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SUNDARAM, Pankajam R ., 1937- AN EXPLORATORY USE OF THE SIMULATION TECHNIQUE IN STUDYING PLANNING ABILITIES AND DECISION MAKING PATTERNS AMONG INDIAN COUPLES.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1974 Home Economics

University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. AN EXPLORATORY USE OP THE SIMULATION TECHNIQUE IN STUDYING

PLANNING ABILITIES AND DECISION MAKING PATTERNS

AMONG INDIAN COUPLES

Dissertation

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy In the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

by

Pankajam R. Sundaram, B.Sc., M.Sc.

The Ohio State University 1974

Reading Committee: Approved by:

Dr. Ju lia I. Dalrymple Dr. Lola E. Dickey Dr. David G. Francis Adviser School of Home Economics DEDICATION

In loving memory of Reverend Mother Rose Bcnedicta, Order of Saint Lyons, Saint Joseph's Convent, Fatima College.

She, along with dedicating her life and services to the cause of girls' higher education in Madurai (India), has been the source of inspiration for my accomplishment. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The depth of gratitude given expression to in these pages of acknowledg­ ments and the pages following could be realized by anybody who has reached this phase of the research. It is with much gratitude that appreciation is extended to the many persons who contributed to the research. Sincere appreciation is expressed to Dr. Francllle Maloch Fircbaugh, the w riter's adviser, for her inspiring guidance, deep insight of the subject and keen interest in the study.

Further, her indlspenslble assistance and great encouragement during the entire graduate program are gratefully acknowledged. Sincere thanks are also extended to the members of the dissertation committee: Dr, Julia I. Dalrymple, Dr. Lois

E. Dickey, and Dr. David G. Francis.

Special acknowledgment is extended to Dr. Robert J. Warmbrod for his untiring and invaluable assistance in the analyses of the data.

Another large group of persons whose assistance is gratefully acknowledged includes the officers of the India Association, Columbus, and Barathi Cultural

Society of Ohio, Cleveland, for their help in establishing contacts with Indian families; to the families who willingly consented to participate in the study and gave of their time and interest--to Mr. and Mrs. R, Balasubramaniam for the extensive driving and interviewing time given as research aides, In Cleveland.

To Mrs. Geetha Balasubramaniam, the w riter's sister-in-law, sincere thanks are expressed not only for her assistance as research aide in Columbus, but also for being the sounding board, and offering most valuable help in the research, In ways too numerous to mention.

Indebtedness is expressed to the University of Udaipur, Government of

India, the United States Agency for International Development, for providing the opportunity for graduate study and financial assistance.

To the Schroeder's—Jenny, Wayne, Ann, and Kay—sincere thanks ore expressed for providing the home away from home in Columbus in every sense of the word.

Sincere thanks are extended to her typist, Ms. Barbara Turner, who very patiently and diligently did the typing of this thesis.

Lastly, deep gratitude is expressed to the family who so willingly encour­ aged and supported the educational endeavors and higher studies abroad—to dear parents for sustained guidance and for providing Malathi the loving home and care, while her mother pursued her educational goals, being assured of her daughter's deep understanding and patient endurance. With highly cherished memories, they are acknowledged.

iii VITA

May 28, 1937 Born, M adras, India

1964 B.Sc., Fatima College, Mathurai, University of Madras, India

1966 M .Sc., Sri Avlnashilingam Home Science College, Coimbatore, University of Madras, India

1966-67 Graduate Teacher, Kcndriya, Vidyalaya, Avadi, Madras

1967 Lecturer, College of Home Science, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Home Management und Household Equipment

Studies in Home Management and Household Equipment: Professors Ruth Deacon, Francllle Maloch Firebaugh, Fern Hunt, Anne Coveney, Clarice Bloom

Studies in Rural Sociology, Anthropology and Agriculture Economics: Professors David G. Francis, Ojo Arcwa, Robert J. Warmbrod

Studies in Home Economics Education: Professors Marie Dirks, Julia Dalrymple and Lena Bailey.

Papers Pankajam R. and Godavari Kawalanathem. "Stimulating Published: Better Managerial Practices In a Rural Community through Organizing a Women's Fellowship. " Indian Journal of Home Science. 2:1 (1967).

Pankajam Sundaram and David G. Francis. "Uses of Guttman Scaling to Study the Indian Family in Transition. " Indian Journal of Social Research. 14:1 (1973), 30-34.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

VITA iv

LIST OF TABLES viii

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Background and Need 1 Problem Statement 7 Objectives 7 Hypotheses 8 Assumptions 10 Definition of Terms 11

IL REVIEW OF LITERATURE 14

Home Management 14 Planning in Home Management 18 Decision Making in Home M anagement 22 Fam ily in India 25 Joint Family System 25 Caste System 30 The Manager in the Indian Home in the Past and Present 33 Changes in Life Styles 33 Impact of Industrializtion 36 Impact of Urbanization 38 Family Researches in India 40 Resoarch Emphasis Areas 40 Problems in Studying Indian Families 42 Family Measurement Techniques 45 Simulation and S1MFAM 47 Conceptual Framework 48

v CHAPTER Page

I1L METHOD 52

Research Design 52 Sample Selection 52 Data Collection 54 Development of the Interview Schedule Form 54 Data Analysis 61 Tabulation and Statistical Analysis 64 Procedure 65 Pre-Test 65 The Interview 66

IV. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 71

D escription of the Sample 71 Analysis of Data 80 Hypothesis I 94 Hypothesis II 95 Hypothesis III 95 Hypothesis IV 96 Hypothesis V 96 Hypothesis VI 96 Hypothesis VII 97 Hypothesis VIII 99

V. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS 103

Implications for Home Management Specialists 106 in India Suggestions for Further Study 106

BIBLIOGRAPHY 108

APPENDIX A Hindi Version of Simulated Problem Situations 117

APPENDIX B Decision Making Statements Presented to Husbands 134 and Wives

APPENDIX C Family Personal/Situational Data Questionnaire 129

vi Page

APPENDIX D Responses Given for Planning Situations by Couples 136

APPENDIX E Home Management Graduate Students' Panel Eval- 152 uatlon of Planning Situations

APPENDIX F Code Descriptors and Classification 156

APPENDIX G Response of Five Couples to "Commonness" of 161 Situations in the Pre-Test

APPENDIX H Differences Between Female and Male Perception of 163 Egalitarian, Male-Dominated and Female-Dominated Patterns of Decision Making

APPENDIX I Item Analysis Scores for the Husbands' and Wives' 167 Decision Making Scale

APPENDIX J Relationship of Couples' Individual Planning Abilities 169 with Decision Making Patterns

APPENDIX K Differences and Relationship Between the Couples' 172 Planning Abilities and Decision Making Patterns for Grouped Situations of 1, 3 and 6

vli LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page

I. Descriptive Characteristics of Couple and Family 72

2 . Age Range of the Population 72

3. Educational Level of the Population 73

4. Years Married 74

5. Family Size by Number of Children 75

6 . Homemakers with Outside Employment 75

7. Employment Classification of Husbands 76

8 . Religion of the Population 77

9. Caste of the Population 77

1 0 . Joint Family Living Experience of the Population 78

1 1 . Geographic Orientation of the Population Since 78 Childhood

1 2 . Nativity of the Sample Population 79

13. Differences in Decision Making-Patterns between 81 the Husband the Wife in Each of the 76 Families

14. Comparison of the Couples' Perception of Decision 82 Making Power

15. Percentage Difference between Female and Male 83 Percpetion of Egalitarian, Male-Dominated and Female-Dominated Patterns of Decision Making

16. Response Pattern of the Couples in Individual and 87 Joint Response Sessions

viil TABLE Page

•17. Individual and Joint Planning Index Range of the 8 8 Couples for the Six Situations

18. Correlation Matrix of the Six Situations Responded 89 by Wives

19. Correlation Matrix of the Six Situations Responded 90 by Husbands

20. Levels of Planning Ability of Respondents for the 91 Six Situations

21. Differences in the Individual and Joint Planning 92 Abilities of the Couples for the Six Situations

22. Differences between Individual and Joint Planning 93 Abilities of Husbands and Wives for the Six Situations

23. Differences between Husbands and Wives Decision 94 Making Patterns

be CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background and Need

The outstanding characteristic shared by all less-developed countries is that they are all in a state of transition (Arasteh, 1966:1). This transition has considerable impact upon the Indian family life and life styles. The moder­ nization and change are not phenomena confined to urban and industrial centers alone. Eighty percent of the 547 million people living in over half a million villages are all witnessing and participating in a sweeping transformation

(Mathur, 1971:13). Almost the whole complex of village life is changing relatively rapidly, including the centuries old lifestyles, mental attitudes and reactions.

Yet the villager "is not willing wholly to lose grip on the old that had stood him in good stead down the ages" (Mathur, 1971:18). The "past" co-exists on a large scale with a small scale and struggling "present" (Kelkar, 1968:50). It is urged that there can be no real technological transformation unless and until the past is Integrated and absorbed into the present without a great strain on society

(Kelkar, 1968:50). To facilitate such integration It is important and essential to have an understanding and awareness of the past along with the present.

1 2

Intensive and indepth research in the area of home management will be

beneficial in understanding families and the changes consequent to transformation.

Review of literature on Indian families reveals that much of the research con­

ducted by Indian and foreign anthropologists, psychologists, sociologists and

economists concentrates on the joint family system and its rapid disintegration

due to industrialization, urbanization and modernization; the caste system and

its impact on communities and society at large; the community development

program and tho related schemes und their impact on rural communities. The

myths and mysticism of theOrient as affecting religious beliefs and norms of

families, making the change slow and many times even impossible, hove been

investigated. The family per sc has received less attention in comparison to

the other areas mentioned above.

Eighty percent of India's population is concentrated in the villages and the

problem in studying the village family lies in not being able to obtain an authentic

.picture of the family's management philosophy, values, goals and standards.

The problem 1b acute, especially when this population numbers some 55 crores, *

of whom 20 percent live in 2,700 towns and the other 80 percent are spread over

as many as 567,000 villages, with a literacy rate as low as 30 percent (Raghavan,

1973:81). Researchers need to adopt innovative methods suitable to the different

cultures In studying them, without creating disadvantage for the group tested in

*1 c ro re = 10 m illion. 3 trying to produce "culture-free" or "culture-fair" tests (Tyler, 1972:192).

Home management specialists can be of potential help In creating aware­ ness and understanding of the past with the present. Home management is concerned with Integrating family values, norms, goals and standards and facilitating the transition from the past to the present of the younger generations.

Specialists need to pursue research on family life and lifestyles using suitable

research methods to make their management teaching meaningful and relevant.

Existing systems of education in less-developed countries are not geared to

meet the demands of Boclal progress (Arasteh, 1966:2). Educators (Kandel,

1933:866-869; Brauner, 1964:58-60) have pointed out the strong relationship

between a culture and its educational system. So far, teaching of home man­

agement in Institutions of India has primarily been based upon the Western

concept of management, which is pertinent and meaningful in the management

of Western homes. This is understandable, since the Home Science curriculum

In India has been strongly influenced by the West. The time has come when

this field of study has to be modified adequately and suitably to meet the needs

of specific Indian culture. The Indian educators (Hazaray, 1973:985; Mathur,

1973:983) feel that the educational programs based on the philosophy of the

West is not adapted to the social and economic conditions.

Home Science education in India, like education in general, should per­

form the two functions of transmission of culture between generations and 4 development of social personality (Mehta, 1973:87).

One of the most difficult problems faced in developing nations today is the effective planning of programs of social and economic development. The primary objective in these countries is to bring about a new way of living such that social improvement will permeate all levels of life (Arasteh, 1966:2).

This requires that the whole culture be rc-evnluated, its values analyzed, and new directions given to the aims.

The concept of "planning" is npt new in the Indian context. National

Five Year Plans have been launched and implemented with constant re-evalua­ tions and modifications. India has now completed three Five-Year plans, three annual plans and is more than half way through the Fourth Plan (Rao, 1973:25).

In the field of Family Planning too India has played the role of a pioneer in launching large scale national plans and programs to combat population explosion.

Yet, much of the planning is at the higher administrative hierarchies. It is doubtful how much of this concept is measurably integrated within the family lives of the people. The Prime Minister In one of her recent addresses, emphasized the need to educate the people in the process of planning (Yojana,

1973:122). Present knowledge of how families plan in the day-to-day management of home and family is limited. Even though the concept of "plan" and "planning" as related to home and family management is more frequently observed in the

Western literature than Indian literature that wns reviewed, there appears to be a log concerning the u b o of planning process per se in families even in Western 5 literature (Giboulcau, 1970:46-47).

Many Indian practices in the management of homes are of traditional heritage. In the area of meal management, limited planning must be done in the day-to-day meal preparation because most of the family meal patterns are pre­ scribed by religious norms and beliefs or traditional family practices. Family task management is also prescribed by definite sex role delineation and by family position. The eldest female member prescribes the task performances by the authority she holds in the management of the house (Schlcslnger, 1961:

171; Straus, 1968:47). Thus planning tends to be almost adoption of "standing plans" and "repeat use plans" in the traditional joint family of India.

Modernization and disintegration of joint family systems create circum­ stances for planning in the home and household activities. Such factors as age of couple, education, number of children, caste norms, religious beliefs, experience In joint family living and exposure to urban/rural environment during one's lifetime are all contributing circumstances.

Besides, in a rapidly changing society, where conventional norms and

standards are being replaced by newer onus, the roles and expectations of

family members also tend to shift. In the domain of family decision making

BustriUos (1963:128) indicated a need to study planning when she suggested that

decision making.should be studied In relation to various activities of manage­

ment, planning being one of them. In the traditional Indian family, "in the

huBband-wlfe relationship the wife is not supposed to contradict her husband 6 even if she knows that he is wrong. She cannot argue with her husband as an equal, but must always submit herself to his good judgment. . . it is the hus­ band who Is expected to be an authoritarian, whose will dominates the domes­ tic scene" (Schlesinger, 1961:171).

Qoode (1970, xix) states "fine-grained family interaction of any kind, e .g ., husband-wife relations, is difficult to recapture over any considerable time span.

These are the most ephemeral of data, for such interactions leave few records. "

He also points out that family research now available In many countries has

suffered theoretical structuring because its intellectual significance seemed

minor as compared with that of politics or class. He advocates the use of family variables and following exploration through all the major societal forces.

According to him

Family processes are one set of phenomena where social forces impinge; and they are in turn generative of some impact on the larger society.

Modern Indian families are undergoing a transitional phase. New norms and

standards are created, along with maintaining old traditional beliefs and prac­

tices. To gain an understanding of planning and decision making in management

in the modern Indian homes, the influence of the couple and suitable measuring

devices and instruments should be included.

The purpose of this exploratory study is to use an innovative research

method to study a facet of family management, namely, planning and decision

making patterns in the Indian homes, which may later be adapted to field study

in India. I 7

Problem Statement

This exploratory study was proposed to investigate the planning characteristics of prediction, elaboration and ingenuity in home management and the relation­ ship of such characteristics to the decision making patterns among Indian couples.

Further, it Is proposed to determine the difference between individual planning and joint planning by couples in Indian families.

The following specific objectives gave direction to this study:

1. To determine the planning abilities of prediction, elaboration

and ingenuity among husbands and wives to given simulated

family situations.

2. To determine the decision making pattern among Indian couples

(male dominated, female dominated or egalitarian) as revealed

from their responses to family decision making statements.

3. To compare husband and wife decision making patterns.

4. To determine the relationship of planning characteristics to the

couples' decision muking patterns.

5. To determine the relationship of planning characteristics to per­

sonal and situational variables.

6 . To compare the difference between individual planning ability

and joint planning ability among couples

7. To test this methodology for uso later in India. 8

Hypotheses

Hypotheses to be tested in the study Include:

L Thero is no significant difference between the individual planning

abilities of the husbands and the individual planning abilities of

the wives for

a) prediction

b) elaboration

c) ingenuity

IL There is no significant difference between the joint planning abil­

ities of the husbands and the joint planning abilities of the wives

for

a) prediction

b) elaboration

c) ingenuity

HI. Thore is no significant difference between the individual planning

abilities and the joint planning abilities of the husbands for

a) prediction

b) elaboration

c) ingenuity 9

IV. There is ho significant difference between the individual planning

abilities and joint planning abilities of the wives for

a) prediction

b) elaboration

c) ingenuity

V. There is no significant difference between the husband's and wife's

decision making patterns.

VI. There is no significant relationship between the

a) husbands' decision making patterns and their individual

planning abilities of ( 1) prediction, (2 ) elaboration and

(3) Ingenuity.

b) wives' decision making patterns and their individual plan­

ning abilities of (1) prediction, (2) elaboration and (3)

ingenuity.

VIL There are no significant variations among the

a) husbands' planning abilities of prediction, elaboration

and ingenuity and their related variables of:

( 1) personal—age, education, occupation, experience

by years married, number of children, caste,

religion and native state.

(2) situational —length of residence in the United

States, length of residence in urban/rural environment since childhood and experience by

years in joint/nuclear family before and after

m arriage.

b) wives'planning abilities of prediction, elaboration and

ingenuity and their related personal and situational var­

iables (mentioned before).

v d l There are no significant variations among the

a) husbands' decision making patterns and their related

personal and situational variables (mentioned before).

b) wives' decision making patterns and their related

personal and situational variables (mentioned before).

Assumptions

Content:

1. The activities and information an individual describes

reflect accurately the thinking that has taken place.

2. Changes in family type, structure and pattern consequent

to external and environmental changes Influence planning

abilities and decision making patterns of couples in

family management activities. u

Methodological:

1. Individuals react to simulated situations as though they

were actually involved with them in real life.

2. Simulation Is a viable technique for data collection on

planning and decision making in home management.

3. The couple is the best source of information on planning

and decision making in the home.

4. Freedom allowed to respond in one's own language

eliminates difficulties arising from language differences

among Indian population.

Definition of Terms

Definitions of term s currently in use arc applied here where feasible.

Home Management. Planning and controlling the use of resources of a household with respect to demands (Maloch and Deacon, 1966:33).

Planning. Series of decisions concerning standards and/or sequence of action (Maloch and Deacon, 1970:3).

Prediction. Ability to see beyond the material given (Berger et al. , 1957:

1, 2).

Elaboration. Ability to produce ideas for the development of plans

(Berger et al. , 1957:1, 2). 12

Ingenuity. Ability to find new and different methods of accomplishing a task (Berger et al. , 1957:1, 2),

Joint family. Includes besides the husband, wife and their children, other closely related kin living together in the same house, taking their meals and performing their worship together and enjoying property in common (Mamorla,

1962:204; Kapadla, 1955:238).

Nuclear family. Consisting of individuals bound together by a procreative wife and grouped with their children into a protective-cum-productive associa­ tion (Mamorla, 1962:204).

Working Definitions

Individual planning ability. Responses obtained individually from the hus­ band and the wife for the planning characteristics of prediction, elaboration and

Ingenuity.

Joint planning ability. Responses obtained from the husband and the wife for the planning characteristics in the course of a joint interview session.

Family power pattern. Different score levels indicating husband dominated, wife dominated or egalitarian.

Husband dominated family. Husband inakeB almost all of the decisions

related to family finance, child care practices, family socialization as well as

household operation. Wife dominated family. The wife makes almost all of the decisions related to family finance, child care practices, family socialization as well as household operations.

Egalitarian. Almost all of the family decisions made by both partners with equal participation.

Prediction. Contemplated action resulting from an assessment of the present and future consequences.

