End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page a

TheThe ENDEND ofof thethe LINELINE?? globalglobal threatsthreats toto sharkssharks End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page b

The End of the Line? (second edition) © 2007 WildAid All rights reserved.

Written, edited and produced by WildAid special thanks to Louis Buckley Jennifer Hile

Photos: cover © Jeff Rotman back cover © Santiago Moran this page © Bruce McCoubrey Design by Beowulf Grimbly & Xiaoxiao Sun In memoriam of Peter Benchley, author and conservationist

WildAid would like to thank the following (whose generous assistance in no way implies their agreement with or endorsement of the contents, conclusions or recommendations in this report): for supporting WildAid’s Shark Conservation Program Anonymous Donor AVINA Barbara Delano Foundation David and Lucile Packard Foundation Disney Wildlife Conservation Fund Erika Knie Firedoll Foundation Helaine Lerner Oceana Richard and Rhoda Goldman Fund Dan Rice Dr. Stephan Schmidheiny Robert Stephens Save Our Seas Foundation Thornton Foundation Wallace Global Fund Wendy P. McCaw Foundation Wildlifeline Wilson, Sonsini, Goodrich and Rosati Foundation

for their assistance with information, photos, and support Christopher Angell Mr Abdulrazak, Kenya Wendy Benchley Nicola Beynon George Burgess WildAid Contents Merry Camhi About Shelley Clarke FOREWORD 3 Andy Cobb Leonard Compagno WildAid’s Shark Conservation Program aims to: Mathieu Ducrocq EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4 Bob Endreson Mark Erdmann Raise awareness globally about threats to sharks AN INTRODUCTION TO SHARKS 6 Sonja Fordham Sarah Fowler HOW WE USE SHARKS 8 Malcom Francis Promote sustainable management of shark populations Oceana campaigns to protect and restore the Suwanna Gauntlett world’s oceans. Our teams of marine WHY WE NEED SHARKS 12 Charles Goodfellow Mr Ishmael, Kenya End the practice of finning globally scientists, economists, lawyers and advocates THREATS TO SHARKS 15 Clive James win specific and concrete policy changes to Kelly Kok Leena Kumarappan Reduce excess demand for shark fin reduce pollution and to prevent the INCREASING FISHING 16 Mr K.H. Kwong irreversible collapse of fish populations, Jerome Manning OVERFISHING 18 Rick Martin In addition, WildAid is providing financial and technical support to the marine mammals and other sea life. Global Bruce McCoubrey Galápagos Islands for patrolling and enforcing the Marine Reserves. in scope and dedicated to conservation, BYCATCH 19 Neal Myerberg Wai Yee Ng Oceana has campaigners based in North THE SHARK FIN TRADE 21 Julie Packard Through the WildAid 100% Direct Fund all public donations can go America (Washington, DC; Juneau, AK; Linda Paul Clare Robertson straight to field protection with no administrative or overhead deductions. Portland, OR; Monterey, CA; Santa Monica, LACK OF MANAGEMENT 24 Jeff Rotman CA), Europe (Madrid, Spain; Brussels, Amadou Saine ILLEGAL FISHING 26 Mr. Shafi, India WildAid is a US registered public charity based in San Francisco with Belgium) and South America (Santiago, Howard Shaw representation in London, the Galápagos Islands, Beijing and New Delhi. Chile). More than 300,000 members and OTHER THREATS TO SHARKS 28 Alex Smailes Malcolm Smale e-activists in over 150 countries have already SPECIES AT RISK 30 Colin Speedie joined Oceana. John Stevens Carol Stimson HONG KONG – THE GLOBAL HUB 37 Michael Sutton WildAid-s mission is to end the illegal wildlife trade in our lifetimes. www.oceana.org Tony Wu CHINA 38

Columbia Tristar WildAid focuses on reducing the demand for unsustainable and illegal CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 41 Discovery Channel Asia wildlife products through public and policy maker education. Ocean Wildlife Campaign ANNEX: ADDITIONAL DATA 43 The Shark Trust Universal Home Video To learn more visit www.wildaid.org REFERENCES 44 Printed on recycled paper. THE END OF THE LINE? 1 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 2

Foreword

ince earliest times, human beings have relied on wild This report is not a scientific study or a systematic global trade resources. For most of our history, we were just review. Rather it is an attempt to assemble a broad overview in another link in the food chain, another predator. lay terms of the factors likely to affect the survival of sharks. And SIncreasingly our ever-expanding populations, our technology and it is a call to action. organization mean we have become a superpredator with few of Using sharks sustainably is not just an option for the poor nature’s checks and balances. We now farm resources to produce fishing communities that depend on shark meat as a protein them on the scale we desire—and fisheries are one of the world’s source, it is a necessity. Nor is it an option for those who wish to last great wild harvests. Yet, in the last fifty years humanity has continue eating shark fin soup. No sharks, no shark fin soup. It is proven beyond a doubt that the oceans are not infinite. What sadly ironic that in countries such as Kenya and Brazil people seemed to be an inexhaustible supply as recently as twenty years are losing their subsistence food to supply one of the world’s most ago has, in many areas, been taken to its limits and beyond. expensive culinary items. Leading marine biologists recently warned that we had been As well as being a food security issue, it is likely that removing wrong to suppose that we could not cause the extinction of a sharks will have serious repercussions for many other species, marine fish species—we are already doing this. which may ultimately disrupt fisheries with far greater economic Sharks are likely to be in the first round of marine extinctions value. We may only discover this when it is too late. caused by human activity. As top predators they are naturally What hope then for sharks, and ultimately the oceans? relatively scarce, but also highly vulnerable. Some have gestation The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization periods longer than an elephant, produce only a (FAO) has recognized the crisis and asked its 190 handful of young and take up to 25 years to mature. members to devise management plans by February When they have faced directed fishing pressure, some “Sharks are 2001. However, the response of member states has populations have crashed, taking decades for a stock likely to be in been poor to date and other international bodies have to recover, if ever. been slow to play their role in conserving shark stocks. Though they have swum the oceans since before the first round Solutions will come only from a combination of the dinosaurs, they have never faced a predator as of marine actions: learning more about sharks, reducing fishing voracious as industrialized humanity. Traditionally extinctions” pressure, stopping unnecessary bycatch, monitoring they have been seen as more of a nuisance by shark fishing and trade, and more effective fishermen than a saleable commodity and so were enforcement of regulations. However, none of these relatively little impacted on a global scale. Many of measures will be effective if the demand for shark the poorest fishing communities consume shark meat themselves products— and in particular the fins—is not reduced to as it has so little market value. sustainable levels. But in the last few decades the situation has dramatically This requires a truly global effort, but also strong leadership changed. As other fisheries have been depleted, fishermen have from Asia, where a dramatic leap in awareness, concern and self- compensated with sharks. A relatively obscure custom of the restraint among consumers is needed. There is nothing wrong wealthy from southern China—using the needles of shark fins in with eating shark fin soup, there are just too many of us doing it. soup as an ingredient to add texture, but not flavor—has The industry needs regulating to prevent stock depletions and the burgeoned to the point where shark fin soup has become an almost wastage of “finning”. Those who wish to maintain the tradition of ubiquitous dish at weddings, banquets and business dinners shark fin soup should be the loudest voices calling for regulation. throughout the Chinese world. What was once eaten on a special We still have an irrational fear of sharks which may explain occasion by the privileged few is now regularly eaten by hundreds our lack of will to conserve them. Perhaps because we fear the of millions of people. unknown and so much about sharks is still a mystery. Yet The word has gone out to fishermen far and wide that shark increasingly the well-informed are developing a respect for these fins mean money, regardless of whether the rest of the body is magnificent predators, some of nature’s most successful designs. dumped overboard. The shark fin trade has gone global, fisheries Divers now cherish encounters with sharks, as terrestrial tourists management for sharks has been left at the starting blocks. Only do with elephants and gorillas, suggesting new ways for us to a handful of countries have any management of shark fisheries at profit from sharks without destroying them. all, and only three species are protected internationally. There is little data and monitoring of catches to alert us to population crashes. The consequences are easy to predict, but hard to Peter Knights document, as so little reliable data is available. Executive Director, WILDAID

Steve Trent President, WILDAID Hammerhead sharks

in the Galápagos © C. P. HUMANN / INNERSPACE VISIONS

THE END OF THE LINE? 3 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 4

Cat shark, the Philippines.

© ULLSTEIN-LANGE / STILL PICTURES Executive Summary

Sharks have been swimming the world’s oceans for over 400 Despite declines, only great white, basking and whale sharks, Artisanal fishermen in the developing world are losing their shark fin soup. 2,200 (9%) reported eating it three times or million years – 100 million years before the first dinosaurs covered under CITES regulations, are protected inter - catches to modern technology. In many areas, shark more. appeared on land. They inhabit every ocean and play a vital nationally. Other than that, only a handful of countries abundance has declined due to the arrival of modern role in maintaining the health of marine ecosystems. We manage shark fisheries. longliners and trawlers, many foreign-owned and fishing During the finning process, a shark is hauled up on deck, its utilize them for a number of products, such as meat, illegally. With human populations increasing and shark fins sliced off, and the animal – sometimes still alive – is cartilage and fins and they are a critical food source for many Effective conservation and management are hindered by stocks decreasing, poor countries are being deprived of an thrown back into the sea to bleed to death. This practice is in developing countries. They are an increasingly important meager insight into the biology, distribution, migration and essential source of protein. not only cruel, it is incredibly wasteful as finning only revenue source for dive tourism around the world. exploitation of most shark species. utilizes 1–5% of the shark’s body-weight. The demand for shark fin soup is at an all-time high. As Yet sharks are being overfished in many parts of the globe, Sharks are highly vulnerable to overfishing because they are affluence grows in Asia, and in China particularly, so does Consumers are largely unaware of the origins of shark fin. and many populations have declined by as much as 90%. As generally slow-growing and long-lived. Females reproduce the market for luxury items. One recent study estimated that Studies in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan show other fish stocks have dwindled due to overfishing, and late in life, and have few offspring. This makes them fins from between 26 and 73 million sharks are traded that consumers have little understanding of where shark fin demand for fins has expanded, sharks are increasingly inherently unable to withstand heavy, protracted globally each year, while reported world trade in fins has soup comes from (as shark fin soup in Chinese is “fish wing targeted. Reported world catches rose from around 625,000 exploitation – and slow to recover following declines. As a nearly tripled from 4,900 metric tons in 1987 to 13,600 mt in soup”), of overfishing, of illegal shark fishing, or of the metric tons (mt) in 1985 to over 810,000 mt in 2004. These result, shark fisheries often follow a “boom and bust” 2004. Shark fin is one of the most expensive seafood practice of finning. They wrongly believe in some cases that figures are likely to be a gross underestimate, however, with pattern. products: at up to US$100 per bowl for shark fin soup, fins grow back, that shark fin is flavorsome and nutritious, one recent study claiming that shark catches are at least four demand – and profit – are greatly increasing pressure on and that it has medicinal properties. In fact, as apex predators, times higher. Of the 546 shark species assessed by the World As shark populations plummet worldwide, Marine Reserves shark popula tions. Now sharks in all regions of the globe are sharks accumulate the toxic load of the animals below them Conservation Union (IUCN), 110 (20%) are classified as are the new target of illegal fisheries. Many of the world’s sought solely for their fins. in the food chain and their long life-spans exacerbate this endangered, threatened or vulnerable. marine protected areas, such as the Galápagos Islands and effect. Shark meat and fins have been found to contain Cocos Island, are now regularly fished illegally for increas ing ly A survey conducted by WildAid and China Wildlife dangerous levels of methylmercury, a potent neurotoxin in valuable shark fins. Conservation Association (CWCA) in 16 Chinese cities found humans, which if ingested can be particularly hazardous to that 8,400 people out of 24,000 surveyed (35%) had eaten fetal development and is linked to male infertility.

4 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 5 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 6

An Introduction to Sharks

GREAT WHITE SHARK Carcharodon carcharias © MICHAEL BJORNBAK

WHALE SHARK Rhincodon typus ILLUSTRATION © BARBARA HOOPES / WILDLIFE EDUCATION LTD.

GREAT HAMMERHEAD WHAT IS A SHARK? ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE MIGRATION Sphyrna mokarran

SAND TIGER SHARK Sharks comprise about seven percent of Since they are often the “apex”, or top Some shark species migrate vast BASKING SHARK Odontaspis taurus Cetorhinus maximus THRESHER SHARK living fish species. They inhabit almost predators in their ecosystems, the distances to find food or to reproduce: Alopias vulpinas every marine ecosystem on earth and are depletion or removal of sharks is likely to MAKO SHARK found in all the world’s oceans, as well as affect marine ecosystems and the In 2000, a blue shark, Prionace glauca, Isurus oxyrinchus many inland waterways. Unlike most abundance of other fish species in ways tagged off Tasmania was caught off GOBLIN SHARK fish, shark skeletons are composed of that cannot currently be predicted. Many the coast of southwest Africa, 9,500 Mitsukurina owstoni cartilage.1 marine experts believe that sharks are kilometers (km) away.3

Sharks and their close relatives, vital in maintaining marine biodiversity TIGER SHARK skates, rays and chimaeras – known and are concerned that some species may A spiny dogfish, Squalus acanthias, Galeocerdo cuvieri

collectively as chondrichthyans – fall into become extinct before their ecological tagged off Washington State, US, BLUE SHARK Prionace glauca two main groups. Elasmobranchs role is fully understood. appeared in Japan seven years later, a include the 490 or so species which journey of 6,000 km.4 people generally recognize as “sharks,” LEARNING FROM SHARKS WOBBEGONG along with around 630 species of skates In 2003–2004, researchers tracked a Orectolobus ornatus HORN SHARK FRILLED SHARK Hetereodontus francisci Chlamydoselachus anguineus and rays. Chimaeras, such as elephant Scientists are still discovering the unique female great white shark (Carcharodon LEOPARD SHARK fish and ghost sharks, are thought to characteristics of shark biology. It is carcharias) across the Indian Ocean Triakis semifasciata 2 comprise 50 species. known that they have extra senses, like from South Africa to Australia and their electrosense (which picks up electri- back again in just nine months – a EVOLUTIONARY SUCCESS cal fields), and that some species can distance of more than 20,000 km. generate body heat for greater muscle effi- This makes it one of the fastest long- In evolutionary terms, sharks are one of ciency. The hydrodynamics of their skin distance journeys for any swimming SHARK FACTS the most successful families of animals, has even inspired the swimwear industry. animal – only tuna come close.5 thriving in the world’s oceans for Fastskin, a swimsuit developed by the Sharks range from the world’s largest fish, the plankton- and lateral line and pit organs (which pick up weak hundreds of millions of years. The Australian manufacturer Speedo, repli- Whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) eating whale shark, which can reach 14 m in length, to vibrations).1 earliest shark species predate the first cates the microscopic tooth like struc- undertake very long distance the 15 cm spined pygmy shark, Squaliolus laticaudus. dinosaurs by 100 million years. They tures on shark skin to reduce drag and migrations. Studies off the Malaysian Sharks are capable of learning and can display complex survived mass extinction events with turbulence, increasing swimming speeds. and Philippine coastline indicate that Most shark species are small and harmless to humans. social behavior. They have brain-to-body ratios well their diversity relatively intact and may The US Navy is reported to study shark whale sharks swim an average of 24 Half of them reach less than 1 m in length and 80% are within the range of birds and mammals.3 therefore make excellent indicator skin and propulsion in con sid er ing a new km/day and have a minimum range of smaller than an adult human.1 species in gauging the effects of human gen er ation of submarines, whilst NASA is 2,000 km. One tagged whale shark Sharks diverged from bony fish 400 million years ago, activity on marine ecosystems. reported to consider using shark skin as a traveled 13,000 km over 37 months as Some shark species lay eggs and others give birth to live evolving without swim bladders or lungs, and with teeth model for the hull of the Space Shuttle. it migrated from the Sea of Cortez, pups, sometimes after lengthy gestation (pregnancy) not in sockets but attached to the jaw by soft tissue and Mexico, to the western Pacific Ocean.6 periods. continually replaced. Sharks have no gill covers, bony fin Note on terminology spines or prominent scales. Shark skin is covered with In this report, “shark” refers to all chondrichthyans except in citations, verbatim quotations, or where explicitly The fact that sharks can cross entire oceans Sharks have seven senses: hearing, sight, touch, smell tiny tooth-like projections called “denticles”, which stated otherwise. The term “fishermen” refers to individuals of either gender engaged in fishing activity. makes it imperative that shark manage - (which can range for several miles), taste, electrosense, channel water to reduce friction.1 ment becomes a global issue, not one regu - All weights have been converted into metric tons (mt) and all values to US dollars. lated in just a handful of countries.

