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Wild Edible Plant Use in Tshopo District, Democratic Republic of Congo

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Wild Edible Plant Use in Tshopo District, Democratic Republic of Congo Promoter: Prof. Dr. ir. Patrick Van Damme Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium Chairman of the jury: Prof. Dr. ir. Chris Stevens Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium Members of the jury: Dr. ir. Ann Degrande ICRAF-West and Central Africa,Yaounde, Cameroon Prof. Dr. Paul Goetghebeur Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, Belgium Prof. Dr. Patrick Kolsteren Department of Food safety and food quality , Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium Nutrition and child health unit, Institute for Tropical Medicine, Nationalestraat 155, Antwerp, Belgium Prof. Dr. ir. François Malaisse Unité Biodiversité et Paysage, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Université de Liège, Belgique Prof. Dr. ir. Dirk Reheul Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium Prof. Dr. ir. Eric Tollens Devision for Agricultural and Food Economics, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium Prof. Dr. ir. John Van Camp Department of Food safety and food quality , Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium Dr. ir. Veerle Van den Eynden Research Data Management Support Services, Medical Research Council, London, UK UK Data Archive, University of Essex, UK Visiting Lecturer People & Plants, University of the Highlands and Islands, Orkney College, Scotland. Dean: Prof. Dr. ir. Guido Van Huylebroeck Rector: Prof. Dr. Paul Van Cauwenberge CÉLINE TERMOTE WILD EDIBLE PLANT USE IN TSHOPO DISTRICT, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor (PhD) in Applied Biological Sciences Dutch translation of the title: Gebruik van wilde eetbare planten in Tshopo District, Democratische Republiek Congo Illustration on the cover: above from left to right: Tristemma mauritianum, Myrianthus arboreus, Grewia louisii, Anonidium mannii; middle: Congo river; below from left to right: Cola acuminata; Tetracarpidium conophorum, Maesobotrya longipes, Caloncoba subtomentosa Printed by University Press, Zelzate, Belgium Correct citation: Termote C (2012). Wild edible plant use in Tshopo District, Democratic Republic of Congo. PhD thesis. Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Belgium. ISBN 978-90-5989-519-5 The author and the promoter give the authorization to consult and to copy parts of this work for personal use only. Every other use is subject to the copyright laws. Permission to reproduce any material contained in this work should be obtained from the author. The good life is one inspired by love and guided by knowledge Bertrand Russell ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ongeveer acht jaar geleden bracht mijn eerste job mij in de Democratische Republiek Congo. Nooit gedacht dat ik dáár ooit zou terecht komen, maar toen ik twee jaar later een doctoraatsonderwerp mocht kiezen en over het ‘Wilde Eetbare Plantenproject’ in Kisangani hoorde, was mijn keuze snel gemaakt. De uitdagingen om in deze regio wetenschappelijk onderzoek te verrichten waren groot, maar heel wat enthousiaste en geëngageerde mensen kruisten mijn pad. Dankzij hun hulp kon ik dit werk tot een goed einde brengen. Dit is dan ook de juiste plaats om al deze bijzondere mensen te bedanken. Allereerst wil ik mijn promotor Prof. Dr. ir. Patrick Van Damme bedanken voor het vertrouwen en het geloof in mijn kunnen gedurende al deze jaren, alsook voor de waardevolle opmerkingen en suggesties in verband met mijn werk en voor het corrigeren van mijn Engelse zinnen: een oprecht dankjewel! I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. ir. Ann Degrande, Prof. Dr. Paul Goetghebeur, Prof. Dr. Patrick Kolsteren, Prof. Dr. ir. François Malaisse, Prof. Dr. ir. Dirk Reheul, Prof. Dr. ir. Eric Tollens, Prof. Dr. ir. John Van Camp, Dr. ir. Veerle Van den Eynden and Prof. Dr. ir. Chris Stevens for being part of my examination committee, and for their valuable comments and suggestions on this doctoral thesis. Ce travail n’aurait jamais été possible sans la collaboration des professeurs, assistants et étudiants de l’université de Kisangani et IFA-Yangambi. Tout d’abord je voudrais m’adresser au Prof. Dr. Dhed’a Djailo, le promoteur du projet ‘Plantes Alimentaires Sauvages’, qui s’est investi quotidiennement, pour que le projet, ainsi que ma thèse se déroulent au mieux: merci beaucoup! Ensuite, je suis énormement reconnaissante au Prof. Dr. ir. Marcel Bwama Meyi, qui, dès le début, n’a pas hésité de croire en moi, qui m’a accompagnée pendant de nombreuses sorties de terrain dans des conditions parfois très difficiles, et qui, avec sa connaissance profonde de son pays et du peuple, a su animer et convaincre les autres