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Selma to Montgomery marches From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The three 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches led to the passage of the 1965 Voting Rights Act, a landmark achievement of the American . All three protest Selma to Montgomery marches marches were attempts to walk the 54-mile highway from Selma to the state capital of Part of Civil Rights Movement Montgomery.

The voting rights movement in Selma was launched by local African-, who formed the Dallas County Voters League (DCVL). Joined by organizers from the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), they began registering black voters in 1963. When white resistance to their work proved intractable, the DCVL turned to Martin Luther Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, who brought many prominent civil rights and civic leaders to Selma in January 1965.

The following month Jimmie Lee Jackson, a voting-rights activist, was mortally wounded during a in Marion, Alabama, inflaming community passions. To defuse and refocus the anger, SCLC Director of , who was directing SCLC's Selma Campaign, called Alabama State troopers attack civil-rights [1][2] for a march of dramatic length, from Selma to Montgomery. demonstrators outside Selma, Alabama, on Bloody The first march took place on March 7, 1965; it gained the nickname "Bloody Sunday" after its Sunday, March 7, 1965 600 marchers were attacked by state and local police with billy clubs and tear gas. The second Date March 7, 1965 – March 25, 1965 march took place March 9; police and marchers stood off against one another, but when the Location , U.S. Route 80, [3] troopers stepped aside to let them pass, King led the marchers back to the church. Alabama State Capitol, Selma and Montgomery, Alabama The third march started March 21. Protected by 2,000 soldiers of the U.S. Army, 1,900 members of the Alabama National Guard under Federal command, and many FBI agents and Federal Causes Obstruction of voter registration for Marshals, the marchers averaged 10 miles (16 km) a day along U.S. Route 80, known in Alabama as the "Jefferson Davis Highway". The marchers arrived in Montgomery on March 24 and at the Voter registration campaign Alabama State Capitol on March 25.[4] Death of Jimmie Lee Jackson

The route is memorialized as the Selma To Montgomery Voting Rights Trail, and is a U.S. Death of Rev. National Historic Trail. Goals Voting rights Methods Strikes, Protest, Protest march Result Voting Rights Act of 1965 Contents Parties to the civil conflict

◾ 1 Fight for the vote: 1963–64 ◾ Dallas County ◾ 45th Governor of ◾ 2 Selma Voting Rights Movement Voters League Alabama ◾ 3 The first Selma-to-Montgomery March: "Bloody Sunday" (DCVL) ◾ Selma Department ◾ 3.1 Jimmie Lee Jackson's death ◾ Southern Christian of Safety Leadership ◾ 3.2 Initiation and goals of the march ◾ Dallas County Conference Circuit Court ◾ 3.3 "Bloody Sunday" events (SCLC) ◾ White Citizens' ◾ 4 Second march: "Turnaround Tuesday" ◾ Student Council ◾ 4.1 Response to the second march Nonviolent ◾ Local policemen ◾ 5 The march to Montgomery Coordinating ◾ Sheriff's deputies ◾ 5.1 Response to the third march Committee (SNCC) ◾ 5.2 Hammermill boycott

◾ 6 Historical impact Lead figures ◾ 7 Media based on the marches DCVL members ◾ ◾ 8 See also ◾ Judge Frank ◾ 9 References ◾ Ulysses S. Johnson Blackmon, Sr. ◾ 10 External links ◾ Judge James Hare ◾ Amelia Boynton ◾ ◾ Samuel Boynton Wilson Baker ◾ ◾ Fight for the vote: 1963–64 ◾ John Cloud ◾ Rev. Frederick Selma is the county seat and major town of Dallas County, Alabama. In 1961, the population of Reese Dallas County was 57% black, but of the 15,000 blacks old enough to vote, only 130 were ◾ Rev. L.L. registered (fewer than 1%). At that time, more than 80% of Dallas County blacks lived below the Anderson poverty line, most of them working as sharecroppers, farm hands, maids, janitors, and day- ◾ J.L. Chestnut laborers.[5] ◾ ◾