6 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 7 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 8

In Asia many types of shark are eaten. water to aid removal of cartilage, and shark fin soup continues to escalate. In © WILDAID How We Use The Japanese, for instance, consider meat then sun-dried on racks. Once this is recent years, it is rumoured that from the mako shark to be highly complete, they are transferred to a cool restaurants are putting less and less Sharks palatable and it can fetch prices drying room to prevent softening and, shark fin into the soup, or in some cases, comparable to swordfish (Xiphias gladius).9 finally, refrigerated. Fins are also usually to mixing real shark fin with artificial Sharks are used worldwide for a variety Both blue shark and spiny dogfish meat bleached to give them a desirable whitish fibers.15 Far from turning their backs on of purposes. The many products derived are also eaten, although the former needs color – methods involve smoking with shark fin, consumers are opting instead from sharks include meat and fins for to be processed quickly to avoid sulphur overnight or treatment with for a dish that contains a whole human consumption; liver oil to produce deterioration.Shark meat is often hydrogen peroxide.11 At the cooking unbroken fin – evidence that it is the lubricants, cosmetics and vitamin A; ground into a paste called “surimi”9 . stage, the fins are soaked again, this time authentic product.13 cartilage as a purported (but unproven) Other shark parts are eaten in various to remove their fishy odor. After they medicinal treatment; skin for leather; countries: shark skin is eaten in Japan, have softened, further preparation is up IS SHARK FIN GOING DOWN- and jaws and teeth for curios and Taiwan, the Solomon Islands and the to the chef.12 MARKET? trinkets.7 Maldives; liver in Japan, China and the Because of its association with Solomon Islands; and shark stomach is privilege and social rank, shark fin soup WildAid’s recent research in the MEAT consumed in the Solomon Islands, is served to celebrate important events consumer markets reveals that shark fin Uruguay and Taiwan.7 such as weddings, birthdays, or corporate is going down-market. Having gained Shark meat is eaten in most, if not all, functions. There is also the issue of “face” reputation over the centuries as a symbol countries of the world, although SHARK FIN SOUP (respect), which is of paramount of wealth and success, soup and other Above: Shark fins are often served whole to prove they are the real thing. consumption is much lower than that of importance in the Chinese culture. As a products made from shark fin are now bony fish species. Unless quickly Shark fin, known as yu chi in China (“fish leading chef in Singapore explained, “If becoming commonplace.16 processed, the high urea content can wing” in English), has been considered a you don’t serve shark fin soup at render some shark meat inedible. In delicacy in Chinese cuisine since the weddings, or at important dinners, the Singapore now boasts US$8.99 All- some countries in the developing world, Sung dynasty (AD 960–1279), and shark host will look very cheap and that is not You-Can-Eat shark fin buffets. such as Sri Lanka, Mexico and parts of fin soup was established as a traditional giving face to your guests”.13 This display Fins on sharks Africa, shark meat is a significant part of component of formal banquets by the of wealth and generosity is measured by Japanese consumers can now buy 10 the human diet and provides much of Ming dynasty (AD 1368–1644). the cost of the food and reflects on the shark fin bread, sweet shark fin first dorsal fin the protein requirements of poorer Although originally a southern Chinese efforts of hosts to provide their best cookies, shark fin sushi, instant shark second dorsal fin communities. dish, shark fin has spread throughout hospitality to guests. fin noodles at US$4.20 per serving In the west, however, shark meat is Chinese communities in Asia and the For many superstitious Chinese, even and, perhaps most alarming of all, traditionally viewed as inferior. To make rest of the world, and is now standard the words for shark fin have a bounteous shark fin catfood. lower part it more appealing the spiny dogfish, a fare at weddings, banquets and corporate ring. In the famous Chinese saying Nian of the tail widely eaten shark species, is marketed functions. nian you yu, meaning “yearly prosperity”, In a restaurant in Qingdao on anal fin under names like rock salmon in the UK, The processing of raw shark fins has yu means “plentiful” (in terms of Mainland China, a set menu pectoral fin saumonette (“little salmon”) in France, multiple stages and involves removal of material wealth) and because it has the consisting of abalone, bird’s nest and ventral fin and Schillerlocken (“locks of Schiller”) the skin, cartilage and any attached meat same tone as yu (fish), it is important shark fin soup was advertised at a cost and seeaal (“sea eel”) in Germany.8 to leave only the fine collagenous fibers that a fish dish is served at Chinese New of just US$24. Recently, mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) and known as “needles”. First, the fins are Year meals to represent and welcome thresher (Alopias vulpinus) meat has begun blanched in very hot water and the skin prosperity. Although steamed fish is Dried shark fin retailers in Qingdao to increase in popularity. scraped off. Next, they are placed in ice often used symbolically, consumers now and Shanghai sell 12-gram boxes of often eat shark fin as well.14 fin fiber for US$6.50. Shark fin soup can be very expensive. Depending on the amount of fin in the Press reports from Shanghai reveal 4 soup, the price can range from US$10 to that the economic recession has 1 as high as US$100 per bowl. Although prompted consumers to opt for the quality and texture of shark fin is cheaper, mass produced shark fins. 6 3 important in making the soup (the 2 5 longer and thicker the strands, the better While it maybe argued that this develop - and costlier they are), the fins are essen - ment will reduce the “mystique” of shark tially tasteless. The flavor of shark fin fin and, thereby, its consump tion, it FIRST GRADE: LOWER GRADE: soup lies entirely on the preparation of seems far more likely that it will simply © WILDAID © M. ERDMANN 1. first dorsal fin 4. second dorsal fin the broth, which is usually chicken soup. encourage consumers to believe that they 2. pair of pectorals 5. pair of ventral fins The broth is prepared separately from can still buy into the symbolism of shark Above & Upper left: Shark meat is eaten 3. lower lobe of the tail 6. anal fin the fins and they are combined just fin but at a price affordable to all. in most countries around the world before serving. As a leading chef in and is an important source of protein in many developing countries. Singapore explained, “The fins with their The most coveted fins on a shark’s body are the first dorsal, pectorals and lower noodle-like tissues have no taste in lobe of the caudal fin, and these are usually sold as a set from each shark. The Left: “Rock salmon” in British “fish themselves and are used only as a soup smaller second dorsal and pelvic fins – known as “chips” – are also taken, but are and chips” is spiny dogfish, a species of thickener”.13 much lower value and many fins are mixed from several sharks.17 The upper lobe shark. Even though it is widely known that of the caudal fin contains no fin needles17, but is still frequently harvested.18 shark fins lack flavor, the demand for © B. MCCOUBREY/WILDAID

8 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 9 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 10

LIVER OIL CARTILAGE SKIN JAWS AND TEETH Mercury poisoning The use of shark liver oil as a lubricant Shark cartilage is increasingly marketed Tanned skin is used to make leather, the The jaws and sharp pointed teeth of The flesh of large, slow-growing Developing fetuses are at greatest risk and source of vitamin A in the 1930s and as a health supplement and alternative main markets for which are the USA, sharks are used to make traditional predatory fish, like sharks, is known to from mercury exposure as methyl - 1940s sparked a boom in several shark cure for certain diseases, including Germany, France and Japan. Stingray weapons and jewellery, trinkets, curios contain high levels of mercury. This is mercury can pass through the placenta fisheries. However, the development of asthma, eczema, arthritis and even cancer skin is also used in luxury leather and souvenirs for tourists. because mercury is stored in the and adversely affect the developing synthetic substitutes caused the shark – claims which have little or no scientific products in the USA.24 Untanned skin, muscle tissues of fish, and when a brain,28,29 and high mercury levels have liver oil market to collapse and although basis (see box below). Chondroitin, called Shagreen, is used as sandpaper in predatory fish eats another fish, it also been linked to infertility in it is still used in the production of derived from shark cartilage, has been the woodworking industry. assumes all of the mercury stored in men.30,31,32 pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, reported used as an ingredient in artificial skin for the body of its prey. Therefore, the Numerous studies have confirmed production is now extremely low.7 burn victims.7 higher up the food chain a fish is that shark meat contains methyl - positioned, and the older it gets, the mercury at levels that exceed the safe greater the concentraion of mercury limits for humans.33,34,35 As a result, stored in its body.25 various health advisory bodies have Mercury enters the environment in recommended lowering or avoiding both organic and inorganic forms the consumption of shark meat and from natural (volcanoes, mercury other large predatory fish: young deposits, etc) and man-made (coal children and women of childbearing combustion, metal processing, etc) age are advised to avoid shark by the sources. In the ocean, inorganic Food Standards Agency (UK), US Food mercury is converted into organic and Drug Administration and US methylmercury by micro-organisms, Environ mental Protection Agency.36,37 which are fed upon by plankton. However, it is not just shark meat Methylmercury thus enters the food that can contain dangerous levels of © D. PERRINE/INNERSPACE VISIONS chain and gradually accumulates in mercury. Tests commissioned by Other traditional uses include as apex predators like sharks, swordfish WildAid and carried out at the state- wood preservative on boat hulls, fuel for and tuna.25 run Thai Institute of Scientific and street lamps, and in the manufacture of Methylmercury is a potent Technological Research in 2001 showed skin healing products.7 neurotoxin that affects the brain, shark fins to contain mercury spinal cord, kidneys and liver.26 In mild concentrations up to 42 times higher cases of poisoning, adults complain of than the safe limit for humans.38 reductions in motor skills and dulled © D. PERRINE/INNERSPACE VISIONS © D. PERRINE/INNERSPACE VISIONS © SUSIE WATTS senses of touch, taste and sight.27

Mercury health effects Sharks and Cancer

Deteriorates nervous system The promotion of crude shark cartilage as a cure for and this has led to the development of various potential Impairs hearing, speech, vision cancer has contributed to at least two significant cancer therapy drugs, currently under going clinical and gait negative out comes: a decline in shark popula tions, and a trials.21,22 However, there is absolutely no scientific diversion of patients from effective cancer treatments.19 evidence that consump tion of raw shark cartilage or its Causes involuntary muscle The idea was popularized in the best-selling book crude extracts has any effect in pre vent ing tumor movements “Sharks Don’t Get Cancer” by William Lane, published growth19, and in 2004, William Lane’s company, Lane in 1992 in the United States, which justifies using crude Labs-USA Inc., was ordered to refund money to Corrodes skin and mucous cartilage extracts on the (false) basis that sharks very purchasers of illegally marketed, unapproved shark membranes rarely get cancer.19 A survey carried out by WildAid last cartilage-based drugs.23 year in China confirmed that it is a widely held belief The idea that sharks don’t get cancer is also incorrect, Causes chewing and that sharks are immune to cancer and that eating shark as illustrated by a 2004 study that described benign and swallowing to become difficult fin soup or crude extracts of shark cartilage can prevent malignant tumors in 21 chondrichthyan species. Tumors and even cure the disease.20 of the skin, blood, nervous, digestive, excretory, Research has shown that shark cartilage does contain reproductive and endocrine systems, as well as the some “anti-angiogenic” properties – that is, it can stop cartilage itself, were all found.19 the blood supply necessary for the growth of a tumor –

10 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 11 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 12

GUARDIANS OF OUR OCEANS Why We Need Sharks © MARK EDWARDS / STILL PICTURES Although research on the ecological role of sharks is scarce, it is known that some shark species play a vital role in marine ecosystems and are therefore crucial indicators of marine health. The depletion or removal of sharks may lead to increases or declines in other species, with unpredictable consequences for A MAJOR SOURCE OF PROTEIN KENYA ecosystems. Sharks maintain the “genetic fitness” of their prey FOR POOR COASTAL by removing the sick and the weak and help to keep their COMMUNITIES 6,500 artisanal population sizes in check.48 It is likely that the removal of a

fishermen account significant number of sharks will affect numerous species below © PETER FRISCHMUTH / STILL PICTURES Many coastal communities in the for 80% of Kenya’s them in the food chain. This should be of special concern to developing world depend on shark meat marine catches. fishermen and others who make their livelihoods from the sea. as an important source of protein. The Sharks are valued as One recent study in the tropical Pacific Ocean identified SHARK ATTACKS: FACT & FICTION meat is often sun-dried or salted to a source of meat considerable declines in large predators (sharks, billfish and preserve it. For some communities in and are usually tunas) since the start of industrial fishing in the 1950s.49 Sharks always get bad press. They are seen as monsters of the India, Africa, Mexico and Sri Lanka, for dried, salted and Conversely, several smaller species of fish were found to have deep, waiting to devour any human who dares to venture example, shark meat is the primary – and consumed locally.42 increased in abundance over the same time period, probably into the water. Books and films, such as Jaws, are often sometimes only – source of protein. The Fishermen and because of the reduction in number of their predators. blamed for this myth, but sharks have been people’s worst reliance on sharks has increased as over - fish dealers in Kenya Similar results were found in the northern Gulf of Mexico nightmares for centuries. Lurid headlines reinforce this on fishing has depleted stocks of other fish. have report ed where large coastal sharks (dusky, Carcharhinus obscurus; tiger, the rare occasions that an attack takes place. WildAid’s research has shown that serious declines in Artisanal fisherman in the Banc d’Arguin National Park, West Galeocerdo cuvier; great white; and hammerhead, Sphyrna spp.) Resort developers have been known to employ shark Africa. Many (shark) fisheries in the developing world are declining shark catches in a number of traditional shark catches and, have declined precipitously due to overfishing.50 As a result, experts to remove any possible predators from the area.52 following the arrival of industrial fishing vessels, often from abroad. shark fisheries have declined – sometimes without ex cep tion, several small shark species (Atlantic angel shark, Squatina Hawaii maintained a shark eradication program for decades drastically. The declines have often they blame this on dumeril; smooth dogfish, Mustelis canis), previously preyed after the death of a schoolchild in 1959, and in some parts of coincided with the arrival of industrial the appearance of upon by their larger cousins, have been able to thrive.50 the world concern for shark attacks is so great that (and often foreign) fishing vessels in the industrial longliners and shrimp trawlers SPIRITUAL ASPECT OF SHARKS The significance of these changes for the functioning of swimming areas are cordoned off by massive shark nets.53 area, which frequently operate in flagrant over the past decade.43 A spokesman for the marine ecosystem and biodiversity are unclear. However, Only three (white, tiger and bull) species account for more breach of local fishing regulations. Such the shark-fishing village of Ngomeni in Sharks retain a spiritual importance in in another recent experiment carried out in the Caribbean, it than half of all atacks on humans, and when sharks do declines are poorly documented at local northern Kenya reported that, before the numerous beliefs around the world: was suggested that overfishing of sharks can have a domino attack, it is likely that they have mistaken humans for their or national level, as few developing arrival of the longliners, a night’s catch effect, ultimately leading to the degradation of entire coral normal prey. It is believed that many shark attacks are countries have active fisheries would feed the village and provide In Hawaii, the shark is an animal deity reef ecosystems.51 Overfishing means that there are fewer actually attempts by the shark to identify whether or not an management or systems for collecting enough meat for sale outside the village. still revered today as the greatest sharks to feed on carnivorous fish such as groupers (family object in the water is edible: there are numerous examples of even basic data. Now it does not provide enough for the Aumakua (guardian angel). Stories Serranidae) – causing an increase in their numbers and their sharks biting a human and then, realizing its mistake, village.44 exist of canoe paddlers getting into ability to prey on herbivorous parrotfishes (family Scaridae). swimming away.54 INDIA At least 20 trawlers were reported to difficulties at sea, only to be guided to The removal of plant-eating parrotfish in turn allows algae to According to the International Shark Attack File (ISAF), be in the immediate vicinity of Ngomeni, a safe place by a shark.39 thrive on the reef, smothering the coral and increasing its the number of shark attacks in 2005 fell for the fifth year in a Research conducted by WildAid has each using 3–5cm mesh nets, which were vulnerability to human disturbances.51 row, with 58 unprovoked attacks and four fatalities recorded revealed the extent of shark catch “sweeping the sea clean” and leaving In Vietnam, the whale shark was A 2004 study on a Fijian reef fish community also worldwide.55 However, the longer-term trend reveals a steady declines and their impact on artisanal virtually nothing for the shark fishermen known as Lord Fish. Its remains were observed that the removal of large predatory fishes can have increase in attacks over the past century. Overall, the 1990’s fishermen. Coastal communities in the of Ngomeni (who have always used given sacred burials. disastrous effects on coral ecosystems. A decrease in the had the highest attack total (470 with 61 fatalities) of any States of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil 20–23 cm mesh nets). Malindi, a abundance of top predators led to an increase in the decade, and the first decade of the 21st century looks to be Nadu have reported a significant decline traditional fishing village for generations, In Fiji, the shark god was known as abundance of coral-eating starfish, and consequently a 35% continuing that upward trend. In the first half of this decade in shark catches over the past six years. has experienced severely reduced Dakuwaqa, from whom the high decline in corals and replacement by algae.52 there have so far been 310 attacks.55 In 1999, WildAid visited 15 fishing landings and now sharks and other fish chiefs were believed to be direct George Burgess, Director of the ISAF, points out that the communities on the east coast and are trucked in from Mombasa, 90- descendants. increase in attacks is “a reflection of human population interviewed a number of traditional minutes away.45 growth and increased interest in aquatic recreation rather fishermen. Although unable to make In Japan, the shark was an important than a rise in the rate of attacks”. In fact, all other factors assessments of individual species’ MEXICO mythological figure worshipped as the being equal, there are likely to be more attacks each year as declines, locals suggested that overall God of Storms. human population grows and we spend increased leisure shark catches had declined by between Sharks are described as a resource vital to time in the sea. However, “the attack rate is not increasing – 50–70% over the previous five years.41 the Mexican economy46 and many poor In parts of Senegal, sharks are believed in fact it is likely decreasing as a result of diminished shark Fishermen in Chennai (Madras) have Mexicans subsist on a diet of shark to be harmless to humans. If a shark stocks and large increases in human utilization of our reported to WildAid that commercial meat47. The bull shark, Carcharhinus leucas, does attack, it is said to be “invaded” nearshore waters”.56

vessels operating within India’s coastal is widely eaten in Mexico and is probably by an evil spirit. In the village of Ngor, © RICHARD HERRMANN / SEAPICS.COM Shark attack is undoubtedly a potential danger that must waters are posing a serious threat to the most important species from a there is a sage who claims to remove be acknowledged by anyone who frequents marine waters, Top right: Universal studios theme park. Despite their 46 artisanal catches. Shark finning on these commercial point of view. evil spirits from invaded sharks and fearsome reputation, on average less than six people are but it should be kept in perspective. It is statistically more 40 commercial vessels is viewed as a major render them harmless. killed by sharks each year. dangerous to get into a car and drive to the beach than it is reason for the apparent declines.41 to get into the water. More people are killed each year by Above: The depletion of sharks could have catastrophic lightning, by bee stings, by dog bites or by slipping in the effects for marine ecosystems and mean lower catches of bath than are killed by sharks.54 other fish in the future.

