sign in sign up
<<
Home , First French Empire

Crisis of the Ottoman and global consequences The world in the history of international relations

 By its very birth history of international relations is a discipline deeply rooted on European notions of politics, diplomacy, statehood and institutions [i.e. Westphalian order, system..]  Conventionally, the history of international relations analyses political processes by putting and the West at the centre and relegating the other actors to subaltern or subsidiary roles The world in the history of international relations

 Without rejecting the relevance of the discipline, it is crucial to redefine its boundaries  On one side it is crucial to accommodate different notions of international relations  On the other side we need to have a better understanding of the active role played by non-Western actors in the contemporary system of international relations International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of Europe

Westphalian system: The Peace of was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 to bring an end to the carnage of both:  the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) in the Holy , and  the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between and the , with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic (1581-1795) The Thirty Years' War International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of Europe These treaties did not restore peace throughout Europe, but they they are conventionally credited for having paved the ground for national self-determination Conventionally, as corner stones of the Westphalian system are identified the following: The principle of state sovereignty; The principle of (legal) equality of states; The principle of non-intervention of one state in the international affairs of another The Westphalian system: Myth or Reality Many scholars of International Relations are sceptical about the historical foundation of the so-called Westphalian system In particular revisionist scholars define the accepted narrative about Westphalia as a “myth” because: nowhere do the treaties mention the word ‘sovereignty’ hierarchy was the dominant motif in the international system emerged from the treaties the treaties actually included a number of provisions that restricted each ruler’s domestic authority by an external actor (the ) International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of Europe

The Concert of Europe (also known as Vienna system of international relations), represented the balance of power that existed in Europe from the end of the (1815) to the outbreak of World War I (1914). Concert of Europe International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of Europe The Concert of Europe was established by Austria, Prussia, the and the , who were the members of the Quadruple Alliance which defeated and his in 1815 International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of Europe The Concert of Europe was formulated in 1815 as a mechanism to enforce the decisions of the . It was promoted by the Quadruple Alliance: , Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain, its main priorities were:  to establish a balance of power, thereby preserving the territorial status quo, and  to protect "legitimate" governments from revolutionary and nationalist uprising International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of Europe Aims of the Concert of Europe were to: Contain after decades of war  Achieve a balance of power between Europe's great powers  Uphold the territorial arrangements made at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815  Prevent the rise of another figure such as Napoleon Avoid the outbreak of another continent wide war International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of Europe Main strength and weakness of this system were:  the crucial role of the founding states The intensive use of secret diplomacy International Relations between Westphalian system and Concert of Europe Challenges to this system were: Internal uprising asking for constitutional rule The rise of nationalism The so-called Eastern question The Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi (July 8, 1833) that gave Russia an advantageous access to the straits between Bosporus and Dardanelles The Crimean War (October 1853 – February 1856) Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi The Crimean War (October 1853 – February 1856) The and its Impact on International Relations The crisis of the Ottoman Empire A major factor in the reorganisation of international relations in the 19th C was the crisis of the Ottoman Empire

 This crisis redefined the political boundaries of Europe, Northern Africa and the Middle East

 Affected the future relations between Europe and the Arab World

 Marked significantly the contemporary Muslim political imaginary Reasons behind the crisis of the Ottoman Empire

The challenges raised by modernisation were:

 Multiculturalism e multi-ethnicity

 The rise of nationalism

Timeline

 1299–1453 First steps  1453 conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul)  1453–1683 years of territorial  1683 Battle of Vienna  1683–1827 stagnation years  1828–1908 Crisis  1908–1922 dissolution Population estimate

 - 1856 > 35,350,000*  - 1906 > 20,884,000*  - 1914 > 18,520,000*  - 1919 > 14,629,000*

Multiculturalism and multiethnicity

 Dar al-Islam vs dar al-harb  The issue of dhimmi in the Islamic tradition  It was meant to solve the issue on the role of Christians and Jews in the political and economic life was developed as (ملة)  The millet (from the Arabic millah a balance system to accommodate internal ethno-religious diversity (Armenian, Kurds, Jews, Catholics, Protestants.)  Originally it referred to the separate legal courts pertaining to "personal law" under which communities ruled themselves in cases not involving Muslims The Debate on Modernisation in the Ottoman Empire

 The Battle of Vienna (1683) ignited an intense debate on how to reaffirm Ottoman  The two main positions were: - conservative (suggesting the return to the kanuns of Suleiman the Magnificent) - modernist (supporting the idea of introducing European technology to reform: army, public administration and education) The challenges of modernisation  Nizam i jedid (18th C)  tanzimat (1839-1876) - reform of the education system - reform of the army - reform of the status of dhimmi  Modernisation or Westernisation? - the rise of the Young Ottomans  The rise of nationalism - The Young Turks - Arab Nationalism Nizam–i jedid (Selim III, 1789-1807)

Introduced structural reforms which led to:  A modern army  Increase of taxation  Opening of technical schools to train the new cadres This caused a major a revolt of the 'Ulama, concluded with the deposition of Selim III in 1807 TANZIMAT (reorganisation)

 Russian expansion in the Caucasus and the rise of Muhammad Ali in ignited a new and more intense debate on reforms  Aim of these reforms was to assert, again, the absolute authority of the Ottoman power Tanzimat (1839-1876)

The tanzimat aimed at introducing reforms in: - economics - administration - legal system - education - religion Production

Emphasis was put on the development of  a modern manufacturing system (textile, paper production, weapons)

 mining sector (coal, iron, led, copper)

 agriculture through the displacement of populations and land redistribution Public administration