Elaboration. Consideration of multiple alternatives as possibilities for

evolving course of action implementation.

Ingenuity. Consideration of as many new and different ways of handling

the situation to yield optimum satisfaction and accomplishment. CHAPTER R

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Research relevant to planning and decision making will be reviewed in this section. In addition, certain factors which may be pertinent to the present inves­ tigation will be highlighted.

Home Management

Home management has been defined in numerous ways by authorities in the field. The primary concepts involved in almost all of the definitions center around planning, controlling and evaluating the available resources in meeting the family goals or demands. "Home management is planning, organizing, controlling and evaluating the use of resources available to the family for the purpose of attaining family goals" (Nickell and Dorsey, 1967:81). "Home management—planning and controlling the use of resources of a household with respect to demands" (Maloch and Deacon, 1966:33). The American Home

Economics Association in the report on concepts and generalizations indicates home management includes "decision making and the organization of activities involved in the use of resources for defining and achieving goals of families"

(1967:29).

14 15

Pointing out the resemblances between business and home management,

Crandall (1964:28) presented lists of management functions from business.

She noted that planning and controlling occur in each list and that some of the functions enumerated in business are considered sub*processes in home man­ agement.

Forbrlch and Sheikh (1973:2) state that household management is woefully lacking in discipline. According to them the "home executive" renders unprinci­ pled decisions guided only by Intuition and a fragmented Information system.

They point out that the "home executive" labours with only a dim recognition of scientific management concepts, exercising decision function with vaguely speci­ fied alternatives. They are of the opinion that the "home executive" must be urged to abandon her ill-conceived and shallow notions of the management function and be tutored in the principles of scientific management. The authors draw close semblance to business executives and the home executive in their need to rely on sound scientific management principles for efficient operation of business outside and that of household management.

Before proceeding with scientific management principles and concepts, it would be logical to understand the position of modern management in the Indian tradition and background.

Management has evolved as a field of study in India only since the turn of this century (Ray, 1973:61). Ray opines that today's professional management class is essentially a first generation phenomenon; the managers are increasingly 16 drawn from classes which have hitherto stuck traditionally to law, medicine, teaching, landholding and government administration. Ho further points out that the Indian tradition looked down upon business as inherently bad with the

Hindus giving it a lowly place in the caste system. The young people were taught, according to Ray, through primers and other environmental influences, that it is wrong to strive for material goods. Even though intellect has always been respected by Indian tradition, till recently management in India has been seen as requiring many virtues but not those connected with intellect (Ray, 1973:

62).

Due to cultural norms and beliefs, not much opportunity 1 b afforded in the

Indian homes for the young person's constructive debate and free thinking. The young ones are constantly reminded to respect elders and do something because it was good in the time of their fathers or elders (Ray, 1973:62).

Ray points out that there is a general lack of concern with results In the

Indian tradition, ascribed to the Hindu law of Dharma. Allied with this, he sees the problem of a divorce between planning apd Implementation. He illustrates this divorce through planning which he mentions as an intellectual exercise which draws out the best in one's mind, but implementation 1 b woefully a matter of dirty details left to a technician or lower grade person to deal with.

Another aspect built into the Indian tradition Is that it Is a hierarchical society with highly ascrlptive culture; a person in society is respected more for the position he holds than what he has achieved. 17

As an applied field many of the concepts used in home management are based upon the writings and theories of other disciplines. The management classicists who laid the founding principles concerned themselves with organiza- tlon as a line-staff chain of command, which may be considered very typical of the traditional Hindu joint family. The pyramidal hierarchy of authority is evidenced in the Hindu joint family. In a business, plans are made by a person, carried out by others and involve supervision. In the traditional Hindu joint family a similar trend of planning, delegation and implementation is observable.

In business where the same product is produced or the same service is performed the processes are generally repetitious. In the Hindu joint family also, almost all of the day-to-day activities and very often the rituals and festivities are prescribed and routinely followed and implemented. Religious and caste norms have set normative principles and procedures to be adopted for different activities, which individual conform and abide by. Thus, the Hindu joint family relies heavily upon routine or standing plans. Singer (1968:440) mentions that the struc­ tural and organizational parallelism between joint family management and business management is not merely formal, but is appreciated by the Industrial leaders and some principles applied directly from the rural joint family household into modern industry. 18

Planning In Home Management

Planning today reveals the impact of the management sciences. Planning involves adjusting the relations of things before they happen, it is the exercise of foresight. Foresight is the awareness of possible future events that should be taken into account in deciding on a present action. Planning is defined as

"identifying the problem, obtaining information, formulating possible courses of action, considering consequences and each alternative, and selecting the course of action that seems best. However, in addition to problem solving, a plan requires several steps, such us deciding on the order of action, coordin­ ating the parts of the plan, and arranging the time sequence" (Nickell and

Dorsey, 1967:86, 87). They also stated that in plan implementation, imagina­ tion, motivation, control and decision making are all required. Maloch and

Deacon (1966:32) defined planning as "a series of decisions concerning standards and/or sequence of action. " Foresight according to them, along with being realistic situational assessment and alternative formulation, is a planning skill which may relate to both standard setting and sequencing of action.

PatterBon, as reported by Stark (1961:35) analyzed the ability of foresight as (1) the ability in any situation to think of a large number of consequences,

(2) the ability to judge among consequences as to their probability, (3) the ability to judge among consequences as to their importance, and (4) the ability to decide the best course of action to pursue considering all the consequences likely to follow. 19

Berger proposed four abilities In planning: (1) orientation, hypothesized as an ability to see an order or trend in a mass of information and recognize the pertinent variables operating in a situation; (2) prediction, the ability to see beyond the material given; (3) elaboration, the ability to produce ideas or rep­ resentations of ideas that contribute to the development of plans; and (4) ordering, the ability to arrange bits of information into a meaningful series. From the above study emerged two qualitative aspects of planning which were hypothesized as ingenuity, the ability to find new and different methods of accomplishing a task; and evaluation, the ability to detect limitations in plans and to determine relative importance of variables (Berger et nl. , 1957:1, 2). Similar thought is expressed by Nickell and Dorsey (1967:87):

In making plans decisions must be made as to 'what' actions are necessary to achieve the deBlred objectives; ’why' each of these actions is necessary; 'where' and 'how* each action will take place. To determine these things, planners must search for available alternatives and then make their selections.

Steidl and Bratton identify Guilford's five cognitive operations in planning in the home in their discussion on planning in terms of the thinking involved. They point out:

To plan, the homemaker must understand the situation (cognition)—she must identify where she is now and where she wants to be. She may recall a previous situation that is similar and her manner of coping with it (memory). She decides whether an existing plan will bo suitable (evaluation). Or, she may need to develop a new plan; in so doing several alternatives may be determined (divergent production), each requiring ovaluutton. . . . Need for a new plan may also result in one solution thnt neatly brings together the facts 20

in the situation (convergent production) and satisfies the requirements for reaching a goal (evaluation) (Steidl and Bratton, 1968:49).

For the planning function, Deacon and Bratton (1962:763) identified three c rite ria :

1. anticipation of conditions to be met or situations to be faced both in the long and short run;

2. knowledge of available material resources; and

3. exploration of possible alternatives and analysis of their merits.

Drucker (1967:480) concurs with the anticipation of conditions to be met in

"forecasting. " His view is that, since the interpersonal Interactive universe is not a physical but a value-unlverse, the probabilities of changes are great and consequently no long range planning is feasible. According to him, It is "foolish to attempt to forecast,11 since human beings can neither predict nor control the future. He also believes that long-range planning does not deal with future decisions, but only deals with the futurity of present decisions. His concern is not about what needs to be done tomorrow, but what has to be done today to be

ready for an uncertain tomorrow. Thu question is not what will happen in the future. It is, what futurity one has to confront that needs to be considered

in present thinking and doing.

Available literature that was reviewed on Indian families indicates lack of

studies on "planning function" or "planning process" per se in the Indian homes.

Indirect relationships and observations lead one to conclude that the Indian

families of the past held certain set norms and traditional beliefs concerning 21 household operations, and executed same without involving "fresh thinking process"—new plans. The Indian joint families have varied and complex activities in their day-to-day lives, including religious festivities and cere­ monials like births, deathB, marriages, etc. Even though these would nor­ mally require extensive planning and preparations, the complexities of the planning process was considerably less, in view of the fact that there were limited choices, fewer alternatives and almost set patterns of confrontations and solutions to problems. Ashraf (1970:250) mentions

It cannot be denied that people as a whole led a very prosaic life and did not succeed in developing more than a few physical and moral capacities and very limited forms of human relationships. . . . Customs and religion, which fostered these manners in many respects, were stronger forces than the Intellectual and ethical convictions of the present age. On the whole, they led to social solidarity and wellbeing, when it was realized that the forefathers had behaved in a particular manner in a certain situation, the direction for the living descendant was clear and the force of this sanction was absolute.

Religious categorizations, caste norms, family status (recognized on the basis

of ancestral positions and statuses established) and family values upheld,

almost drew the boundaries for implementation in any occasion. The excessive

rural indebtedness with their causes and reasonings leads one to realize the

importance that was attached by families in fulfilling the expected communal

norms and traditionally laid standards. Hence, families rurcly evolve new

plans or other ways of confronting and tackling problem situations before them. 22

Goldstein (1972:17) states:

. . . even when encouraged, some respondents appear to be unable or unwilling to look Into the future. . . . Varying degrees of fatalism are also expressed. . . .

With changing patterns in the modern Indian household, with decreased impor­ tance being levied upon traditional norms and beliefs, with ever-increasing choices and alternatives available in both material and non-material resources, the concept of "planning" will require different emphasis and focus in the man­ agement of homes.

New inventions, new standards of living and new external situations have necessitated adjustments in life schemes and redefinitions of social values. With disintegration of the joint family system, families can no longer rely upon the

"standing plans" and "repeat use plans" of the past. Modern husbands and wives are required to assume new roles and social positions in the society and the family, bringing about a change in the status of both of them. When they cannot adjust with the changing roles, a confusion often arises regarding the uncertainty and ambiguity of roles (Mamoria, 1960:27).

Decision Making in Home Management

The pattern of authority as prevailing in the family is an important concept in the study of the family. This tends to be a significant concept especially in the Indian joint family because of the multiplicity of adult members. In the Indian joint family the norm was that authority was vested in the eldest male member 23 of the family. Prestonjee and Singh (1973:362) state that personal factors like education, economic status, age, caste and sex are found to be associated with authoritarianism and that females are less authoritarian than males.

According to Terry (1964:113), . . decision making is never an isolated managerial activity. Decision making in a vacuum is meaningless. . . . It is done to determine and achieve the objectives and to utilize the various available resources in a manner believed best under the particular set of circumstances."

Decision making is concomitant with available resources and circumstances; and this explains for the prevailing decision making patterns in the Indian joint family, especially in the matriarchal and patriarchal joint family systems. In the tradi­ tional patriarchal joint family system, the eldest male (father or grandfather) was acknowledged as head of the family and he had control over important family decisions (Ross, 1961:47). In the matriarchal family system, which prevailed only in Kerala and Assam, the lineage of descent was recognized through the female (Ehrenfels, 1971:56) and the decision making power was vested in the hands of the female head. Even in the prevalent patriarchal joint families, the male head shouldered the responsibility of economic decisions and those pertain­ ing to activities outside the home. The eldest female was responsible for domestic decisions concerning task allocation among female members and those concerning child rearing practices. Straus (1971:10) mentions:

Even though male supremacy is prescribed, the informal norms of Hindu society also provide for the management of the household, including the associated decisions, to be made by the wife. The extent to which she does so is influenced by many factors such as the type of household 24

(joint versus nuclear) and the age of the wife. In principle, it should also vary from caste to caste, reflecting differential degrees of commitment to these norms.

The modern trend towards nuclear family has influenced the decision making patterns in the Indian homes. Gore (1968:155) in his study oh decision making in

Agarwal families pointed out that even though the eldest male was seen to play an important role, he was not imposing his will on others. Gore calls It a role of symbolic authority. Even in nuclear families, Gore's study pointed out that the father consulted other elder kin outisde the family in making certain decisions.

Women are not seen to make independent decisions, though they influenced deci­ sions in informal ways. Fircbaugh and Wellington (1971:63 , 64) cite some of the studies on decision making in Indian homes, and suggest that there was an apparent trend towards equalltarian pattern of decision making in the small nuclear families of the present day. MoBt of the studies conducted and those cited by Firebaugh and Wellington focus primarily upon decisions concerning mate selection In m ar­ riage and those concerning child rearing practices.

Rapid social changes, advances in education, and other ramifications in the wake of transition have had their impact upon family decision making patterns in the modern Indian homes. According to Mamoria (1960:30) the change in the role of woman owing to educational status is very great. He opines that a girl who attains educational equality with her husband will have more voice in making family decisions than the one who has no such comparable status. 25

Schimel (1972:15) is of the opinion that the power relationships have been treated too simply. He mentions families where the mother is described as aggressive and domineering and the father, passive and dependent, just because the sociological query "who decides" is answered as mother decides. In sub­ sequent stages of the questioning "who decides who decides?" it is stated that clearly the father and possibly even the children have a hand in that decision.

In answer to the final stage of his query, he includes "the grandparents (and their parents). . . the culture, the media, and the other agents, past and pre­ sent, which, invisibly and insensibly, mold the decision making process that go on between and among people. "

Family in India

Joint Family System

The two broad conceptualizations about the Indian family are the tradi­ tional joint family system and the age old caste system. Important concepts

such as mechanization, industrialization, urbanization, increased mobility and

Westernization are frequently attributed as causes for the shrinking of the joint family system in India (Ehrenfels, 1971:54). These concepts are impor­

tant not only in understanding the disintegration of the joint family system, but

are crucial in the study of family and family life patterns at the present and

in the near future. Similarly, the caste system in India has also contributed

to changing ideologies of family patterns and life styles. 26

In India today it is assumed that everything is changing under the impact of industrialization and urbanization (Narain, 1970:454). Narain further points out the unfortunate situation where everything contemporary is considered and

Interpreted as change, without awareness of what existed and to what extent in the past.

According to Mamoria (1962:204)

The family to a Hindu is a sacred institution, deriving sanction from religion and hoary social traditions and hedged in by all sorts of pseudo-history myths and legends. The Hindu family is extended and is known as the 'joint family,' i.e ., it is a collection of more than one primary family, the basis being close blood ties and common residence. Largest joint families are to be found in the most fertile parts of India where rural density is the highest, and where the best results in agriculture can be secured by pooling all available labour and resources.

Under the Hindu joint family system, several generations with several collaterals live together constituting a single household. The family is joint in food, worship and estate. The essential feature is that the consumption of goods is common and every member of a family should share in the prosperity or adversity of every other member. Mamoria mentions that the system is organized on the principle of subordination of all members to the head, not on coordination or equality.

The joint family provides some sort of social insurance to all its members—the widow, the old, the weak and the infirm. Mamoria quotes Low (S. Low, Vision of India, p. 263), "to a person, it is his club, his trade union, his benefit society, his philanthropic society—all rolled into one." 27

The family, rather than the individual was looked upon and considered as the unit of the social system. Religious tradition and rituals made the family linkage between different generations and kin affinity cohesive and con­ tributed towards family solidarity (Schleslngcr, 1961:171). The most important social relations of the joint family are between husband and wife, parents and children, particularly father and son, mother and daughters-in-law, father and daughters-in-law, siblings and sisters-in-law (Narain, 1970:455-480;

Schleslnger, 1961:171). This atmosphere in the family is passed on to members of the next generation for continuity.

The Indian joint family consisted of two types of joint families, namely,

Matrllocal joint family—Nayar community of Malabar, and patrilocal joint family—tribes in Central India and all Hindus. In both types the children did not leave their families of origin on their marriage. When the daughters in the

Patrilocal joint family and sons in the matrllocal joint family left their family of origin after marriage, they did not lose completely the membership of their original families. They had a dual membership in the community. In the

Hindu joint family descent is reckoned along the male line. Property and name passed from father to son and father’s authority reigns supreme, a characteristic of the patriarchal family. In the matriarchal family descent is reckoned along the female line and mother's authority reigns supreme.

Mamoria states that for quite a few decades it has been felt that laws laid down by Dharmashastras regarding the family life of the Hindus need to be modified in the light of the demands of contemporary social life and change. 28

Therefore a Hindu Code Bill was introduced In the Parliament by Dr. D. B.

Ambedkar providing for divorce, registration of marriage in harmony with traditional ritual ceremony, and also the recognition of the rights of daughters along with sons to the inheritance of property. So vocal was the opposition that it had to be dropped, and a new Bill (Hindu Marriage and Divorce Art) was introduced in the Council of States at the end of 1952. Among other things it raised the marriage age from 14 to 15, made bigamy an offense under the penal code, and laid down the conditions for judicial separation and divorce.

Some social scientists believe that pronounced growth of individualistic spirit, and the influence of Western ideas, coupled with developments in transportation and communication have tended to disrupt the joint family system in India. Sociological and anthropological studies carried out in India since 1949, have probed into questions like: do Indians typically live in joint families? Are there caste differences in the distribution of family types, with the high castes having higher proportions of joint families than the middle and lower castes?

(Kolenda, 1968:339). Goode (1970:238) draws major conclusions from his study of changing family patterns in India that at any given point in time, most Indian households are not joint in composition. Divergent conclusions about the pre­ valence of joint family that have emerged from specific surveys, he says, comes from the use of varied definitions. Karve (1953:10-12) suggests that larger or smaller joint family is typical of India. Dube (1959:213) on the other hand suggests nuclear or small joint family as being typical of India. Mendelbaum

(1957:247) opinos that joint family is a rural phenomenon while Dube (1963:197) I t

29

upholds that It is an "urban phenomenon, confined mostly to upper caste groups

in traditional small towns. " Kapadin (1966:285, 301) mentions that urbanized

nuclear families tend to cluster into larger kinship units in common residential

areas. Patel (1963:25, 108} believes that urbanized individuals often keep

alive socio-economic ties with rural joint families.

Singer (1968:424) is in compliance with such trend of thought that it is

highly questionable to conclude that the family is breaking down and is being

replaced by nuclear families. He mentions that the census data previously used

gave only information about household size, which according to him is an unreli­

able index of family type. He believes that the breakdown of the joint family

cannot be supported by citing statistics on the frequency of nuclear households.

According to him, one must distinguish the cultural ideal of the joint family

from its actual occurrence and attitudes and sentiments from behavior.

The joint family may be visualized as a social structure embedded within

a framework of a specific kind of social system. As a social system, the

distinct features that distinguishes the Indian joint family may be characterized

In terms of its patrilineal descent, patrilocal residence and patriarchal authority.

These are the characteristics of a dominant structural type of Indian joint

family, however, there are significant variations in different regions, castes

and tribes and religious groups (Singer, 1968:426). Therefore in the study of

the family and family patterns, these nre Important variables, along with Western

secular education, and modern salaried occupations (Kolenda, 1968:340-41). 30

The existence of the joint family system and its consequent breakdown in the wake of transition influenced by urbanization, industrialization and modern­

ization has been highly discussed and debated by social and behavioral scientists at the present time. Yet another social institution which has been widely dis­

cussed and debated is the caste system in India.