12 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 13 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 14

Threats to Sharks © BOB EVANS / STILL PICTURES

BIOLOGICAL VULNERABILITY years and she will produce a maximum though increased growth rate and of 20 live pups at a time. juvenile survival may provide some As apex predators, sharks are not Lemon shark (Negaprion brevirostris) compensatory mechanisms. designed for heavy predation, either by pups develop over a twelve-month Classical models of fisheries other marine species or by humans. period, and their mothers require management assume that recruitment Whether caught in directed fisheries or another year before mating again. Thus, rate (the number of fish added to the as bycatch, most shark species are unable a mating pair of lemon sharks barely population each year due to to withstand protracted periods of heavy reproduce themselves over the 24-month reproduction and migration) is virtually exploitation. reproductive cycle. Typically 8–12 pups independent of stock size. These models Shark species are generally slow- are born every other year, with a first year are less applicable to sharks because growing and long-lived, breeding late in mortality approaching 50%. At birth, a generally recruitment rate and stock size life, with long breaks between lemon shark pup averages 60 cm in are positively related.63 That is, the more reproductive cycles. They produce very length and weighs around one kilogram. sharks, the higher the birth rate. limited numbers of live young or eggs. It grows less than 10 cm in its first year Conversely, a reduction in the number of This makes them inherently vulnerable of life and requires 13–15 years to sharks causes a reduction in birth rate. to overexploitation and slow to recover become sexually active.62 from decline. ABSENT FROM THE ABYSS Unlike most fish, sharks invest heavily SEGREGATING BY AGE AND SEX Ecotourism industries based on viewing whale sharks generate at least US$47.5 in a small number of well-developed Whilst most fish thrive to depths of million annually – significantly more than they are worth as meat and other products. young. Most sharks feed their young A further characteristic makes sharks around 9,000 m, marine biologists

©DANI-JESKE / STILL PICTURES inside their bodies with a yolk, while vulnerable to overfishing. Most sharks recently discovered that sharks have others provide embryonic nutrition segregate by sex and size. This means failed to colonize depths greater than through a placenta. Shark mothers often there are groups consisting solely of 3,000 m, possibly due to a lack of food in SHARK TOURISM local dive operators. Today, dive tourism US$2.3 million every year – 100 times give birth in nursery areas which are mature females, and if targeted by these remote regions. is expanding and markets sharks as the more than the export value of shark separated from the rest of the fishermen, the effect on breeding can be This means that they are confined to The realization that sharks are worth far main attraction. A single live reef shark is meat.57 In 1993, a study found that a population. devastating. just 30% of the world’s oceans: surface more alive than dead is gradually taking estimated to be worth US$250,000 single reef shark had a renewable value of Unlike sharks, most fish species are waters, ocean margins, around oceanic hold around the world. During the past because of dive tourism, whereas a dead US$35,500 per year from diving, while adapted to a fluctuating environment FEWER SHARKS CAN MEAN islands, mid-ocean ridges and decade, shark-based ecotourism reef shark has a one-time value of the same shark brought only US$32 to a and are referred to as “r-selected” species. LOWER BREEDING RATES seamounts. All shark populations are operations have developed in numerous US$50–60 to a fisherman.59 fisherman.58 They are usually small, mature quickly, therefore within reach of human locations, and today some of the most mate early, and produce large numbers of If overfished most species of fish can fisheries, a fact that raises further vociferous calls for global shark THE PHILIPPINES BELIZE small offspring which receive little or no compensate by increasing egg concerns about the vulnerability of this conservation come from nations that parental care.62 production to take advantage of group to overexploitation, as unlike have a developed or developing marine In the Philippines, fishermen who once In Belize, divers from all around the decreased competition for food. Because most fish, there is no hidden reserve of tourism industry. Tourists are prepared targeted whale sharks in the Donsol world visit the town of Placencia to NOT DESIGNED FOR HEAVY sharks produce relatively few eggs or sharks in the deep sea.64 to pay huge sums of money to view and region have been retrained as tour guides observe whale sharks in Gladden Spit PREDATION pups, they are not capable of doing this, even dive with sharks. for whale shark-watchers. Business is Marine Reserve. The number of whale booming, with over 7,000 tourists shark tour operators in Placencia has Sharks are completely different. They are Top: Some AUSTRALIA visiting Donsol’s whale sharks in 2005 – grown from just one in 1997 to 22 in generally described as “k-selected” sharks produce up from 867 tourists in 2002.60 This has 200461 and a study in 2002 concluded species. That is, they grow slowly to a elaborate egg Ningaloo Marine Park in Western created more than 300 jobs and in 2005 that over a six-week peak tourist period, large size, mature late in life, reproduce cases. Australia is an example of a whale shark contributed more than US$620,000 to the industry was worth US$3.7 million seasonally (year after year), and produce tourism success story. It has been the Filipino economy.60 Some groups to the town.57 From national tourism a few large offspring – either as eggs or as Left: Many prospering since the early 1990s and contend, however, that this is only a statistics, it is calculated that each live live young – which experience a lower sharks, like this whale shark tourism in Ningaloo reef is fraction of what could be earned if whale shark is worth around US$35,000 natural mortality rate. They may have spiny dogfish, now estimated to be worth in excess of correct management and financial annually. If a shark lives for 60 years, been the first vertebrate group to evolve a have long pregnancies and US$10 million.57 The area probably hosts assistance were put in place.60 each individual would therefore be worth k-selected life history. While predation give birth to more whale shark observers than over US$2 million if it repeatedly visits levels on sharks were low the k strategy small numbers of 58 62 anywhere else in the world. THE MALDIVES ecotourism sites through out the served them well. live young. Mesoamerican Barrier Reef.57 The spiny dogfish is perhaps the most BAHAMAS Tourism is the largest industry in the extreme example of the k-selected life Maldives and is a significant source of history. Living up to 70 years, the female In the Bahamas, longlining was outlawed income to the country. Diving with does not breed until she is over twelve in the mid-1990s following campaigns by sharks is a major attraction, drawing years of age. Gestation can be up to two © JEFF ROTMAN / STILL PICTURES

14 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 15 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 16

Increasing Fishing How many sharks are caught every year?

Global exploitation of sharks is very In the absence of reliable catch between 2000 and 2003 and negligible difficult to quantify, as catch reporting statistics, an alternative method of quantities in prior years.65 However, Despite their known vulnerability to is often unreliable and can be mislead - identifying the true level of exploita - Chinese distant-water fleets only overfishing, sharks have been ing. Member countries of the United tion is to examine the quantities of recently began reporting shark increasingly exploited in recent decades. Nations Food and Agriculture Organ- shark products in trade. Data bycatches in areas controlled by A number of factors are responsible for isation (FAO) report their shark gathered during a recent study of the Regional Fisheries Management

this trend, including improvements in catches in different ways and with vary- shark fin trade in Hong Kong revealed Organizations (RFMOs) and have no © JEFF ROTMAN / JEFFROTMAN.COM fishing technology, processing and ing degrees of detail, and vast amounts that the total catch of sharks must be logbook requirements for sharks in consumer marketing, expanding human of shark catch are not recorded at all. between 1.1 and 2.3 million metric other areas.69 Hong Kong reports SHARK MEAT PRODUCTION AND TRADE populations, and declines in other fish However, from the data available, it tons per year, which equates to similarly low catches.65 stocks, all of which have made sharks a is clear that the exploitation of sharks between 26 and 73 million sharks67. As Although global catches of With the introduction of commercial Markets for shark meat sufficiently more valuable fisheries resource. Shark and related species has increased shark landings (excluding skates, rays chondrichthyans have remained fairly refrigeration in the 1950s, consumption valuable to warrant inter nation al trade fisheries have experienced rapid growth dramatically since the onset of and chimaeras) reported to the FAO stable up to now, this is the product of shark meat gained in popularity, and are generally centered in Europe, for since the mid-1980s due to an increased commercial fishing. Global reported are in the region of 400,000 metric of considerable regional variation, today, the greatest quantity of inter - example in Spain, France, Italy and the demand for shark products (fins in landings of chondrichthyans have tons annually67, this means that with declining catches in heavily national trade in shark products is in the UK, and are based on rays and small particular, but also meat, skin, cartilage, grown by almost 300%, from around between 65% and 85% of the total fished regions masked by increasing form of fresh, chilled or frozen meat69 – sharks. However, international trade in etc), especially in Asian markets. Between 270,000 mt in 1950 to over 810,000 mt catch is therefore unreported, worth catches as fishermen move into new imports totaled more than 90,000 metric whale shark meat is believed to support 1984 and 2004, world catches of sharks, in 2004.65 Assuming each animal an estimated US$292–476 million in areas.7 For example, there have been tons in 2004.65 However, the price of the market in Taiwan and anec dotal rays and chimaeras (chondrichthyans) weighs on average 15 kg, this means shark fin value alone.68 significant declines in the catch of shark meat is generally low and sharks evidence from the Philippines sug gests grew from 600,000 to over 810,000 that total reported catches in 2004 The top three shark fishing nations countries such as Pakistan, Brazil, are targeted specifically for their meat in there are markets for whale shark meat metric tons.65 In addition, many represent over 50 million sharks, rays of the world are Indonesia, India and Mexico and Korea since the 1980s, only a small number of fisheries, in Hong Kong, Singapore and Japan.69 thousands of sharks have been taken and chimaeras. Spain, which between them accounted whilst the catches of Indonesia have primarily in temperate waters. Examples FAO statistics show a considerable accidentally in tuna longline fisheries However, actual catches are likely for 25–40% of reported global catches sky-rocketed – virtually doubling since include trawl fisheries for spiny dogfish increase in the production of shark meat every year since their introduction in the to be much higher – possibly double between 2000–2004.65 Other major 1988. In Pakistan, catches for 2004 of in the North Sea and off the northern worldwide. Over the period 1985–2004, 1960s. the reported catch rate66 (i.e. 100 shark fishing nations include 27,000 mt are the lowest reported for coasts of the USA and Canada; and trawl reported production of chondrichthyan million) – once other factors are taken Argentina, Brazil, France, Iran, Japan, 20 years and 50% lower than the and gill net fisheries for soupfin shark meat grew by more than 150%, from into con sidera tion. For instance, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, country’s peak catch in 199965. (Galeorhinus galeus), gummy shark 40,000 mt to around 103,000 mt.65 thousands of metric tons of sharks are Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, (Mustelus antarcticus) and spotted estuary Nevertheless, these figures still only discarded at sea, either whole or with the United Kingdom and the United smooth-hound (Mustelus lenticulatus) off repres ent around 10% of reported catches their fins removed, and the weights of States. These countries each report Australia and New Zealand69. In warmer (see below), which suggests, assuming these discards are unaccounted for in catches of more than 15,000 mt CHONDRICHTHYAN CATCHES BY waters, directed harpoon fisheries for both sets of figures are accurate ly 7 65 fishery logbooks . Many landings are annually. COUNTRY, 2004 figures in metric tons whale sharks are banned in India and the reported, that a large propor tion of also taken in countries that don’t While the People’s Republic of Philippines, but are still pursued in shark meat is either used domestically Indonesia 121,750 69 monitor their fishing industry, or are China is by far the world's largest India 61,314 several other countries. (for example for subsistence or local caught and consumed locally, thereby consumer of shark fin, it reported Spain 51,071 market use), or discarded at sea.69 bypass ing official record keeping.7 shark catches of only 100–300 mt Taiwan 43,797 Mexico 32,245 Argentina 32,039 USA 30,732 WORLD CHONDRICHTHYAN CATCHES 1950-2004 Thailand 27,944 Pakistan 27,363 Japan 27,150 GLOBAL PRODUCTION AND TRADE OF SHARK MEAT 1976-2004 Malaysia 25,154 France 21,613 Brazil 20,041 Sri Lanka 19,510 Iran 18,318 New Zealand 16,647 United Kingdom 16,066 Nigeria 13,560 Portugal 12,765 Yemen 12,750 metric tons Korea, Republic of 12,265 Canada 11,804 metric tons Australia 11,392 Venezuela 11,294

Maldives 9,475 SOURCE: FAO FISHSTAT © JUSTIN EBERT Senegal 8,887 Peru 8,640 Above & opposite page: Tens of millions Uruguay 6,172 of sharks are killed in fisheries around Other 98,564 the world every year. SOURCE: FAO FISHSTAT Total 810,322

SOURCE: FAO FISHSTAT

16 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 17 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 18

Catches of porbeagle sharks (Lamna North Atlantic populations of Overfishing nasus) in the Northeast Atlantic leafscale gulper shark (Centrophorus Bycatch peaked in 1947 then declined squamosus) and Portuguese dogfish BOOM AND BUST SHARK dramatically. This collapse led to (Centroscymnus coelolepis) have crashed FISHERIES intensive target fishing by the by 80% in just ten years, since the Norwegians and Danes in the development of an unregulated gillnet Shark populations are generally fragile Northwest Atlantic in the 1960s; fishery in the mid-1990s. These deep- TALES OF DISASTER: when targeted by unregulated fisheries, between 1961 and 1964 their catch sea sharks are targeted by Spanish Bycatch is a term used to refer to any caught as bycatch are often finned, with resulting in a pattern of “boom and rose from 1,800 mt to 9,300 mt and vessels for their oil which is sold to species caught accidentally while fishing the distinction between target and shark Research surveys in the Gulf of bust”. Rising catches are followed by then declined to less than 200 mt. cosmetic and health companies, and for other “target” species. It is respon sible bycatch species increas ing ly disappearing. Mexico (1972–2002) demonstrate rapid declines and very slow recoveries – Renewed target fishing in the 1990s also for their meat. Deep-sea sharks for mortality in a wide range of species: Rates of shark bycatch depend to a precipitous declines in coastal sharks when stocks are protected. Some led to a further population decline of reproduce very slowly and according non-target fish, seabirds, whales, dolphins, great extent on the fishing gear used: and rays taken as bycatch in areas of populations do not recover. 83–89% within three generations.72 to ICES – the organization responsible turtles and sharks. A great deal of bycatch intensive shrimp trawling. Smooth Industrial shark fisheries have grown for marine research in the North is discarded at sea and never appears in In coastal areas, trawl fisheries are butterfly rays (Gymnura micrura) have steadily since the 1920s and have A harpoon fishery for the basking Atlantic – are in extreme decline.71,74 the records. Where bycatch must be thought to be responsible for the declined by more than 99%, bancroft frequently involved the targeting of new shark (Cetorhinus maximus) off the west reported, it is often under-reported. largest bycatch of sharks, skates and numbfish (Narcine bancroftii) by 98% shark populations or species, as catches coast of Ireland began in 1770 and Many more shark fisheries are likely to be rays, amounting to hundreds of and bonnethead sharks (Sphyrna from established shark fisheries decline.66 lasted until the 1830s, when the in serious decline, but are not formally According to the FAO, there are few thousands of metric tons annually.76 tiburo) by 96%.50 species became scarce. The stocks documented. However, anecdotal reports fisheries that do not result in bycatch of The collapse of the soupfin shark subsequent ly recovered and the from artisanal fishermen, divers, sharks, skates and rays. Indeed, much of Tuna purse-seine nets occasionally A recent study of the Moroccan fishery in the US Pacific is typical. The fishery was revived in the 1940s, but researchers and recreational fishermen in the difficulty in monitoring shark stocks result in large-scale shark bycatch and driftnet fleet found that pelagic shark fishery expanded spectacularly in the catch quickly peaked and declined many parts of the world reveal that areas arises because the majority of sharks are gillnets are also considered to be the species are suffering massive bycatch 1938 with the discovery that liver oil by the end of the 1950s.6 where sharks were once abundant have caught as bycatch, which is almost cause of heavy shark bycatch.77 rates, with blue shark, shortfin mako was rich in vitamin A. Catches peaked become depleted. WildAid research in entirely undocumented and totally and thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) at 4,000 metric tons (mt) in 1940, US Pacific angel shark (Squatina Costa Rica, Ecuador, India, Kenya, Mexico unregulated. While less indiscriminate than some num ber ing half the target catch crashed in 1942 and by 1944 were california) catches peaked in 1985–86 and Senegal confirms this. In cases where bycatch is recorded, the other fishing methods, the widespread (sword fish). In excess of 100,000 of down to only 300 mt. More than 50 at 560 mt but decreased quickly to numbers are significant, sometimes even use of longlines, combined with the these ocean-going sharks are years on, and despite the lack of 120 mt three years later. A ban in 1994 Another indication of declines is the greater than the targeted catch. Previously, sheer length of lines and number of estimated to be caught by the fleet fishing, the population has still not “likely averted population collapse”.72 widespread illegal fishing of sharks in in many fisheries sharks caught accident- hooks, means that more ocean-going annually – a level of fishing pressure recovered to its former level.17,70 marine reserves and the large-scale ally were thrown back, sometimes still (pelagic) sharks are caught as bycatch well beyond the repro duc tive capacity A fishery for bluntnose sixgill sharks incursions into Australian waters by living, or the lines cut. But now, with in longline fisheries than in any other for these species.78 Landings of spiny dogfish in the (Hexanchus griseus) began in the Indonesian boats. It seems unlikely that demand for shark fin growing, sharks fisheries on the high seas.76 Northeast Atlantic peaked at almost Maldives in 1980, peaked in 1982–84 fishermen would risk loss of their boats 70,000 metric tons in the 1960s, when and collapsed by 1996. Other fisheries and gear unless legal sources were Norwegian and UK vessels targeted for this species, in Australia, New seriously depleted. the species. However, the stock is now Zealand, France, Brazil and possibly depleted – possibly down to 5% of its Argentina, are all reported to have original size – with landings at their declined.73 lowest levels since World War 2 Can sharks be (around 6,000 mt).71 The common skate (Dipturus batis), as the name implies, was historically one sustainably harvested? of the most abundant skates and rays in the Northeast Atlan- Thirty years ago it was unclear whether tic. It was widely distrib - long-term sustainable fisheries for uted in the seas sur- sharks could ever be possible. Today, it round ing the British is thought that economically viable Isles, though catch rates and biologically sustainable yields can of this species declined be taken from more productive species during the 20th century under careful management, for due to overfishing. By the example the gummy shark caught off 1970s the common skate southern Australia.75 was considered extinct in However, the majority of shark fish- the Irish Sea, and they eries are still unregulated and the high also dis ap peared from catches of a number of coun tries are the English Channel and almost certainly un sustain able. A the south ern and central preliminary evaluation of shark species North Sea.72 worldwide by the FAO identified severe popula tion declines for nearly all the Left: Fishermen in 26 shark species for which catch or many parts of India landing data was available for more have seen catches of than ten years.73 Sharks are caught as bycatch in most of the world’s fisheries

© WATTS / WILDAID sharks decline rapidly. © R. AND V. TAYLOR / INNERSPACE VISIONS

18 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 19 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 20

Sharks represent a large bycatch of respectively, since the onset of bycatch.86 Allowing for some post-release global high-seas longline fisheries industrialized offshore fisheries for mortality, it is clear that a very large The Shark Fin targeting tuna and swordfish tuna and billfish, in which they are proportion of sharks caught on longlines (dominated by vessels from Taiwan, caught as bycatch. Oceanic whitetip survive if released rather than finned. Trade Japan and Spain) and are retained sharks comprised about 60% of shark primarily for their fins. The bycatch is bycatches in the 1950s but by the A combination of two factors led to an comprised mainly of blue, oceanic 1990s this figure was only 2%.80 explosion in the demand for shark fin whitetip (Carcharhinus longimanus) and soup over the past twenty years. Firstly, silky sharks (Carcharhinus falciformis). UNNECESSARY WASTE the rapid expansion of East Asian In 2000, it was estimated that up to economies, particularly that of Mainland 470,000 metric tons of these three Some shark species are able to survive for China, creat ed a vastly increased middle species were caught accidentally in the long periods on hooks. Research in Brazil class sector with disposable income, and Pacific Ocean in just one year.79 found that from a total of 508 sharks of what began as a rare and expensive del i - different species observed in longline cacy is now standard fare at most wed - Populations of oceanic whitetip and fisheries, 88% arrived alive on deck.85 In dings and corporate functions. Secondly, © CHEN / WILDAID © CHEN / WILDAID silky sharks in the Gulf of Mexico Hawaii, it is estimated that 86% of blue the con sump tion of shark fin soup in plummeted by 99% and 90%, sharks are alive when landed on deck as China, discouraged under Mao Tse-tung Above: Shark fins are among the most expensive seafood products in the world, as an elitist practice, was politically retailing at up to US$1,000 per kilogram “rehabil itated” in the late 1980s. The result is a massive surge in the inter - national fin trade, prompt ing fisher men turnover of US$771,000 per month. death. This practice is not only cruel, it is worldwide to target sharks for their fins Given a profit margin of between also incredibly wasteful, as finning only and to remove the fins from sharks 10–15%, one of Hong Kong’s largest utilises 1-5% of the shark’s body-weight.89 caught as bycatch in other fisheries. Fin dealers, rumored to have a turnover of traders systematically spread the word US$129 million per year, could be It is impossible to establish the precise that fins are valuable to fishermen the making an annual profit of at least number of sharks slaughtered in this way world over, often provid ing equipment US$12 million.10 annually, as few fishermen will openly and monetary advances in order to The lucrative and unregulated nature admit to finning sharks and the practice secure fins. of the trade attracts involvement by occurs at sea where there are no other Today the rapidly expanding and criminal elements, with fierce witnesses. However, there is enough largely unregulated shark fin trade competition for shark fins leading to evidence to suggest that finning is represents one of the most serious widespread corruption, gangland wars widespread in numerous fish eries, that threats to shark populations worldwide, and contract killings.16 In Colombia, for huge numbers of sharks are finned every and shark fins are now among the most example, drug dealers became involved in year, and that the vast major i ty of these expensive seafood products in the world, the shark fin trade as a way of laundering mortalities go unreported. The World commonly retailing at US$400 per kg10, drug money.88 Conservation Union’s (IUCN) Shark with the most expensive selling for Specialist Group estimates that tens of US$1,000 per kg87. To put this in HOW MANY SHARKS ARE millions of sharks are finned worldwide perspective, shrimp or prawns retail at FINNED EACH YEAR? every year,89 while one recent study Left: Many sharks caught on around US$6 per kg. estimated that fins of between 26 and 73 longlines would survive if A recently published report on the During the finning process, a shark is million sharks are traded globally each

© MARCEL BIGUE / WILDAID released rather than finned. dried seafood trade in Asia revealed that hauled up on deck, its fins sliced off, and year (although this figure includes both one shark fin trader, who considers the animal - sometimes still alive – is finned sharks and those whose bodies himself a medium sized operator, had a thrown back into the sea to bleed to are retained for other purposes)67. Reducing shark bycatch GLOBAL PRODUCTION AND TRADE OF SHARK FIN 1976-2004 LEADING SHARK FIN IMPORTERS 2004 More than seven million metric tons of marine life is Several promising new methods are currently now in discarded by the world’s fisheries every year.81 development. In 2006, an invention that involves placing International concern at this massive wastage has led to strong magnets just above the baited hooks on longline the development (but not always the implementation) gear won first prize in the 2006 WWF International of methods and technological innovations to minimize Smart Gear Competition. The design utilizes the fact these bycatches. Significant focus has been placed on that sharks are able to detect and are repelled by reducing the numbers of endangered species such as magnetic fields, meaning fewer sharks are captured

whales, dolphins, sea turtles and seabirds caught in accidentally and less fishing gear is lost to non-target metric tons fishing gears82, but sharks, despite being frequent species.83 Other fish do not respond to these magnets, bycatch species, important in marine ecosystems, and so catch of targeted species, like tuna, is unaffect ed. extremely vulnerable to overexploitation, have received Chemical repellents are another approach also being 84 relatively little attention. test ed. Sadly, many fishermen are likely to reject such SOURCE: FAO FISHSTAT

innovations, because sharks, or at least their fins, have Note: all shark fin statistics are taken from the FAO, but become such valuable bycatch. frozen shark fins have been corrected by a factor of 0.25 as they are believed to be four times heavier than their 10 SOURCE: FAO FISHSTAT dried equivalents.