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Led by the Boynton family (Amelia, Sam, and son Bruce), Rev. L.L. Anderson, J.L. Chestnut, and ◾ James E. Marie Foster, the Dallas County Voters League (DCVL) attempted to register black citizens Gildersleeve during the late 1950s and early 1960s. Their efforts were blocked by state and local officials, the White Citizens' Council, and the . The methods included a literacy test,[6] economic SCLC members pressure, and violence. ◾ Martin Luther In early 1963, SNCC organizers Bernard and Colia Lafayette arrived in Selma to begin a voter- King, Jr. registration project in cooperation with the DCVL.[5] In mid-June, Bernard was beaten and almost ◾ James Bevel killed by Klansmen determined to prevent blacks from voting. When the Lafayettes returned to ◾ school in the fall, SNCC organizers and Worth Long carried on the work despite ◾ arrests, beatings, and death threats. When 32 teachers applied to register as voters, they were immediately fired by the all-white school board. After the Birmingham church bombing ◾ on September 15, black students in Selma began sit-ins at local lunch counters where they were ◾ attacked and arrested. More than 300 were arrested in two weeks of protests, including SNCC SNCC members Chairman .[7] ◾ John Lewis October 7, 1963, was one of the two days per month that citizens were allowed to go to the courthouse to apply to register to vote. SNCC and the DCVL mobilized over 300 Dallas County blacks to line up at the voter registration office in what was called a "Freedom Day". Supporting them were author and his brother David, and comedian and his wife Lillian (who was arrested for picketing with SNCC activists and local supporters). SNCC members who tried to bring water to the blacks waiting on line were arrested, as were those who held signs saying "Register to Vote." After waiting all day in the hot sun, only a handful of the hundreds in the line were allowed to fill out the voter application, and most of the applications were denied.[8]

On July 2, 1964, President Johnson signed the into law, declaring segregation illegal, though remained in effect. When attempts to integrate Selma's dining and entertainment venues were resumed, blacks who tried to attend the movie theater and eat at the hamburger stand were beaten and arrested.

On July 6, John Lewis led 50 black citizens to the courthouse on registration day, but Sheriff Clark arrested them rather than allow them to apply to vote. On July 9, Judge James Hare issued an injunction forbidding any gathering of three or more people under the sponsorship of civil rights organizations or leaders. This injunction made it illegal to even talk to more than two people at a time about civil rights or voter registration in Selma, suppressing public civil rights activity there for the next six fateful months.[9] Selma Voting Rights Movement

With civil rights activity blocked by Judge Hare's injunction, the DCVL requested the assistance of King and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Three of SCLC's main organizers – SCLC's Director of Direct Action and Director of Nonviolent Education James Bevel, Diane Nash, and James Orange – had been working on Bevel's Alabama Voting Rights Project since late 1963, a project which King and the executive board of SCLC had not joined.[10][11]

When SCLC officially accepted the invitation from the local activist group the "Courageous 8" (Ulysses S. Blackmon, Sr., Amelia Boynton, Ernest Doyle, Marie Foster, James Gildersleeve, J.D. Hunter, Sr., Dr. F.D. Reese, Sr., and Henry Shannon, Sr.) to bring their organization to Selma, Bevel, Nash, Orange, and others in SCLC began working in Selma in December 1964. They also worked in the surrounding counties along with the SNCC staff who had been active there since early 1963. Police wait for marchers to come across the Edmund Pettus Bridge on Bloody The Selma Voting Rights Movement officially started on January 2, 1965, when King addressed a mass Sunday, March 7, 1965. meeting in Brown Chapel in defiance of the anti-meeting injunction.

Over the following weeks, SCLC and SNCC activists expanded voter registration drives and protests in Selma and the adjacent Black Belt counties. In addition to Selma, marches and other protests in support of voting rights were held in Perry, Wilcox, Marengo, Greene, and Hale counties. The first Selma-to-Montgomery March: "Bloody Sunday"

Jimmie Lee Jackson's death

On February 18, 1965, C. T. Vivian led a march to the courthouse in Marion, the county seat of Perry County, to protest the arrest of James Orange. State officials had received orders to target Vivian specifically, and so a line of Alabama state troopers waited for the marchers at the Perry County courthouse.[12] All of the street lights in the location were turned off, and state troopers rushed at the protesters attacking them. One of the protesters with Vivian, Jimmie Lee Jackson, fled the scene with his mother to hide in a nearby café. Alabama State Trooper corporal James Bonard Fowler followed Jackson into the café and shot him as he tried to protect his mother. Jackson died eight days later of an infection resulting from the gunshot wound at Selma's Good Samaritan Hospital.[13] Jackson was the only male wage-earner of his household, which lived in extreme poverty. Jackson's father, wife, and children were left with no source of income.