enquêteurs ainsi que la population locale à collaborer: merci de tout! A Paluku Muvatsi: merci de la ‘logistique’, à Rosine Detchuvi, Jean-Bosco Ndjango, Jean- Jacques Ilunga, Jean-Jacques Masango, Paluku Musenzi, Franck Molimozi, Justine Tshidibi, Angèle Mbombo, Mamy Ntambwe, Evelyne Kenza, Godé, Marie et Noah Herland, merci de votre patience et votre dédication au travail durant les missions de terrain et les enquêtes à Kisangani. A tous les autres assistants et professeurs de la faculté des sciences de leur simple ‘bonjour’, leurs encouragements, et de me faire sentir ‘chez moi’ à Kisangani: Merci! Finalement, un grand merci à toutes les personnes qui de l’une ou de l’autre façon ont collaboré à ce projet: au peuple de Yalungu, Yaoseko, Yasekwe, Olife, Lefundelo, Yaleko village, Bafwabula, Bavoy et Bafwambalu qui n’a pas hésité de partager sa connaissance indigène concernant les plantes alimentaires sauvages et qui nous a logés et nourris durant nos séjours au village, aux informants des différentes marchés de Kisangani et aux femmes ayant participé à l’étude de consommation alimentaire: merci beaucoup! Sarah, Gert, Kristina en Orily wil ik graag bedanken voor hun enthousiasme en medewerking aan het project! Een woordje van dank wil ik ook richten aan alle collega’s van het labo voor de aangename werksfeer en de ontspannende momenten tijdens en buiten de werkuren. Bedankt aan Dr. ir. Lieven Huybregts, Dr. ir. Carl Lachat en Prof. Dr. Patrick Kolsteren voor jullie hulp bij het uitwerken van het ‘dietary assessment’ deel van de thesis. Het ‘Wilde Eetbare Planten’-project in Kisangani werd gefinancierd door VlIR-UOS en als één van de laureaten van de promotie 2008 kreeg ik een beurs van Stichting Roeping om mijn doctoraatsonderzoek tot een goed einde te brengen. Het Leopold III-fonds en CWO van de faculteit bio-ingenieurswetenschappen sponserden een deel van de laatste veldwerkperiode. Tenslotte ook een fantastische dankjewel aan alle vrienden en familie! Bedankt om er te zijn en in me te geloven. Bedankt ook voor jullie vele aanmoedigingen en onvoorwaardelijke steun, ondanks het feit dat ik door mijn vele en lange Congo-verblijven niet altijd aanwezig kon zijn op speciale momenten … Een speciaal woordje van dank gaat naar oom Dirk voor het nalezen van de Engelse teksten, tante Saskia voor de hulp bij de layout van de cover en Sofie voor haar luisterend oor als het even wat moeilijker ging. Mama en papa, het zal voor jullie niet altijd even makkelijk geweest zijn om jullie dochter weer es te zien vertrekken naar ‘de brousse’, het grote onbekende, … maar ik zal nooit vergeten hoe jullie mijn beslissing om voor het eerst, en ineens voor twee jaar, naar Congo te trekken op een positieve manier hebben opgevat en ondersteund. Dankjewel voor de vele kansen die jullie me hebben geboden! Een pagina uit mijn levensboek wordt omgedraaid, … de toekomst biedt nieuwe uitdagingen! Céline Termote SUMMARY Since the late 1980s and early 1990s, and in conjunction with an increasing global concern about environmental issues, increased attention for rural poverty and the emergence of the concept ‘sustainable development’, there has been an increasing support from the scientific community, NGOs and policy makers to address issues of biological conservation and poverty reduction as interrelated and not as mutually exclusive goals. Agricultural biodiversity and its potential as a driver of economic growth, food security and natural resource conservation has gathered an increasing amount of interest since the Convention on Biological Diversity was voted in 1992. Even though the nature of the evidence is still circumstantial, it is a reasonable and compelling assumption that increased agricultural and forest biological diversity leads to a more varied diet, which in turn improves specific health outcomes. Nutrition and biodiversity also feature directly in the Millennium Development goals (MDGs), in Goal 1, Target 2, ‘Halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger’; and goal 7, ‘Ensure environmental sustainability’. Despite the country’s high endowment with natural resources, 90% of the 60 million Congolese inhabitants is poor, whereas the majority of them lives in rural areas. 70% of DRC’s inhabitants depend on the forest for their daily livelihoods. Valorising wild edible plants (WEP), and non-timber forest products (NTFP) in general, which constitute a particular niche of the poorest, will thus contribute to poverty alleviation and increased nutrition security in a DRC context. Although the potential of NTFPs to contribute to poverty alleviation is recognized in the country’s Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (DSCRP 2006, 2011), both documents deplore the huge gap of knowledge in this sector. Despite their enormous intrinsic biodiversity,
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