Caste System

In studying the Indian family, the social institution of caste plays as prom­

inent a role as the joint family system. By virtue of one’s birth in a particular

caste, it is observed that his pattern of interaction and relation with other

members of the community and society at large are affected and influenced. In

India caste grouping is a peculiar type of social grouping. This institution which

emerged in India many centuries ago, largely determines the function, the

status, the available opportunities as well aB the handicaps for an individual

(Desai, 1961:28, 12). According to Dcsai, caste differences even determine the

differences in modes of domestic and social life. In the past, caste has been

recognized as a salient variable in measuring the individual's power, position

and status In relation to other individuals and the community.

The castes were usually described as Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas

and Shudras. These were considered the hierarchical denominations of a

caste (Betellle, 1969:224). Hierarchy is a necessary feature of a caste

system. Each of the hierarchical units of the caste system in India were labeled 31 and identified with a distinct occupation. All castes have a traditional occupation which their members may or may not follow. Some castes are known by their occupational name. Some occupations are the special privilege of some castes while others are considered to be ritually defiling to be performed by any other than some specified caste groups (Harper, 1968:58). Membership in a caste is hereditary and permanent (Berreman. 1960:120).

The new opportunities—educational, economic, political—are caste free, affording equal opportunity to all without banning anyone from having access to them by reason of birth in a particular caste or sect or religion. This according to Srinlvas (1966:91) increases the cultural, social and economic distance between those of the upper castes and the lower castes. Life styles tended to change considerably in both the upper castes as well as the lower castes. The lower castes were competing for equal status and recognition equal to the upper castes. They became determined to obtain Western education and its advantages

(Srlnivas, 1966:91). The desire for social mobility was articulated through caste groupings, and each caste group endeavored to improve its caste status and standing.

Traditional India may be regarded as a religious society on the whole, whereas modern India has experienced increased secularization. In the past

religious valueB were pervasive and dominant and caste distinctions were

pronounced. Caste system then played a predominant role In highlighting and emphasizing family and community differentiations. The caste norms gave direction to family activities and life styles and contributed significantly to 32 understanding and strengthening family solidarity. Even though the Indian

Constitution states that there Is no distinction or discrimination based upon the caste system now, Bose (1972:107) opines . . caste has endured in spite of revolts to the contrary because the occupational hierarchy and economic inequality have remained. The economic structure of caste has survived in large partB of rural India to thiB day." Sociologists and anthropologists even at the present time consider caste system as significant as the class system of the West in studying social stratification (Ghurye, 1969:ch. 8; Mnndelbnum,

1970: ch. 2). In the mid-fifties, Ross (1955:94) mentioned in a symposium on caste, that the old established social barriers, such as those of caste will hold tenaciously as long aB the Indians confined themselves to narrow geographic limits within the country. However, Ross believed that with continued trend towards industrialization and urbanization, the same factors that have changed the American social system into a "climbing" society will also eventually change the Indian "once tight caste system into an open class system" enabling individuals to move fairly freely in the social scale. With the loosening of caste norms and stipulations, family philosophy, values and standards have shifted, necessitating re-definitlon of the traditional beliefs and practices.

Caste norms in the past demarcated the family interaction periphery within certain well-defined groups in the community and society at large. At the present time, the interactional periphery has considerably widened, with inter-caste marriages and inter-caste dining becoming acceptable. 33

The Manager in the Indian Home in the Past and Present

Changes in Life Styles

There is considerable change in the Indian homemaker's position today in comparison to that of her counterpart in past years. The change may be considered remarkable or unimpressive, depending upon one's perspective.

According to Lamb (1966:159) the status of the Indian manager in the home is an unhappy one. She mentioned that although her legal position had improved greatly, most Hindu women were still bound by ancient traditions of behavior that emphasized her submission, obedience, devotion and absolute dedication to her husband. Gandhi (1942:110) pointed out that the Hindu culture has erred on excessive subordination of the wife to the husband. According to him, this has resulted In the husband usurping and exercising authority.

Kapadla (1966:266-67) portrays a more optimistic picture of the modern

Indian wife:

The rapid strides in higher education during the last twenty-five years have exercised their impact in two ways, first by creating conditions for a woman to be self-reliant and secondly by creating stronger emotional bonds between her and her husband. An educated young man is no longer satisfied with the prospect of a wife who can only be the acquiescent slave of his desires and the begetter of his children, but looks for intellectual cooperation and parti­ cipation in the pleasures and joys of life. The educated wife is expected to be a companion who will share his interests, go with him to clubs and films, sports and parties, and thus be united emotionally with him. This new concept of wifehood, which is associated with urban living, has assigned to the wife a new status in the family, oven if it be Joint, 34

In the past, the traditional customs, beliefs and social norms enforced a certain code of conduct imperative for social acceptance. Society stipulated that fathers and other male members of the family protect women as a religious duty. The impact of modern changes Is that women are emerging with greater independence and freedom, without any moral or ritualistic subjugation.

The status and position of Indian women has been cyclical, at times equal to those of men and at other times subservient. Manu, the Hindu law giver, has clearly stated the rights and duties or women in relation to their husbands und families. This was considered valuable, and adopted and adhered to, in an unquestioning manner in the early times. In the post-Vedic period, which began after 500 B. C ., attitudes towards women began to be rigid with considerable

Increase in the custom of pre-puberty marriages. Following this period, about the end of the sixth century B. C. the influence of Buddhism gave more equal

status to men and women. Contrary to the liberalism of Buddhism and Jainism,

the Purnntc period which followed, again imposed rigidity and the position of women was very much of a servile nuturo. This period—during which child

marriages became rampant, female education tended to be absolutely nil and

the practice of widow remarriage declined—continued until the eve of the con­

quest by the Muslims in the 11th century A. D. The Muslim conquerers attempted

coercive norms and the Hindu society furthor curtailed the rights of women.

This continued till the middle of the 19th century, when changes became imminent

in Indian families, communities and society at large (Kurian, 1961:15-16). 35

Women who considered themselves to be dependent on men for life were idealized and respected for their uncomplaining devotion as wives and mothers

(Goldstein, 1972:148). Within their formally inferior roles, Goldstein mentions that some women developed significant influence by their artful sensitivity to the needs and whims of men, and achieved functional power or informal power. A similar opinion is expressed by Janeway (1971:56) who suggests that some Western women cling to their traditional roles, not because they like to be dominated, but because such role offers them "private power in return for public submission."

Crlstdas (1972:33) draws the difference between the woman's position and

role in the wealthier families and the poorer homes. In the former the wife's

responsibility is limited to supervision of the household, while in the latter she

carries on all household duties and often works outside the home as well.

Harper (1969:92) notes that women of lower caste work outside the home for wages and handle family finances. Among them, he states that family authority

tends to be equally divided between husband and wife. In terms of personality

traits he sees them to be bold, self assured and independent. The Brahmin

woman's role within the family, as pointed out by him, begins at a very low

level in her husband's household. She gains respect and a certain amount of

de facto authority with time. Even among the lower caste women, Epstein

(1962:323) Indicates a change in their role and status, consequent to their oper­

ation in a cash economy and the customury subsistence economy. Hu states

that familial relations arc unaltered when economic relations between the

husband and wife are unchanged; but where the wife occupies a new economic i 36 role, he sees changes in familial relations, the wife being much less sub­ servient to her husband.

In modern times, the role of the Indian manager in the home has under- I gone a drastic change due to their taking up jobs outside the home either for economic reasons or for intellectual satisfaction. Economic, political and social developments have contributed to innovations in the lives of a number of urban middle class Indian homemakers (Mahajan, 1066:377-80; Monthly

Commentary on Indian Economic Conditions, 1969:XII). Conflicting and con­ tradictory opinions and views have emerged as to how far the Indian home­ maker can retain the traditional Hindu values while adopting and adjusting to o changing social milieu (Mehta, 1970:207).

Impact of Industrialization

The level of industrialization in India is not very high, with approxi­ mately 70 percent of her population still depending upon agriculture as the source of livelihood (Gore, 1968:55), The impact of industrialization is felt upon the social structure. The social structure or the system encompasses within itself all types and modos of interaction between people and their environ­ ment as well as among the people themselves. Changes in the value system, and the changes in the kinship and stratification structures would be influenced by the rate and pace of industrialization. 37

Some of the social-cultural characteristics considered essential for industrialization may be ’'dysfunctional" for the joint family system, like the secularization of beliefs which will break down magical-ritualistic or blindly traditional patterns of behavior, and the value system which will emphasize individual initiative and responsibility enabling the individual to function without restrictive familial controls (Gore, 1968:42-43). Sociologists attribute to

Industrialization the loosening of the joint family system, and the evolution of new mode of life, in which family ties are strong even though physically removed (Sen, 1958:47-52; Balakrlshna, 1958:195-199; Sharma, 1958:203;

Kapadla, 1966:285).

Until recently in India, industrialization has been confined to a few large cities, as indicated by the concentration of factories in cities. The technolo­ gies by which the rural and urban people live differ (Gore, 1968:48). The proximity of the rural environs to the cities and the mode of transportation and communication available to such areas have also influenced the social patterns and effected changes (Kurian, 1961:130).

Iyengar (1958:68-75) and Gore (1968:51-60) elucidate the impact of indus­ trialization on traditional cultures. According to them, traditional cultures have suffered considerable loss of cohesion, identity and health. One major development stated by them is the destruction of the family us an occupational

unit. Iyengar also mentions the "steady depopulation of the countryside conse­

quent to the rise of new industries, the false lure of the city, the attraction of

urban entertainments like the cinema, the new values set by modern technology, 38 the improvement in the means of transport and communication, the desire to possess the novelties and gadgets of the day and for a higher standard of life." The family being thus affected, it is imperative to understand and study the family in accordance with the cultural and environmental changes, recog­ nizing its needs and available resources. Like Gore and other sociologists,

Iyengar too opines "it is not change that Is the enemy nor technology the villain of the piece; it is rather the pace of the change, the indiscriminate meddling with traditional culture, the lack of right understanding of both what the tradi­ tional culture stands for and the implications of the Introduction of particular technological developments."

Impact of Urbanization

The life of the people in the city as well as in the rural areas is being transformed, even though the degree of the pace of the change may vary from area to area and from one group to another (Kurian, 1961:130). The factors influencing such transformation are the different levels of education, economic prosperity and urban influences.

..Differences of opinion exist among sociologists regarding the cause- effect of urbanization. Some tend to view that urbanization is the result of rapid industrialization, while the other view is that "highly urbanized areas are generally highly industrialized areas, urbanization is not a simple function of Industrialization" (Encyclopaedia B ritannicu, 19G2:894A). 39

Cities have existed in India for at least four thousand yeurs. A few of the classic examples of well known urban locations in Indian history are Mohenjo- daro, Harappa, Pataliputra, Nalanda, Bannrns and Delhi. While these urban centers have existed for centuries, they were not part of the process of urban­ ization of the population (Gore, 19(18:46). The pre-industrial urban centers did not hamper or impede the continuance of the joint family system.

Family norms and traditions have been affected by people's exposure to

Western and other cultural influences in towns and cities (Srinivas, 1966:63).

Gould (1961:947) observed this phenomenon to a more marked degree among the high castes than among the lower castes, who lack the means as well as the moti­ vation. Ross (1962:281) in her study of the Indian family, indicated that the number of generations in the city is an important variable affecting family change along with variables like age and marital status. Srinivas (1966:184) considered the urbanization process important in the systematic study of the role of kin, caste and local networks and of the links between these networks:

Gore (1968:226) in his study of urbanization and family chunge in India indicated some of the changes consequent to urbanization and their implications to the Indian family system. He makes comparative and critical analysis of the findings of similar studies of Knpndlu, Ross and Desai. He concludes that the new family form that will emerge as a result of Industrialization and urbanization

"musL provide for greater independence and initiative for the nuclear units of joint family. It must allow for a greater voice for women in family affairs, and it must devise new ways of motivating adult individuals to participate in an 40 admittedly complex system oC relationships. M

Family R esearches In India

Research Emphasis Areas

Researches on the family in India have focused primarily on describing the joint family nnd gradual change to the nuclear family under the forces of education, urbanization or modernization. The distribution of joint and nuclear families has been imperfectly explored in urban and rural ureas, class by class (Ramu, 1972:213-214).

Scholars contend that the joint family has not disintegrated but has adopted itself to the modern industrial setting, undergoing "structural" changes, but continuing to be the same "functionally" (Ehrenfels, 1971:55).

In his well-documented study of the family in various cultures, Goode (1970:

10-12) establishes that there is "functional fit" between conjugallsm and

Industrialism. He emphasizes the need for more ingenious research designs which can locato the points of impact and the degree of impact between family and Industrial organization. According to some sociologists like

Kapadia (1966:286), Gore (1968:104), Gould (1968:413-23) and Singer (1968;

423-26) the changes in the joint family have been limited and have been con­ ditioned by temporal factors. Gore mentions that the urban family usually depended upon the rural family, which consisted primarily of the joint family

in times of stress and need like child bearing, illness or occupational failure. 41

In India the family has served as the chief carrier of culture (Ramu,

1972:212), but many family life concepts and characteristics remain unex­ plored with scientific conceptualizations and theorizing. Ernest W. Burgess believed that the family should be studied from the viewpoints of all the social sciences (Winch, 1972:5).

Concerning researches on the family in India, Ramu (1972:214) states:

While it Is clear that the joint family controversy has augmented the literature on the Indian family, signifi­ cant information on other aspects of family life is yet unavailable. For example, some of the questions that need to be dealt with are: What is the nature of kin­ ship organization and tics in industrial and urban setting? To what extent do geographic and occupational mobility influence the kinship system and the family? What is the role of the family as an agency of political socialization? To what extent does family consolidate caste solidarity?

Ramu further points out that studies so far conducted on the family contribute very meager information. In his words "it is time to go beyond these questions and look for the role of the family as an independent variable determining other social processes."

Family role could be best studied through "family culture. " Diverse as

it is, India has n unique "family culture. " The norms and values which

people hold regarding courtship, marriago^-dlvorce, kinship identity and

obligations, socialization, rosidence and household maintenance are the

elements of family culLure according to Farber (1964:65). Fnrbor (1968:11)

- explains, "For a family to persist Lhrough several generations as a continuity

of norms, roles and values—the totality of symbolic family estate—family 42 culture would have to be transmitted from one generation to the next without change." At the present time sevcrul changes have occurred in the Indian society, even though some of the changes have occurred rather slowly.

Farbcr's theory revolves around an understanding of the family in terms of its culture, and he uses the concept of "orderly replacement of family culture" to explain the transmission process. In the Indian context,

Ramu (1972:218-23) considers the four institutional arrangements facilitating an efficient replacement of culture, namely, the norms of endogamy, the kinship norms, the Hindu view of life and the family and caste control of the individual. Studies and research needs to be pursued concerning family and other social institutions that affect and are affected by the modern transitional changes.

Problems in Studying Indian Families

The most commonly cited problem by sociologists, in studying Indian families is the lack of concepts and well defined terminologies. Beteille

(1969:224) points out the problem confronted by focussing upon some specific unit like the caste, which tends to direct the description of social relations In a particular slant. Such focussing, according to Beteille, fails to include indi­ viduals or groups of people as the units of intonation. More recently, Beteille mentions of this problem having been overcome by the identification of the operative units in the system. 43

Barber (1968:26) states 11—it is now clear, the older picture was derived from the official religious and idological literature of Indian society, not from objective historical and field research, which has flnully done so much to change our understanding." No authentic field research was done to study the concepts held by live villagers inductively. On the contrary, Marriott (1959:96) opines that there had been a tendency in field reports to mix great traditional precepts with village examples, to work deductively from the books of dharmnshastra.

Marriott (p. 102-103) also mentions that the Westerners who first studied

India tended to be largely scholars who were interested in its language and literature, not historians or social scientists who might have questioned the official ideology. This accounted for the family not having been studied per se. Barber (1968:27) cites the comparative perspective among Western scholars, which contributed to the problem of studying Indian families. Accord­ ing to him, they were so much struck by the differences between India and the

West that they ignored some of the similarities between the two or at least greatly minimized the significance of these similarities.

Another vital problem hus been India's linguistic diversity which arises from its peculiar social structure. In addition to the 14 regional languages, there are more than a hundred dialects, tribal languages, literary styles and the like (Gumperz, 1961:29). The problem is further enhanced by the Indian writers in English not relying upon local language sources. Gumperz (1961:30) %

44 points out that an Indian may write In English on Constitutional law or economic development, but his ideas and the symbols by which they are expressed, he believes, will be influenced, however unconsciously, by the vernacular liter­ ature he reads.

Among divergent causes like the complexity of language, dress, customs and habits, caste norms and ritualistic observances, the high percentage of illiteracy among the population, poor modes of transportation and communica­ tion proved potential obstacles in conducting field studies.

The prevailing phenomena and concepts like "joint family," "joint house­ hold" were interpreted differently by different sociologists, with the result being misinterpretation of data collected. Similarly Goode (1970:374) is of the opinion that since the world is becoming industrialized and urbanized simul­ taneously, it may not be possible to isolate these two processes as separate sets of causal factors. Ho also opines that it is theoretical error to treat

"urbanization" as a single variable, including in that variable almost all of the social changes. He points out the erroneous application of the concept of "industrialization," neglecting the numerous causal factors.

Plurality of family types, as they leave the stage of archaic primitiveness, become more complex and more differentiated (Rene Konig, 1970:602). Under such circumstances, well defined concepts and definitions are imperative in studying and understanding the similarities and differences.

Another problem that has been overcome lately is the "remarkable methodological improvement of research both in Eastern and in Western 45 countries alike. Konig (1970:620-21) elucidates a new perspective with regard to the relations of the nuclear family to the different forms of the extended family, "modified" or not, which is the full transformation of so many old ideas that had been taken for granted until recently.

Family Measurement Techniques

In measuring family change, one of the shortcomings mentioned by Hill

(1970:539) is the lack of any clcur baseline from which to assess the extent of change. The second shortcoming mentioned is the lack of attention to the issue of representativeness of the sampled population. The third shortcoming is that the concepts used by scholars today have not been part of the vocabulary

In the past and hence valid comparisons over time are not possible. Yet another similar problem in measurement mentioned by Reuben Hill, is the failure to operationalize concepts utilized in family change studies so that the indicators might be comparable over time.

Hill suggested the three generation panel technique as good as any yet developed for explaining family changes. Straus (1970:554) suggested some new possibilities of measuring family behavior, "even if it does not demonstrate their validity." This was a laboratory experimentation method, and Struus mentions its advantage in that the measurement is done by means of "direct observation" of the events under study. This method, he points out (p. 558),

"is In involve the family in an interesting and absorbing task so that 46

Interaction among family members can be observed. The method was a kind of game-puzzle task. He also mentioned among other methods, joint decisions

to a verbal problem and certain other kinds, which he felt would not be suit­ able to lower class families.

Straus (1968:566) also suggested comparative replication studies. He

studied the effects of cultural differences in socialization and the results in a

drastically different pattern of mental ability. The two cultures he compared were those of Ceylon and the United States, He mentions that the Ceylon

students showed unusually high verbal skills in both speaking and writing

English, even though English was not their native language. He observed an t equal lack of competence among them in such tasks as drawing graphs,

simple statistical calculations, and physical manipulation of objects. Struus

concludes that the socialization of Ceylonese students in n culture which

denigrates manual tasks and values verbal skills, affords few opportunities

to practice non-verbal skills, but many opportunities to develop verbal skills.