On May 10, 2007, 42 years after the homicide, Fowler was charged with first degree and second degree murder for the death of Jimmie Lee Jackson and subsequently surrendered to authorities.[14] Fowler pleaded guilty to one count of second-degree manslaughter on November 15, 2010.[15] Mr. Fowler apologized for the shooting but insisted that he had acted in self-defense, believing that Mr. Jackson was trying to grab his gun.[15] Fowler was sentenced to six months in prison.[15]

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Initiation and goals of the march

James Bevel, who was directing the Selma Voting Rights Movement for SCLC, called for a march from Selma to Montgomery to talk to Governor George Wallace directly about Jackson's death, and to ask if he had ordered the State Troopers to turn off the lights and attack the marchers in the incident. Bevel called the march in order to focus the anger and pain of the people of Selma, some of whom wanted to address Jackson's death with violence, towards a nonviolent goal.[16][17] The marchers also hoped to bring attention to the violations of their Constitutional Rights by marching to Montgomery. Dr. King agreed with Bevel's plan, and asked for a march from Selma to Montgomery to ask Governor Wallace to protect black registrants.

Wallace denounced the march as a threat to public safety and declared he would take all measures necessary to prevent this from happening.

"Bloody Sunday" events

On March 7, 1965, an estimated 525 to 600 civil rights marchers headed east out of Selma on U.S. Highway 80. The march was led by John Lewis of SNCC and the Reverend Hosea Williams of SCLC, followed by of SNCC and of SCLC. The protest went according to plan until the marchers crossed the Edmund Pettus Bridge, where they found a wall of state troopers waiting for them on the other side.

Sheriff Jim Clark had issued an order for all white males in Dallas County over the age of twenty-one to report to the courthouse that morning to be deputized. Commanding officer John Cloud told the demonstrators to disband at once and go home. Williams tried to speak to the officer, but Cloud curtly informed him there was nothing to discuss. Seconds later, the troopers began shoving the demonstrators. Many were knocked to the ground and beaten with nightsticks. Another detachment of troopers fired tear gas, and mounted troopers charged the crowd on horseback.[18]

Televised images of the brutal attack presented Americans with horrifying images of marchers left bloodied and severely injured, and roused support for the Selma Voting Rights Movement. Amelia Boynton was beaten and gassed nearly to death; her photo appeared on the front page of newspapers and news magazines around the world.[19] Overall, seventeen marchers were hospitalized, and the day was nicknamed "Bloody Sunday". Second march: "Turnaround Tuesday"

Immediately after "Bloody Sunday," Bevel, Nash, King and others began organizing a second march to be held on Tuesday, March 9, 1965. They issued a call for clergy and citizens from across the country to join them. Awakened to issues of civil and voting rights by years of Civil Rights struggles, from the to , and shocked by the television images of "Bloody Sunday," hundreds of people responded to SCLC's call.

To prevent another outbreak of violence, SCLC attempted to gain a court order that would prohibit the police from interfering. Instead of issuing the court order, Federal District Court Judge issued a restraining order, preventing the march from taking place until he could hold additional hearings later in the week.

Based on past experience, SCLC was confident that Judge Johnson would eventually lift the restraining order and they did not want to alienate one of the few southern judges who was often sympathetic to their cause by violating his injunction. There was also insufficient infrastructure in place to support a long march, one for which the marchers were ill-equipped. Further, a person who violates a court order may be punished for contempt even if the order is later reversed.[20] But movement supporters, both local and from around the country, were determined to march on Tuesday to protest the "Bloody Sunday" violence and the systematic denial of black voting rights in Alabama. To balance these conflicting imperatives, SCLC decided to hold a partial "ceremonial" march that would cross over the bridge but halt when ordered to do so in compliance with the injunction.

On March 9, a day that would become known as "Turnaround Tuesday",[21] Dr. King led about 2,500 marchers out to the Edmund Pettus Bridge and held a short prayer session before turning the marchers back around, thereby obeying the court order preventing them from marching to Montgomery. But only the SCLC leaders were told of this plan in advance, causing confusion and consternation among many marchers, including those who had traveled long distances to participate and put their bodies on the line in nonviolent opposition to police brutality. King asked them to remain in Selma for another attempt at the march once the injunction was lifted.