20 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 21 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 22

Estimating the scale of the global trade Reported world production of shark The dumping of millions of sharks at The case for a finning ban in shark fin products is also ex treme ly fins in 2004 totaled 3,909 metric tons, sea results in significantly decreased com pli cated and data on im ports, but as many countries do not record shark catches in many developing Finning is responsible for the exports and production figures rarely shark fin production (e.g. China), this countries. Fishers in eastern India and deaths of tens of millions of match.7 The industry is still largely figure must be considered an on the east and west coasts of Africa have sharks every year. conducted in the “grey mar ket” and fins underestimate.90 Nevertheless, reported reported serious declines in their catches, change hands for cash in many cases, production of shark fins would still dating back to the arrival of large, The removal of the ocean’s top and often transactions go unrecorded. account for catches of more than industrial (and usually foreign) fishing predators may have serious, The only available global database on 260,000 metric tons*, which is vessels off their coastlines. Many coastal widespread effects for marine the shark fin trade, held by the FAO, equivalent to around a third of reported fishing communities in low-income ecosystems and potentially shows that the trade has escalated enor - global chondrichthyan catches. However, countries rely on traditional shark threaten yields of other mously in the past two decades. In 1987, if sharks caught for the fin trade were fisheries to provide a vital source of commercially important species.

a total of 4,907 mt of shark fins were im - finned and discarded, the 260,000 mt protein, and wastage on this scale ©JEFF ROTMAN / JEFFROTMAN.COM port ed world wide. By 1994 this had risen would not be included in the catch figure increasingly threatens their livelihoods Above: Shark finning wastes 95-99% of the animal. It is now a common practice in Finning is hugely wasteful – to 10,652 mt, and ten years on, reported and would therefore represent an and food security.89 fisheries around the world. throwing away 95% of a valuable world imports peaked at 13,614 mt.90 additional take.7 Furthermore, as it is extremely protein source should not be an More than 90% of shark fin imports In 2004, Indonesia was the world difficult to identify many shark species internationally traded, although it seems opt instead for regulations requiring that option in a world where fish reported to the FAO in 2004 were to leader in shark fin production from their fins alone, finning impedes the large size of these fins renders them shark fins must not total more than 5% stocks are declining and millions Hong Kong (57%) and China (36%). (1,660 mt), followed by Singapore the collection of vital species-specific more appealing as trophies than for of the weight of sharks on board.95 of people face chronic hunger. Other notable importers are Malaysia, (1,000 mt) and India (455 mt). These catch, bycatch and landings data. consumption.69 Traders in Hong Kong Although some nations have Indonesia, Taiwan and Thailand.90 three collectively account for 80% of Without such information, shark stocks claim that the fins of basking and whale introduced legislation to control shark Finning prevents species-specific There are, however, problems with the shark fin production reported to the cannot be accurately assessed and sharks are “coarse and taste of ash”, and finning (see below), the highly migratory catch data from being collected. accuracy of these figures, the main issue FAO90. China has never reported any sustainable management is therefore not great white fins are considered to be of nature of many shark species means the Without such information, being that any given shipment of fins shark fin production to the FAO.90 possible.89 similarly poor quality.69 However the only way to ensure full protection is to sustainable management of may be recorded as an import in every recent seizure of fins from 21 juvenile enact a ban on finning not only within shark fisheries is not possible. country it passes through, meaning that FINNING: A CRUEL WASTE FAVORITES FOR FINNING great whites indicates that they may have the waters of individual nations, but on there is almost certainly double (or some value as food, since small fins are the high seas as well. triple) counting. With export figures this At one time, it is likely that global Which shark species are most commonly unsuitable for display purposes.93 Traders over 140 countries, passed a is less of a problem as most countries catches of whole sharks provided used for finning? DNA-based species have been shown to deliberately mislabel “Finning causes the death of tens of resolution re commend ing that all distinguish between exports and re- sufficient fins to supply the markets of identification on samples from Hong fins from CITES listed shark species as States require shark fins to be landed exports (exports of a product that did East Asia and East Asian communities Kong – the world’s largest shark fin other, unprotected species; but even millions of sharks. This potentially attached to their bodies. not originate within the country) and as worldwide. However, as shark meat is market – found that between 34–45% of without deliberate subterfuge, rare fins threatens the survival of rare and a result the exaggeration in export data considered to be inferior to that of most fins belong to only 14 shark species.92 may be mixed within large volumes of vulnerable species and, by removing The first international ban on shark is not so large.90 commercially exploited fish species, Blue sharks form a particularly large other similar fins and thus become finning was introduced by the Export statistics do nonetheless particularly tuna and swordfish, the component of the market (17%), possibly nearly impossible to detect.92 large numbers of top predators from International Commission for the indicate an expanding market, with profits to be made from shark meat are because they are the most common the oceanic system, may have Conservation of Atlantic Tunas exports doubling since the late-1980s to naturally much lower. Limited space on- bycatch species in high seas longline “The trade in shark fins through dramatic and undesirable ecological (ICCAT) in 2004. This was followed in reach 6,220 metric tons in 2004. China board fishing vessels, combined with the fisheries targeting tuna and swordfish. 2005 by the Inter-American Tropical accounts for 40% of reported exports, increasing value of shark fin, has made it Other species, including the Hong Kong, which is likely to be impacts that could potentially Tuna Commission (IATTC), the followed by Indonesia, Taiwan, the economically advantageous for some hammerhead, shortfin mako, silky, indicative of the volume of the global threaten yields of other species.” 89 Indian Ocean Tuna Commission United Arab Emirates, Malaysia and commercial vessels to discard the bulky sandbar, bull, and thresher sharks trade, is growing at an annual rate (IOTC) and the Northwest Atlantic Japan.91 shark bodies while retaining the valuable represent at least 2–6% of the trade.92 Fisheries Organization (NAFO). An alternative estimate, which fins, which can be sun dried and stored Fins of all three CITES listed sharks – of six per cent and appears to be FINNING BECOMES UNACCEPTABLE accounts for double counting and is compactly without refrigeration. great white, basking and whale – are linked to increases in disposable Shark finning is prohibited in all based on national customs statistics, put income in Mainland China.” 69 In December 2000 the US adopted Australian States (out to three the total quantity of shark fins in trade at legislation to prohibit shark finning nautical miles) and in Common - around 10,000 metric tons in 2000, and in all US waters. Finning was wealth-managed (federal) fisheries growing at a rate of 6% a year. However, A Growing Recognition of the Shark Fin Soup Problem HOW TO BAN SHARK FINNING previously banned on the Atlantic (which cover the area from 3–200 nm the authors state that this figure is likely coast and in Californian waters. from the shore). to be an underestimate for a number of After fierce criticism from conserva - "After careful consideration and The simplest way to implement a ban reasons: fins harvested illegally are not tionists, the Walt Disney Company – a thorough review process, we would be require all sharks to be landed The European Union banned shark In February 2006, the Seychelles included in official record keeping, shark creator of the blockbuster Finding were not able to identify an whole, making the possession of detach - finning in 2003 for all vessels banned finning by all foreign-owned fins produced and consumed within the Nemo, an aquatic adventure story ed fins on board vessels an offence.95 This operating in EU waters and all EU vessels, including those registered same country are absent from trade with the tagline: “fish are friends, not environment ally sustainable would simplify enforce ment and vessels, wherever they fish. under or flying the Seychelles flag. statistics, and only the largest shark fin food” – bowed to pressure and fishing source, leaving us no eliminate cheating and also provide The ban does not apply, however, to markets (Hong Kong, China, Taiwan, removed shark fin soup from alternative except to remove much-needed data about the number In 2003 the UN General Assembly Seychellois-owned fishing boats. Japan and Singapore) – not all markets – restaurant menus inside the new and species of sharks being taken, since recommended that Member States were included in the study.10 Hong Kong Disneyland theme park. shark’s fin soup from our wedding sharks with their fins attach ed are far ban shark finning. Shark finning has also been outlawed The dish was to be served at expensive banquet menu." easier to identify by species. However, by several other major shark fishing “Fairytale” wedding banquets.94 relatively few countries that prohibit In November 2004, the IUCN, made nations, including Brazil, Canada, I RENE C HAN, DISNEY H ONG K ONG VICE- * Applying a dried fin-to-body-weight ratio PRESIDENT FOR PUBLIC AFFAIRS. 94 finning (Costa Rica is an example) up of over 1,000 governmental and Costa Rica, Ecuador, Oman and of 1.5%. require sharks to be landed whole; most non-govern mental organizations from South Africa.

22 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 23 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 24

LACK OF CATCH, BYCATCH AND countries, even though more than two TRADE DATA Lack of thirds of reported chondrichthyan International Agreements landings occur in developing countries Management where management is often weakened by As sharks were historically regarded as a lack of funding for research and low-value “trash” fish, there was little FAO International Plan of Action for Convention on International Trade in The Convention on Migratory Species enforcement of regulations. In addition incentive to collect catch, bycatch and Sharks (IPOA) Endangered Species (CITES) (CMS) to unrestricted fishing by domestic fleets, trade data. A significant portion of UNMANAGED FISHERIES poor enforcement means that industrial global shark catches still go unrecorded In 1999, the FAO adopted an CITES was established in 1975 to en - The Bonn Convention on the fleets from other nations are often found and, when they are documented, species- International Plan of Action for Sharks sure that international trade in wild Conservation of Migratory Species of Shark fishing on the whole is widely fishing illegally in the waters of develop - specific information is sparse or non- (IPOA), with the overall objective of animals and plants does not threaten Wild Animals (CMS) recognizes the unmanaged. In the past, sharks lacked ing countries, catching sharks and existent and shark species are frequently ensuring the conservation and their survival. It provides an inter - need for countries to cooperate in the commercial value, so comparatively little further decimating fish stocks.75 categorized together, or even as management of sharks and their long- nation al legal framework for the pre - conservation of animals that migrate is known about many species’ abund - Domestic initiatives are vital for the “unidentified marine fish”.75 term sustainable use. The initiative, ven tion of trade in endangered species, across national boundaries, or between which is voluntary, calls on States to and for the regulation of trade in areas of national jurisdiction and the ance, range, distribution, reproductive conservation and management of shark The only source of information on produce a Shark Assessment Report species that may otherwise become high seas. Its membership has grown behavior and response to external populations, particularly for those global shark catches is the FAO, which (SAR) and, if they have shark fisheries, threat ened.98 Participation is vol un - steadily and now incorporates 97 stresses. Records of shark catches are species with restricted distributions. relies on data collected from nations to draw up a National Plan of Action tary, but countries that agree to the Parties. The CMS provides a framework vague and few countries break down How ever, it is important to recognize individually and so is restricted to the (NPOA) identifying research, Con ven tion are legally bound by it. At for setting up protection measures for 75 their shark catch by species. that many species and populations of same limitations noted above. Some monitoring and management needs for present, 169 countries are Party to endangered migratory species.102 Today, sharks continue to be a low shark are distributed widely, or undergo nations fail to report any catch data all shark species in their waters.98 CITES.101 The basking shark and the great priority for conservation and research in long migrations between the waters of (they may be discarding sharks at sea Progress by 2001 – the year by which Currently, only three species of white shark, listed in 2005 and 2002 many nations because of their low overall multiple States and on the high seas. after taking their fins, or intentionally NPOAs were to be completed – was shark – the basking shark, whale shark respectively, are registered on both economic value (considering flesh and fins Therefore, for many shark species, inter - withholding information), leaving the very disappointing, with only 29 States and great white shark – are listed by Appendix I and II of the Convention, together) and the fact that sharks consti- national initiatives are essential for FAO to extrapolate data from previous reporting to the FAO on progress with CITES. All are listed on Appendix II, while the whale shark, added in 1999, tute a small proportion of marine fish - effective management.98 years. IPOA implementation. By September which means that Parties to CITES is listed solely on Appendix II.102 eries.75 The FAO’s latest catch statistics Species-specific (and ideally stock- 2002, none of the major shark fishing must strictly regulate and monitor show that chondrichthyan landings specific) catch, bycatch and biological nations had produced a SAR, and a trade in these species. Export permits Regional Fisheries Management accounted for only around 1% of the total The rising demand for shark fins data is fundamental if shark populations review of draft and completed NPOAs can only be granted if it will not be Organizations showed nearly all to be inadequate.98 detrimental to the survival of the world fish catch in 2004, with sharks com- continues to fuel their exploitation, are to be managed sustainably and global Thirteen States have now reported species, and that the products were prising approximately half of this total.65 shark landings monitored in any Regional Fisheries Management but paradoxically they continue to that they have completed either a SAR, not obtained illegally.101 Organizations (RFMOs), created There are currently no binding meaningful way. Without knowledge of NPOA, or both, including eight major under international agreements, are international agreements for the protec - be a low priority for conservation the level true of exploitation, it is shark fishing nations – Australia, Brazil, responsible for the management of tion of sharks (with the exception of and research because of their low impossible to accurately assess the status Japan, Mexico, Taiwan, Thailand, the high seas fisheries and fish stocks that CITES, which deals with issues of trade, economic value (considering flesh of shark populations, meaning UK and the USA – although Thailand’s migrate through the waters of multiple not directly with shark manage ment – management is likely to fail. 75 and Brazil’s are not available for review countries. Many RFMOs are solely and fins together). 99 see opposite), and at the national level, International trade in shark products and their status is uncertain. At concerned with management of only Australia, Canada, New Zealand, is also very poorly documented. Customs present, only the NPOAs of Japan, the particular species (often tuna and their Japan, the UK and the US have developed codes are often unspecific and species of UK, Australia and the USA are available relatives) and shark populations are specific shark management programs. shark are frequently only to view on the FAO Fisheries website. usually not covered. Some countries, such as Brazil, Costa categorized under a heading of Five States – the EU, Indonesia, Italy, Several RFMOs* have, however, in Rica, Ecuador, Israel, Malta, Mexico, “dogfish and other sharks”.7 Malaysia and South Africa – have draft the past two years, agreed to Namibia, Oman, the Philippines, and Some countries have a separate SARs or NPOAs, while a further 47 resolutions banning shark finning and States report that they are working South Africa, have restrictions ranging category for shark fin (although encouraging data collection, research, towards implementation, including from a ban on finning in national waters, not by species), but customs’ and the development of bycatch eight major shark fishing nations. Two mitigation measures for sharks. to a prohibition on the catching of records for shark skin, liver oil of the latter – Canada and New Zealand Nevertheless, such actions fall well specific species, to the closure of directed and jaws are rarely documented, – are already implementing shark short of the requirements of the IPOA- shark fisheries during certain seasons. and trade of shark cartilage goes fisheries management independently of Sharks100 and, at present, ICES and 7,69 And in a few areas, shark fishing is totally unreported. Several the IPOA-Sharks.99 ICCAT are the only RFMOs known to banned completely – for example, in countries simply do not report Worryingly, however, 32 States, be utilizing shark fisheries and/or Egypt there is a total ban on shark fish ing their statistics on trade in shark including three major shark fishing bycatch data to develop stock in the Red Sea96, and shark fishing is products at all. These numerous nations – Nigeria, Sri Lanka and assessments.98 prohibited in all Congolese waters.97 shortcomings mean that Taiwan, which collectively account for But considering that well over 100 accurately assessing the volume almost 10% of global catches – state Other agreements and bodies that different nations report shark catches to of international trade in shark that they have not or will not be could help in the conservation of 99 the FAO, and 24 boast annual catches in products in general, let alone by implementing the IPOA-Sharks. And sharks include the UN Agreement on excess of 10,000 metric tons65, it is clear species, is virtually impossible. in 2005, an expert consult ation that Straddling and Highly Migratory, and assessed the effective ness and that there is a serious lack of compre hen - Fish Stocks the Convention on achievements of the IPOA-Sharks © WILDAID sive management. Biological Diversity. concluded that despite the great benefit A basking shark fin on display in A major problem with the manage - it could bring to the conservation of Singapore. Basking sharks are now * The International Commission for the Conservation ment of shark fishing is that compre - of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), the Inter-American shark populations, it is constrained by protected internationally under CITES Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), the Indian hensive shark management plans are the lack of priority given to the issue.100 and the CMS. Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC), and the mainly being created in developed Left: The results of a finning Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organisation (NAFO). operation in Costa Rica © P. KRAGH / INNERSPACE VISIONS

24 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 25 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 26

Left: Galápagos park rangers intercept Breaking other a suitcase full of shark fins. Illegal Fishing countries’ laws