The laboratory experimentation method evolved by Straus and Tollman

was one of simulation. The design of the research was intended to find out

the effect of frustration or a simulated crisis on family behavior, and to

determine the similarities and differences in family response to frustration. 47

Simulation and SIMFAM

Sackman (1967:305) defined simulation as "the differential representation of objects and events In any portion of u referent system and its environment by actual and analogous counterparts us they are operationally defined and exercised in an experimental test setting." According to Riley (19G9:29),

"simulation assumes the appearunce of something without becoming it," and facilitates decision-makers to study the effects of various inputs without incurring the economic or higher social costs involved in actual experimenta­ tion, To Cruikshank (1966:23) simulation Is "the creation of realistic games to be played by participants In order to provide them with life-iike problem solving experiences related to their present or future work, "

SIMFAM is a technique for direct observational measurement of family behavior and interaction under standardized conditions (Straus and Tallman,

1971:381). The technique is called "Simulated Family Activity Measurement"

abbreviated as SIMFAM. The technique provides a framework within which

experimental analogs or simulations of naturally occurring conditions can be introduced for purposes of experimental study.

According to Straus and Tullmnn the development of SIMFAM technique

has been influenced by the psychometric tradition, from which has come an

awareness of the limitations of self-report measures, and the laboratory

experimental tradition, which has stimulated a desire to oxplore the potential

advantages of observed performance measures of fomily behavior and for 48 testing theoretical explanations of family behavior.

The SIMFAM technique can be made highly beneficial and meaningful in studying family behavior in the home environment rather than in a laboratory.

O'Rourke (1963:422-35) is of the opinion that the laboratory Itself elicits some differences in behavior, especially in "In vitro" studies of groups which seek to know something about their behaviors "in vivo."

Conceptual Framework

Planning has been identified as a major concept of home management.

Limited research and state of knowledge regarding the family in India and the lack of sensitization, adherence and adoption of management concepts in the day-to-day management of the home suggest further study of this concept.

Planning is defined by the investigator as the ability to think in any situation of a number of possible outcomes to accomplish the desired goal. Planning needs to take into consideration the future consequences and the ability to find new and different methods of handling family management situations. The characteristics vital to planning include prediction, involving conceptual fore­ sight; elaboration, involving generation of ideas that contribute to the development of plans; and ingenuity, involving evolution of new and different methods.

The fundamental and primary managerial activity is planning. The organizing and controlling functions arc derived from the planning function.

The planning function includes all the managerial activities which lead to the establishment of goals and fixation of priority, forecasting future events 49 which can affect goal accomplishment, making the plans operational and giving direction to plan implementation. Each of the managerial activities must be completed and related to other managerial activities in order to complete the planning process.

The concept of planning may bo considered to have very specific connota­ tions with regard to the Indian home and its management function. In the

Indian homes, both in the past—in the predominantly joint family structure, and in the present—in its changed form and pattern, the managerial activities differ depending upon the immediate family environment and the extent to which the family adheres to the traditional practices and beliefs. The social and cultural norms of the society, and the community in particular, affect the establishment of goals and fixation of priorities. Cultural norms and sociolo­ gical traditions have tended to involve other family members within the immediate

family as well as those outside of this close knit unit, like the elders In that

community, play a vital role in plan execution or implementation. Consequently,

plans are subjected to modifications while they aru executed. Hence, in the

Indian family, conceptual foresight will play a significant role In the awareness

and consideration of all possible resources to suitably formulate the plans. The

available resources will have to include family facilities existing in the joint

family unit, even though separated by distance; and caste norms and stipula­

tions built into the standards which families are expected to maintain and

continue, to enable one in evolving operational plans.

Forecasting is thu process of using past and current information to predict future events. Planning includes the relating of facts and assumptions about resources and situations to the desired goal, enabling the attainment of the goal. This requires specification and assessment of what is to be done, what resources are available and arc to be used. Planning therefore neces­ sitates awareness of available resources and also the awareness of consequences from different alternate choices. This aspect of planning relates to prediction.

Prediction stipulates foresight, using past and current information to predict future opportunities and events.

Planning not only requires assessment of a situation in relation to past events, but an awareness of the varied possible alternatives available. This highlights the importance of elaboration in plunning. The wider the spectrum of knowledge and understanding of the situation, the greater will the alterna­ tives and choices be for evolving suitable plans. Elaboration attempts to determine the scope of thinking, bused upon knowledge of community resources and family resource potentials that may be suitably used in developing plans.

The planning potentialities are as narrow or us wide os one's creativity.

Creativity is a broad concept relating to anything new in the way of an idea; whereas Ingenuity is very much limited in.its concept in that it is operationally defined as including ideas, decivcs and procedures which are novel and good solutions (Flanagan, 1963:92, 93). The solutions arc not arrived at by a logical routine process. Ingenuity leaves u wide variety of ways and means of solving problem situations, depending upon individual experience and perception. 51

It seems plausible that in planning of household activities a joint input by both the partners will enable better planning than the task being performed alone. Discrepancy could arise in the Indiun homes due to personal and/or situational factors or duo to the individual's personality. An individual and a joint session of inquiry regarding planning in the home among the couples is believed would help in gaining insight.

Study of the process of planning and relationship of planning to decision making in the home is proposed. Associated with planning in the home arc seen the personal and situational circumstances which tend to change, due to the impact of industrialization, urbanization, Westernization and modern* lzation. CHAPTER m

METHOD

Research Design

The sample consisted of 76 Indian couples, both husband and wife being

Indians by birth and living at present in Columbus and Cleveland, having at least one child. Membership directories were obtained from the India Associa­ tion at Columbus and another cultural organization at Cleveland. Eligible couples were identified from the directories with the help of the officers of the two organizations. The accessible population included Indian couples residing in the State of Ohio.

This was an associational study. It was termed associational from the point of view of the variables in the study. In accordance with an associational study, the independent variables, though manipulablo, were not manipulated for possible relation to the dependent variables (Baker and Schutz, 1972:11).

The independent variables in the study were:

1. Six simulated family problem situations to iden­

tify characteristics of planning ability.

2. Twenty-seven family decision making statements.

The dependent variables were:

1. Plunning abilities, including characteristics of

52 prediction, elaboration and ingenuity.

2. Decision making patterns including male dominated,

female dominated and egalitarian families.

The intervening variables were:

1. Ago

2. Education

3. Occupation

4. Experience by years married

5. Number of children

6. Length of residence in the United States

7. Length of residence in urban/rural environment

since childhood.

8. Experience by years in joint/nuclear family before

and after marriage.

9. Native State in India

10. Caste

11. Religion 54

Data Collection

Development of the Interview Schedule Form

The means for collection of information concerning couples' planning abilities and decision making patterns in family management consisted primarily of a three-part open and closed ended interview schedule form, including simu­ lated family problem situations (Appendixes A, B and C).

Part I. Identification of Planning Abilities

A modified version of Guilford Test Battery for Planning Abilities is the device used to measure the planning abilities of couples. In this study it was proposed to investigate the characteristics of prediction, elaboration and ingen­ uity. The focus was mainly on the concepts of foresight, production of alternate methods and new applications used by Borgcr, et a l., in their study of planning abilities (Berger, et al. , 1957:2). Based upon Guilford's Test Battery, situations suitable in the Indian context were developed for measuring the abilities of prediction, elaboration and ingenuity. Two situations for each of the three char­ acteristics of planning were formulated, representing a cross-section of the prob­ lem areas in Indian families most frequently found by personal observation and experience of the investigator. Discussions with Indian couples and readings from Indian literature were helpful in formulating the situations. In developing the simulated family, care was Laken to see that there was close semblance to the modern Indian family situation in which the traditional joint family is 55 gradually disintegrating. To understand and comprehend the change, couples need to realize individual potentialities to plan. It would be beneficial for couples

to be aware of their planning abilities for efficient family management.

"Simulation" is proposed as an appropriate and suitable method for

studying and understanding the home management practices and decision making

patterns in Indian homes. Among the different kinds of simulation, verbal

representations consisting of simulations that use oral and written language, like

dialogue and recordings arc proposed for use in this study (Ochoa, 1969:106).

Simulation technique 1 b proposed because of its viability and flexibility of adoption,

suitable to Indian conditions and highly diverse populations. This technique offers

several advantages to the researchers, providing a systematic trlal-and-error

method for solving complex problems (Hamilton, 1969:96, 112). It can be,

according to Hamilton, inexpensive, with possibilities of easy minor changes

with many variables.

The Simulated Family as Presented to the Respondents

Anita Is 26 years old, married to Suresh 30 years, who has just received

orders of transfer to Bombay to head and organize a pharmaceutical unit. Till

now Suresh has been holding several different positions within the company's

head office, having started his career there seven years ago as sales represen­

tative. Even though he holds only a Bachelor's degree in Pharmacology, his

varied experience in different branches of business and organization have helped

him to attain the position he now holds.

Anita's family is a nuclear family consisting of her parents, an elder 56 brother and a younger brother. Suresh comes from a large joint family with three elder brothers, all married and living with their parents, two elder sisters who are married and a younger sister and brother, who arc both in college in the final year B. A. and Pre-University respectively.

Anita and Suresh have a daughter, Uma, 8 years, who is in the third class and a son, Uday, 6 years, in the first class. They attend a vernacular school with their mother tongue as medium of instruction.

The transfer order has brought with it several issues that need to be

considered—especially because Anita and Suresh have been living with Suresh's

parents as part of the joint family ever since they were married and also both of them have never been out of their home State and in a big city like Bombay.

Problem Situations Confronting the Simulated Family

A. Prediction

Situation I.

(A conversation between Suresh's parents.) Father: (Calls out to his wife) Lakshmi, come here for a moment. I want to discuss something with you. Is Anita around? Mother: Yes, what's the matter?

Father: Do you remember yesterday's news? Mother: OhI about Suresh's transfer? I do. I thought that you and Suresh'had decided that he was not going to Bombay.

Father: Not yet. We hope to decide this evening.

Instruction: How are you going to convince your futhcr/fnther- in-law about going to Bombay? 57

Situation U.

(Suresh is getting ready to go to office.)

Suresh: Anita, come here and have a look at my Bhoes. Are they in any condition to be worn to office?

Anita: I am coming. What is tho matter? (Looks at shoes.) I did see them, but I could not help it. Hari (the servant) has not reported for work for the last two days.

(Children call out to the mother for some help, and begin to cry.)

Anita: You don't seem to realize the work around the home. From morning till night I am on my feet, washing, cooking, shopping and even taking the children to school and bringing them back. All this with Hari being most irregular.

Instruction: What different practices would you adopt in the home to meet the ohcoming servant scarcity?

B. Elaboration

Situation III.

(Anita and her friend Sita have a conversation.)

Sita: Hullo, Anita. I heard about Suresh's transfer to Bombay. I am so happy for you. But, what are you going to do with your children?

Anita: Thank you Sita, I have been worried about Uday and Uma for the last two days. Suresh and myself are thinking of the different solutions to the problem.

Instruction: What are the different possible solutions to the problem? Situation IV.

(A dialogue between Suresh and the landlord, In Bombay.)

Suresh: I like the house. What are the other details concerning the lease?

Landlord: Good, the "pagadi" (advance) is He. 5000/- and the rent per month is Rb . 150/-. Tho "pagadi" must be paid In advance. The other details arc in this paper. You can read them and sign.

Instruction: What are the sources of your financial help to meet the "pagadi"?

Ingenuity

Situation V.

(Suresh and Anita discuss a problem.)

Anita: Suresh, Uma's teacher has sent two drama tickets. Do you have any money to spare? I have only Rs. 10/- and there are three more days left in this month.

Suresh: What's happened to the rest? What expenses did we incur?

Anita: God knows on what we spent. But I have only this ten left.

Instruction: How would you confront such unforeseen circumstances and make the best use of your income?

Situation VI.

(Suresh calls out to Anita.)

Suresh: Anita come here for a moment. Have you thought over, as to whnt you would like to do with this year's savings? 59

Anita: Every year we have spent the savings on our trip home. But thlB year, I have other plans for It.

Instruction: What are the different uses to which the money can be put, for maximum satisfaction?

(The six situations in Hindi, as given to respondents, are presented in Appendix

A.)

Part IL Decision Making Statements

A set of 27 decision making statements as confronted by the couple in the

simulated family was developed to probe whether the family interviewed was a

husband dominated or wife dominated or an equalltarian type of family. The

statements related to (1) family financial management, including the wife's

employment outside the home and the family's purchasing decisions and savings;

(2) fam ily religious observances; (3) child care p ractices; (4) household

operation and (5) family socialization patterns.

The statements were randomly arranged and suitably modified for the

husband and the wife as shown in Appendix B.

Decision Making Statements—Who decides:

A. Financial Management

1. How to control family finances? 2. What clothes to buy for the children? 3. When and how much to invest on jewelry? 4. What household equipment is to be purchased? 5. What gifts and presents to buy for relatives and friends? 6. Whether or not wifo should tuke up a job? 7. Whnt job should wife take up? 60

8. How and how much to set aside as savings? 9. What clothes your wife/husband will buy? 10. Whether or not to take life insurance?

B. Traditionalism and Religious Observance

1. What pilgrimages and offerings to make to family deities? 2. Whether or not to adhere to family rituals and festivals?

C. Chlld-Care Practices

1. Where should the children live? 2. Which school should the children be admitted? 3. How to discipline children? 4. What child-carc practices are to be followed?

D. Household Operation

1. How important family decisions are made? 2. How much each member of the family, participates in making decisions? 3. Which location to choose for living? 4. What type of apartment to take? 5. Whether or not to accept a transfer? 6. What the family will have for dinner? 7. Whom to employ for helping in household work? 8. What work to get done by the servant?

Family Socializing

1. Whether or not your brother should come and spend his vacation with you? 2. How to spend the children's next vacation? 3. Whom to invite and entertain? 61

Part 11L Situational-Biographic Data

Questions concerning the couple and their family were used to gather

Information related to hypothesis VII (Appendix C-2). To gain information about their family, questions were asked about their age, education, occupation, experience by years married, number of children, length of residence in the

United States, length of residence in urban/rural environment since childhood, experience by years in joint/nuclear family before and after marriage, native

State in India, caste and religion.

Datn Analysis

The Investigator evolved codo descriptors for decision making statements and the personal and situational datn schedule before the interview was started

and accordingly the data were coded and keypunched on EBM cords by the inves­

tigator, (Appendix F).

The data for Part I of the interview schedule were analyzed as follows.

All of the responses given by the respondents were broadly classified and cate­

gorized (Appendix D-1J. From this broad classification, "possible responses"

that reflect prediction, elaboration and ingenuity had to be established. This

was accomplished with the assistance of a graduate student in Home Management

(Appendix D-2). Realizing interpretation and coding are culture-bound

(Deutscher, 1969:241), the investigator also independently analyzed the responses

simultaneously. A final list of "possible responses" for each of the six 62 situations was evolved, after a discussion between the investigator and the graduate student.

A panel of six graduate students In Home management was given the six situations and the definitions of prediction, elaboration and ingenuity as used in this study (Appendix E-l). They were asked to evaluate the six sit­ uations and indicate which planning characteristic they considered could be best measured by each of the six situations. Their responses indicated the situations 2, 4, 5 and 6 (Appendix E-2)ob being most suitable to measure prediction (2), elaboration (4) and ingenuity (5 and 6). All the situations were analyzed and discussed, but situations 2, 4 and 5 and situations 1, 3 and 6 were grouped to determine the planning abilities and relationships between planning and decision making. The null hypotheses were either rejected or failed to be rejected, based upon the findings of the grouped situations of

2, 4 and 5 as determined by the panel. The findings of the grouped situations of 1, 3 and 6 are presented In Appendix K.

The total sum of the valid responses* by the husbands and wives for each of the six situations were analyzed for inter-rolatlonships among them using product-moment correlation coefficient. The planning index for each respondent was computed as follows:

Planning index = valid responses to a situation x 100 possible responses to that situation

♦Valid responses—refers to those responses identified as Indicative of planning ability. 63

Having computed planning index, scores for every respondent for both the individual response and Joint session separately for each of the six situations, their three planning levels, low, medium and high, were determined. To compute the levels, the difference between the highest and lowest planning index for each situation for both the couple was determined and divided by th re e .

The data for Part n of the interview schedule were analyzed for each of the respondents, to obtain the decision making score. There were 27 items on the schedule, with a scale of 1 designating "Suresh always," 2 referring to

"Suresh more than Anita, " 3 being both equal, 4 indicating "Anita more than

Suresh" and 5 for "Anita always. " The summed scores may range from 27 in which husband decides everything to 135, in which wife decides everything.

Eighty-one indicates complete equality. To determine the score ranges for husband dominance, wife dominance and egalitarian patterns of decision making, the difference between the highest score and the lowest score obtained by all the respondents was computed and frequency range was evolved for the three decision making patterns, namely, husband dominated, wife dominated, and egalitarian. The lower score range indicated husband dominant, the highest range denoted wife dominant and the middle range was indicative of egalitarian pattern. The items used in this instrument were based upon those used by

Blood and Wolfe (I960) with modifications suitable to Indian population. An item analysis was done using Cleaver Program (1968). 64

The difference botween individual planning ability and joint planning ability was determined by observing the number of newly generated responses in the joint session that were not mentioned in the individual responses, for each of the situations. Newly generated response index was computed us follows:

New response index = new responses given in joint session x 100 total responses given in joint session (new responses in joint session do not include those responses al­

ready given by both the couple in the individual response;

if a response is mentioned by one of the couples in the individual

response, and by the other partner in the course of the joint res­

ponse session then the response is accounted for as a new response;

if both the couple mention a new response not mentioned in the

individual response, then the response is accounted as a new res­

ponse.)

Tabulation and Statistical Analysis

Statistical measures used were Z scores, Chi-square and product-moment correlation coefficient, and item analysis using Cleaver Program.

I 65

Procedure

P re -T e st

A pre-test was undertaken with five families froh) the directory of the

Columbus India Association. After interviewing two families the written format of the six problem situations presented to the couple for individual response was modified. The statement format was changed to a dialogue type, where the different characters of the simulated family made the statement. These were modified and developed to resemble the situations on a pre-recorded tape, presented for the couple's joint response session. The remaining three of the five families were interviewed with the modified format. Also, in the pre-test a questionnaire was included regarding the commonality of the situations. They indicated whether the six situations were most common, somewhat common, less common, least common or uncommon. The modified format seemed to have greater clarity and understandability of the situations among the couples.

Therefore the modified format was retained; and also since the situations rated as "most common" appeared more often among the couples (Appendix G), all six situations were retained. In the course of the pre-test It was determined that it would facilitate respondents to have the same situation in English and in Hindi on either side of the situation hand-out given to them; since it was observed

that there may be some hesitation among n few to ask the investigator or the <

research aide for the Hindi version (Appendix A) of the situation which were kept

readily available. 6G

The Interview

The investigator visited Cleveland during one of the social gatherings of the Bharathi Cultural Society of Ohio in December, 1972. In the course of the scheduled program, she took a few minutes and explained to the audience the aim and objective of the study, the eligibility criterion for subjects and the time that would be involved in the interview. The nature of the interview to be conducted in their homes was also briefly explained. They were assured that in no way there will be un encroachment upon their privacy in eliciting infor­ mation and that no information gathered will be publicized under their name or identity. Hand-outs were also distributed to couples for their names, addresses, telephone numbers and suitable dates and timings in January for the interview

(Appendix C-l). The materials were collected before the audience dispersed.

During the same visit to Cleveland, a research aide was engaged to assist In data collection. The research aide, un officer in the cultural organization, was

familiar with the members. This facilitated identifying eligible families and

in contacting and locating their homes.