That evening, three white ministers who had come for the march were attacked by four members of the Ku Klux Klan and beaten with clubs.[22] The worst injured was James Reeb, a white Unitarian Universalist minister from Boston. Selma's public hospital refused to treat Rev. Reeb, who had to be taken to Birmingham's University Hospital, two hours away. Reeb died on Thursday, March 11 at University Hospital with his wife by his side.

Response to the second march

Blacks in Dallas County and the Black Belt mourned the death of Reverend Reeb as they had earlier mourned the death of Jimmie Lee Jackson. But many activists were bitter that the media and national political leaders expressed great concern over Reeb's murder, but had paid scant attention to the killing of Jimmie Lee Jackson. SNCC spokesman was reported as saying "What you want is the nation to be upset when anybody is killed... but it almost [seems that] for this to be recognized, a white person must be killed." The march to Montgomery

A week after Reeb's death, on Wednesday March 17, Judge Johnson ruled in favor of the protestors, saying their First Amendment right to march in protest could not be abridged by the state of Alabama:

The law is clear that the right to petition one's government for the redress of grievances may be exercised in large groups . . . . These rights may . . . be exercised by marching, even along public highways.[23]

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On Sunday, March 21, close to 8,000 people assembled at Brown Chapel to commence the trek to Montgomery.[24] Most of the participants were black, but some were white and some were Asian and Latino. Spiritual leaders of multiple races, religions, and creeds marched abreast with Dr. King, including Rev. , Rabbis Abraham Joshua Heschel and Maurice Davis, and at least one nun, all of whom were depicted in a famous photo.[22]

In 1965, the road to Montgomery was four lanes wide going east from Selma, then narrowed to two lanes through Lowndes County, and then widened to four lanes again at Montgomery county border. Under the terms of Judge Johnson's order, the march was limited to no more than 300 participants for the two days they were on the two-lane portion of Highway-80, so at the end of the first day most of the marchers returned to Selma by bus and car, leaving 300 to camp overnight and take up the journey the next day.

On March 22 and 23, 300 protesters marched through chilling rain across Lowndes county, The 3rd Selma Civil Rights March frontline. From camping at three sites in muddy fields. At the time of the march, the population of Lowndes far left: John Lewis, an unidentified nun; Ralph County was 81% black and 19% white, but not a single black was registered to vote.[25] At the Abernathy; Martin Luther King, Jr.; ; same time there were 2,240 whites registered to vote in Lowndes County, a figure that Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel; Frederick Douglas represented 118% of the adult white population (in many southern counties of that era it was Reese. Second row: Between Martin Luther King, practice to retain white voters on the rolls after they died or moved away). Jr. and Ralph Bunche is Rabbi Maurice Davis. Heschel later wrote, "When I marched in Selma, my On the morning of the 24th, the march crossed into Montgomery County and the highway feet were praying." widened again to four lanes. All day as the march approached the city, additional marchers were ferried by bus and car to join the line. By evening, several thousand marchers had reached the final campsite at the City of St. Jude, a complex on the outskirts of Montgomery.

That night on a makeshift stage, a "Stars for Freedom" rally was held, with singers , Tony Bennett, Frankie Laine, Peter, Paul and Mary, Sammy Davis, Jr., Joan Baez and Nina Simone all performing.[26]

On Thursday, March 25, 25,000 people marched from St. Jude to the steps of the State Capitol Building where King delivered the speech "How Long, Not Long." "The end we seek," King told the crowd, "is a society at with itself, a society that can live with its conscience. ... I know you are asking today, How long will it take? I come to say to you this afternoon however difficult the moment, however frustrating the hour, it will not be long."[27] After delivering the speech, King and the marchers approached the entrance to the capitol with a petition for Governor Wallace. A line of state troopers blocked the door. One of them announced that the governor wasn't in. Undeterred, the marchers remained at the entrance until one of Wallace's secretaries appeared and took the petition.

