (Fall 1982) 66-78
Lynch, Kevin. What time is this Place?. Cambridge Massachusetts and London England: MIT Press, 1972, 1976, 1980, 1982.
Moudon, Anne Vernez. Built for Change: Neighborhood Architecture in San Francisco. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press,1986.
Murtagh, William J. Keeping Time: The History and Theory of Preservation in America Third edition. Indianapolis, IN: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,2006.
Nesbitt, Kate, Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture: An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-1995, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996, 53.
O’Donnell, Patricia M., “Understanding the Threats & Defining Appropriate Responses The Evolving Concept of Cultural Landscapes as Settings: From the Athens & Venice Charters to the 2004 Combined World Heritage Criteria Section II: Vulnerabilities within the Settings of Monuments & Sites.” Xi’an, China: ICOMOS general Assembly, 2005.
Oechslin, W. “Premises for the Resumption of the Discussion of Typology” Assemblage 1 (Oct. 1986) 36 - 53.
One Hundred years of brewing: A Complete History of the Progress Made in the Art, Science and Industry of Brewing in the World, Particularly During the 19th Century. Chicago: H.S.RICH & CO, 1903.
Quatremere de Quincy. “Type” Oppositions Special Issue: Paris under the Academy: City and Ideology, (Spring 1977/8) 146 - 50.
Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, and Steven Izenour. Learning from Las Vegas Revised edition. Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1977) pxvii.
131
Scholle, Francis H. (The Brewmaster) A compilation of Cincinnati and Hamilton, Ohio, Northern Kentucky and Southern Indiana Breweries from the 1800’s to 1986 Cincinnati, OH: The Cincinnati Historical Society.
Schumacher, Thomas L, “Contextualism: Urban ideals and Deformation (1971),” Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture, an Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-1995 ed. Kate Nesbitt. New York: Princeton Architecture Press, 1996.
Stanislaus, von Moos. Venturi, Rauch & Scott Brown: Buildings and Projects. New York: Rizzoli, 1987.
Whitehand, J.W.R & P.J. Larkham. Urban Landscapes: International Perspectives. London England: Rutledge, 1992.
Electronic &Internet Resources
A. Craven, Jackie. About Architecture.com “Tate Modern: A major new gallery of modern and contemporary art.” (2004)
Arcspace.com “Tegnestuen Vandkunsten: Torpedo Hall Apartments” (2006)
Bigempire.com “Glass Steel and Stone: Global Architecture”
Bonham, J. Blaine Jr. “Urban Vacant Land: Issues and Recommendations.” Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, (1995) 18.
Bort, Joseph P. The Smart Growth Strategy/Regional Livability Footprint Project “What is Smart Growth?” Metro Center (2004)
“In search of a Utopia of the Present” Disturb: TEAM TEN 1953-81. Rotterdam: NAI publishers, (2005).
“Jacque Derrida.” The Columbia Encyclopedia Online, Sixth Edition Columbia University, September 2006,
“Jean Nouvel 1994-2006” Great buildings Online. Kevin Matthews and Artifice, Inc. (2006).
Low Waist Building Technologies and Practices: Case Studies, ”Tate Modern, rehabilitation of the Former Bankside Power Station in London, UK.” The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, 2001
“1991 Robert Venturi of the United States presented at Palacio de Iturbide, Mexico City, Mexico.” Complete List of Pritzker Architecture Prize Laureates 1979 – 2005” last viewed
Schilling, Joseph, “The Revitalization of Vacant Properties: Where Broken Windows Meet Smart Growth,” Pennsylvania: IMCA (2002). PDF
132
Schilling, Joseph, Vacant Properties: the true cost to community’s: Revitalization Strategies. Washington: The National Vacant Properties Campaign (2005). PDF
“Smart Growth America: Social Costs of Vacant Properties.” (February 2004)
Sterling, Kristin, “Architecture School Honors Legacy of Preservationist James Marston Fitch” Columbia News the Public Affairs and Record Home Page Columbia University, Published: Oct 31, 2002
“Styles and Movements: Rundbogenstil” The Grove Dictionary of Art
The Columbia Encyclopedia Online, Sixth Edition Columbia University, September 2006,
133