In Columbus also the couples were contacted during the screening of

Indian movies and during social gatherings, and their willingness to participate

sought through hand-outs similar to those distributed in Cleveland. A research

aide who was conversant with English, Hindi and a few other Indinn'languages

was engaged to assist in data vnllcclinn and transcription.

In March, 1973. 24 families in Columbus who had responded willingness

to participate, as also 25 others listed in the India Association directory and 67 found eligible were contacted by telephone. Among the 49 families contacted,

32 interviews materialized. In Cleveland 48 families were contacted, of which 44 interviews materialized. Listed below arc the number of families and reasons for not participating; some of which were not known with certainty from the officers of the two organizations.

Fam ilies Reasons for not participating

Columbus away on vacation at the time of the interview

the only timings suitable to them were already fixed for interviews with other fam ilies '

» either reported not interested in par­ ticipating or that they had been away from India too long to recollect cul­ tural traits

2 wives were Americans

2 families without children

1 busy and preoccupied in the process of moving from one house to another

husband was preparing for his exam­ ination and hence could not spare the time until May

Cleveland investigator cancelled because of unexpected delays in preceding inter­ view

the only timings suitable to them were already fixed for interviews with other fam ilies I 68

The administration of the three-part interview schedule took approximately

90-100 minutes. The interview was selected us the best method to collect data in conjunction with a simulated family situation (Mathew, 1971:222). This was chosen because of the flexibility in presenting and explaining the questions to the subjects. The interview with the combined technique is adaptable to varying con­ ditions and may be used with subjects of varying educational levels. This also enables the subjects to give the same interpretation to each question, in the presence of the Interviewer to explain and interpret (Kerlinger, 1965:475). Also the interview method haB been recommended us a tool to collect data in home management research (Gross, 1940:19; Stcidl and Bratton, 1968:74).

The couple interaction schedule was utilized in the following way. The coupled were individually given the six situations one after another, in which the respon­ dent is faced with a dilemma which must be resolved by tuking the role of the couple In the simulated family. The subjects were asked to respond the way they would solve such a problem. The couple interaction schedule is in parallel form with that given to the husband as thut given to the wife. Only the color of the

paper was different, making them seem different to the respondents. Thus,

husbands and wives were simultaneously exposed to identical situations.

The research aide administered the husband's schedule while the investi­

gator administered the wife's. On instances where the wife preferred to respond

orally rather than in writing, the investigator administered the interview 69

separately In another room, away from the hearing of the husband. The wife's responses were tape-recorded to facilitate analysis. This was followed by the

administration of the decision making schedule and the personal and situational data schedule. Lastly, the investigator administered the joint session of the

couple Interaction interview. The couple was afforded the maximum privacy

possible to respond without any disturbance. The research aide took care of

small children and other situations that may warrant the couple's attention, .

while the joint session was in progress. This enabled the couple to concentrate

and get as much involved as possible in responding.

To facilitate some of the respondents who were not fluent in English, the

situations were presented both in English and in Hindi. Hindi was chosen as

the other bilingual language, since it is the national language and is also known

popularly among the non-Hindi speaking population. The respondents were

further given the choice to speak and respond either in English, Hindi, or any

of the other Indian languages, such us Tamil, Telugu, Kanada, Malaynlam,

Gujarathi, Marathi or Punjabi. This was done to facilitate free flow of thought

and expression, without undue hesitation or inhibition.

The joint session consisted of the couple's oral response to the same prob­

lem situations presented to them individually, but pre-taped on a tape deck. One

tape deck was in English, while another one was in Hindi. At the end of each

problem situation a pre-taped voice instructed the couple of their expectations. 70

Each problem situation was played to the couple from a tape deck, and the couple's responses were taped on another tape deck. The recorded tapes were later transcribed by the research aide and checked by the investigator. CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

The following section contains a description of the sample and the results of the analyses of the interviews on planning abilities and decision mnking patterns in the Indian homes.

Description of the Sample

The total interviews included 76 Indian families, of which 73 yielded complete data. The 73 families were residents of Columbus and Cleveland, with both the husband and wife being Indians by birth and having at least one child. There were no other restrictions placed upon the sample.

Wives in the 26-31 years of age group constituted 42 percent of the female sample while thoso in 32-37 bracket made up about 32 percent. The average age of the wife was 31 years.

Husbands in the 32-37 years of age group constituted about 53 percent while those in the 26-31 bracket made up 25 percent. The average age of the husband was 35 years (Tables 1 and 2).

Since the sample population had about 17 percent of the females in the age group of 2l)-25 years and about 15 percent of the males in the age group of

71 72

38-43 years, it is appropriate to consider as comparable their modal age, rather than their mean age. The modal age of the wives was approximately

29 years, while that of the husband was about 34 years (Table 1).

TABLE 1

Descriptive Characteristics of Couple and Family

Characteristic Mean Std. Dev. Modal Category

1. Age of wife 31. 1 6.9 26-31

2. Age of husband 35.21 6.2 32-37

3. Years married 8. 13 7. 3 7.7

TABLE 2

Age Range of the Population (Husband N=76; Wife N»76)

Percentage Age in Years Husband Wife

20-25 __ ___ —i - - 17. 1 26-31 25.0 42. 1 32-37 52.6 31.6 38-43 14.5 3. 9 44-49 3 .9 2 .6 50-55 1.3 ------56-61 2.6 2.6

Total 100.0 100.0 73

The educational level of the respondents ranged from secondary school to graduate degrees. The majority of the females numbering approximately

37 percent had bachelor's degrees while 17 or approximately 22 percent had completed Intermediate or pre-university. Twenty or approximately 26 per­ cent of the female sample had beyond M aster's degree. Among the male sample only two of them had attained as low as pre-university. The majority of males. 33 or approximately 43 percent possessed Master's degree while 25 or approximately 33 percent had beyond Master's degree, as seen from Table 3.

TABLE 3

Educational Level of the Population (Husband N=7G; Wife N=7G)

Highest Educational Percentage Level Attained Husband Wife

Secondary school (8 years) — 5.3 High school (10 years) — 9.2 Intermedlato/P. U. C. (12/11 yenrs) 2.6 22.4 Bachelor's 21. 1 36.8 M aster's 43.4 15.8 MBBS* 15.8 7.9 Beyond Master's 17.1 2.6

Total 100.0 100.0

♦Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery 74

The number of years of marriage varied from one to 50 years. About

34 percent of couples had been married less than five years. Approximately another 38 percent of the couples had been married between six and ten years

(Table 4).

TABLE 4

Years Married (N=76)

Y ears Percentage

1- 5 34.2 6-10 38.2 11-15 17. 1 16-20 5.2 21-25 2.6 25 or more 2.6

Almost three-fourths of the sample were married less thun ten yearB; the

average married years of the couples was 8 years. The comparable modal

years of married experience of the couples was approximately 8 years (Table 1).

This Is indicative of majority of families as being in the early stages of the

family life cycle.

The majority of families, about 49 percent had one child; while approx­

imately 39 percent had two children; about nine percent three, and three percent

four (Table 5). The families with one and two children were mostly young

couples in the early stages of the family life cycle. 75

TABLE 5

Family Size by Number of Children (N-76)

Number of Children Percentage

1 48.7 2 39.5 3 9.2 4 2.6

Total 100.0

Among the 76 homemakers interviewed. 52 or approximately 68 percent pursued full time homemaking while 24 or about 32 percent were gainfully employed outside the home (Table 6).

TABLE 6

Homemakers with Outside Employment (N=76J

Characteristics Percentage

Full time homemaking 68.4

Part-time homemaking 31.6 (employed outside)

Total 100.0 76

Among the 76 male respondents, 42 or approximately 56 percent were medical doctors, while 22 or them were cither businessmen or academicians.

A very small percent (13.1) of the sample were full time students (Table 7).

TABLE 7

Employment Classification of Husbands (N=7G)

Occupational Category Percentage

Pull time student 13. 1 Part-time student 1.3 Professional^ 55.3 Non-p rofe s s Iona 1 ♦ ♦ 28.9 R etired 1.3

Total 99.9

♦Doctors ♦♦Academicians, businessmen

The sample was mado up of primarily Hindus, with equal number of 59

Hindu husbands and wives and un equal number of 17 non-Hindu husbands and wives (Table 8).

The growing tendency of inter-caste marriages was evidenced even within this small sample population. The percentage of Brahmin wives was

slightly more than that of the Brahmin husbands. Differences were also seen

among Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and others (Table 9). The sample was largely

made up of Vaisyas (who are primarily engaged in business traditionally) and

others. 77

TABLE 8

Religion of the Population

Religion Percentage

Hindu 77.6

Non-Hindu 22.4

Total 100.0

TABLE 9

Caste of the Population , (N=76)

Percentage Caste Husband Wife

Brahmin 19.7 22.4 K shatriyn 14.5 13. 1 Vaisya 32.9 30.3 O thers 32.9 34.2

Total 100.0 100.0

The data indicated that the majority of husbands and wives have had joint family living experience before marriage. After marriage such exper­ ience was seen to have prevailed among a very small percentage of the sample

(Table 10). 78

TABLE 10

Joint Family Living Experience of tho Population

Before Marriage Respondent After Marriage Percentage Percentage

Husbands 68.4 27.6 Wives 69.7 27.6

Responses to the question pertaining to exposure to rural/urban environment sincq childhood revealed tho growing tendency towards urbanization. Kurian

(1961:18) pointed out that after 1930, India's rate of urbanization increased markedly almost equalling the United States' gain at similar levels. The mobil­ ity of the sample population was seen to be phenomenal, indicating an inverse relationship between village orientation and city orientation (Table 11).

TABLE 11

Geographic Orientation of the Population Since Childhood

Life Periods Village Town City N.A. * %% % %

Up to 12 y ears Husband 35.5 27.6 30.3 6 .6 Wife 21. 1 21.6 50.0 7 .3

13 to 19 years Husband 15.8 35.5 44.7 4 .0 Wife 5.3 28.9 59.2 6.6 20 to 30 years Husband 2.6 10.5 84.2 2.7 Wife 1.3 10.5 84.2 4.0 After 30 years Husband 1.3 67. 1 31.6 Wife 1.3 1.3 47.4 50.0

*N. A, —not available (no response/not applicable) 79

As seen from the table the percentage of village-oriented people decreases with increasing years in life period, while the percentage of town and city oriented people keeps increasing during those periods of life stages. During the years 20-30, there was seen to be considerable increase in city orientation than town orientation. This may be considered indicative of increased urban­ ization and industrialization, with increased job opportunities in the cities, as well as the disintegration of joint family system.

The nativity of the sample population revealed India's true diversity. In

the process of enlisting families, no distinction was made on any grounds, except the criteria, they should be Indians by birth and have at least one child.

Eleven different States were represented in the sumple (Table 12).

TABLE 12

Nativity of the Sample Population

Percentage Native State Husband Wife

♦♦♦M adras 26.3 25.0 ♦♦G ujerat 17. 1 17. 1 ♦Uttar Pradesh 10.5 7.9 ♦Punjab 9.2 7.9 ♦♦♦Mysore 9.2 7.9 ♦♦Maharashtra 7.9 13.2 ♦♦♦Kerala 7.9 9.2 ♦♦♦Andhra Pradesh 5.3 5.3 ♦♦Madhya Pradesh 2.6 ------♦Sindh 2.6 3.9 ♦♦♦♦Bihar 1.3 2.6

Total 100.0 100.0 ♦Northern region * ♦♦Southern region ♦♦Western region ♦♦♦♦Eastern region 80

For purposes of analysis, neighboring States were grouped together into four regions—North (Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Sindh); South (Madras, Mysore, i Kerala and Andhra Pradesh); West (Gujcrat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh); and East (Bihar).

The differences in decision making patterns between the husband and wife in each of the 76 families were analyzed. There was found to be no significant difference among 59.2 percent of the families in their decision making patterns.

In 40. 8 percent of the families there was observed to be significant difference ranging from chi-square 9.45 to 39.8 (Table 13).

Turk and Bell (1972:216) defined egalitarianism as scores centering on the midpoint, with two polnLs on either side making the score range. They defined husband dominance us all scores below this and wife dominance as all scores above, having used a scale with lower figures designating husband always and husband more than wife und higher figures denoting wife more than husband and wife always. The data on decision making patterns in the Indian homes were analyzed, based upon Turk and Bell's method of analysis and compared with frequency range method of analysis udopted for the study.

By the Turk and Bell method of analysis, the largest number of respon­ dents in the husbands' perception as well as that of the wives' Indicated wife dominance. Straus (1969:238) in congruence with Indian tradition pointed out

that in joint family living the scores of women in family decision making should be lower than those of scores of women in family decision making living in

nuclear households. The sample population having hud considerable years of 81

TABLE 13

Differences In Decision Making Patterns hotweon the Husband and Wife in Each of tho 76 Families

Family Chi-Square Family Chi-Square Family Chi-Square Number Value Number Value Number Vulue

1 7.56 27 4.42 53 4. 10 2 7. 11 28 8. 36 54 23.74***+ 3 5.08 29 7.96 55 1.76 4 8.04 30 6.50 56 24.24**** 5 15.94*** 31 0.68 57 1.46 0 9.89* 32 2.48 58 18.12**** 7 10.53* 33 3.46 59 13.74*** 8 9.45* 34 2.86 60 5.62 9 5.54 35 29.56**** 61 28.70*+*+ 10 4.28 36 3.30 62 0.38 11 17.36+** 37 5.02 63 2.94 12 1.66 38 11.30* ■64 5.28 13 1.48 39 6.44 65 11.36* 14 7. 16 40 3.28 66 2.28 15 5,74 41 9.20 67 4.24 16 4.76 42 4.58 68 10.04+ 17 15,00*** 43 14.26*** 69 30.50***+ 18 12.02** 44 10.48* 70 39.8 **** 19 12. 88** 45 16.86+++ 71 28.90**** 20 1.02 46 1.02 72 8.86 21 1.93 47 13.18*** 73 2.28 22 2.00 48 7.40 74 6.42 23 16.84+** 49 20.86**** 75 11.26* 24 3.60 50 25.32**** 76 3. 92 25 4. 94 51 15.92*+* 26 26.14***+ 52 14.83***

*p = .05 11 families indicated a significant difference at .001 level, **p = . 02 10 families indicated u significant difference at .01 level, ***p = .01 2 families indicated a significant difference at .02 level, ***+p = .001 8 families indicated a significant difference at .05 level. 82

exposure in joint family living, and in accordance with traditional Indian prac­ tice, the frequency range method of analysis is more realistic than the former.

By the frequency range method of analysis, the number of husband dominated families is more than wife dominated families as perceived by the husbands.

In the wives' perception also there are mere husband dominated families, families where tho husbands made mostof the decisions, by the second method than the first; even though the wife dominated families are more than the hus­ band dominated families (Table 14). This may be considered indicative of changing status of Indian women in the present day.

TABLE 14

Comparison of the Couples' Perception of Decision Making Power

Husbandsi' Perception Wives' Perception Method of Analysis HD E WD HD E WD

♦Turk and Bell (1972:216) 13 17 46 7 18 51

♦♦Frequency range method 16 50 10 13 43 20

♦Mid-point being 81, the cguliturian range is 79-83 (two points on either side; scores below 79 denote husband dominated and scores above 83 denote wife dominated. * •

♦♦The score range r = highest score - lowest score + 1 divided by 3; i.e ., 102 - 68 = 34 1 = 35/3 = 11.6. Therefore scores 53 - 79 denote husband dominance, 80 - 91 egalitarian and 92 - 113 denote wife dominance.

HD - Husband-dominutcd E - Egalitarian WD - Wife-dominated 83

The couples' responses to the 27 decision making statements were analyzed. The percentage of female and male responses to each of the 27 items are presented in Table 15. The statements are presented in Appendix H.

TABLE 15

Percentage Difference between Female and Male Perception of Egalitarian, Male-Dominated and Female-Dominated Patterns of Decision Making

Egalitarian Male-Dominated Female-Dominated Item # Item # Item #

Percentage of Female Percention More than Male Perception

1 7.9 2 7.9 1 1.3 3 2.6 4 5.7 2 3. 9 4 5 .3 7 5.2 3 2.6 5 7 .9 17 6, 6 5 2 .6 6 2.6 18 5.2 6 23.7 7 7 .9 26 44.7 10 10.6 8 18.4 11 13.2 9 13.2 12 7 .8 13 4.0 13 8.0 14 3.9 14 10.5 15 9.2 16 10.5 17 9.2 18 3.9 19 15,8 19 5. 3 20 1.3 20 5 .3 21 13. 1 22 17. 1 26 18.4 23 19.7 27 11.9 24 1.4 25 7.9 84

TABLE 15

(Cont.)

Egalitarian Male-Dominated Fern ale-Dominated Item # Item # Item #

Percentage of Male Perception More than Female Perception

2 7.9 1 9.2 4 21.0 10 6.5 3 3.9 7 11.8 11 9.2 5 10.5 8 7.9 12 5 .3 6 25.0 9 4.0 16 11.8 8 9 .3 15 5.2 18 9.2 9 9.2 17 15.8 22 11.8 10 3.9 21 10.5 23 18.5 11 6 .6 26 63.2 25 5.3 12 2 .6 13 11.9 14 14.4 15 3. 9 19 19.7 20 6.6 21 2.6 22 5 .3 23 1.3 24 1.4 25 2.6 27 11. 8

The above table highlights the contrast In the couples' perception of fumily decision making. From the table it is evident that wives are more inclined towards egalitarianism and female dominance than husbands. Husbands indicate greater preference to male dominance. This finding may be considered 85

indicative of the continued trend towards male dominance predominantly desired by Indian male in family decision making. At the same time the finding may also be considered indicative of female desire for egalitarian pattern of decision making in modern times as well as greater power in family decision making.

Item analysis using Cleaver Program Internal Consistency Item

Analysis, C 6.01.028 (1968), showed that the following seven items could be used in a scale to measure wives' decision making patterns:

1. What child care practices are followed. 2. What clothes to buy for the children. 3. When and how m uch to invest on jew elry. 4. How and how much to set aside as savings. 5. How to spend children's next vacation. 6. Whom to employ for helping in household work. 7. What pilgrimages and offerings to make to family d e itie s .

The above seven itoms had R split = .511 and R corr. = . 676 with the critical

ratio of each item being above 2.5.

The scale suitable to measure the husbands' decision making patterns

included the following nine items:

1. How to discipline children. 2. What clothes to buy for the children. 3. What the family will have for dinner. 4. How to spend the children's next vacation. 5. Whom to employ for helping in household work. , 6. What work to get done by the servant. 7. What pilgrimages and offerings to make to family deities. 8. Whethor or not to adhere to family rituals and festivals. 9. What clothes your wife will buy. 86

Tho above nine items had R split s . 773 and R corr. = . 872 with the critical ratio of each item being above 3.34.

The item analysis scores for the scales are presented in Appendix I, including the low, high and total mean scores as well as tho low, high and total standard deviation.

There was considerable variation in tho response pattern among the couples in the individual and joint session of the interview. Fifty-one wives chose to respond in writing while 25 chose to respond orally while responding individually to the planning abilities situations. All the 76 husbands responded in writing. The languages the respondents chose to respond both in writing and in the oral response session is presented in Tuble 16.

Due to mechanical disorder in the recording equipment, the joint res­ ponses of three families could not be transcribed.

An index score of planning ability for tho three characteristics of plan­ ning, namely, prediction, elaboration and Ingenuity for the individual and joint response was developed for each respondent. The index scores were determined as mentioned earlier, for each of tho six situations (Table 17).