Later that night, , a white mother of five from Detroit who had come to Alabama to support voting rights for blacks, was assassinated by Ku Klux Klan members while she was ferrying marchers back to Selma from Montgomery. Among the Klansmen in the car from which the shots were fired was FBI informant Gary Rowe. Afterward, the FBI's COINTELPRO operation spread false rumors that Liuzzo was a member of the Communist Party and abandoned her children to have sexual relationships with African Americans involved in the civil rights movement.[28]

Response to the third march

The third march spread the marchers' message without harassment by police and segregation supporters. These factors, along with more widespread support from other civil rights organizations in the area, made the march an overall success and gave the demonstration greater impact.

U.S. Representative William Louis Dickinson made two speeches to Congress on March 30 and April 27 seeking to slander the movement by making spurious charges of alcohol abuse, bribery, and widespread sexual debauchery at the marches. Religious leaders present at the marches denied the charges, and local and national journalists were unable to substantiate his accounts. The allegations of segregation supporters were collected in Robert M. Mikell's pro-segregationist book Selma (Charlotte, 1965).[29]

Hammermill boycott

During 1965, Martin Luther King was promoting an economic boycott of Alabama products to put pressure on the State to integrate schools and employment.[30] Despite King's urgings, Hammermill paper company announced the opening of a major plant in Selma Alabama during the height of violence in Selma.[31] On February 4, 1965, the Company announced construction of a $35 million plant, allegedly touting the "fine reports the company had received about the character of the community and its people." [32] On March 26, 1965, the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee called for a national boycott of Hammermill paper products, until the company reversed what SNCC described as racist policies. King's organization, SCLC joined in support of the boycott.[33] Ultimately, in cooperation with SCLC, student members of Oberlin College Action for Civil Rights,[34] joined with King's group SCLC to conduct picketing and a sit-in at Hammermill's Erie Pennsylvania headquarters. The company responded by calling a meeting of the corporate leadership of Hammermill, SCLC's C.T. Vivian, and Oberlin student leadership, and led to the signing of an agreement by Hammermill to support integration in Alabama.[35] Historical impact

The marches shifted public opinion about the Civil Rights movement. The images of Alabama law enforcement beating the nonviolent protesters were shown all over the country and the world by television networks and newspapers. The visuals of such brutality being carried out by the state of Alabama helped shift the image of the segregationist movement from one of a movement trying to preserve the social order of the South to a system of state-endorsed terrorism against non-whites.[36]

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The marches also had a powerful effect in Washington. After witnessing TV coverage of "Bloody Sunday," President Lyndon Baines Johnson met with Governor George Wallace in Washington to discuss with him the civil rights situation in his state. He tried to persuade Wallace to stop the state harassment of the protesters. Two nights later, on March 15, 1965, Johnson presented a bill to a joint session of Congress. The bill itself would later pass and become the Voting Rights Act. Johnson's speech in front of Congress was considered to be a watershed moment for the civil rights movement.

Even if we pass this bill, the battle will not be over. What happened in Selma is part of a far larger movement which reaches into every section and state of America. It is the effort of American Negroes to secure for themselves the full blessings of American life. Their cause must be our cause, too, because it is not just Negroes but really it is all of us who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice. And .[36][37]:278[38]

Many in the Civil Rights movement cheered the speech and were emotionally moved that after so long, and so hard a struggle, a President was finally willing to defend voting rights for blacks. According to SCLC activist C.T. Vivian, who was with King when the speech was broadcast, Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail sign. ...I looked over... and Martin was very quietly sitting in the chair, and a tear ran down his cheek. It was a victory like none other. It was an affirmation of the movement.[36]

The bill became law at an August 6 ceremony attended by Amelia Boynton and many other civil rights leaders and activists. This act prohibited most of the unfair practices used to prevent blacks from registering to vote, and provided for federal registrars to go to Alabama and other states with a history of voting-related discrimination to ensure that the law was implemented.

In Selma, where more than 7,000 blacks were added to the voting rolls after passage of the Act, Sheriff Jim Clark was voted out of office in 1966 (he later served a prison sentence for drug smuggling).[39]

In 1960, there were just 53,336 black voters in the state of Alabama; three decades later, there were 537,285,[40] a tenfold increase.