Although very few countries have direct protection for sharks, many

© WILDAID have fishing regulations designed to protect traditional and domestic MARINE RESERVES UNDER GALÁPAGOS ISLANDS large groups of hammerheads and the 42 fisheries. However, develop ing SIEGE other resident species of shark. Accord - small artisanal fishing boats from the countries rarely have the resources to The Galápagos Islands, designated a ing to a local scientist: “Diving here poverty stricken communities along the enforce these regulations and so un - While only three shark species enjoy any UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978, depends on sharks. If you reduce their nearby Veraguas coast.88 scrupu lous fishermen, often from degree of international protection under suffer extensive illegal fishing incursions numbers or make them aggressive, you Dive operators have reported a abroad, take advantage of this to fish CITES, some sharks are protected in from both local and foreign boats have ruined dive tourism.” 105 marked decrease in the number of illegally. marine reserves, which are usually “no (mostly from Costa Rica and Colombia), Despite a general lack of information sharks, rays, and other large fish as In West Africa, for example, take” or restricted fishing areas. specifically targeting sharks for their on shark populations, anecdotal commercial fishing increased over the countries such as Guinea, Sierra Because of the difficulty and expense fins.88 information points to a worrying decline. last five years. The longline and nylon Leone, and Liberia suffer from some of patrolling large areas of ocean, marine Local residents report that fishing for The owner of a diving company in the gillnets widely employed by the of the highest levels of illegal fishing reserves are often poorly protected in sharks began in the 1950s, but growing archipelago reported that “huge schools fishermen also create unintended in the world, as foreign industrial © PARQUE NACIONAL GALÁPAGOS developing countries. WildAid has found demand for fins resulted in intensive of hammerheads, often numbering up to bycatch of sea turtles. Scientists from vessels from Europe and the Far East that they are increasingly under pressure fishing in the 1980s, which has 300, could be seen in the area 15 years The Park Service and Coast Guard are Oregon State University recently plunder their precious marine from illegal fishing, shark fin being one continued at a high level despite a ban ago. Nowadays tourists are lucky to see aware of the situation around Cocos reported seeing no sharks at all while resources, upon which millions of of the most lucrative targets. In some on large-scale shark fishing in 1998.88 20 or 30.” 88 Island, but lack the resources to combat diving around Coiba.88 people depend for food and protected areas, illegal fishing now Until recently, Ecuador was a major More than 80,000 international illegal fishing. The Save Our Seas livelihoods.111 threatens dive tourism and divers are exporter of shark fins to East Asian tourists, worth US$140 million, are Foundation provided a fast patrol boat POACHING EPIDEMIC HITS AUSTRALIA Guinea is estimated to lose reporting reductions in shark numbers. markets. According to the World Trade attracted to the Galápagos Islands every to the Parks authority in 2003 to provide US$110 million worth of fish to so- To maximize profits while fishing Atlas, between 1997–2003 Ecuador year, representing around a third of year round enforcement of the 12-mile Even when countries are able and willing called “pirate” fishing every year, illegally, fishermen will often take only exported 850 metric tons of shark fins to Ecuador’s US$430 million tourism fishing exclusion zone surrounding the to invest hundreds of millions of dollars Sierra Leone US$29 million, and fins, dumping carcasses overboard. In China, Hong Kong, Singapore and business. By contrast, Ecuador is island. However, some illegal fishing into fighting illegal fishing, protection Liberia US$10 million – a potential this way, a relatively small boat can catch Taiwan – an amount estimated to have reported to earn just US$1.5 million continues and local dive operators are for sharks cannot be guaranteed. In source of income these impoverished thousands of sharks in a short period, required the lives of 1.7 million sharks88. from the shark fin trade, accounting for becoming increasingly concerned that it Australia, increasing numbers of States can ill-afford to be without. effectively fishing out an entire area. Despite a prohibition on the export of the death of 200,000 sharks.88 will seriously impact their operations.107 Indonesian fishermen are encroaching Across the whole of sub-Saharan shark fins since October 2004, fins into the country’s tropical northern Africa, losses to pirate fishing are continue to be harvested and exported COCOS ISLAND MARINE COIBA NATIONAL PARK, waters as overfishing has depleted shark estimated at around US$1 billion, illegally104. RESERVE, COSTA RICA PANAMA populations in many other parts of which is roughly equivalent to a Most of these fins – an estimated 80% Southeast Asia. With shark fin worth up quarter of Africa’s total annual fish of Ecuador’s exports – are taken from Cocos Island is famed as one of the Situated 70 km off the Pacific coast of to US$700 per kilogram on the Chinese exports.68 © DOUG PERRINE sharks in Galápagos waters, where they world’s top dive sites and is billed as Panama, this newly designated World market, Indonesian fishers are prepared are officially protected. Scant environ - “The Island of Sharks.” Fishing within Heritage Site is attracting a growing to take huge risks, including hefty fines mental monitoring and enforce ment 12-miles of the island, a World Heritage number of tourists drawn by its and jail terms, to pursue these lucrative means reliable estimates of sharks killed Site, is prohibited, but commercial remarkable biodiversity and pristine catches. If they are not caught, a single Flags of Convenience in the Galápagos are hard to come by, fishers routinely ignore the ban and natural environment. Coiba National trip can provide the same economic but the volume of dried shark fin illegally catch and fin sharks at night, Park is one of the largest marine parks in return as a year of fishing in Indonesian One common way in which produced from the Island of Isabela (the according to the authorities.88 the world and contains the second waters. fishermen circumvent management largest island in the archipelago) is Local shark populations, mainly great largest coral reef in the Central-Eastern According to government sources, up and conser va tion measures and estimated to be as much as 1,500 kg per hammerheads inshore and silky sharks Pacific Ocean.108 to 25,000 metric tons, or more than 1 avoid penalties for illegal fishing is by month, represent ing approximately offshore, are suspected to be dwindling. Despite stepping up patrols, illegal million sharks, are poached annually registering under a “Flag of Conven i - 3,000 sharks.88 Currently there are more than 80 local fishing around Coiba is rampant and from Australia’s territorial waters 109 ence” (FOC). Although international Shark fins are smuggled out of the boats that are formally accused of fishing increasing. Commercial fishing boats, which is more than double Australia’s law specifies that the count ry whose Galápagos in a variety of ways. Some illegally, and several foreign operators both local and from Costa Rica, target reported shark catches in 2004.65 Sharks flag a vessel flies is respon sible for companies use large “mother ships”, have been arrested. One Ecuadorian sharks along the island’s coast using are finned and their carcasses discarded – controlling its activities, certain which are stationed just outside the vessel, the San Jose 1, was captured and longlines and gillnets. In 2002, citing the illegal in all Australian waters. coun tries allow vessels of any Marine Reserve and are regularly confiscated and the captain imprisoned. problem of shark fin soup, the then The situation has got so bad that the nationality to fly their flag for a few supplied with fins by small, fast moving A Colombian vessel was also impounded Director of Coiba National Park, Minster of Defence recently authorized hundred or thousand dollars, and boats, usually at night. In other cases, and forced to pay a US$18,000 fine. Clemente Nunez, reported that around the Navy to shoot at boats that do not then ignore any offences committed. Top right: Marine reserves in developing fins are packed into suitcases and Pirate fishing is a great problem in Costa 100 boats come to fish around Coiba submit to inspection, and there are These so-called FOC coun tries are countries seldom have resources to smuggled from the Galápagos by plane. Rican waters and in cludes Taiwanese every month.88 reports of the Navy being attacked with often devel op ing States, and so lack enforce their regulations. The main Shark fins have been found hidden in vessels. Similar situa tions are known to Although larger scale operators samurai swords when boarding illegal the resources (or the will) to monitor patrol vessel for the Galápagos has 110 only been kept in service with outside fuel-transport vessels and also on board exist in other central American nations; present a persistent law enforcement fishing vessels. and control vessels flying their flag, support. cargo ships, concealed in coffee sacks for example, there is evidence of Costa problem both around Coiba and in especially when the fish eries being and petrol containers.88 Rican vessels in Guate malan and Panamanian territorial waters generally, plundered do not belong to them.112 Above: Sharks caught in an illegally-set The Galápagos Islands are famed for Nicuaraguan waters, all long lining and a local NGO has warned that a more net in the Galápagos Marine Reserve. providing opportunities to dive with catching sharks.106 serious long term threat comes from

26 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 27 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 28

Left: Sharks accumulate high In Australia, where large numbers of concentrations of toxic compounds Other Threats to dumped in the ocean. sharks are caught by recreational fishing, spearfishing has had a negative effect on Sharks Australian populations of the Critically Endangered grey nurse shark (Carcharias POLLUTION RECREATIONAL FISHING taurus), leading to a voluntary fishing ban in 1979. The species is now Sharks, as predators at the top of many Recreational shark fishing is a popular protected in all Australian waters.116 food chains, are known to accumulate pastime whose proponents have often Increasingly, recreational fishermen high concentrations of toxic compounds sounded the alarm on declining catches are moving towards a catch-and-release dumped in the ocean. and lobbied for protective measures. policy for most large species. However, Heavy metals, such as cadmium, However, recreational fisheries can this practice is not without problems, as

mercury and lead, are highly toxic in © KEVIN SCHAFER / STILL PICTURES contribute significantly to shark recreational fishermen usually allow Coastal development threatens animal tissues even at low concentrations mortality.116,119 sharks to “run with the bait” before shark breeding and nursery grounds. and research carried out on heavy metal Data from the US National Marine hooking them, which results in more gut- © WOLCOTT HENRY pollution in sharks shows that they can Fisheries Service for 2004 shows that hooked animals. Virtually all recreational inhibit DNA synthesis, alter heart func- over 12 million sharks, skates and rays releases of large fishes involve cutting the the purpose of shark nets: they reduce developing countries with large and tion, disrupt sperm production and alter were caught by anglers in US waters, of leader, leaving animals with hooks in the the local population size of sharks and expanding human populations.116 blood parameters.113 MARINE DEBRIS which 359,000 were retained.120 In fact, gut, throat, or moving mouth parts thus the threat to swimmers. Many species of shark are primarily Among the heavy metals found in estimated recreational catches of large which can cause serious injury or death. On average, some 1,500 sharks are associated with coral reefs. The sharks, mercury is known to reach parti- Every year an estimated 10 million metric coastal sharks were higher than This could be solved by the use of de- caught in the Australian program each widespread destruction of these habitats cularly high levels. Mercury is responsible tons of plastic ends up in the ocean.117 commercial landings in 15 of 21 years hooking tools, allowing even gut-hook year and about 1,200 in South Africa, – due to sedimentation and pollution, for causing severe neuro logical damage in This detritus is known to harm many between 1981 and 2001.116 Off California, removal.119 including a large proportion of species rising sea temperatures associated with many organisms, and although the dan - marine species, including sharks, shortfin mako and leopard sharks that are not considered dangerous to global warming, and destructive fishing gers posed to humans from consuming through entanglement or choking.118 (Triakis semifasciata) are the primary BEACH MESHING humans. In Australia, grey nurse and practices – undoubtedly has major shark meat are well documented, its effects Discarded commercial fishing gear is targets, with the recreational catch of great white sharks, both protected under impacts for sharks.116 on sharks themselves are poorly known. a big factor, with devastating affects for leopard sharks six times the commercial Netting of popular bathing beaches as a national law, are caught in beach meshes Mangrove forests are another coastal Organochlorine contaminants (OC) marine wildlife. Modern fishing gear is catch.116 protective measure against shark attack along with many other marine animals habitat critical to many sharks, serving also accumulate at high levels in sharks. A constructed from synthetic fibers that Parts of the US East Coast may well has been practiced for more than 50 such as whales, dolphins, dugongs, seals, as a nursery ground for both them and recent measurement of OCs in Greenland are non-biodegradable. This means that host more recreational fishing for large years, mainly in Australia, South Africa turtles, rays and bony fishes.122 their prey species.116 Like coral reefs, sharks (Somniosus microcephalus) showed snagged or lost gear and torn fragments sharks than anywhere else in the world. and New Zealand, and is thus a localized Analysis of data from all programs mangroves are among the most them to be one of the most contaminated of net may continue to catch fish One annual shark fishing tournament in threat to certain shark populations.116 indicates that beach meshing causes threatened habitats in the world today, organisms in the Canadian Arctic. There indefinitely – a phenomenon known as Massachusetts awards extra points for Beach meshing programs do seem to significant declines in the abundance of with massive losses due to aquaculture, is almost no information on the effects of “ghost-fishing”. Smaller fish caught in catching 250 lb (113 kg) or more mako, have been successful in reducing the most shark species that are regularly agriculture, coastal development, OC contamination in sharks, but it has the net act as bait and attract larger fish, thresher or porbeagle sharks.121 Porbeagle number of attacks, but it is a common captured.7 mining, pollution, and damming of been associated with hormone disruption such as sharks, that get entangled and sharks are classified as Endangered by the misconception that they physically rivers.123 and low fertility in bonnetheads.114 die due to injury or asphyxiation. The IUCN in the Northwest Atlantic prevent sharks from entering bathing HABITAT LOSS AND Concentrations of Tributylin (TBT), a impact of ghost fishing and other marine following serious declines. In 2005, 2,500 waters. The nets, which are set on the DEGRADATION SUB-SEA CABLES compound used in anti-fouling paints on debris on shark populations is different sharks were caught at this bottom, often do not reach the surface boats, was detected in the kidneys of blue unknown.116 tournament in just two days. and are open at both ends, so sharks can Little is known about precisely how Sharks possess acute “electro-reception” sharks caught off the Italian coast115 and swim over and around them. However, altered and contaminated habitats affect and “magneto-reception” capabilities for cadmium, lead and arsenic have been those sharks that swim into them the health and productivity of sharks. navigation and hunting purposes. found in tissue samples of several shark become entangled and “drown” – this is However, considering the rapid rate at Communications cables running species in the eastern Mediterranean35. which coastal habitats are being beneath the seabed produce a complex The presence of these substances is likely destroyed around the world by human array of electric and magnetic fields that to cause severe damage to basic activities, shark species that rely on are likely to affect shark behavior.116 biological functions. inshore waters for nursery grounds, or More than two million metric tons of inhabit coastal or estuarine habitats, CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE oil enter the marine environment each would appear to be the most likely to be THINNING year from a mixture of natural sources, affected by habitat change.116 terrestrial runoff, discharges from Some of the most threatened shark Climate change is expected to alter the tankers and ships, oil refineries, oil spills species are those restricted to freshwater marine environment through changes in and the rupture of oil pipelines. and estuarine habitats. The Ganges weather patterns, water temperature, sea Hydrocarbons and other toxicants in oil shark (Glyphis gangeticus), for example, has level, tidal and current patterns, coastal can contaminate the flesh of sharks, but almost completely disappeared from its erosion and storm frequency. This could the impacts from oil spills are most likely limited range due to human-induced affect the food supply, migration routes, felt through the effects on sensitive habitat changes. Freshwater areas are and distribution of shark species, and the © JEFF ROTMAN / JEFFROTMAN.COM coastal habitats.116 much more accessible to human stability of ecosystems. Ozone depletion Above: A three meter tiger shark caught exploitation than marine areas, and the also has the potential to alter shark in an anti-shark net off Durban Beach, tropical rivers and lakes where freshwater habitats through its effects on whole © S. GRUBER / INNERSPACE VISIONS Natal Coast – South Africa. shark species occur are mostly in ecosystems.116 Above: Discards from a fishing tournament.

28 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 29 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 30

Unless stated otherwise, all information in the following section is taken from the GIANT FRESHWATER BLUE SHARK GANGES SHARK Species at risk IUCN Red List 200672 and Fishbase126. STINGRAY Prionace glauca Glyphis gangeticus Himantura chaophraya SHARKS IN DECLINE BRAZILIAN GUITARFISH ANGEL SHARK While there is still very little comprehensive global data on the decline Rhinobatos horkeli Squatina squatina of shark species, research carried out in the past few years in specific regions and IUCN Classification: Lower Risk/Near IUCN Classification: Critically Endangered. on specific shark populations has Threatened. revealed dramatic declines. Some shark Max. size: Length 3 m. Max. size: Length 4 m, weight 205 kg, populations have declined by more than longevity 20 years. Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: Hooghly 80% in the past 50 years: River, Ganges system, West Bengal, India, Distribution: Worldwide in open ocean – and likely from the vicinity of Karachi, 89% decline in hammerhead sharks in probably the widest ranging Pakistan. Reported from Taiwan. Probably the NW Atlantic in the past 15 years;124 IUCN Classification: Critically Endangered. IUCN Classification: Critically Endangered. IUCN Classification: Vulnerable; Thailand chondrichthyan. confined to turbid waters of rivers, sub-population Critically Endangered. estuaries and inshore waters in this area. 80% decline in thresher sharks in the NW Max. size: Length 1.4 m. Max. size: Length 2.5 m, weight 80 kg, Reproduction: Males mature at 1.8–2.8m Atlantic;124 longevity not known. Max. size: Length 5 m, width 2.4 m, weight length and 4–5 years and females at Reproduction: Not known. 79% decline in great white sharks in the Distribution: Western Atlantic: Lesser 600 kg. 2.2–3.2m length and 5–6 years. Gestation NW Atlantic;124 Antilles to Southern Brazil. Distribution: Eastern Atlantic: from period is 9–12 months and internally Threats: Caught as incidental catch in other Scandinavia to northwest Africa; hatched eggs are nourished by a placental fisheries. 65% decline in tiger sharks in the NW Distribution: Asia and Oceania: Mekong Reproduction: Not known. Mediterranean and Black Seas. and Chao Phraya river basins; also from yolk sac. Pups are about 40 cm in length Atlantic;124 eastern Borneo, New Guinea and northern and 4–135 are produced per litter. Notes: The Ganges Shark is known from 60% decline in blue sharks in the NW Threats: Overfishing. Reproduction: Age at maturity unknown, Australia. only three museum specimens, all collected Atlantic;124 males mature at 80–132cm and females at Threats: Bycatch and finning: usually in the 19th Century. After an extensive Notes: Extremely vulnerable to over- 128–169cm. Litter size: 7–25. caught with pelagic longlines (targeting search in the Ganges River over the past 87% decline in blue sharks in the tropical Reproduction: Not known. exploitation because inshore breeding and tuna and billfish) but also hook-and-lines, decade, a few additional specimens were Pacific;49 nursery grounds are fished heavily. Threats: Bycatch. Threats: Habitat alteration and pelagic trawls, and even bottom trawls near caught in 1996. 99% decline in oceanic white tip sharks in Population off southern Brazil decreased by degradation of the Thai riverine systems coasts. It is utilized fresh, smoked, and the Gulf of Mexico since the 1950s; 96% from 1984–94; the species faces Notes: Formerly a common and important (human induced) and overfishing. dried-salted for human consumption; its PORBEAGLE SHARK extinction in the near future if fishing demersal predator in coastal areas of the hides are used for leather; fins for shark-fin 90% decline in oceanic silky sharks in Lamna nasus continues. Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean and soup; and also for fishmeal and liver oil. Gulf of Mexico since the 1950s;80 Protection: Thai government trying to Black Seas during the 19th and early 20th implement an experimental captive Also considered a game fish and taken by 88% decline in angel sharks in Brazilian centuries. Most of this region is now breeding program. sports anglers with rod and reel. waters;72 subject to intensive demersal fisheries, and the species is highly vulnerable from birth Notes: H. chaophraya has a characteristic Notes: While blue sharks are among the It is important to note that these onwards to bycatch in bottom-trawls, set- rounded disk with a prominent snout and most abundant, widespread, fecund and shark populations are not exposed to nets and longlines. Abundance has declined small eyes, and possesses a venomous sting faster growing of all the sharks, and a IUCN Classification: Vulnerable; Northwest unusual levels of fishing mortality – dramatically in the past 50 years; is now on a large whip-like tail. Inhabits sandy pelagic species that is widely distributed Atlantic subpopulation Endangered; there is no reason not to assume that declared extinct in the North Sea, bottoms of estuaries and large rivers, throughout the world’s oceans, they are Northeast Atlantic subpopulation Critically population declines of this magnitude extirpated from large areas of northern feeding on invertebrates and fishes. also the most heavily fished sharks in the Endangered; Mediterranean subpopulation are not replicated in other species and Mediterranean and uncommon throughout Possibility of biological extinction in the world. The impact of annual fisheries Critically Endangered. populations worldwide. In fact, global most of remainder of its range. wild considered extremely high in some mortality (mainly of bycatch), estimated at populations of large predatory fish habitats although status in Australia is 10 to 20 million individuals, is likely to be Max. size: Length 3.5 m, weight 230 kg, (excluding sharks) have already been probably favorable. having an effect on the world population, longevity 30 years. but monitoring data are inadequate to shown to have declined by 90% since the 125 assess the scale of any population decline. Distribution: Cold waters of North and onset of industrial fishing. Considering However a recent study the longline fishery South Atlantic, South Pacific. that sharks are more vulnerable to in the tropical Pacific Ocean found that overexploitation than other fish, declines blue sharks have declined by 87% since the Reproduction: Males mature at eight years of at least the same magnitude seem 1950s and that the mean mass of and females at 13. Females give birth to live highly likely. individuals caught has dropped from 52 kg young, with 1–6 pups per litter. IUCN’s Red List of Threatened to 22 kg.49 Species 2006 contains assessments of Threats: Porbeagle sharks are targeted for 547 sharks and related species. Of these, meat, oil, fishmeal and fins for shark-fin 20% (110) are classified as “Critically The IUCN Red List soup. Also a popular gamefish. Endangered,” “Endangered” or Notes: The eastern and western North “Vulnerable”, whilst a further 37% (205 The IUCN Red List is the most comprehensive inventory of the global Atlantic populations have both been serious - species) are classified as “Data Deficient”, conservation status of plant and animal species. Species are assessed on a formal ly over-exploited by directed longline fish - meaning that insufficient information is set of criteria and placed in one of nine categories: Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, eries. Found singly and in schools, por beagle available to assess a species’ risk of Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near Threatened, Least Concern, feed on small pelagic schooling fishes, other extinction. Many species have not been Data Deficient and Not Evaluated. sharks and squid. With a mini mum popu la - assessed at all, however. 72 tion doubling time of more than 14 years, they are very susceptible to overfishing.