In tho individual response session for each situation it was observed that the mean values of the wife's response was greater than that of the husband's mean values. The probable reason for this could be that wives chose to respond orally and in tho language of their choice. Probably husbands too could have responded better had they chosen more freely to respond in their mothor tongue. 87

TABLE 16

Response Pattern of tho Couples In Individual and Joint Response Sessions

Number of Respondents Languagc(s) Written Oral

Wife's individual response: English 45 5 Hindi 5 9 Tamil — 5 Kanada — 2 M alayalam — 3 G ujarathi 1 I Husband's individual response: English 76 Couple's joint response: English 48 Hindi 3 Kanada 2 Tamil 3 G ujarathi 1 English-Hindi combination 8 Engllsh-Tamll combination 5 English-Gujarathi combination 1 Engllsh-Kannda combination 1 Hindi-Punjnbi combination 1

Joint planning ability index scores revealed that the wife's mean values were lesser than those of the husband for all the six situations. This may be considered indicative of the established Indian tradition of the wife being less verbose in the presence of the husband. This was observable even In the course of the interview that many of the wives who wero highly extempore during the individual oral response session were considerably less expressive 89

The interrelationship among the six situations responded to by wives showed that there was high correlation among them except between Prediction (II) and Elaboration (IV), and between Prediction (II) and Ingenuity (V) (Table 18).

According to the husbands' responses, there was found to be no significant cor­ relations between Prediction (I) and Prediction (II), Elaboration (IV), Ingenuity

(V) and Ingenuity (VI) and between Elaboration (III) and Ingenuity (V) (Table 19).

TABLE 18

Correlation Matrix of the Six Situations Responded by Wives

Situations II III IV V VI

I Prediction 0.3456+*** 0.3136*+* 0.3437*+** 0.3864**+* II Prediction 0.3418+*** III Elaboration 0. 2804*** IV Elaboration 0.3366+*** V Ingenuity 0.3723+**+

***p = .01 +***p = .001 ✓

For the six situations presented to families, it is observed that the highest percentage of respondents show low plunning ability. In tho individual response, a higher percentage of wives than husbands are seen to possess medium and high levels of planning abilities, prediction and ingenuity, except for Prediction (I), where the percentages arc the same for high level. In both the Elaboration (III and IV), the percentage of husbands possessing medium level of planning ability are more than tho wives, thus indicating that more husbands than wives had better 90

TABLE 19

Correlation Matrix of the Six Situations Responded by Husbands

Situations n in IVVVI

I Prediction n Prediction 0.4207**** 0.3928**** 0.3952**** in Elaboration 0.3793**** IV Elaboration 0. 3658**** 0.4915**** V Ingenuity 0.3571****

***p = .01 ♦***p = . 001 elaboration capability. For Situation IV, the percentage of both husbands and wives was the same in the high level of planning ability, while for Situation III, the percentage of husbands was more than the percentage of wives in the high level of planning ability. In joint responsos for three out of the six situations

(I, II and VI) the percentage of husbands with low planning ability was greater than that of the wives (Table 20).

The six situations were analyzed to determine the significant differences between the planning abilities of the husbands and the planning abilities of the wives, both while responding alone and jointly. Z-score values revealed that there was significant difference between the individual planning ability of the husbands and the individual planning ability of the wives, for Situations n and

VI (Prediction and Ingenuity) at .01 and .05 levels respectively. There was also seen to be a significant difference at .01 level between the joint planning 91

TABLE 20

Levels of Planning Ability of Respondents for the Six Situations

Individual Response Joint Response Planning Level Scores Husband Wife Husband Wife % % % Situation I—Prediction %

up to 12.96—low 67. 1 65.8 78.0 72.7 up to 23. 14—mod. 27.6 30,3 12.3 10.9 up to 33.33—high 1.3 1.3

Situation II—Prediction

up to 16 —low 81.6 61.9 82.2 76.7 up to 28 —mod. 10.5 26.3 13.7 19.2 up to 40 —high 5 .3 9.2 1.4

Situation III—Elaboration

up to 11.60—low 48.7 51.3 50.6 56.2 up to 18.85—mod. 40.8 36,8 42.5 37.0 up to 26. 10—high 9 .2 7 .9 4. 1 4. 1

Situation IV—Elaboration

up to 20. 37—low 65.7 71. 1 58.9 69.9 up to 35.18—mod. 2 7 .G 26.3 32.9 17.8 up to 50.00—high 1.3 1.3 2.7

Situation V—Ingenuity

up to 15,79—low 80.3 69.7 78. 1 83,6 up to 26.32—med. 9.2 17. 1 13.7 8.2 up to 36. 85—high 2.6 3.9 1.3 1.3

Situation VI—Ingenuity

up to 15.15—low 71.0 55.3 76.7 74.0 up to 25.75—med. 21. 1 36.8 19. 1 16.4 up to 36. 36—high 3. 9 6.6 1.3 2.7 92

ability of the husbands and the joint planning ability of the wives, the husbands possessing better elaboration than wives, for Situation IV (Elaboration) (Tabic 21).

TABLE 21

Differences in the Individual and Joint Planning Abilities of the Couples for the Six Situations

Situation and Characteristic Z-Score Individual Joint r I Prediction 0.654 1.02 II Prediction 3.57* 0. 137 III Elaboration 0.32 0.53 IV Elaboration 0.45 3.99* V Ingenuity 1.79 0.98 VI Ingenuity 2.3** 0.31 *p = .01 **p = . 05

The six situations were also analyzed to determine the significant differ­

ence between the individual planning ubilities and joint planning abilities of

husbands, as well as the difference between the individual planning abilities and

joint planning abilities of the wives. Z-scoro values indicated a significant

difference between the individual planning abilities of the husbands and the joint

planning abilities of the husbandS/being better in the individual than joint session,

for Situation I (Prediction) only, at . 01 level. There was seen to exist signifi­

cant difference between the Individual planning abilities of the wives and the

joint planning abilities of the wives a t. 01 level for all situations except Situa­

tions III and V (Elaboration and Ingenuity), Table 22. In all situations the wives'

abilities were better in thu individual session than the joint session. The

difference was not significant for Situations III and V. 93

TABLE 22

Differences between Individual and Joint Planning Abilities of Husbands and Wives for the Six Situations

Z-Score Situation and Characteristic Husbands Wives

I Prediction 2.82* 4.65* II Prediction 0.99 4.52* III Elaboration 0.62 1.51 IV Elaboration 1.28 2. 99* V Ingenuity 1.44 1.36 VI Ingenuity 0.73 3.31*

*p - . 01

The difference between husbands' decision making patterns and wives decision

making patterns revealed a significant difference at .001 level (Table 23), each

■ group perceiving themselves us the decision makers. This table shows the dif­

ferences in decision making patterns of the 76 families between the husbands

and wives, while Table 13 indicated the differences In decision making patterns

between the husband and wife in each of the 7G families.

Situations II, IV and V and Situations I, III and VI were grouped to deter­

mine overall planning abilities of couples and relationships between (1) the indi­

vidual planning abilities of husbands and wives; (2) the joint planning abilities of

husbands and wives; (3) the individual planning abilities of husbands and of wives

with their decision muking patterns; and (4) the joint planning abilities of husbands

and of wives with their decision muking patterns. The results of the Situations II,

IV and V (as determined by the punel) were used for testing the hypotheses. The

overall planning abilities of couples and relationships between planning abilities

and decision making putterns for grouped situations of I, m and VI are presented 94

in Appendix K.

TABLE 23

Differences between Husbands and Wives Decision Making Patterns

Suresh Suresh more Anita more Anita Both Equal Always than Anita than Suresh Always

Husbands E 137.7 301.4 919.6 446.1 237.5 O 102 367 896 522 157

Wives E 138.3 302.6 923.4 447.9 238.5 O 174 237 947 372 319

Hi 9. 25 14.27 0.60 12. 91 27.28

W 1 9.21 14,22 0.60 12.86 27. 17

Degrees of freedom = 4 X2 = 128.37 E = expected value O = observed value

Hypotheses

Hypothesis I There is no significant difference between the individual planning abilities of the husbands and the individual planning abilities of the wives for (u) prediction, (b) elaboration and (c) ingenuity.

(a) Prediction. There was found to be a significant difference at . 01 level

(Z = 3.57).

(b) Elaboration. There was no significant difference.

(c) Ingenuity, There was no significant difference. 95

Grouping a, b and c there was no significant difference between the individual planning abilities of husbands and the individual planning abilities of wives.

Hence, the hypothesis fails to be rejected.

Hypothesis.il There is no significant difference between the joint planning abilities of the husbands and the joint planning abilities of the wives for (a) prediction, (b) elaboration and (c) ingen­ uity.

(a) Prediction. There was no significant difference.

(b) Elaboration. There was found to be a significant difference at . 01 level

(Z z 3.99).

(c) Ingenuity. There was no significant difference.

Grouping a, b and c there was found to be no significant difference between the joint planning abilities of husbands and the joint planning abilities of the wives.

The hypothesis fails to be rejected.

Hypothesis III There is no significant difference between the husbands' indi­ vidual planning abilities and their joint planning ubilitles for (a) prediction, (b) elaboration and (c) Ingenuity.

(a) Prediction. There was no significant difference.

(b) Elaboration. There was no significant difference.

(c) Ingenuity. There was no significant difference.

Grouping a, b and c there was found to be no significant difference between the

husbands' individual plunning abilities and their joint planning abilities. This

fails to reject the hypothesis. 96

Hypothesis IV There is no significant difference between the wives' indivi­ dual planning abilities and their joint planning abilities for (a) prediction, (b) elaboration and (c) ingenuity.

(a) Prediction. There was found to be a significant difference at . 01 level

(Z = 4.52).

(b) Elaboration. There was found to be a significant difference at .01 level

(Z = 2. 99).

(c) Ingenuity. There was no significant difference.

Grouping a, b and c there was found to be a significant difference at . 01 level

(Z = 2.99), rejecting the hypothesis of no difference.

Hypothesis V There is no significant difference between the decision making patterns of the husbands und the decision muking patterns of thu wives.

There was found to be a significant difference between the decision making

patterns of husbands and of wives, rejecting the hypothesis at .001 level

(Chi-square = 128. 37; df = 4).

Hypothesis VI There is no significant relationship between the (a) husbands' decision making patterns and their Individual planning abil­ ities of (1) prediction, (2) elaboration and (3) ingenuity; and (b) the wives' decision making patterns and their individual planning abilities of (1) prediction, (2) elaboration and (3) ingenuity.

Considering separately und combined for prediction, elaboration and Ingenuity

with decision making patterns, there is no significant relationship. The hypothesis

failed to be rejected for both (a) und (b) as shown in Appendix J-l und J-2. 97

Hypothesis VH There are no significant variations among the couples' planning abilities and their related and situational variables of age, education, occupation, experience by years married, number of children, caste, religion, native State, length of residence in the United States, length of residence in urban/rural environment and experience by years in joint/ nuclear family before and after marriage.

Situation II No significant variations were observed butween planning (Prediction) abilities and the personal/situationnl variables. The

hypothesis thcruforc fails to be rejected. «

Situation IV The planning abilities of the husbands and their years of Elaboration experience in joint family living before marriage differed

significuntly ut .U5 level (Chi-square 16.55; df = 9). The

greater the number of years spent in Joint family before

marriage by the husbands, the lesser was seen to be their

plunnlng abilities. The apparent effect of joint fumily

experience supports the concept of reduced initiative

und individuality given to persons in joint family, who are

overpowered by thu dominance and over-protective nature

of the authoritarian elders. Hunt (1966:16-17) points

out that the indulgence of the first five years in child­

hood foils to dovclop problem-solving ability; and the

stage following childhood is equally discouraging to the

development of innovation. For thu same situation, 98

the planning abilities of wives and their years of

experience in joint family before marriage also differed

significantly at .01 level (Chi-square s 23.50; df = 9).

For wives too, there is little opportunity to develop

self-dependence and individuality in the traditional

joint family. For this variable the hypothesis stands

rejected.

Situation V There was a significant difference at . 01 level (Chi- (Ingenuity) square - 23. 32: df - 9) between the wives' age and

their planning abilities. Wives in higher age brackets

were seen to possess low planning abilities. This may

be considered indicative of the change in modern wives'

position and status. The younger wives experience

greater und wider exposure to happenings in the

outside world and probably that has facilitated

higher planning abilities. Also it is probable that the

younger wives confront different family environments

and situations that have enabled them to think and be

more independent. For this variable, the hypothesis

stands rejected. 99

Three variables, occupation, job and years of exper­

ience in joint family living before marriage, differed

significantly at .05 (Chi-square s 8.51; df = 3), .05 (Chi-

square = 8. 02; df = 3) and .01 (Chi-square = 23. 32; df =

9) levels respectively with the husbands' planning abilities.

Husbands with full time employment showed lower plan­

ning abilities while those who were full time students had

higher plunning abilities. Husbands who were non-prof­

essionals like teachers, businessmen and clerks exhibited

lower planning abilities, while the professionals like

doctors and engineers possessed high planning abilities.

Husbands with longer years of experience in joint family

before marriage showed low planning ability. The hypothesis

is rejected for the three variables.

Hypothesis VIII There are no significant variations among the couples' decision making patterns and Lhelr related and situational variubles of age, education, occupation, experience by years married, number of children, caste, religion, native State, length of residence in the United States, length of residence in urban/ rural environment and experience by years in joint/nuclear family before and after marriage.

Variables that indicated variations in decision making patterns are number

of children, education, caste and years of experience in joint family living

after marriage. There was a significant difference at .05 level (Chi-square = 100

9. 36; df s 4) between the wives’ decision making pattern and the number of children. Fewer the children, family decision making pattern reveals wife dominance. Since in this sample, fewer children definitely signified young families, this may be considered to further support the concept of changing trends in modern times from the trnditionul husband dominated family pattern.

There was also a significant difference at .02 level (Chi-squnrc = 22.61; df =

10) between the wives' decision making pattern and their educational attainment.

Findings Indicate a wife dominutcd pattern of decision making when the educa­ tional attainment of the wife is high. The hypothesis is rejected for the above two variables for the wives.

A significant difference at .01 level (Chi-square « 16.78; df ■ 6) was observed between husbands decision making pattern and their caste. Higher caBte husbands tended to show husband dominated pattern of decision making.

According to Harper (1969:92) the family authority is equally divided between the husband and wife among the lower custes; and the Brahmin wives begin at the lowest position of authority while beginning their career us wife and gain respect and certain amount of de facto authority with time.

Significant difference at . 05 level (Chi-square = 10.50; df = 4) was also seen between the husbands' decision muking pattern and their years of joint family living experience after marriage. More the number of years spent In joint family uftor marriage by the husbands, greater convinced they seemed to bo about thu family decision making paltern. For their own families too, they 101 tended to favor a male dominated pattern. So much a long communion with the joint family probably left the impact to opt and desire such pattern. The hypothesis is rejected for the above two variables for the husbands.

At the end of the joint session, the couple was asked by the investigator

"Did the tope recorder or the recording bother you in any wuy?" This was intended to determine the acceptability and suitability of the method adopted for data collection in this study. Following are some of the remarks given by the respondents:

1. "No, it did not bother us in any way. "

2. "Only In the beginning. 1 was a bit nervous, but by and by it was alrighL."

3. "Not having had any previous experience with this kind of recording, I was conscious in the beginning, but later I felt more at ease. " (Some even desired a replay of their conversation.)

4. "I hope only you wjll hear this and nobody else will hear it. " (They were assured the confidentiality of the recorded m aterial,)

5. "This was an unusual und an interesting experience for us. "

6. "We enjoyed it and it was very realistic."

No significant differences were seen In the Z score values for the six situations between the 25 wives' oral responses and the 51 wives' written responses during the Individual sessions. Among thu 51 wives who responded in writing during the individual session, there was a significant difference between their individual written and joint oral responses for Prediction situation I (Z = 3.23); their individual written responses being butter than their joint ornl responses. For 102 the other five situations there was no significant difference.

Among the 25 wives who responded orally during the Individual session, there was a significant difference between their individual oral und joint oral responses for Prediction situation II (Z = 2.0), Elaboration situation IV (Z =

3.38), Ingenuity situation V (Z = 2.0) and Ingenuity situation VI

Their individual oral responses for the ubovemcntioned four situations were better than their joint orul responses. CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS

This study was undertaken to gain knowledge of the characteristics.of planning and decision making patterns using an innovative research method. The characteristics pursued for study were prediction, elaboration and ingenuity, how they relate to home management and the relationship between planning abil­ ities and decision making patterns in the Indian homes. To gather this infor­ mation, 76 Indian families, including both husband and wife, were interviewed in their homes in Columbus and Cleveland, Ohio. The fumilies were identified from the directories of India Association, Columbus, and Bharati Cultural

Society of Ohio, Cleveland. Those of the families who were known to meet the study criteria were contacted by telephone und appointments were made for the interview.

The instrument for data collection consisted of a three-part open and closed ended survey form. First part consisted of a simulated family and six simulated family problem situations confronted by members of that simulated family. The couple was required to project themselves as two designated characters of the simulated family and solve the six simulated fumily problem situations. They were given the choice to respond in any Indian language either in writing or orally on u recording tape deck, while responding in the individual session. In the joint session that followed, the couple was played 103 104

pre-recorded simulated family problem situations (same situations given earlier as a hand-out) and were required to respond orally. Responses of both the husband and the wife were recorded on another tape deck, which were translated and transcribed for analysis.

The second part consisted of 27 items of decision making statements, guised by the fictitious names of the characters of the simulated fumily. The couple was required to respond us to whom they considered in that family should make the stated decisions.

The third part consisted of a questionnaire with pertinent personal and situational information regarding the husband and the wife.

The data were analyzed using Z-score, Chi-square, Pearson correlation coefficient and Cleaver's item analysis. Significant differences were seen in

(1) the individual planning abilities of husbands and individual planning abilities of w I v c b ; (2) between the wives' individual and joint planning abilitlos; and

(3) between the decision making patterns of husbands und decision making

patterns of wives.

No significant differences were seen (1) between the husbands' joint

plnnning abilities and the wives' joint planning abilities; (2) between the

husbands' individual plnnning abilities und their joint planning abilities.

No significant relationships were seen (1) between husbands' decision

making patterns and their individual and joint plnnning abilities; and

(2) between wives' decision making patterns and their individual and joint

planning abilities. 105

Longer periods of experience in joint family living before marriage contributed to low elaboration and low ingenuity capabilities of husbands. The same factor also contributed to the low elaboration capability of the wives.

Wives in the higher age bracket revealed low ingenuity capability and the younger wives showed greater ingenuity in solving problems.

Husbands who were full time students exhibited greater ingenuity than the employed husbands. Among the employed husbands, the professionals showed greater ingenuity than the non-professionals.

Decision making patterns of wives reveuled that in families with fewer children the wives made more decisions, or it was a wife dominated family.

Also in families where the wives hud high educational attainment, the decision making pattern was seen to be wife dominated. Decision making patterns of husbands indicated an inclination towurds husband domination among the upper hierarchies of caste, and among those who had hud greater years of experience in joint family after marriage.

Four of the items in the newly evolved scales for measuring family decision making were common for both the husband's and wife's scale. They pertained to the buying of clothes for children, how to spend the children's next vacation, whom to employ for helping in household work and what pilgrim­ ages and offerings to make to family deities. 106

Implications for Home Management Specialists in India

Information related to planning characteristics and their relation to decision making in the Indlun homes, among the couples, would help to make teaching and other programs in the area of home management meaningful and relevant. Home management specialists und teachers need such information.