In 1996, the 54-mile Selma-to-Montgomery National Historic Trail was established, preserved by the National Park Service.[41] As part of the National Historic Trail, the National Park Service operates two interpretive centers (Selma and Lownes County) and is planning to operate a Montgomery center that will be located on the campus of Alabama State University. Media based on the marches

Eyes on the Prize, a 14-hour PBS documentary narrated by , premiered in 1987. The sixth episode, Bridge to Freedom centers on the Selma to Montgomery marches. The series and its producer won six Emmies, the Peabody Award, and the duPont-Columbia Gold Baton award for excellence in journalism, and was nominated for an Academy award.[42]

Selma, Lord, Selma, the first dramatic feature film based on events surrounding the Selma to Montgomery marches, is a Disney production first broadcast on January 17, 1999 by ABC television.[43] Critical reception varied. The Philadelphia Tribune praised the portrayal of Martin Luther King, Jr. by Clifton Powell and the "…heart-wrenching performance" by Jurnee Smollett.[44] The Boston Globe used harsh words: "…never rises above the level of a Classic Comics version of civil rights history.",[45] while The Rocky Mountain News was less judgmental: "(Selma) …offers a sense of authenticity…".[46]

Selma, a film slated for limited theatrical release December 25, 2014 followed by wide release January 9, 2015, will feature events and personalities surrounding the Selma to Montgomery marches and the creation of the 1965 Voting Rights Act.

March is a three-part graphic novel autobiography published by Top Shelf Productions about John Lewis, that begins with his and fellow civil rights activists' beating and gassing at the hands of Alabama state troopers on the Edmund Pettus Bridge. Written by Lewis and his congressional aide, Andrew Aydin, and illustrated by Nate Powell, the first book in series was published in August 2013.[47] See also

◾ (major photographer of the march) ◾ James "Spider" Martin ("Bloody Sunday" photographer) ◾ ◾ Suffrage Hikes ◾ National Voting Rights Museum

References

1. ^ "James L. Bevel The Strategist of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement" by 2. ^ "Movement Revision Research Summary Regarding James Bevel" by Randy Kryn, a paper in 's 1989 book We Shall Overcome, Randy Kryn, October 2005 (http://cfm40.middlebury.edu/node/287) Volume II, Carlson Publishing Company published by