30 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 31 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 32

DUSKY SHARK PONDICHERRY SHARK SMALLTOOTH SAWFISH GREY NURSE SHARK with environmental change such as global populations. In the period 1962–1972, 180 warming.127 sharks were caught in beach meshing Carcharhinus obscurus Carcharhinus hemiodon Pristis pectinata Carcharias taurus around New South Wales and Queensland, Also known as sandtiger shark and spotted Protection: Protected in Australian States but in recent years (1993–2003) there have ragged-tooth shark. of New South Wales (NSW), Queensland been only 11 mortalities. This decrease has and Tasmania. Listed as Vulnerable in been attributed to the declining grey nurse IUCN classification: Vulnerable. Australia, recently proposed for shark population.129 Endangered. Fully protected in South Max. size: Length 3.2 m, weight 160 kg, Africa, Namibia and the Maldives. Receives 3. Recreational fishing: Between 1961 and IUCN Classification: Lower Risk/Near IUCN classification: Critically Endangered. IUCN Classification: Critically Endangered; longevity 30–35 years. full protection on the Atlantic and Gulf 1980, 405 Carcharias taurus were landed by Threatened; Vulnerable in western North North and Southwest Atlantic coasts of the USA. fishing clubs on the NSW coast. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Max. size: Length 2 m. subpopulation Critically Endangered. Distribution: Widespread in inshore waters Recreational fishermen noted a decline around the main continental landmasses in Notes: during 1960s and 1970s and implemented Max. size: Length 4 m, weight 180 kg, Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: Gulf of Max. size: Length 7.6 m, weight 350 kg, subtropical and cool temperate areas, a voluntary fishing ban in 1979. Never the - longevity 45 years. Oman to Pakistan, India, and possibly Sri longevity 40–70 years. except for the eastern Pacific. 1. Overfishing: Grey nurse sharks have been less, the main current threat to grey nurse Lanka. fished throughout their range in the past. sharks in southeast Australia is probably Distribution: East, West and North Distribution: Western and eastern Atlantic; Reproduction: This large coastal species They are utilized fresh, frozen, smoked and the accidental capture of juveniles by Atlantic, western Indian Ocean and western Reproduction: Not known. Indo-West Pacific; possibly Mediterranean has one of the lowest reproductive rates dried for human consumption, and also for recreational line fishers, and current figures and eastern Pacific. and eastern Pacific. known among sharks, giving birth to one or fishmeal, liver oil, fins, and hides for indicate no subsequent recovery. Until Threats: Fishing for meat. two large young every two years. Males leather. Its flesh is highly appreciated in 1980s, was perceived as “man-eater” owing Reproduction: Among the slowest-growing, Reproduction: Slow growing and late reach sexual maturity at around 10 years of Japan. No directed fishery since 1984, but to fierce appearance; many killed by spear- latest-maturing of known sharks, bearing Notes: An extremely rare inshore shark, maturing: large females produce between age, females at around 15 years. bycatch in other fisheries has caused fishers and scuba divers and also caught small litters after a long gestation, and one known only from around 20 specimens in 15 and 20 young per year; the young are concern, although full impact is unknown. live to sell to aquaria. Today, with of the most vulnerable of vertebrates to museum collections. Subject to expanding born at 70–80 cm. Size at maturity is Threats: Populations in several areas have In Australia accidentally caught on baited protection and increased public awareness, depletion by man because of its very low widespread and unregulated fishing, last estimated as 3.2 m. been severely depleted by commercial lines targeting wobbegong sharks there are very few reports of kills by intrinsic rate of increase. Mature at the age recorded from market surveys in 1979. fishing, protective beach-meshing and (Orectolobus spp).128 divers.128 of 20 years (2.8 m in length), have Subsequent market surveys in 1982, Threats: The principal threat to all spear fishing. Recovery is hindered by gestation period of 16 months, produce 1996/97 and 1999/2000 in India, Malaysia sawfishes is fishing, both targeted and intrinsically low reproductive rate. 2. Beach meshing: The Australian States of eight young per litter. and Philippines failed to find any specimens. bycatch, because their long tooth-studded Australian populations, which amount to New South Wales and Queensland have saw makes them extraordinarily vulnerable no more than 500 individuals, are also introduced beach meshing to protect Threats: Overfished in western Atlantic. COMMON SKATE to entanglement in any sort of net gear, extremely isolated and as a result have very bathers from potentially dangerous sharks. Below: Fewer than 500 grey nurse Taken on commercial longline as a bycatch and habitat destruction. Eradicated from low genetic diversity. This makes them These nets are thought to be one of the sharks are estimated to remain in Dipturus batis in swordfish/tuna fishery. the majority of its former range in the US. susceptible to disease and less able to cope major threats to grey nurse shark Australian waters.

Protection: Protected in US Atlantic after Notes: Targeted for food, liver oil and serious declines. sport; saws are sold as tourist souvenirs and adult fish stuffed for display. Sawfish Notes: Found in coastal and offshore have been wholly or nearly extirpated from waters but not oceanic. Adults are large areas of their former range in the commonly found at depths of 200–400 m, North Atlantic and the Southwest Atlantic young in shallower waters. Feeds on coast by fishing and habitat modification. bottom and pelagic bony fish, sharks, Remaining populations are now small and skates, rays, cephalopods, gastropods, IUCN Classification: Critically Endangered. fragmented. It is apparently extinct in the crustaceans, sometimes human refuse. It is Mediterranean and likely also in the utilized fresh, dried-salted, frozen and Max. size: Length 2.8 m, weight 97 kg, Northeast Atlantic. smoked for human consumption; hides for longevity 50 years. leather; fins for shark fin soup; and liver oil extracted for vitamins. A 2004 study found Distribution: Eastern Atlantic: Norway, that the dusky shark population of the Gulf Iceland, the Faroes to Senegal, including of Mexico declined by 79% between the western Mediterranean and western Baltic. 1950s and the late 1990s.80 Similar declines are expected to have occurred worldwide. Reproduction: Attain sexual maturity at 1.2 m and around 10 years of age. Common skate are egg-layers and females produce about 40 eggs annually.

Threats: Overfishing: caught by bottom trawlers and traditionally landed due to its large size, D. batis is taken in targeted fisheries where/when abundant, and as a bycatch elsewhere within its range. Its slow growth and reproductive rate makes it very vulnerable to over-exploitation.

Notes: Once abundant in Northwest Europe, now extirpated from much of former range. Populations around UK extremely depleted. © J. D. WATT/INNERSPACE VISIONS

32 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 33 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 34

GREAT WHITE SHARK with relatively low natural mortality. SPINY DOGFISH Females do not reproduce until in excess of Carcharadon carcharias 4.5m. Owing to low reproductive potential, Squalus acanthias recover slowly from overexploitation. IUCN Classification: Vulnerable. Also known as piked dogfish and spurdog. 1. Trophy fishing and trade in jaws and © T. CAMPBELL / INNERSPACE VISIONS Max. size: Length 6 m, weight 3,400 kg; fins: Due to its reputation as a dangerous IUCN Classification: Vulnerable; Northeast longevity around 30 years. fish, largely blamed on the 1975 film Jaws, Atlantic subpopulation Critically it is popular as a game fish among Endangered; Mediterranean, Northwest Distribution: Worldwide, along continental enthusiasts and has been targeted for its Atlantic and Northwest Pacific margins of all temperate seas and entering teeth and jawbones since the 1920’s. In subpopulations Endangered; Black Sea, tropics. South Africa offers of up to Northeast Pacific and South America US$20,000–50,000 have been made for subpopulations Vulnerable. Reproduction: Males mature at about great white jaws and US$600–800 for 3.5 m (8–9 years) and females 4.5 m individual teeth. A fin set from a large Max. size: Length 1.5 m, weight 9 kg, (12–15 years). Females give birth to a litter individual may be valued at over US$1,000. longevity 70–100 years. of 2–10 pups every 2–3 years. The high value of great white shark products encourages poaching, clandestine Distribution: Spiny dogfish are found in Threats: Sport fishing, bycatch, trade in trade and flouting of protective laws. temperate and sub-arctic waters; principle jaws and fins. However, many dive operators are catching populations are in the North Atlantic, the on to the idea that great white shark cage eastern South Pacific, the South Atlantic off Protection: From the perspective of diving can be extremely lucrative and this South America, the Cape coast of South domestic management, is the most widely type of ecotourism is continuing to expand Africa, the southern coasts of Australia and protected shark in the world, with capture and develop around this species. New Zealand and the North Pacific. Little and trade in this species prohibited in mixing occurs between populations. South Africa, Namibia, Maldives, Malta, 2. Bycatch: The majority of great whites are the USA, and Australia (except beach caught accidentally in commercial fisheries Reproduction: Females reach sexual meshing). Listed on CITES Appendix II operating longlines, gillnets, trawls etc. maturity at 12 years, males at six. A number of fisheries for the second since 2004, it was also listed on both They rarely survive if returned to the ocean Pregnancy of up to two years – thought to largest fish in the world, the basking Appendices I and II of the Convention on and are often killed by fishermen. A recent be the longest of any vertebrate. Litter sizes shark, have collapsed. Migratory Species in 2002. study of shark populations caught as average between 6–7 pups, but may be up bycatch in the Northwest Atlantic longline to as many as 20 pups per litter. Notes: Most famous (and feared) of all fishery (targeting swordfish and tuna) sharks, gained global notoriety from found that great white sharks have declined Threats: Overfishing. BASKING SHARK 1. Overfishing: Basking sharks have been land (probably bycatch). The Norwegian blockbuster movie and book Jaws. Perceived by 79% the Northwest Atlantic in the past hunted for several centuries to supply liver fishery dates from 16th century but expan - as unstoppable “killing machine” but in 15 years.124 Similar declines in other areas Protection: None. Cetorhinus maximus oil for lighting and industry, skin for d ed in 1960s owing to increased demand reality, this supreme predator is highly are likely. leather, and flesh for food and fishmeal. for liver oil. Norwegian catches peaked in vulnerable. Naturally scarce, it is long-lived Notes: Possibly the most abundant shark IUCN Classification: Vulnerable; Modern fisheries yield liver oil, meat, 1970 and 1975 at around 18,000 mt but worldwide, supporting fishing industry of Endangered in Northeast Atlantic and cartilage and fins, which due to their large have since declined to only 181 mt in 2004. global importance, but highly vulnerable to North Pacific. size attain extremely high prices in inter - According to ICES, this fishery has now overfishing due to exceptionally slow national trade to East Asia. In the past, ceased. growth and reproduction. Spiny dogfish are Max. size: Length 12 m, weight 4,000 kg, basking sharks have been fished using nets highly migratory, traveling in large, dense longevity 50 years. or harpoons in Norway, Ireland, Scotland, 2. Bycatch: Basking sharks are sometimes “packs”, segregated by age and sex. Mature Spain, Iceland, Canada, Japan, China, landed and sold after becoming entangled females are targeted by fishermen due to

Distribution: Found throughout the world’s California, Peru, and Ecuador. in gillnets or pot lines or caught in trawls, © KELVIN AITKEN / STILL PICTURES their size, with devastating effects on sub-arctic and temperate waters: the Most basking shark fisheries appear to but bycatch is rarely reported. Where breeding population. western and eastern Atlantic, western have collapsed after initial high yields and reports do exist, bycatches in coastal areas Indian Ocean and western and eastern this species is considered to be extremely are relatively high: for example, up to 120 1. Overfishing: The principle threat to spiny Pacific. vulnerable to overfishing. For example, basking sharks are taken each year in the dogfish worldwide is overfishing from direct between 1947 and 1975, basking sharks bottom gillnet fishery of the Celtic Sea. and indirect commercial fisheries. Spiny Reproduction: Males and females attain were netted and harpooned dogfish meat is eaten in Europe, Australia, sexual maturity between the ages of 12–16 off the west coast of Ireland New Zealand, South America and Japan, and 16–20 years, respectively. Six pups are with peak annual catches Basking shark total catches 1950–96 but they are often regarded as “trash fish” produced per litter with a 2–4 year interval reaching over 1,000 animals. and discarded. between litters. By the 1970s catches had Most large-scale spiny dogfish fisheries, declined by over 90% due to though initially yielding high catches, have Threats: Targeted for liver oil, fins, skin and over fishing. Similar stock depleted populations and collapsed. In the meat. crashes have occurred in Northeast Atlantic, where catch effort is fisheries in California, Canada SOURCE: FAO FISHSTAT effectively unlimited, stocks have declined Protection: Strictly protected in British and and Japan. by 95%. Mediterranean and Black Sea US Atlantic waters; listed on Appendix II of In recent years, the FAO stocks are also unmanaged, with a decline the Bonn Convention; listed on Appendix II only received reports of of more than 60% reported in a Black Sea of CITES. catches in the Northeast stock assessment for 1981–1992. Mature Atlantic from Norway and females have declined by 75% in just 10 Notes: Second largest fish after whale occasional catches from The great white shark is targeted as years in the Northwest Atlantic, where US shark; plankton feeder. Portugal, Spain and New Zea - a trophy and for its jaws and fins. federal efforts to manage the stock are hampered by high bycatch, continued

34 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 35 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 36