Families, especially the young families emerging from the close knit of the joint family system, immigrating to the village peripheries and into neighboring towns and cities need help in readjusting and establishing suitable life styles and patterns. They need to be aware of all potential resources available to them in re-formulating their values, goals and standards.

Stimulating such awareness will help families realize the importance of planning, and facilitate rejuvenation of planning concept in the wake of transi­

tion from the age-old established "standing plans" and "repeat use plans. "

The home management specialists and teachers could gain considerable

insight through interdisciplinary research by using Innovative research

methods that arc suitable for the population. Effort needs to be concerted in

evolving ways that can aid in the collection of reliable and authentic data In

research .

Perhaps the adoption and wider use of such innovative methods of data

collection as used in this study would facilitate home management specialists

in gathering more authentic und realistic management practices prevalent in

tho homes. This method perhaps has greater viability among low literacy

level populations. Home management teachers could perhaps benefit in the 107 long run, by developing pertinent teaching material and home management concepts that are applicable to the indigenous culture.

The validity and reliability of this method of data collection could perhaps be established by administering this method on homogenous sample populations during field study in Indiu. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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______. Yojana. Directorate of Extension, Government of India. 17 (February, 1973), 122. APPENDIX A

Hindi Version of Simulated Problem Situations

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Decision Making Statements Presented to Husbands and Wives

124 125

APPENDIX I)-1

School ot Home Econumtca The Ohio SUile University ColumtrtJh, Ohio

Mark the column which best dmi-rlbcd your answer. Record No.

WHO DECIDES: Sureah Surcsh more Sureah and Anita more Anita nlwaya than Anita Anita exactly than Sureah atwaya the anmc

HI. How lm|K>rtanl family dcciilona are made? 112. How much each member of tbo family participates In making decisions? H3. What flat to take to live? Ht. Which location to choose for living? IIS. Whcthor or not to accept the transfer? H6, How to control family flnancca? tlT. Whom to Invite and entertain? IIS. Where should the children live? Hft. Which school the children should be admitted? HIO. How to discipline children? Ill I. What child care practices are followed? HI2. What clothes to buy for tho children? HIS. When and how much to Invest on Jewelry? H U. Whnt household equipment lo bo purchased? HIS. Whnt gifts and presents lo buy for rulatlvcs and friends? HIO. Whnt the family will hjve for dinner? 126

WHO DECIDES: Surcsh fiuresh more Sureah nnd Anita more Anita always than Anltn Anita exactly than Surcsh always the same

HI7. WhctlKir or nut your wile should laku up a Job? ______1118. Whnt Job yuur wife should take? ______1118. How and how much lo sol •side as savings? ______1120. Whether or not your brother shiuitd cornu nnd spend his vacation with you? ______1121. How to spend thu children's next vacation? ______H22. Whom to employ fur helping In household work? ______K23. Whnt work lo get dune by I he servant? _ _ _ _ 1124. What pilgrimages and offerings to maku to family dolttus? ______1125. Whether or not to adhere lo fnmlly rituals and festivals? ______1120. What clothes your wife will buy? ______1I2T. Whether or not to taka Ufa Insurance? ______127

APPENDIX B-2

School or Homo Economic* The Ohio Stale University Columbus. Ohio

Mark I be column which best describes your answer: Record No. _ _

WIIO DECIDES Surnth Surcsh more Surcsh and Anita more Anita always limn Anita Anita exactly than Sureah always the same

Wl. How lm|urlnnl family decision* arc made? W*. How much curh member of the family participate* in making declhl«ns? W3. What Dill to take to tire? W4. Which location to choose for living? W5. Whether or not lo accept the transfer? we. How to control fumlly finances? W7. Whom to Invito and entertain? we. Whom Should the children live? we. Which school the children should be admitted? wio. How lodlsclptlno child ten? w n. Which child care practice* arc followed? wi*. What vluthcs to buy for the children? W13, When and how much lo Invest on Jewelry7 W I4. What household ri|uipniunl to bo purchased? W1S. What gifts and present* to buy for relative! and friends? w u. What the family will huvu fur dinner? 128

WHO DECIDES: Surcsh Surcsh more Surt sh and Anita more Anita always than Anita Anitn exactly than Sureah alwaya the same

WI7. Whether or nut you ahould take up a Job? W18. What Job you ahould take? WI9. How and how much to act aaldu oh savings? W20. Whether or nut your brother ahould come nnd apend hla vacuttun with you? W2I. How lo apend Iho child rcn'a next vocotlnn? W22. Whom to employ fur helping In huuschuld work? W23. What work lo get done liy the aervunt? war What pilgrimages and offerings to make to family deities? W2S. Whether or not to adhere In family rituals and feallvaln? W 20. What clothes your husband will buy? W27. Whether ur nut to take life Insurance? APPENDIX C

Family Pcrsonal/Sltuutional Data Questionnaire

129

* 130

APPENDIX C-l

Mrs. Pankajam Sundaram The Ohio State University' School of Home Economics 1787 Neil Avenue, Columbus Ohio 43210

I am a graduate student at The Ohio State University. For my Ph. D reseai'ch work I plan to work with the Indian families living in the State of Ohio. Along with completing the enclosed questionnaire, I would appreciate if you can kindly indicate your convenient time and date for my visit to your home. From the four dates you mention I will choose one and inform you in advance. It will be an informal discussion with both of you (husband and wife) lasting for about an hour.

Name ______Tel: ______

A ddress ______

Month Day Date Time 131

APPENDIX C-2

SITUATIONAL VALIDATION BY INDIANS

Thu Ohio State University School of Home Economics 1787 Neil Avenue - Columbus 43210

You are given information about a family. The family confronts SIX different family situations. Head the family background information and each of the situations, and place your personal opinion by (X) indicating whether you consider in India the situations (I) most common, or (2) less common, or (3) no opinion, or (4) uncommon, o r (5) m ost uncommon.

Situation Most Less No Most Common Common Opinion Uncommon Uncommon

L______2.______L______2. ______1. 132

APPENDIX C-3

Thu Ohio Stulu University School of Home Economics 1787 Noil Avenue Columbus 43210

InLcrvicwer Name: Pankojam Sundaram Date: ______

Residential Address:

Street: Town: Zip

Telephone Number: Area code ( )

1. NAME

Wife Husband

2. AGE AGE

Wife Husband

1) 20-25 1) 20-25 2) 26-31 2) 26-31 3) 32-37 3) 32-37 4) 38-43 4) 38-43 5) 44-49 ____ 5) 44-49 6) 50-55 G) 50-55 7) over 56 7) over 56

4. EDUCATION COMPLETED EDUCATION COMPLETED

Wife Husband

1) Secondary 1) Secondary 2) High school 2) High school 3) Into rm odinte/ Pro - Uni v, 3) Interm ediate/Pre-U ni v. 4) Bachelor degree 4) Bachelor degree 5) Master degree 5) Muster degree ti) Other (specify) 6) Other (specify) 133

6. OCCUPATION 7. OCCUPATION if employed, specify kind of job Wife Husband

1) Full-time student 1) Full-time student 2) P art-tim e student 2) Part-time student 3) Full-time employed 3) Full-time employed 4) Part-time employed 4) Part-time employed Job Job

8. CASTE 9. CASTE

Wife Husband

1) Brahm in 1) Brahm in 2) K shatriya 2) Kshatriya 3) Vaisya 3) Vaisya 4) Other (specify) 4) O ther (specify)

10. RELIGION 11. RELIGION

Wife Husband

1) Hindu 1) Hindu 2) Muslim 2) Muslim 3) Christian 3) Christian 4) Jains 4) Jain s 5) Sikhs 5) Sikhs 6) P arsi 6) Pursl 7) Other (specify) 7) Other (specify)

12. NATIVE STATE 13. NATIVE STATE

Wife Husband

14. COMPLETED YEARS OF RESIDENTS IN THE UNITED STATES

Wife 15. Husband Years Months Y ears Months 134

16. INDICATE WHERE YOU SPENT MOST PART OF THE SPECIFIED YEARS OF YOUR LIFE

Wife 17. Husband

Village Town City Village Town City 1 2 3 1 2 3 up to 12 yrs. up to 12 yrs. 13-19 yrs. 13-19 yrs. 20-30 yrs. 20-30 yrs. after 30 y rs. after 30 y rs.

18. HAVE YOU LIVED AS PART OF A JOINT FAMILY WITH YOUR PARENTS?

Wife 19. Husband

1) Yes 1) Yes 2) No 2) No If y es, before m arriage y rs. If yes, before m arriage y rs. after marriage y rs.

20. MOTHER-TONGUE 21. MOTHER -TONGUE

Wife Husband

1) Hindi 1) Hindi 2) Tamil 2) Tamil 3) Telugo 3) Telugo 4) Kannda 4) Kannda 5) Bengali 5) Bengali G) Other (specify) 6) Other (specify)

22. Completed years of marriage 23. List below your children Giving with you and away from you) and give the required information.

Relationship Education Living Marital Status Age Occupation Son/Daughter Years/Degree with away in single m arried you India USA

i l

f i l i i ------iL APPENDIX D

Responses Given for Planning Situations by Couples

13G 137

APPENDIX D-l

FAMILY RESPONSES—SITUATION 1

Prediction O thers

1. Wish for independent decision making 2. Desire to set up nuclear family (privacy) 3. Positive aspects of promotion, etc., in job 4. Cite examples of others who have acquired better status by such move 5. Visit home on emergency assured 6. Does not mean complete separation from family; regular visits assured 7. Cite improved transportation and communication facilities in modern times 8. Opportunity will be created for other family members to see and visit big cities 9. Assure maintenance of good family relations and ties even after going to Bombay 10. Believes father will easily consent realizing benefits 11. State possibilities of transfer back to the same place after some years 12. Opportunity to see and experience better city facilities 13. More control over children in a nuclear family in Bombay 14. Psychological adverse effects to be told If transfer is rejected 15. Possibility of widening one's outlook and a good chance to meet nnd know people of other cultures 16. Let husband deal with the mutter and wife simply follow him 17. Afford couple the opportunity to gain experience and confidence and responsibility in establishing nuclear family 18. Make the separation smooth by leaving for a while wife and children in the joint family before they join him 19. Leave the children with parents lor a while to make the separation gradual for the parents 138

Prediction O thers

20. Suggest parents also moving to Bombay with couple 21. Assure financial support for brother and sister's education and impress about better educational facility for them at Bombay 22. Express difficulty for children to adapt to such new surroundings and circumstances in later years 23. Transfer will be helpful in affording better job opportunity for the brother 24. Transfer will enable better marriage prospects for the sister 25. Tell parents that Suresh's future is dependent upon his accepting this transfer offer 26. Tell parents that the children's future prospects depend upon his accepting this transfer 27. Tell that it is in the betterment of the joint family 28. Tell that it is in the betterment of the nuclear family 29. Tell paronts that going to Bombay will create more job opportunities for Surcsh 30. Better opportunity, more rewarding and good chances in the present job 31. The job will bo more challenging and possible to gain wider experience 32. More educational opportunities for Surcsh 33. Financial betterment to Suresh's family (nuclear) 34. Financial betterment to the joint family 35. Tell parents that refusal to accept transfer will have adverse effects; lack opportunity; job scarcity 36. Tell that it is very hard to get similar position 37. Impress upon parents that kids being young can adapt and learn easily 38. Others in the family being grown members, can take care of parents 39. Tell parents that it is high time they shouldered responsibility 40. Will have more settled life at Bombay than being a sales representative 1 139

FAMILY RESPONSES—SITUATION 2

- Prediction O thers 1. Good and believe in self-dependenco and self- reliance without depending on servants or outside help 2. Don't overstrain on household duties, lessen the i load or burden bv simplification 1 3. Schedule and organize yourself—time for house- i hold and other activities ; 4. Get possible help from husband—both should cooperate 1 5. Tench children dignity of work—to be independent and do their own work G. By suitable work allocation and adjustment 7. Division of labor 8. Get children lo help in household chores 9. All family members should contribute help in household work 1 10. All do their own work and meet needs 11. Automation—invest on and make use of modern i eauipment in the home to save time and enemy ! 12. Adopt good shopping habits—economize repetitive j trips and bv wise shop nine < 13. Change way of life to suit situations and adapt new things i 14. Resort to outside assistance—help—sprvice like j dhobi, etc. * 15. Avoid rendition of work 1 16. Man's contribution to certain outdoor work (husband helps only when need arises) 17. Lesser standards acceptable 18. Employ different people for different work, so i ' that in the absence of one only that work suffers i 19. It's wife's duty to get work done in the home and t also help husband nnd children l 1 20. Resort to family plnnnine—lesser work j 21. Employ bettor substitute—adopt corrective I 1 measures—keen part-time help ! ------i 140

FAMILY RESPONSES—SITUATION 3

Elaboration Others

1. Take children tu Bombay 2. Leave with grandparents 3. Leave with Anita's parents 4. Leave with Surcsh's parents 5. Leave in boarding school 6. Admit to English medium school 7. Admit in vernacular language school 8. Leave one child in hostel and the other with grandparents 9. As kids arc young, easy to learn different language and adjust easily 10. Learn Hindi o r English 11. Take children to Bombay, after academic year 1

is completed. ... 12. Surcsh go first and settle—Anita and kids to 1 follow 1 13. Surcsh and Anttu go first and settle, kids follow 14. Children will miss joint family environment— keep them diverted and engaged 15. Give extra coaching—tuition 16. Contact sources like associations and friends and relatives in Bombay for Information 17. Leave children with grandparents with financial • support from parents 18. Children will get spoiled with grandparents' care 19. To keep children will be unnecessary burden 1 to old-age grandparents 20. Parents' movements In Bombay will be restricted— inability to leave children anywhere 21. Live in an area where there are people from same native state—children can feel closeness of home 22. Take one child to Bombay and leave the other i with grandparents i 141

Elaboration Others 23. Mother should stay at home without working and take care of children 24. Take relative to Bombay to help. 25. Take parents also to Bombay and then decide whether to keep children at Bombay or send them back 26. Leave children with relatives. 27. Leave children with friends. 28. Surech alone goes to Bombay and Anita stays with children at in-laws. 142

FAMILY RESPONSES—SITUATION 4

Elaboration Others 1. Savings from earlier earnings will be used 2. Get money from Suresh’s parents, brothers 3. Get from Anita's parents, brother 4. Get as loan from parents 5. Get loan from bank 6. Get from Provident Fund 7. Get loan on insurance policy 8. Collect the money by selling belongings 9. Collect the money by pledging jewels, etc., mortgaging property 10. Get advance or loan from firm—employer 11. Raise a loan 12. Avoid "pagadi" commitment now and start saving 13. Go for higher rent and no "pagadi" or a house away in the suburb 14. Look for cheaper house within means 15. From Anita's savings from household expenses 16. Borrow from moneylender 17. Get loan from friends 18. Instead of paying "pagadi" might as well buy a small house 19. Get loan from relatives 20. From family piggy bank collections 21. From children's savings account 22. Claim from personal share of family property 23. Don't go to Bombay 24. Wife can take a job 143

FAMILY RESPONSES—SITUATION 5

Ingenuity O thers 1. Avoid buying the ticket just for obligation 2. Avoid hurting children's feelings—yet don't buy 3. Have a savings account and set out a portion as savings for emergency 4. Avoid or curtail unnecessary expenses 5. Make a budget and spend 6. Keep record of expenses to review and assess 7. Buy the ticket positively and devise ways to manage the rest of the month 8 . Because of three more days ahead in the month will not definitely buy the ticket 9. Buy from housewife's savings from the monthly allowances for household expenses 10. Don't buy things because of possessional value. Buy only if needed. Don’t be extravagant. 11. Put aside even small changes in piggy bank col­ lection which will come handy in times of need 12. Spend on essentials first few months, assess situation and then plan for luxury things 13. Take a loan from flrend or bank or pledgo something 14. Buy ticket and inform teacher of deferred payment next month 15. Buy one ticket, if not possible to buy two 16. Give up even necessities to be within budget 17. Don't take a loan 18. Quality and not quantity purchase while buying will help 19. Save money by adopting good economical measures 20. Anita to work to improve family financial position 21. Suresh to take extra work to enhance family income 22. Avoid wastage 144

FAMILY RESPONSES—SrrUATION 6

Ingenuity Others 1. Visit home definitely every year 2. Use it for family needs—to buy transport, etc. 3. Buy stocks, shares, certificates as investments 4. Fixed deposit or savings bond for children's education 5. Keep in bank for future emergencies 6. Pay off loans or redeem pawned articles 7. Buy furniture or equipment for the home 8. Send money for brother-sister education 9. Invest on insurance 10. Spend for children's improvement—educational trips and toys, etc. 11. Take a holiday/vacation to different places of in tere st 12. Spend on expensive clothing/jewelry 13. Keep in bank at present to enhance next year's spending capacity to go home 14. Buy plot of land or a house 15. Send money to parents or relatives 16. Save for daughter's marriage 17. Spend on picnics and entertaining and entertainment 18. Give for charity and donations 19. Save towards old age sickness and hospitalization 20. Spend on sightseeing in and around Bombay 21. Invite relatives to Bombay and spend on them 22. Buy something which will appreciate in value in course of time 23. Spend on personal enrichment—educationally or by other means 145

APPENDIX D-2

FAMILY RESPONSES—SITUATION 1

Prediction O thers 1. Desire to set up nuclear family (privacy) 2. Positive aspects of promotion, etc. In job 3. Cite examples of others who have acquired better statu s by such move 4. Visit home on emergency assured 5. Does not mean complete separation from family; regular visits assured 6. Cite Improved transportation and communication facilities in modern times 7. Opportunity will be created for other family mem­ bers to see and visit big cities 8. Assure maintenance of good family relations ond ties even after going to Bombay 9. State possibilities of transfer back to the same place after some years 10. Opportunity to see and experience better city facilities 11. More control over children in a nuclear family In Bombay 12. Psychological adverse effects to be told if transfer is rejected 13. Possibility of widening one's outlook and a good chance to meet and know people of other culture 14. Afford couple the opportunity to gain experience and confidence and responsibility in establishing nuclear family 15. Make the separation smooth by leaving for a while wife and children in the joint family before they join him 16. Leave the children with parents for a while to make the separation gradual for the parents 17. Suggest parents also moving to Bombay with the couple 18. Assure financial support for brother and sister's education and impress about butter educational facility for them at Bombay 146

Prediction Others 19. Express difficulty for children to adapt to such new surrounding and circumstances in later years 20. Transfer will be helpful in affording better job opportunity for the brother 21. Transfer will enable better marriage prospects for the sister 22. Tell parents that Suresh's future Is dependent upon hts accepting this transfer offer 23. Tell parents that the children's future prospects depend upon his accepting the transfer 24. Tell that it is in the betterment of the joint family 25. Tell that it is in the betterment of the nuclear fam ily 26. Tell parents that going to Bombay will create more job opportunities for Suresh 27. Better opportunity, more rewarding and good chances in the present job 28. The Job will be more challenging and possible to gain wider experience 29. More educational opportunities for Suresh 30. Financial betterment to Suresh's family (nuclear) 31. Financial betterment to the joint family 32. Tell parents that refusal to accept transfer will have adverse effects; lack opportunity; job scarcity 33. Tell that it is very hard to get similar position 34. Impress upon parents that kids being young can adapt and learn easily 35. Others in the family being grown up members, can take care of parents 36. Will have more settled life at Bombay than being a sales representative 147