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3. ^ Branch, Taylor (2013). The King Years: Historic Moments in the Civil 28. ^ Mary Stanton, FROM SELMA TO SORROW: The Life and Death of Rights Movement. Simon & Schuster. Viola Liuzzo, University of Georgia Press, 2000 4. ^ Davis, Townsend (1998). Weary Feet, Rested Souls. W.W. Norton. 29. ^ Mikkel's book was published with a colorized photograph showing 5. ^ a b Selma — Breaking the Grip of Fear splotches of blood drawn in on Viola Liuzzo's car. See Jane Dailey. "Sex, (http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis63.htm#1963selma1) ~ Civil Rights Segregation, and the Sacred after Brown Movement Veterans (http://www.umass.edu/legal/Hilbink/250/Jane%20Dailey%20-%20Sex,% 6. ^ Are You "Qualified" to Vote? The Alabama "Literacy 20Segregation,%20and%20the%20Sacred%20after%20Brown.pdf)". The Test" (http://www.crmvet.org/info/lithome.htm) ~ Civil Rights Movement Journal of American History 91.1. Veterans 30. ^ Fredrick, Stand Up for Alabama, page 126 7. ^ Freedom Day in Selma (http://books.google.com/books? (http://www.crmvet.org/tim/tim63b.htm#1963fdselma) ~ Civil Rights id=jsEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=Hammermill+Paper+Boycott&source=bl&ots=2mVIssdBBq&sig=BvG6S2Kn632rdpJsWfUvziuH9kg&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PeFKT_7TCoWWgwel7Z2nDg&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Hammermill% Movement Veterans 20Paper%20Boycott&f=false) 8. ^ Zinn, Howard (1965). SNCC The New Abolitionists. Beacon Press. 31. ^ Selma to be Southern Operations Base 9. ^ The Selma Injunction (http://news.google.com/newspapers? (http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis64.htm#1964selmainj) ~ Civil Rights nid=2211&dat=19651211&id=0-QmAAAAIBAJ&sjid=wQIGAAAAIBAJ&pg=6603,5548256) Movement Veterans. 32. ^ Student Voice (http://www.crmvet.org/docs/sv/sv650326.pdf) 10. ^ "James L. Bevel The Strategist of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement" by 33. ^ Jet, May 27, 1965 (http://books.google.com/books? Randall Kryn, a paper in David Garrow's 1989 book We Shall Overcome, id=jsEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=Hammermill+Paper+Boycott&source=bl&ots=2mVIssdBBq&sig=BvG6S2Kn632rdpJsWfUvziuH9kg&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PeFKT_7TCoWWgwel7Z2nDg&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Hammermill% Volume II, Carlson Publishing Company 20Paper%20Boycott&f=false). 11. ^ "Movement Revision Research Summary Regarding James Bevel" by 34. ^ The Activist Consensus Randy Kryn, October 2005 (http://cfm40.middlebury.edu/node/287) (http://www.oberlin.edu/external/EOG/DAddarioHonors/DAddarioHonors- published by Middlebury College ch1.htm) 12. ^ Halberstam, David. , Random House, 1998, p. 502. 35. ^ The Best Known Name in Paper, Hammermill 13. ^ Fleming, John (March 6, 2005). "The Death of Jimmie Lee (http://pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/Hammermill.html) Jackson" (http://www.annistonstar.com/view/full_story/2746471/article- 36. ^ a b c Weinstein, Allen (2002). The Story of America: Freedom and Crisis The-Death-of-Jimmie-Lee-Jackson?instance=special). The Anniston Star. from Settlement to Superpower. DK Publishing, Inc. 14. ^ "Nation in Brief: Indictment Brought in Civil-Rights-Era 37. ^ Williams, Juan (2002). : America's Civil Rights Years, Death" (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp- 1954-1965. Penguin Books. ISBN 0140096531. dyn/content/article/2007/05/09/AR2007050902488.html). Washington 38. ^ Wicker, Tom (15 ). "Johnson Urges Congress at Joint Post. 10 May 2007. pp. A08. Retrieved 2008-01-21 Session to Pass Law Insuring Negro 15. ^ a b c Brown, Robbie (15 November 2010). "45 Years Later, an Apology Vote" (http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0315.html). and 6 Months" (http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/16/us/16fowler.html? New York Times. Retrieved 3 August 2013. partner=rss&emc=rss). New York Times. Retrieved 16 November 2010. 39. ^ Rawls, Phillip (June 6, 2007). "Ala. Ex-Sheriff Dies; Civil Rights 16. ^ Kryn in Garrow, 1989 Foe" (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp- 17. ^ Kryn, 2005 dyn/content/article/2007/06/06/AR2007060601868.html). The Washington 18. ^ National Park Service Post. . (http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/civilrights/cost.htm) 40. ^ Selma-to-Montgomery 1965 Voting Rights March 19. ^ "The wire photo of her left for dead on Edmund Pettus Bridge, which (http://www.alabamamoments.state.al.us/sec59det.html) – Alabama went around the world on the news that night, helped spark the outpouring Department of Archives & History of support for the civil rights 41. ^ http://www.nps.gov/semo/historyculture/index.htm movement..." (http://www.schillerinstitute.org/conf-iclc/2001/Labor% 42. ^ "Eyes on the 20Day/conf_sep_2001_mw_.html) Prize" (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/story/10_march.html). 20. ^ See Walker v. City of Birmingham, 388 U.S. 307 1967, citing Howat v. The American Experience. PBS. August 23, 2006. Retrieved 6 June 2014. Kansas, 258 U.S. 181 (1922). 43. ^ " 'Selma, Lord, Selma' airs Jan. 17: The horror and legacy of Bloody 21. ^ "Martin Luther King and the Global Freedom Struggle" (http://mlk- Sunday brought to life". Pittsburg New Courier (Pittsburgh, PA). kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/encyclopedia/chronologyentry/1965_03_09). December 30, 1998. – via HighBeam (subscription required) Stanford University: The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education 44. ^ "Selma, Lord, Selma: Disney remembers King; Movie tracks struggle Institute. Retrieved October 16, 2012. for voting rights". The Philadelphia Tribune (Philadelphia, PA). January 22. ^ a b The March to Montgomery (http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis65.htm) 15, 1999. – via HighBeam (subscription required) ~ Civil Rights Movement Veterans 45. ^ Koch, John (January 16, 1999). "`Selma' tale oversimplifies rights 23. ^ Williams v. Wallace, 240 F. Supp. 100, 106 (M.D. Ala. 1960). drama". The Boston Globe (Boston, MA). – via HighBeam (subscription 24. ^ Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail required) (http://www.nps.gov/semo) – National Park Service 46. ^ Saunders, Dusty (January 17, 1999). "Areas of Beleagured Wonderful 25. ^ Cobb, Charles E. (2008). On the Road to Freedom. Algonquin Books. Disney". Rocky Mountain News (Denver, CO). – via HighBeam 26. ^ Tankersley, Mike (March 25, 2012). "City of St. Jude is just wild about (subscription required) Harry" (http://www.montgomeryadvertiser.com/article/20120325/NEWS01/30324570. 0^3 1C)a. vna, Michael (August 12, 2013). "In the graphic novel 'March,' Rep. Montgomery Advertiser. Retrieved June 11, 2013. John Lewis renders a powerful civil rights 27. ^ Selma to Montgomery March memoir" (http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-08- (http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/about_king/encyclopedia/selma_montgomery.h1t2m/l)i festyle/41333709_1_john-lewis-lewis-s-graphic-novel). The – King Research & Education Center at Stanford University Washington Post. Retrieved 25 October 2013.