and unsuitable for soup but are highly WHALE SHARK valued as restaurant signboards in east Rhincodon typus Asia, whilst the soft meat (known as “tofu shark”) is in great demand in Taiwan and IUCN Classification: Vulnerable. may fetch prices up to US$17 per kg.69 A 10-ton shark recently sold for US$21,400 Max. size: Length 14–20 m, weight 34 on the Taiwanese market.57 metric tons, longevity 60–100 years. Today, whale sharks continue to be targeted in Pakistan, where recent landings Distribution: All tropical and warm are unknown, and Taiwan. Taiwanese temperate seas, oceans and coastal areas catches appear to have declined since the around the globe. 1980s, with annual landings from one particular site decreasing from 50–60 Reproduction: Litter size may be up to 300. sharks per year in the mid-1980s, to 10 or Gestation period is unknown, but average less in the 1990s. In 1995, landings reproductive age is 35–63 years. throughout Taiwan were approximately 250–272, but between 2001 and March Threats: Targeted for meat and fins. 2002 it was reported that 113 whale sharks were taken. The domestic catch has Protection: Listed on Appendix II of the apparently decreased by 60–70% since © KELVIN AITKEN / STILL PICTURES Convention on Migratory Species in 1999 surveys ten years ago. exploitation in Canadian Atlantic waters, and Appendix II of CITES in 2003. It has There are now serious concerns that and regular defiance of scientific advice by been legally protected in the Philippines whale shark populations are decreasing in US Atlantic States. since 1988 and in India the whale shark many regions as a result of unregulated European demand continues to fuel became the first fish to be protected under fisheries, and despite being protected in markets around the world. Fisheries and the Wildlife Protection Act. It is also illegal several countries, it is suspected that illegal population trend data indicate that the to fish for whale sharks in Australia, hunting of whale sharks still continues with southern part of the Northeast Pacific Honduras, the Maldives and the USA. impunity. The species’ low reproductive stock has also declined through overfishing, rate, highly migratory nature, and low but stocks appear stable off Alaska. The Notes: The world’s largest fish is well abundance make it particularly vulnerable only data identified from the Northwest known for being a gentle giant; like the to exploitation. Scientists recently found Hong Kong is the center of Pacific are from Japan, where landings of basking shark, whale sharks filter-feed on a that the average size of whale sharks the world’s shark fin trade. spurdog declined around 80% in variety of planktonic organisms. spotted off the Australian coast has shrunk 1952–1965, and inshore spurdog catches Ecotourism industries based on viewing in the past decade from 7 m to 5 m – an declined 80–90% from the mid-1970s to whale sharks are now developing in several extremely worrying sign considering whale metric tons between 1998 and 2002.67 In SOURCES OF FINS late 1990s. Unregulated and expanding locations. These generate at least US$47.5 sharks do not reach sexual maturity until target and bycatch fisheries take spiny million worldwide annually – significantly they are 6–7 m in length. The researchers Hong Kong – 2004, imports reported to the FAO dogfish in South America (Europe reports more than it is worth as meat and other suspect that the decline in size is a amounted to 11,000 mt, although this Sharks are finned in all the oceans of the imports from this region), where products.57 symptom of overfishing and due to the The Global Hub figure includes both processed and world to feed the markets of East Asia. In population declines are reported. New capture of the largest sharks.130 unprocessed fins.90 2004, Hong Kong imported unprocessed Zealand manages the species, which is 1. Overfishing: Small harpoon and Hong Kong, as the gateway to China and Shark fins (in unprocessed form) shark fins from 80 countries131. This is a taken in target and bycatch fisheries, entanglement fisheries for whale sharks with its international trading status, has arrive in Hong Kong by sea from all slight decrease from the 85 and 86 through its Quota Management System. have taken place in India (banned in 2001), been the center of the global shark fin around the world, and are then shipped countries exporting shark fins to Hong There is only limited fishing pressure in Pakistan, Taiwan, the Philippines (banned trade for many years, with a large across the border to processing factories Kong in 1999 and 2000, respectively, and Australia and South Africa, with most in 1998), and the Maldives (prior to proportion of the remaining trade in Guangdong Province (Mainland a major reduction from the 125 catches discarded. protection in 1995). These took whale transiting Singapore and, increasingly, China). Once processing is complete, countries recorded in 1995.69 sharks primarily for their meat, liver oil Mainland China. Just as it had been for some of the fins are re-imported to Hong Topping the list of countries and/or fins. The huge fins are low quality the global ivory trade (both legal and Kong for consumption or re-export, for importing shark fin into Hong Kong in illegal) prior to 1989, Hong Kong acts as example to overseas Chinese com mu ni - 2004 were China, Taiwan, Spain, an entrepôt, with some fins consumed ties69. The remainder of the processed Singapore and Indonesia. These domestically but a great deal re-exported prod uct is sold within Main land China, exporters represent a mixture of to other parts of the Chinese-speaking primarily for domestic consumption.69 producers (for example, Taiwan, Spain world. With the continued liberalization of and Indonesia) and countries trading A recent analysis of national customs the Mainland market, it is believed that fins for processing and consumption statistics for the major trading centers shark fins are increasingly bypassing (China and Singapore).131 for shark fin – Hong Kong, Mainland Hong Kong and instead traveling directly Changes since 1998-2000 include China, Singapore, Taiwan and Japan – to the Chinese mainland69. However, expanding production in Brazil and showed that 50% of the global trade declared imports to Hong Kong show no Costa Rica, and a reduction in exports passes through Hong Kong. Between sign of declining – in fact they continue from India, Yemen and the USA, which Top: The spiny dogfish is sold as “rock 1991 and 2000, the trade in fins through to grow – and the mainland pro por tion dropped outside the top ten exporters to salmon” in fish and chip shops. With a Hong Kong, which is likely to be of reported fin imports is not increas - Hong Kong in 2002131, possibly as a result gestation period longer than an indicative of the volume of the global ing69. Nevertheless, other signs provide of the Shark Finning Prohibition Act.69 elephant, it is vulnerable to overfishing. trade, grew at an annual rate of six evidence of the expected trend: trade in Right: The meat and fins of whale percent, most likely due to increases in shark fins between key Southeast Asian 69 sharks are highly valued in many Asian disposable income in Mainland China. trading centers (e.g. Singapore, Malaysia markets. A 10-ton shark recently sold Declared imports of unprocessed fins and Thailand) and Mainland China has 69 for over US$21,000 in Taiwan. © JURGEN FREUND www.scubayogi.de to Hong Kong rose from 6,900 to 9,800 noticeably expanded in recent years.

36 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 37 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 38

SHARK CONSUMPTION SURVEY Examination of declared imports of potential consumers of shark fin soup in shark meat into Mainland China reveals a Mainland China exceeds the populations China Between October 2005 and January 2006, massive increase since 1998 – from around of all the other markets in the world WildAid and the China Wildlife Until twenty years ago, China was a rela- 300 mt to over 5,000 mt – which would combined. Given the con tin u ing econo- Conservation Association (CWCA) tively small player in the inter national suggest either an increasing trend of mic development and rising standards of conducted a survey of restaurants, trade in shark fins. But in the late 1980s, declaring shark fins as shark meat, or an living, it is expected that demand for grocery stores and wholesale markets in the Chinese authorities relaxed the long- expanding market for frozen shark meat shark fin will continue to grow over 16 major Chinese cities, including held official attitude to shark fin soup as (or both).90 Interestingly, Mainland China’s time,7 with potentially devastating conse- Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou, to an unacceptable sym bol of wealth and biggest reported sup pliers of shark meat quences for shark populations worldwide. study the amount, price and attitudes privilege, thereby open ing the door to a are also the coun try’s biggest suppliers of towards shark fin on sale. vast new market. Rapid economic deve- fin, namely Singapore, Japan and Spain.69 “Hong Kong’s hold on the shark fin lopment, especially in southern China The vast majority (90%) of shark fins The study also included a ques tion - and the cities of Beijing and Shanghai, imported by Mainland China are des - market is weakening as the trade in naire to gauge consumer attitudes led to huge increases in disposable tined for processing plants in Guang - China expands, but Hong Kong is still towards shark fin soup and awareness of income and the creation of a new middle dong Province.69 China does not report a major center, with at least 50 shark ecology. A brief summary follows: class. New found wealth could be demon- production figures to the FAO, but strated to friends and business associates exports have been around 2,000 mt per wholesale or retail shops selling shark Of the 472 restaurants surveyed, 124 by serving shark fin soup. year since 1996; in 2004 China’s exports fins, and approximately 20-30 (26%) sold shark fin dishes. These were The precise level of shark fin consump - amounted to 2,476 mt, making it the medium-to-large importing traders.” 131 mid to high-end range restaurants. tion in China is almost impossible to biggest exporter of shark fin worldwide quantify. China does not report the volu- with a 40% share of the reported total.90 Of the 144 grocery stores surveyed, 20 me or species compo si tion of its shark Regardless of any ambiguities sur- “Worldwide, based on an average (14%) sold shark fin, indicating that catches, and for reasons that remain rounding China’s exact share of the glo- shark fin is now more accessible than unclear, Chinese import statistics do not bal fin trade, it is unquestionable that unit price and estimates of volume ever to the average consumer. appear to reflect the true quantity of Mainland China has become the world’s from customs data, the [shark fin] shark fins in trade.69 Declared imports of largest consumer of shark fin. With a trade is probably worth US$400-550 Only three of the 101 wholesale shark fin into Mainland China rose from middle-class estimated to number in markets surveyed sold shark fin. 131 around 3,000 mt in 1992 to 4,400 mt in excess of 100 million, the number of million.” 1996, but have fluctuated at around 4,000 80% of interviewees did not know metric tons ever since, showing no real what shark fin (known as “fish wing” growth.90 Imports in 2004 peaked at in Chinese) is made from. Although 4,776 mt, representing 36% of global the average man on the street is not imports and second only to Hong Kong.90 the main consumer of shark fin, this Chinese import figures are thought to trend may be shifting as restaurants be inaccurate for a number of reasons. A provide “economy” shark fin dishes to large proportion of China’s shark fin appeal to more customers. Some imports are under-reported or smuggled grocery stores have also started selling into the country to avoid high taxes levied shark fin. on imports. Furthermore, since 2000, Chinese customs codes have required that 35% of those interviewed had © MARK HENLEY / PANOS imports of fresh, chilled and frozen shark consumed shark fin. 41–60-year-old Above: Shopping crowds on Nanjing Lu, Shanghai. As China’s economy continues to fins be recorded under the broad category men were the main consumers and, as grow, shark populations will be increasingly threatened unless consumer habits change. of “shark meat”.69 Together, these factors expected, consumption was most render compilation of accurate figures on prevalent among those with a higher China’s share of the global shark fin trade income and standard of education. virtually impossible.69 CHINA’S GDP PER CAPITA VS. GLOBAL SHARK FIN IMPORTS 1976-2004 31% of shark fin consumers chose to eat shark fin for its nutritional value and 49% said potential health risks would stop them eating it.

Other reasons for eating shark fin soup were curiosity (27%), taste (23%)

and social status (19%). metric tons

Deep-sea fish were commonly believed to be subject to less pollution and thus more nutritious. Shark fin is also believed to balance yin and yang. © WILDAID

Above & Right: China is the world’s biggest consumer of shark fin. SOURCE: FAO FISHSTAT © WILDAID

THE END OF THE LINE? 39 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 40

Common views expressed by consumers during the survey: Conclusions & Recommendations PERCEPTION RESPONSE FACT:

Shark fin soup is a status symbol “I order shark fin in entertaining very Many shark species are being hunted to extinction for the WildAid & Oceana concludes WildAid & Oceana recommends and serving it shows respect to important clients.” luxury of a bowl of soup. Finning wastes up to 99% of the Measures to conserve sharks to date have focused entirely on To assist in shark management, demand reduction programs are one’s guests. shark and this wastage is jeopardizing food security and managing the supply. As long as the high prices and high needed now in key consumer countries. China, as the world’s biggest livelihoods around the world. Declining shark populations levels of demand for shark products, fins in particular, are not market for shark fin, is best placed to influence this situation. In could also have catastrophic effects for marine ecosystems addressed, such measures are likely to have limited success. addition, there should be a major international effort to raise and mean lower catches of other fish in the future. Fierce WildAid found there is little or no awareness of the threats to awareness of the threats to sharks and to discourage the ongoing competition for shark fins among criminal gangs has led to sharks among consumers or of the waste involved in finning expansion of consumption of shark products. Alternatives to shark widespread corruption, gangland wars and contract or the extent of illegal fishing for sharks. fin soup should be actively promoted. killings.

Shark fin soup is highly nutritious. “Deep sea fishes are safer because they Sharks, like other long-lived predatory fish, accumulate are less affected by environmental high levels of mercury in their tissues, and tests have shown pollution.” shark fins to contain mercury at concentrations harmful to humans. Mercury is highly toxic and causes damage FAO recommends WildAid & Oceana concludes WildAid & Oceana recommends “It must be nutritious, as it is low fat and primarily to the brain and spinal chord, especially in is expensive.” developing foetuses. It can also cause male infertility. Control access of There is an urgent need to assist some Marine Reserves must be protected as a matter of urgency with fishing vessels to developing countries in preventing international financing if necessary. If properly patrolled, they are Shark fin soup is indisputably high in protein and low in shark stocks. illegal fishing within their coastal among the few areas where sharks are assured of protection. fat; however, nutritional analysis shows that in comparison waters, as few have the resources to Establishing which areas need closing during particular seasons and with other common – and far cheaper – foodstuffs, it is monitor and control the waters under identifying and protecting shark pupping and nursery grounds should nothing special. For example, a bowl of chicken soup their jurisdiction which can extend also be priorities. It will also be necessary to police such restrictions. contains more fat and less iron than an equivalent serving 200-miles out to sea. Developed fishing nations should support these efforts financially. of shark fin soup, but more calcium, carbohydrate, protein and energy . Decrease fishing Many fisheries managers lack basic Basic research is urgently to be carried out on catch levels, effort and Shark fin has many medicinal “Helps fight cancer.” It is widely believed that sharks don’t get cancer and eating effort for any information to establish whether or composition. In the interim, a highly precautionary approach must properties. shark fin soup or crude extracts of shark cartilage can shark fishery not a fishery is sustainable. Evidence be taken to quota-setting, area closure, bycatch reduction, species “Shark fin soup has anti-aging prevent and even cure cancer. Recent research has shown where catch is often clearly indicates sharks are protection, and other management measures. Sharks will face properties.” that sharks do get cancer (including in their cartilage) and unsustainable. being overfished. The “boom and increasing environmental pressures from pollution, global warming, eating shark cartilage or fin has absolutely no effects bust” history of directed shark ozone depletion, etc. Allowances should be made for these factors “Good for skin and boosts energy levels.” among cancer sufferers. fisheries and the fact that sharks’ life when using a precautionary approach to shark management. history makes them extremely Sharks are vicious killers – they “If you don’t kill others, others will kill Of the 490 species of sharks, fewer than 30 (just 6%) are vulnerable to overexploitation means would eat us if given the chance. you. It’s a natural law.” known to attack humans. So far this century, an average of that sustainability should be assumed 5.5 people have been killed by sharks each year; in the exception, not the rule. “Sharks are ferocious animals that attack comparison, more than 100 million sharks are killed by humans.” humans every year – tens of millions for their fins alone. Improve the Finning not only wastes 95–99% of The UN should enact an immediate ban on shark finning in utilization of the shark, but also makes accurate international waters. Some shark species migrate many thousands of sharks caught. monitoring of shark catches miles. Only an international ban would make sense for these species. impossible. The burgeoning demand Some nations already prohibit finning nationally; while similar bans for shark fin over the past 20 years is do not exist in other countries’ waters and on the high seas, their very likely to continue. If it does, the attempts to conserve sharks are compromised. practice of taking sharks for their fins Governments should enact immediate bans on finning in national will become even more widespread. waters. Enforcement could be made appropriate to the needs and As human populations grow, this resources of developing countries. Specific ports could be designated constitutes a truly shameful waste of for shark landings, and on-board and beach-side observers could the world’s resources. also be used.

Improve data Few countries record accurate catch Data collection must be vastly improved in almost all countries. collection and data by species, which is the first step Catch and landings data should be species-specific. On-board monitoring of toward ensuring sustainable fisheries. observers could be used more extensively in monitoring catch effort, shark fisheries. volumes and composition. More than a third of people interviewed by WildAid had eaten shark fin soup © WILDAID

40 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 41 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 42

Annex: Additional data

FAO recommends WildAid & Oceana concludes WildAid & Oceana recommends

WORLD IMPORTS OF WORLD EXPORTS OF WORLDWIDE PRODUCTION OF SHARK FIN 1976-2004 SHARK FIN 1976-2004 Train all concerned Many fishing communities have their All fisheries should, at the very least, use species identification cards. SHARK FIN 1976-2004 in identification of own local names for shark species. Simple, inexpensive, waterproof cards showing the main species in shark species. There is no provision for these to be the area with local names have been produced by Taiwan, for translated into commonly recognized example. names. metric tons metric tons metric tons

Facilitate and Top shark specialists are concerned by Research at all levels is an urgent priority, and not only for little encourage the paucity of data on individual known species. Governments of major shark-fishing nations should research on little species, particularly those known to put far more resources into research on species and stock known shark be heavily fished. abundance, shark biology, reproductive behavior, migration patterns species. and responses to fishing pressure. Further research should also be done on predator-prey relationships and potential ecosystem changes following shark declines.

Obtain utilization Numerous factors hamper this Trade and utilization data should be species-specific and should be LEADING SHARK FIN LEADING SHARK FIN LEADING SHARK FIN and trade data on process: poor reporting, the cash submitted to the FAO and to CITES in a timely manner. The IMPORTERS 2004 EXPORTERS 2004 PRODUCERS 2004 shark species. basis of many transactions, complex Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources export and re-export arrangements (CCAMLR) has designed a plan to track toothfish shipments in and aggregation of data. These data international trade. The system is based on certificates of origin and are not compiled on a national (let could equally be applied to the international fin trade. The FAO should alone an international) basis. be more pro-active in its data-gathering. Many nations keep detailed import and export data, in some cases making it available to the public.

Ban or restrict Unnecessary shark bycatch is caused Highly damaging fishing methods must be limited or prohibited if certain destructive by inappropriate fishing gear and/or the goals of fisheries managers are to ensure sustainable fisheries fishing practices, destructive deployment of fishing and maintain employment in the fishing industry. There should be e.g. limit length of gear. considerable reduction of shark bycatch through the use of longlines, etc. appropriate and selective fishing gear and fishing techniques.

States that Many developing nations currently Wealthier nations, particularly those that have benefited contribute to lack the resources to manage their considerably from trade in shark products, should support these China’s shark fin and Finned whitetip reef shark fishing mortality shark fisheries sustainably. countries’ research and management efforts financially. For example, on a species or a Hong Kong has undoubtedly profited more than any other city or meat imports figures in metric tons stock should nation from the shark fin trade and yet has put few, or no, resources participate in its into sustainable management of sharks. It is in the long-term interest Shark fin Shark meat management. of consumers that sharks are managed sustainably. 1992 3,023 172 1993 3,080 541 1994 3,375 547 1995 Not reported 772 1996 4,363 485 1997 4,389 577 1998 4,236 313 1999 4,062 1,215 2000 4,646 3,953 2001 3,129 2,801 2002 3,555 5,198 2003 3,818 4,713 2004 4,776 5,135 © M.STRICKLAND / INNERSPACEVISIONS

42 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 43 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:26 PM Page 44