FAMILY RESPONSES—SITUATION 2

Prediction Others 1. Good and believe in self dependence and self reliance without depending on servants or outside help. 2. Don't overstrain on household duties, lessen the load or burden by simplification 3. Schedule and organize yourself—time for house­ hold and other activities 4. Get possible help from husband—both should cooperate 5. Teach children dignity of work—to be independent and do their own work 6. By suitable work allocation and adjustment 7. Division of labor 8. Get children to help in household chores 9. All family members should contribute help in household work 10. All do their own work and meet needs 11. Automation—invest on and make use of modern equipment in the home to save time and energy 12. Adopt good shopping habits—economize repetitive trips and by wise shopping 13. Change way of life to suit situation and adapt new things 14. Resort to outside assistance—help—service like dhobi, etc. 15. Avoid repetition of work 16. Man's contribution to certain outdoor work (husband helps only when need arises) 17. Lesser standards acceptable 18. Employ different people for different work, so that In the absence of one only that work suffers 19. Resort to family planning—lesser work 20. Employ better substitute—adopt corrective measures—keep part-time help 148

FAMILY RESPONSES—SITUATION 3

Elaboration O thers 1. Take children to Bombay 2. Leave with grandparents 3. Leave with Anita's parents 4. Leave with Suresh's parents 5. Leave in boarding school 6. Admit in English medium school 7. Admit in vernacular language school 8. Leave one child in hostel and the other with grandparents 9. Learn Hindi or English 10. Take children to Bombay, after academic year is completed 11. Suresh go first and settle—Anita and kids to follow 12. Suresh and Anita go first and settle, kids follow 13. Give extra coachlng—tuition 14. Contact sources like associations and friends and relatives in Bombay for information 15. Leave children with grandparents with financial support from parents 16. Live in an area where there are people from same native state—children can feel closeness of home 17. Take one child to Bombay and leave the other with grandparents 18. Mother should stay at home without working and take care of children 19. Take relative to Bombay to help 20. Take parentB also to Bombay and then decide whether to keep children at Bombay or send them back 21. Leave children with relatives 22. Leave children with friends 23. Suresh alone goes to Bombay and Anita stays with children at ln-laws 149

FAMILY RESPONSES—SITUATION 4

Elaboration Others 1. Savings from earlier earnings will be used 2. Get money from Suresh's parents, brothers 3. Get from Anita's parents, brother 4. Get as loan from parents 5. Get loan from bank 6. Get from Provident Fund 7. Get loan on Insurance policy 8. Collect the money by selling belongings 9. Collect the money by pledging jewels, etc. mortgaging property 10. Get advance or loan from firm—employer 11. Raise a loan 12. From Anita's savings from household expenses 13. Borrow from moneylender 14. Get loan from friends 15. Get loan from relatives 16. From family piggy bank collections 17. From children's savings account 18. Claim from personal share of family property 150

FAMILY RESPONSES—SITUATION 5

Ingenuity Others 1, Have a savings account and set out a portion as savings for emergency 2. Avoid or curtail unnecessary expenses 3. Make a budget and spend 4. Keep record of expenses to review and assess 5. Buy the ticket positively and devise ways to manage the rest of the month 6. Because of three more days ahead in the month, will not definitely buy the ticket 7. Buy from housewife's savings from the monthly allowances for household expenses 8. Don't buy things because of possesslonal value. Buy only If needed. Don't be extravagant. 9. Put aside even small changes in piggy bank col­ lection which will come handy in times of need 10. Spend on essentials first few months, assess situation and then plan for luxury things 11. Take a loan from friend or bank or pledge something 12. Buy ticket and Inform teacher of deferred payment next month 13. Buy one ticket, if not possible to buy two 14. Give up even necessities to be within budget 15. Quality and not quantity purchase while buying will help • 16. Save money by adopting good economical measures 17. Anita to work to improve family financial position 18. Suresh to take extra work to enhance family income 19. Avoid wastage 151

FAMILY RESPONSES—SITUATION 6

! Ingenuity O thers 1. Use it for family needs—to buy transport, etc. 2. Buy Btocks, shares, certificates as investments 3. Fixed deposit or savings bond for children's edu­ cation 4. Keep in bank for future emergencies 5. Pay off loans or redeem pawned articles 6. Buy furniture or equipment for the home 7. Send money for brother-sister education 8. Invest on insurance 9. Spend for children's improvement—educational trips and toys, etc. 10. Take a holiday/vacation to different places of in terest U. Spend on expensive clothing/jewolry 12. Keep in bank at present to enhance next year's spending capacity to go home 13. Buy plot of land or a house 14. Send money to parents or relatives 15. Save for daughter's marriage 16. Spend on picnics and entertaining and entertainment 17. Give for charity and donations 18. Save towards old age sickness and hospitalization 19. Spend on sightseeing in and around Bombay 20. Invite relatives to Bombay and spend on them 21. Buy something which will appreciate in value in course of time 22. Spend on personal enrichment—educationally, or bv other means APPENDIX E

Home Management Graduate Students' Panel Evaluation of Plunnlng Situations

152 153

APPENDIX E -l

SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY COLUMBUS, OHIO

Three PLANNING! ABILITIES are cited below with their definitions. You are required to read carefully the six situations given in the attached sheet and indicate whether each of the situations attempts to test the ability of Prediction or Elaboration or Ingenuity for the definitions given below:

According to Guilford, et a l., PREDICTION has to do with the ability to see beyond the material given. In tests of extrapolative ability the examinee is restricted to the material given to find the trends that will enable him to pre­ dict the state of events at some other point in time or space. The tests of foresight require the awareness of possible future events that should be taken into account in deciding on a present action.

ELABORATION is the ability to produce ideas or representations of ideas that contribute to the development of plans. Production of alternate methods has to do with finding different arrangements of the same material that will fulfill the requirements of an adequate solution.

INGENUITY is the ability to find new or uncommon procedures and adapting methods to new situations.

(If you want to choose more than one, indicate your choice by marking (1) for the most preferred and (2) for second choice).

SITUATIONS

Indicate below by circling the ability Involved in each situation.

L SureBh has received orders of transfer to Bombay, on promotion. His parents are unwilling and resentful of him and his family leaving the joint family, of which they have been a part ever since they wore married. How would they convince the parents, and accomplish their desire to accept the transfer order?

A. PREDICTION B. ELABORATION C. INGENUITY 154

n. Suresh and Anita find that their yearly savings Is completely drained when they make a trip home with children each year during their annual vacation. If one year you decided on not going home, what other ways do you suggest for making the best use of the yearly savings?

A. PREDICTION B. ELABORATION C. INGENUITY

IIL Suresh and Anita confront acute servant problems in Bombay. During the past years scarcity of hired help for household work has been on the increase. What effects and changes will this bring in the homes in years to come, other than the obvious effect that more of household work will have to be done by the homemaker without depending upon servant help?

A. PREDICTION B. ELABORATION C. INGENUITY

IV. In fixing up an apartment at Bombay, Suresh finds himself in need of Rs. 5000/- to pay the advance. What are the possible alternate ways and means of solving the financial crisis?

A. PREDICTION B. ELABORATION C. INGENUITY

V. Suresh and Anita set up their new establishment at Bombay. Very often they find themselves confronted by unexpected and unforeseen expenses. What are your suggestions to make both ends meet with the existing available resources and reach financial stability?

A. PREDICTION B. ELABORATION C. INGENUITY

VL Orders of transfer to Bombay have been received. Suresh is very keen on going to Bombay. Their two children are attending school where the med­ ium of instruction is in their mother tongue, which is different from the local language at Bombay. The couple are in a dilemma about suitable arrangements for the children. What are the different ways you would suggest to solve the problem?

A. PREDICTION B. ELABORATION C. INGENUITY

1. Your nam e ______D a te ______

2. Indicate whether you have had H. Ec. 825 Yes No H. Ec. 827 Yes No APPENDIX E-2

Selection of Appropriate Situations to Measure Prediction, Elaboration, and Ingenuity by Six Home Management Graduate Student Panel

Prediction Elaboration Ingenuity Situations I Choice n Choice I Choice n Choice I Choice II Choice

I Prediction 2 — — I 4 -----

n Prediction 6 — — 1 ------

III Elaboration —— 4 1 2 1

IV Elaboration — — 6 ------2

V Ingenuity — 1 2 3 1

VI Ingenuity — 2 6 ------2 APPENDIX F

Code Descriptors and Classification

1S G APPENDIX F

Coding Classification: Age

Category Code 20-25 years 1 26-31 years 2 32-37 years 3 38 and above 4

Coding Classification: Education

Category Code High school (11 years) 1 Intermediate/Pre-University 2 Bachelors degree 3 Master's degree 4 Beyond Master's 5 M. B. B. S. (medicine) 6

Coding Classification; Occupation

Category Code Full-time student 1 Full-time employed 2

Coding Classification: Job

Category Code Professionals 1 Non-Professionals 2

Coding Classification: Caste

Category Code Other 1 Vaisyas 2 Kehatrlyas 3 Brahm ins 4 Coding Classification: Religion

Category Codo Non-Hindu 1 Hindu 2

Coding Classification: Native State

Category Code Southern Region 1 Kerala M adras Andhra Pradesh M ysore Western Region 2 Maharashhn Madhya Pradesh G uyarat Northern Region 3 Punjab Uttar Pradesh Sind Eastern Region 4 Bihas

Coding Classification: Residence in U. S.

Category Code Less than 2 years 1 2-5 years 2 Over 5 years 3

Coding Classification: Geographic location up to 12 years

Category Code Village 1 Town 2 City 3

Coding Classification: Geographic location 13 to 19 years

Category Code Village 1 Town 2 City 3 Coding Classification: Geographic location 20 to 30 years

Category Code Village 1 Town 2 City 3

Coding Classification: Geographic location after 30 years

Category Code Village 1 Town 2 City 3

Coding Classification: Joint family experience

Category Code Yes 1 No 2

Coding Classification: Years of joint family living before marriage

Category Code Nil 0 5-15 years 1 15-20 years 2 20-30 years 3

Coding Classification: Years of joint family living after marriage

Category Code Nil 0 Less than 5 years 1 6-15 years 2

Coding Classification; Number of children

Category Code One child 1 Two children 2 3-4 children 3 Coding Classification: Decision making statements

Category Code No response - 0 Suresh always 1 Suresh more than Anita 2 SureBh same as Anita 3 Anita more than Suresh 4 Anita always 5

Coding Classification: Planning situations

Category Code No response/not mentioned 0 Response 1 APPENDIX G

Response of Five Couples to "Commoness" of Situations in the Pre-Test

161 162

APPENDIX G

Response of Five Couples to "Commoness" of Situations in the Pre-Test

Commonality of Situations Situations Most L ess No Un- M ost Un- Common Common Opinion Common Common H W H W H W H W H W

I Prediction 4 4 1 1

II Prediction 2 4 3 1 in Elaboration 4 5 1 -----

IV Elaboration 3 4 2 1

----- V Ingenuity 3 5 2 ,

VI Ingenuity 1 2 4 2 1

H - Husband W - Wife APPENDIX H

Differences between Female and Mnle Perception of Egalitarian, Male- Dominated and Female-Dominated Patterns of Decision Making

163 164

APPENDIX H

Decision-Making Items that Show Differences between Female and Male Perception of Egalitarian, Male-Dominated and Female-Dominated Patterns of Decision-Making

Female Perception More Than Male Perception:

Egalitarian

1. How important family decisions are made? 3. What flat to take to live? 4. Which location to choose for living? 5. Whether or not to accept the transfer? 6. How to control family finances? 7. Whom to invite and entertain? 8. W here Bhould the children live? 9. Which school the children should be admitted? 13. When and how much to invest on jewelry? 14. What household equipment to be purchased? IS. What gifts and presents to buy for relatives and friends? 17. Whether or not you should take up a job? 19. How and how much to set aside as savings? 20. Whether or not your brother should come and spend his vacations with you? 21. How to spend the children's next vacation? 26. What clothes your husband will buy? 27. Whether or not to take life insurance?

Male'-Dominated

2. How much each member of the family participates in making decisions? 4. Which location to choose for living? 7. Whom to invite and entertain? 17. Whether or not you should take up a job? 18. What job you should take? 26. What clotheB your husband will buy? 165

Female-Dominated

1. How important family decisions are made? 2. How much each member of the family participates in making decisions? 3. What flat to take to live? 5. Whether or not to accept the transfer? 6. How to control family finances? 10. How to discipline children? 11. What child care practices are followed? 12. What clothes to buy for the children? 13. When and how much to.Invest on jewelry? 14. What household equipment to be purchased? 16. What the family will have for dinner? 18. What job you should take? 19. How and how much to set aside as savings? 20. Whether or not your brother should come and spend his vacations with you? 21. How to spend the children's next vacation? 22. Whom to employ for helping household work? 23. What work to get done by the servant? 24. What pilgrimages and offerings to make to family deities? 25. Whether or not to adhere to family rituals and festivals?

Male Perception More Than Female Perception:

Egalitarian

2. How much each member of the family participates In making decisions? 10. How to discipline children? 11. What child care practices are followed? 12. What clotheB to buy for the children? 16. What the family will have for dinner? 18. What job your wife should take? 22. Whom to employ for helping household work? 23. What work to get done by the servant? 25. Whether or not to adhere to family rituals and festivals?

Male -Dominated

1. How important family decisions are made? 3. What flat to take to live? 5. Whether or not to accept the transfer? 6. How to control family finances? 166

Male-Dominated (cont)

8. Where should the children live? 9. Which school the children should be admitted? 10. How to discipline children? 11. What child care practices arc followed? 12. What clothes to buy for the children? 13. When and how much to invest on jewelry? 14. What household equipment to be purchased? 15. What gifts and presents to buy for relatives and friends? 19. How and how much to set aside as savings? 20. Whether or not your brother should come and spend his vacations with you? 21. How to spend the children's next vacation? 22. Whom to employ for helping household work? 23. What work to get done by the servant? 24. What pilgrimages and offerings to make to family deities? 25. Whether or not to adhere to family rituals and festivals?

Female-Dominated

4. Which location to choose for living? 7. Whom to invite and entertain? 8. Where should the children live? 9. Which school the children should be admitted? 15. What gifts and presents to buy for relatives and friends? 17. Whether or not your wife should take up a Job? 21. How to spend the children/s next vacation? 26. What clothes your wife will buy? APPENDIX I

Item Analysis Scores for the Husbands' and Wives' Decision Making Scale

167 APPENDIX I

Item Analyaln Score* for'lhc lluahanda' and Wire*' DeclaJon Making Scale

Declalon Making Lo HI ho III Critical Kama Moan Mean ST DV ST DV Hallo

Hu abend*' Scale

1. How to dlaclpllne children? 2.79 3.39 .73 .87 3.74 S. What clothe* to buy for children? 3.45 4.34 .85 .54 5.83 9. What the family will have for dinner? 3.79 4.32 .77 .81 3.34 4. How to ipend the children’* next vacation? 2,84 3.29 .54 .80 3.44 S. Whom to employ for helping In houaehold work? a. 34 4.24 .77 .78 5.09 4. What work to gel dono by the aorvanl? 3.81 4.53 .71 .71 5.84 7. What pilgrimage* and offer­ ing* to mako to family dclliea? 2.95 3.8? .89 .87 4.37 6. Whether or not to adhere to family ritual* and (eatlvala? 2,87 3.71 .88 .78 5. IB 9. What clothe* your wife will buy? 3.83 4.24 .78 .78 3.43

Wive*' Scale

I, What child earn practice* are followed? 3.21 4.18 .98 .91 4.39 S. What clothe* to buy for the children? 3,84 4.83 .83 .64 4.73 3. When and bow much to Inveat ■ on Jewelry? 2.83 4.00 1.03 1.10 3.59 4. How and how much to aet •aide a* aavlnga? 2.58 3.03 .71 .92 2.49 S. How to apond children'* next vacation? 1.89 3.14 .45 .44 3.88 8, Whom to omploy for helping In bouaebold work? 3.89 4.30 .85 .84 3,32 7. What pilgrimage* nnd offer­ ing* to mako to family dcltlea? 2.93 4.13 .79 .83 8.33 APPENDIX J

Relationship of Couples' Individual Planning Abilities with Decision Making Patterns

169 170

APPENDIX J-l

Relationship of Couples Individual Planning Abilities with Decision Making Patterns

r Situations Husband Wife

I Prediction 0.459 0.039** n Prediction 0.224 0.181 r a Elaboration 0.094 0.348

IV Elaboration 0.245 0.451

V Ingenuity 0. 154 0. 139

VI Ingenuity 0.053* 0. 129

♦*p n . 03 *p = . 05 171

APPENDIX J-2

Relationship of Couples' Planning Abilities with Decision Making Patterns for the Two Sets of Grouped Situations

r Grouped Situations Husband Wife

Individual Planning n , IV and V (planning abilities) 0.038 0.014

I, III and VI (planning abilities) 0.099 0. 029

Joint Planning

II, IV and V (planning abilities) 0.030 0.083

I, III and VI (planning abilities) 0.057 0. 141 APPENDIX K

Differences and Relationship between the Couples' Planning Abilities and Decision Making Patterns for Grouped Situations of 1, 3 and 6

172 173

APPENDIX K

1. Difference between husbands' and wives' individual planning abilities.

Prediction No significant difference Elaboration Grouped Finding No significant difference Significantly different at Ingenuity .01 level (Z » 3.57) Significant difference at . 05 level (Z = 2.3)

2. Difference between husbands' and wives' joint planning abilities.

Prediction No significant difference Elaboration Grouped Finding No significant difference No significant difference Ingenuity No significant difference

3. Difference between husbands' individual and their joint planning abilities.

Prediction Significant difference at . 01 level (Z = 2. 82) Grouped Finding Elaboration Significantly different at No significant difference . 01 level (Z = 7. 92) Ingenuity No significant difference

4. Difference between wives' individual and their joint planning abilities.

Prediction Significant difference at . 01 level (Z - 4.65) Grouped Finding Elaboration Significantly different at No significant difference . 01 level (Z =6.23) Ingenuity Significant difference at . 01 level (Z = 3. 31) 174

5. Relationship between prediction, elaboration and ingenuity abilities with husbands' decision making patterns.

No significant relationship was j3een.

6. Relationship between prediction, elaboration and ingenuity abilities with wives' decision making patterns.

No significant relationship was seen.

7. Differences between planning abilities and personal/situational variables for husbands and wives.

Prediction—Husbands A significant difference between prediction ability and educational attainment of the husbands was observed at . 05 level (chi-square s 22.26; df = 12).

A significant difference between prediction ability and years of residence in the United States for the husbands was seen at . 02 level (chi-square n 16.32; df ■ 6).

No significant difference was seen between wives' prediction ability and any of the variables considered.

Elaboration—Husbands A significant difference between elaboration ability and years of joint family experience before marriage was seen for the husbands at .05 level (chi-square = 17. II; df = 9).

Elaboration—Wives A significant difference between wives' elaboration ability and occupation was observed at .01 level (chi-square = 20.72; df = 6).

A significant difference between wives' elaboration ability and years of experience In joint family living after marriage was observed at . 05 level (chi-square s 12. 32; df r 6).

Ingenuity—Husbands A significant difference between tho husbands' ingenuity ability and years of experience in joint family living after marriage was observed at . 01 level (chi-square ■ 19. 03; df - 6).

No significant difference was seen between wives' ingenuity ability and any of tho variables considered.