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External links

◾ National Voting Rights Museum and Institute, Selma, Alabama (http://nvrmi.com/) Wikimedia Commons has ◾ Selma & the March to Montgomery (http://www.crmvet.org/disc/selma.htm) ~ A Discussion by Civil media related to Selma to Montgomery marches. Rights Movement Veterans ◾ Images of Selma (http://www.crmvet.org/images/imgselma.htm) and the March to Montgomery (http://www.crmvet.org/images/imgmont.htm) ~ Civil Rights Movement Veterans ◾ Selma & the March to Montgomery (http://www.crmvet.org/disc/selma.htm) ~ A Discussion by Civil Rights Movement Veterans ◾ Police attack Alabama marchers (http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/7/newsid_4318000/4318021.stm) by BBC News ◾ Alabama Department of Archives & History (http://www.alabamamoments.state.al.us/sec59det.html) ◾ All American Road (http://hometown.aol.com/stephenmlong1/selma.html) – pictures and story of the Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail ◾ Securing the Right to Vote: The Selma-to-Montgomery Story (http://www.historynow.org/06_2006/print/lp2.html) ◾ ”The Selma to Montgomery Voting Rights March: Shaking the Conscience of the Nation” (http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/133SEMO/133selma.htm) a National Park Service lesson plan ◾ FBI files on the March (https://archive.org/details/foia_Selma_March-HQ-1_thru_3), hosted at the Internet Archive ◾ Selma to Montgomery March article, Encyclopedia of Alabama (http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1114) ◾ Tullos, Allen. "Selma Bridge: Always Under Construction (http://southernspaces.org/2008/selma-bridge-always-under-construction)," Southern Spaces July 28, 2008. ◾ Praying with their Feet: Remembering Abraham Joshua Heschel and Martin Luther King (http://www.peaceworkmagazine.org/praying-their- feet-remembering-abraham-joshua-heschel-and-martin-luther-king) ◾ Thousands Mark Anniversary of 1965 Selma-Montgomery March (http://www.democracynow.org/2010/3/8/bloody_sunday_thousands_mark_anniversary_of) – video by Democracy Now! ◾ Bloody Sunday and Beyond (http://www.yubanet.com/artman/publish/article_21783.shtml) ◾ The Selma March Remembered (http://nickmudge.info/articles/selma_march_remembered.html) ~ An account by someone who was there. ◾ Brotherhood Postponed (http://taliashewrote.com/2010/01/28/brotherhood-postponed/) Sermon by Rabbi Maurice Davis recapping the events of the third march to Montgomery

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Categories: Conflicts in 1965 National Historic Trails of the All-American Roads History of African-American civil rights Civil rights protests in the United States Protest marches History of Alabama 1965 in the United States Selma, Alabama History of Montgomery, Alabama Civil rights movement during the Lyndon B. Johnson Administration Martin Luther King, Jr. African-American history of Alabama 1965 in Alabama History of voting rights in the United States

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