24. Boncompagni, T. (2003) Details: For Fashionistas a 46. Applegate, S.P., F. Soltelo-Macias and L. Espinosa- 70. National Marine Fisheries Service (2001) United 92. Clarke, S.C., Magnussen, J.E., Abercrombie, D.L., 114. Manire, C.A., Gelsleichter, J., Rasmussen, L.E.L. & new skin game. Wall Street Journal, 1 August 2003. Arrubarrena (1993) An Overview of Mexican Shark States National Plan of Action for the Conservation McAllister, M.K. & Shivji, M.S. (2006) Identification Cortes, E. (2001) “Infertility in Bonnethead shark, Fisheries with Suggestions for Shark Conservation in and Management of Sharks. of Shark Species Composition and Proposition and Sphyrna tibura, in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico may be References 25. Ferreira, A.G, Faria, V.V., de Carvalho, C.E.V., Lessa, Mexico. US Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv. NOAA Tech.Rep. Proportion in the Hong Kong Shark Fin Market caused by endocrine disrupting chemicals in the R.P.T. & da Silva, F.M.S. (2004) Total mercury in the NMFS 115: 31–37. 71. ICES (2006) Sharks in trouble? Based on Molecular Genetics and Trade Records. environment”. American Elasmobranch Society night shark, Carcharhinus signatus in the Western http://www.ices.dk Conservation Biology Volume 20, No. 1, 201-211 Meeting 2001. Equatorial Atlantic Ocean. Brazilian Archives of Biol. 47. Rose, D. (1998) Shark Fisheries and Trade in the and Tech. 47(4): 629-634. Americas. Vol.1. TRAFFIC North America. 72. IUCN (2006). 2006 Red List of Threatened Species 93. Shivji, M.S., Chapman, D.D., Pikitch, E.K. & 115. Carsolini, S., Focardi, S., Kannan, K., Tanabe, S., 1. Taylor, L. ed. (1999) Sharks, Weldon Owen. www.redlist.org Raymond, P.W. (2005) Genetic profiling reveals illegal Borrell, A. & Tatsukawa, R. (1995) Congener Profile 26. Järup, L. (2003) Hazards of heavy metal 48. Last, P.R. & Stevens, J.D. (1994) Shark and rays of 2. Compagno, L.J.V. (2000) “Sharks, fisheries and trade in fins of the great white shark, Carcharodon and Toxicity Assessment of Polychlorinated Biphenyls contamination. British Medical Bulletin 68(1): 167- Australia. CSIRO Australia. Melbourne, Australia. 73. Castro, J.I, Woodley, C.M. Brudek, R.R. 1999. A biodiversity”, Sharks 2000 Conference. Hawaii. 21-24 carcharias. Conservation Genetics 6: 1035-1039 in dolphins, Sharks and Tuna collected from Italian 182. preliminary evaluation of the status of shark species. February. Coastal Waters. Marine Environmental Research Vol. 49. Ward, P. & Myers, R.A. (2005) Shifts in open-ocean FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 380, Food and 94. New Scientist, 2 July 2005. Shark fin soup dropped 40 (1): 33-53. 27. Knobeloch, L., Steenport, D., Schrank, C., & fish communities coinciding with the commencement Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 3. Stevens, J. January 2001. Personal communication. from Disney’s menu. Anderson, H. (2006) Methylmercury exposure in of commercial fishing. Ecology 86: 835-847. Rome. 116. Stevens, J.D., Walker, T.I., Cook, S.F., Fordham, S.V. 4. Fowler, S. June 2000. Personal communication. Wisconsin: A case study series. Environmental 95. IUCN (2003) Shark Finning. Information Paper, June (2005) “Threats Faced by Chondrichthyan Fish”, in Research 101: 113-122. 50. Shepherd, T.D. & Myers, R.A. (2005) Direct and 74. Hareide, N-R. et al. (2005) A preliminary Investigation 2003. Fowler, S.L., R.D. Cavanagh, M.Camhi, G. H. Burgess, 5. Bonfil, R. et al. (2005) Transoceanic Migration, Spatial indirect fishery effects on small coastal on Shelf Edge and Deepwater Fixed Net Fisheries to G.M. Cailliet, S.V. Fordham, C.A. Simpfendorfer and Dynamics, and Population Linkages of White Sharks. 28. Grandjean P., Weihe, P., White, R.F., Debes, F., Araki, elasmobranches in the northern Gulf of Mexico. the West and North of Great Britain, Ireland, around 96. Hurghada Environmental Protection and J.A. Musick.(comp. and ed.). 2005. Sharks, Rays and Science Vol. 310 No. 5745: 100-103 S., Yokoyama, K. (1997) Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old Ecology Letters, 8: 1095-1104 Rockall and Hatton Bank. ICES CM 2005/ N:07. Conservation Association (HEPCA) (2006) Chimaeras: The Status of the Chondrichthyan Fishes. children with prenatal exposure to methylmercury. www.hepca.com Status Survey. IUCN/SSC shark Specialist group. 6. Fowler, S.L. & Cavanagh, R.D. (2005) “Species Status Neurotoxicology and Teratology.19: 417–428. 51. Bascompte, J., Melián, C.J. & Sala, E. (2005) 75. Schleussel, V. & Barker, M.J. (2005) Managing global IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Reports”, in Fowler, S.L. et al (comp. and ed.) 2005. Interaction strength combinations and the shark fisheries: suggestions for prioritising 97. WildAid The End of the Line? Shark News Update. Chapter 5, pp 48-57. Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Status of 29. Oken, E., Wright, R.O., Kleiman, K.P., Bellinger, D. overfishing of a marine food web. Proc. Natl. Acad. management strategies. Aquatic Conservation: WildAid, San Francisco, USA. Chondrichthyan Fishes. Status Survey. IUCN/SSC Amarasiriwardena, C.J. Hu, H., Rich-Edwards, J.W. & Sci. USA 102: 5443-5447. Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 15: 325-347. 117. Greenpeace (2006) The Trash Vortex, 98. Fowler, S.L. & Cavanagh, R.D. (2005) “International Shark Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland Gillman, M.W. (2005) Maternal fish consumption, http://oceans.greenpeace.org/en/our- 52. Dulvy, N.K., Freckleton, R.P., & Polunin, N.V.C. 76. Bonfil, R. (2000) The problem of incidental catches of Conservation and Management Initiatives for and Cambridge, UK. Chapter 8, pp 213-392. hair mercury, and infant cognition in a US cohort. oceans/pollution/trash-vortex Environmental Health Perspectives 113(10): 1376- (2004) Coral reef cascades and the indirect effects of sharks and rays, its likely consequences and some Chondrichthyan Fish”, in Fowler, S.L. et al. (comp. 7. Clarke, S. et al. (2005) “Socio-economic Significance 1380. predator removal by exploitation. Ecology Letters 7: possible solutions. Sharks 2000 Conference, Hawaii, and ed.) 2005. Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The 118. Sazima, I., Gadig, O.B.F., Namora, R.C. & Motta, F.S. of Chondrichthyan Fish”, in Fowler, S.L. et al (comp. 410-416. 21-24 February. Status of Chondrichthyan Fishes. Status Survey. (2002) Plastic debris collars on juvenile carcharhinid and ed.) 2005. Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The 30. Dickman, M.D. & Leung, K.M.C. (1998) Mercury and IUCN/SSC Shark Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, sharks (Rhizoprionodon lalandii) in southwest 53. Gaffney, R. (2000) “Tourism and jaws”, Sharks 2000 77. Ferreira, C. (1998) to Bruce McCoubrey, Personal Status of Chondrichthyan Fishes. Status Survey. organochlorine exposure from fish consumption in Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, pp 58-69. Atlantic. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44: 1147-1149 Conference. Hawaii. 21-24 February. Communication. IUCN/SSC Shark Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Hong Kong. Chemosphere 37(5): 991-1015. 99. CITES (2004) “Conservation and Management of Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, pp 19-47. 119. Safina, C. (1998) “Recreational fishing and 31. Leung, T.Y., Choy, C.M., Yim, S.F., Lam, C.W. & 54. International Shark Attack File 78. Tudela, S., Abdelouahed, K.K. Maynou, F., El Sharks”, Thirteenth meeting of the Conference of the conservation”. Living Oceans Program, National http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/sharks/ISAF/ISAF.htm Andalossi, M. & Guglielmi, P. 2005. Driftnet fishing 8. TRAFFIC (1996) The World Trade in Sharks: A Haines, C.J. (2001) Whole blood mercury Parties, Bangkok, 2-14 October 2004. Audubon Society, USA, in Shark News 11. Newsletter and biodiversity conservation: the case study of the Compendium of TRAFFIC’s Regional Studies. concentrations in sub-fertile men in Hong Kong. of The IUCN Shark Specialist Group, July 1998. 55. International Shark Attack File (2005) Worldwide large-scale Moroccan driftnet fleet operating in the 100. United Nations General Assembly (2005) Oceans and TRAFFIC International. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 41(1): 75-77. Shark Attack Summary Alboran Sea. Biological Conservation 121: 65-78. the law of the sea – Sustainable fisheries, including 120. Pritchard, E.S. (2005) Fisheries of the United States – http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/sharks/statistics/2005 9. Kanda, Mayuri (2000) Personal communication. through the 1995 Agreement for the Implementation 2004. National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of 32. Choy, C.M.Y., Lam, C.W.K., Cheung, L.T.F., Briton- attacksummary.htm 79. Stevens, J.D., Bonfil, R., Dulvy, N.K. & Walker, P.A. of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention Science and Technology 10. Clarke, S. (2004) Understanding pressures on fishery Jones, C.M., Cheung, L.P., Haines. C.J. (2002) (2000) The effect of fishing on sharks, rays, and on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating http://www.st.nmfs.gov/st1/fus/fus04/index.html 56. Burgess, G. (2000) Personal Communication. resources through trade statistics: a pilot study of Infertility, blood mercury concentrations and dietary chimaeras (chondrichthyans), and the implications to the Conservation and Management of Straddling seafood consumption: a case-control study. for marine ecosystems. ICES Journal of Marine Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, and 121. Grandy, J.W. (2005) The Shark Killers. The Boston four products in the Chinese seafood market. Fish 57. Wildlife Conservation Society (2005) Largest Fish and Fisheries 5: 53-74 International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Science, 57: 476-494 related instruments – Report of the Secretary-General Globe, August 3, 2005. 109: 1121-1125. Requires Global Protection. http://www.placenciabreeze.com/archives/2005_Archi 11. Vannuccini, S. (1999) Shark utilization, marketing 80. Baum, J.K. & Myers, R.A. (2004) Shifting baselines 101. CITES, viewed May 2006, http://www.cites.org 122. Paxton, J. (2003) Shark meshing program in need of ve/June_05/june_05_conserva.htm and trade, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 389, Food 33. Adams, D.H. & McMichael, R.H. (1999) Mercury and the decline of pelagic sharks in the Gulf of urgent review. Nature Australia, Spring 2003. levels in four species of sharks from the Atlantic coast Mexico. Ecology Letters, 7: 135-145. 102. CMS, viewed May 2006, http://www.cms.int http://www.ids.org.au/~cnevill/marineSharkMeshNS and Agriculture Organisation of the UN, Rome, 1999. 58. Burgess, G.H. (2005) “Ecotourism”, in Fowler, S.L. et of Florida. Fishery Bulletin 97(2): 372-379 W_Paxton.htm al (comp. and ed.) 2005. Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: 12. Anon (1999) Mr X, Confidential fin trade source. 81. Kelleher, K. (2004) Discards in the world’s marine 103. Willock, A. & Lack, M. (2006) Follow the leader: The Status of Chondrichthyan Fishes. Status Survey. Personal Communication. 34. de Pinho, A.P., Guimaraes, J.R.D., Martins, A.S., fisheries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 470. Food Learning from experience and best practice in 123. EJF (2004) Farming the Sea, Costing the Earth: Why Costa, P.A.S., Olavo, G., Valentin, J. (2002) Total IUCN/SSC Shark Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, regional fisheries management organizations. WWF we must green the blue revolution Environmental 13. Anon (2000) Confidential Singapore chef, November Mercury in Muscle Tissue of Five Shark Species from Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Chapter 4, pp 32-34. Rome. International and TRAFFIC International. Justice Foundation, London, UK. 2000. Personal Communication. Brazilian Offshore Waters: Effects of Feeding Habit, Sex, and Length. Environmental Research 89(3): 250- 59. Shark Specialist Group (2002) A Statement by the 82. EJF (2005) What’s the Catch? Reducing Bycatch in 104. Alvaro, M. (2006) Soccer Star Weighs in to Save 124. Baum, J.K., Myers, R.A., Kehler, D.G., Worm, B., 14. Wu, Victor. January 2000. Personal Communication 258. IUCN Species Survival Commission’s Shark Specialist EU Distant Water Fisheries. Environmental Justice Sharks. EcoAmericas, 24 January. Harley, S.J. & Doherty, P.A. (2003) Collapse and Group (SSG), March 2002 Foundation, London, UK. Conservation of Shark Populations in the Northwest 15. Brawand, E. (2000) “Bite Into Shark’s Fin”. Taipei 35. Storelli, M.M., Ceci, E., Storelli, A., Marcotrigiano, http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/organizations/ssg/gala 105 Tye, A. (2000) Acting Director of the Charles Darwin Atlantic. Science Vol. 299: 389-392 Times Online Edition, 10 November 2000. G.O. (2003) Polychlorinated biphenyl, heavy metal plat.htm 83. WWF (2006) Shark-Saving Magnets Pull in $25,000 Foundation. In Larry Rohter. New York Times News and methylmercury residues in hammerhead sharks: Prize for American from International Smart Gear Service. In The Oregonian 28 December 2000. 125. Myers, R.A. & Worm, B. (2003) Rapid worldwide 16. WildAid, 2003. Shark Finning: Unrecorded Wastage contaminant status and assessment. Marine 60. WWF (2005) Whale shark ecotourism contributes to Competition. WWF Newsroom. depletion of predatory fish communities. Nature Vol. on a Global Scale. WildAid, San Francisco, USA. Pollution Bulletin 46: 1035-1048. Filipino economy http://www.worldwildlife.org/news/displayPR.cfm?pr 106 Cailliet, G.M. & Camhi, M. (2005) “Northeast 423: 280-283 http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/mari ID=281 Pacific”, in Fowler, S.L. et al (comp. and ed.) 2005. 17. Musick, J.A. & Bonfil, R. (2005) Management 36. Food Standards Agency (2006) www.food.gov.uk ne/news/index.cfm?uNewsID=23534 Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Status of 126. Fishbase, viewed June 2006, http://www.fishbase.org techniques for elasmobranch fisheries. FAO Fisheries 84. Le Page, M. (2005) Beware – shark repellent testing in Chondrichthyan Fishes. Status Survey. IUCN/SSC Technical Paper 474. Food and Agriculture 37. US Food and Drug Administration & US 61. Quiros, A. (2005) Whale Shark “Ecotourism” in the progress. New Scientist, 26 February 2005. Shark Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland 127. Stow, A. et al. (2006) Isolation and genetic diversity of Organisation of the UN, Rome, 2005. Environmental Protection Agency (2006) What You Philippines and Belize: Evaluating Conservation and and Cambridge, UK. Chapter 7, pp 172-186. endangered grey nurse shark (Carcharias taurus) Need to Know about Mercury in Fish and Shellfish, Community Benefits. Tropical Resources Bulletin, 85. Amorim, A.F., Arfelli, C.A., & Fagundes, L. (1998) populations. Biology Letters. 1:1, -1 18. Clarke, S. (2007) Personal Communication. http://www.epa.gov/ost/fishadvice/advice.html Volume 24, Spring 2005. Yale Tropical Resources Pelagic elasmobranchs caught by longliners off 107. Ambiente Ecologico (2003) Modern-Day Pirates Institute. southern Brazil during 1974–97; an overview. Marine Plunder Saltwater Booty near Costa Rica’s Fabled 128. The Marine Group, Environment Australia (2000) 19. Ostrander, G.K., Cheng, K.C., Wolf, J.C., Wolfe, M.J. 38. Menasveta, P., Inkong, S. & Charoensri, P. (2002) & Freshwater Research 49:621-32 Cocos Island, http://www.ambiente- Draft Recovery Plan for Grey Nurse Sharks in (2004) Shark cartilage, cancer and the growing threa Mercury Contents in Dried Shark Fins in Bangkok 62. Gruber, S. H. (2000) “Life style of sharks”, Sharks ecologico.com/ediciones/2003/086_01.2003/086_Pub Australia. of pseudoscience. Cancer Research 64: 8485-8491. Markets. Journal of the Royal Institute of Thailand 2000 Conference. Hawaii, 21-24 February. 86. Dunn, R. (1999) Transcript of the testimony of licaciones_AmbienTema-in.php3 Russell Dunn, Asst. Director, Ocean Wildlife 129. Australian Goverment, Department of the 20. WildAid & China Wildlife Conservation Association 39. Maxwell Sr., Kauluwehi, C. (2000) “The cultural 63. Compagno, L.J.V. (1990) “Shark exploitation and Campaign, before the House of Representatives 108. UNEP-WCMC. Coiba National Park, World Heritage Environment and Heritage (2005) Death or injury to (2006) Wildlife Consumption Survey & Public aspects of sharks”, Sharks 2000 Conference, Hawaii, conservation”, in US National Marine Fisheries Subcommittee on Fisheries Conservation, Wildlife Sites, viewed May 2006. http://www.unep- marine species following capture in beach meshing Attitude to Wildlife Consumption, Report in China. 21-24 February. Service, NOAA Technical Report, NMFS 90, pp 391- and Oceans. 21 October 1999. wcmc.org/index.html?http://sea.unep- (nets) and drum lines used in Shark Control WildAid Internal Report. February 2006. 414. wcmc.org/sites/wh/coiba.html~main Programs 40. Âme, Senegalese fisher, Ngor, Senegal, October 2000. 87. SEAFDEC (2006) Shark Production, utilization and http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/nomi 21. Gingras D., Boivin, D., Deckers, C., Gendron, S., Personal communication. 64. Priede, I.G. et al. (2006) The Absence of Sharks from management in the ASEAN region (2003-2004), 109. Government of Western Australia (2005) Illegal shark- nations/shark-control-programs.html Barthomeuf, C., Beliveau, R. (2003) Neovastat - a Abyssal Regions of the World’s Oceans. Proceedings Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, fin boats coming too close for comfort. Media novel antiangiogenic drug for cancer therapy. Anti- 41. WildAid (1999) Shark Fisheries in the UAE and India. of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, Volume Bangkok, Thailand. Statement, 28 September 2005, 130. Black, R. (2006) World’s biggest fish shrinking. BBC Cancer Drugs 14(2): 91-96. WildAid Internal Report. April 1999. 273, Number 1592 / June 07, 2006. Pages 1435 - 1441. http://www.mediastatements.wa.gov.au News Website, Tuesday 17 Janaury 2006. 88. WildAid (2005) At Rock Bottom: the declining sharks 22. Æterna Laboratories. 2003. Æterna Laboratories 42. Comagno et al. (2005) “Subequatorial Africa” in 65. FAO (2006) Capture production 1950-2004 of the Eastern tropical Pacific. WildAid, San 110. McCloughlin, R. (2007) Australian Fisheries 131. Clarke, S. (2006) The World Shark Fin Trade & reports Phase III trial results in renal cell carcinoma Fowler, S.L. et al (comp. and ed.) 2005. Sharks, Rays Francisco, USA. Management Authority, Personal Communication. China’s Role. Presentation for the International Shark with Neovastat. Æterna Laboratories News Release, and Chimaeras: The Status of Chondrichthyan 66. Bonfil, R. (1994) Overview of World Elasmobranch Conservation Meeting, Beijing, 7th November 20 24 September 2003. Fishes. Status Survey. IUCN/SSC Shark Specialist Fisheries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 341. FAO of 89. IUCN Shark Specialist Group (2003) IUCN Shark 111. EJF (2005) Party to the Plunder: Illegal fishing in http://www.aeternazentaris.com/en/page.php?p=60& Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, the United Nations, Rome. Specialist Group Finning Statement. Guinea and its links to the EU. Environmental Justice q=46 UK, Chapter 7, pp 113-131. http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/organizations/ssg/ssg Foundation, London, UK. 67. Clarke, S. et al. Global estimates of shark catches finstatementfinal2june.pdf 23. Food and Drug Administration (2004) U.S. District 43. WildAid (1999) Shark Fisheries in Kenya. WildAid using trade records from commercial markets. 112. EJF (2005) Pirates and Profiteers: How Pirate Fishing Judge issues permanent injunction against Lane Labs- Internal Report. July 1999. Ecology Letters, 9: 1115-1126 90. FAO (2006) Fisheries commodities production and Fleets are Robbing People and Oceans. USA, Inc. and orders firm to refund money to trade 1976-2004 Environmental Justice Foundation, London, UK. purchasers of illegally marketed unapproved drugs. 44. Ismael, O. (1999) Beach leader, Ngomeni village, 68. MRAG (2005) IUU Fishing on the High Seas: Impacts FDA News Release, July 13, 2004. Kenya. Personal communication. on Ecosystems and Future Science Needs 91. Clarke, S. (2006) Personal Communication. 113. Simpfendorfer, C. (2000) “Environmental threats to http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/news/2004/NEW0108 sharks”, Sharks Conference 2000. 21-24 February. 69. Clarke, S. (2004) Shark Product Trade in Hong Kong 6.html 45. Abdulrazak, M., Fishmonger, Malindi, Kenya (1999) Personal communication. and Mainland China and Implementation of the CITES Shark Listings. TRAFFIC East Asia, Hong Kong, China.

44 THE END OF THE LINE? THE END OF THE LINE? 45 End Of The Line 2007 US••.qxd:– 11/6/07 5:27 PM Page 46