 1834: new and modern mail system

 1855 telegraph lines

 1866 steam boats and railways

 1838: and of state monopoles and reduction of customs duty Legal system

 1840: new legal codes inspired to the Western tradition were added to the Shari’a system

 1858: private ownership of the land was introduced

 1870: introduction of the Mejelleh that defined and limited duties and rights of Sultan's authority Education

 Elementary and secondary schools were added to vocational schools

 1847 the Ministry of education introduced schools that didn't follow religious curricula

 1870 opening of universities which were to integrate humanities, technical and religious studies Religion  Hatt-i Sherif (1839) the right of all religious communities to life, private ownership and honour  Hatt-i Humayum (1856) established the right of non-Muslim to be recruited in the army  The Tanzimat introduced a new notion of millet  Millet were now referred to the rights of legally protected religious minorities  Starting from 1850 millets were organised on secular basis The impact of reforms

 Little impact on the population  Significant impact on the elites  Hegemony of western educated elites  Stalemate of the middle class  Alliance of those excluded from the social upgrade Young Ottomans (1860- 1890)

 Turkish nationalist group formed in Istanbul in June 1865  They believed on modernisation but they criticised the Tanzimat  They endorsed a constitutional system based on Islamic values and western technology  They asked for a deeper rooting of the Ottoman rule among the population  They suggested the reform of the language to make Ottoman Turkish more understandable to the people  1876 they organised the coup d'état that introduced the constitution Young Turks

 They declared their loyalty to the Ottoman dynasty  However, they introduced the idea of a strong and highly centralised regime associated to a strong Turkish identity Young Turks

 1905: Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) founded the Society for the Fatherland  1907 Committee for Unity and Progress (CUP)  1908 CUP forced the Sultan to re-establish the 1876 constitution  The CUP was overtaken by the military which introduced a secular approach to politics  Between 1908 e 1918 Ottoman identity was replaced by Turkish identity Islamic modernism: origins

Main factors behind its development were:

 The contradictions introduced by the great growth and transformation experienced by the European societies  The contradictions introduced by Ottoman reforms  The debate between Young Ottomans and Young Turks Toward a Modernised Islam

 Politically was represented by the Young Ottomans  It is the doctrine of the political elites and Islamic intelligentsia  It explained the crisis of Ottoman and Islamic hegemony as the result of it missed technological and administrative development)  It suggested to abandon the traditional understanding of religion introducing a new model of Islam  keywords: rationalism, ethical activism, patriotism  Islamic identity tended to be confined to the background Islam & nationalism

The debate ignited by Islamic modernism paved the way to the rise of:  Turkish nationalism  Arab Nationalism Islamic Reformism

 It expressed the point view of enlightened ulamas, and the alliance among merchants, tribal forces and artisans  It opposed Western penetration in all its forms as well as modernised elites Islamic Reformism

 It suggests that a reformed Islam should be the starting point for a project of Muslim renaissance  Muslim identity shouldn't be a blurred background but rather the cornerstone for the birth of a new umma  Cradle of this new vision has been Muhammad Ali's Egypt Egypt as a laboratory

Under the leadership of Muhammad Ali (Mehmet Ali) Egypt has experienced:  a radical transformation of its social and economic fabric  Concentration of land ownership into the hands of few landlords  Expulsion of peasants from their land and their transformation in waged labour  Dismantlement of the village economy Egypt as a laboratory  Financial and commercial penetration of western companies  Huge debt due to infrastructural investments  globalisation of economic exchanges (cotton)  Political and social marginalisation of middle class, ‘ulama and craftsmen

Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī (1839-1897) Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī (1839-1897)

He affirms:  the need to resist Western penetration  the role of a reformed Islam as cornerstone for a new Renaissance  the need to reform corrupted Muslim societies  the idea that Islam is a religion of rationality and free thought  that Islam can be the basis for technological and scientific development Muḥammad 'Abduh Muḥammad 'Abduh (1849-1905)

 He also affirmed the need to oppose Western penetration in the Muslim world  In his analysis he indicated the need to use Qur'an and hadiths as guides for the society  Issues non contemplated in the Qur'an should be analysed and solved through the free use of the reason Muḥammad 'Abduh (1849-1905)

 Ijtihad or “independent reasoning” is suggested as the main method to regulate social relations  this reflects the debate on:  Analogical approach vs literal  Islamic reformism is crucial to understand the developments of important contemporary political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā (1865-1935) Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā (1865-1935)

 He tried to address the issues of reforming Islam and strengthening the Muslim world to face Western imperial expansion  Key point in his analysis was the political independence of Muslim lands  In his analysis Rida tried to reconcile Islamic medieval thought and the challenges of modernity  He encouraged both laymen and scholars to interpret the primary sources of Islam themselves Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā (1865-1935)

 He tried to sketch a political project based on the idea of a new organised on the principle of:  Separation among:  Religion  State  Civil society  His thought was mainly condensed in the treatise Al- Khilafa wa al-Imamatu al-‘Uzma (The Caliphate and the Greater Imamate)  Islamic reformism has a long tradition and its offsprings can still be found in many regions:  It has been mainly based on brotherhoods  Western Africa: Uthman Dan Fodio, Tijaniyya,  Libya: Sanusiyya  Egypt: Salafiyya,  Algeria: Qadiriyya  Saudi Arabia: Wahabbiyya  Indonesia: Aceh, Padri Movement Weekly readings

Şevket Pamuk, “Institutional Change and the Longevity of the Ottoman Empire, 1500-1800,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 35, No. 2 (2004), pp. 225-247

Margaret Kohn, “Afghānī on Empire, Islam, and Civilization,” Political Theory, Vol. 37, No. 3 (2009), pp. 398-422

All available on: jstor