Save the Children is the UK’s leading international children’s charity.Working in more than 70 countries, we run emergency relief alongside long-term development and prevention work to help children, their families and communities to be self-sufficient.

Drawing on this practical experience, Save the Children also seeks to influence policy and practice to achieve lasting benefits for children within their communities. In all its work, Save the Children endeavours to make children’s rights a reality.

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First published 2001

© The Save the Children Fund 2001 Registered Charity No. 213890

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Designed and typeset by Neil Adams, Grasshopper Design Company Contents

List of tables and figures 4

Volume 2: summary 5

Terms used 8

Abbreviations used 9

Preface 11

1 Roma/Gypsy and Traveller education in Europe: an overview of the issues 15

2 The Czech Republic 28

3 Finland 56

4 Greece 74

5 Hungary 108

6 Italy 136

7 Slovakia 170

8 The United Kingdom: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales 206

Selected references and resources 302

Acknowledgements 312 Contributors 313 Biographies 314 List of tables and figures

Introduction Table 1.1 Estimated size of Roma/Gypsy populations and GDP per head in selected EU and post-communist countries 17 Table 1.2 Timeline of main European initiatives aimed at Roma/Gypsies and Travellers 20

Greece Figure 4.1 Structure of primary, secondary and tertiary education in Greece 85 Table 4.1 Educational attainment of the population aged 25 to 64 in 1991 85 Figure 4.2 Number of Roma/Gypsy children who have attended primary school, 1988 87 Figure 4.3 Number of Roma/Gypsy children enrolled in primary school, by grade 87 Figure 4.4 Enrolment and Attendance of Roma/Gypsy Children at the Second Primary School of Kato Ahaya, Achaia, 1990-1993 95

Hungary Table 5.1 Estimated populations of the 13 national/minority ethnic communities recognised by the Minorities Law 122

Italy Table 6.1 Numbers of Italian and foreign Roma/Gypsy children of school age in Italy, 1991/92153 Table 6.2 Regularity of attendance of Roma/Gypsy children enrolled in education, Tuscany, 1999 154 Table 6.3 Occupational Travellers in Italy, 1991 158

Slovakia Table 7.1 Dropout rates for Roma/Gypsy children (%) 185

United Kingdom Table 8.1 Perceptions of the Gypsy/Traveller experience of formal education 251

4 Denied a Future? Volume 2: Summary

The countries covered in this volume demonstrate Central and Eastern Europe, with Czechoslovakia the wide range of differences that exist not only adopting harsher assimilation measures than between different Roma/Gypsy populations Hungary due to greater cultural and linguistic across the continent of Europe, but also in the differences between Roma/Gypsies and way states have developed policy towards these mainstream society. Today around half of Roma/ populations. The Roma/Gypsy minorities in the Gypsies in the Czech Republic speak the Romani former communist countries of the Czech language. Similarly, there are a large number of Republic, Slovakia and Hungary are far larger Romani speakers in Slovakia. As Slovakia was (both in absolute and relative terms) than those under Hungarian influence for many centuries of western states (Finland, Italy, UK). Greece there are also many Roma/Gypsies who maintain represents a half-way house between the two. Hungarian language and identity. Though never a communist country and a full member of the European Union (EU) since 1981, In Finland and the UK nomadism (to varying geographically Greece is part of the Balkan degrees) is still a strong feature of the Roma/ peninsular and was historically under Ottoman Gypsy population, reflecting the absence of rule. This accounts for the fact that the size of explicit assimilation/integration policies. the estimated Roma/Gypsy population in Greece The main difference between the Roma/Gypsy (around 300,000 or 3 per cent of the total populations of these two countries lies in their population) is similar to that in Central and proximity to Central and Eastern Europe. Eastern Europe and other Balkan states. The Finnish population is largely composed of relatively recent migrants from the region, whilst The Country Reports also indicate historical British Gypsies and Travellers are more tenuously differences in governmental approaches to Roma/ linked to the wider Roma/Gypsy diaspora and Gypsies that continue to have a significant impact share more similarities with indigenous Irish on their circumstances, especially in relation to Travellers. Recent migration also accounts education. Communist policies, from the end of for a significant minority of the Roma/Gypsy World War Two (WWII), aimed at mobilising population in Italy. The circumstances of the the whole of society (including Roma/Gypsies). larger Roma/Gypsy population in Greece This led to a far greater rate of integration of (which varies considerably between communities) Roma/Gypsies in Central and Eastern Europe also reflects the western approach of neglect, than in the West. That integration/assimilation demonstrating that population size itself is not policies were economically driven is particularly the sole determinant of integration. clear in the Czech Republic where the indigenous Roma/Gypsies were almost entirely exterminated There are significant differences in educational under Nazi occupation and the current population opportunities between the Roma/Gypsy is largely made up of post-war migrants from populations of formerly communist and Slovakia (and their descendants). However, non-communist countries. In the UK and Greece, communist policies were not uniform across Roma/Gypsy and Traveller school attendance is

5 DENIED A FUTURE?VOLUME 2

very low and the level of non-literacy high. “difference”. On the one hand, this allows for The extent of social and cultural isolation from specific attention and support to be given to the mainstream means there is considerable improve Roma/Gypsy educational attainment. anxiety about the impact of formal education on On the other, it establishes the means for close-knit communities; this is being addressed separating Roma/Gypsy children from their peers slowly. A similar degree of isolation in Finland in special remedial schools, in “catch-up” classes is being overcome by including Roma/Gypsies or in separate hostels and schools. Whilst policy within the country’s proactive approach to explicitly advocates equality and integration, in minority rights and support for minority practice the immediate aim to create a small languages. In Italy most Roma/Gypsies attend “middle class” of Roma/Gypsies draws attention primary school, though with few going on to away from the needs of the vast majority of higher levels of education. The high number Roma/Gypsy children. of post-war migrants speaking languages other than Italian creates particular challenges for In each of the countries covered in this volume, education policy. attention has been given increasingly in recent years to the educational circumstances of For the former communist countries, there is a Roma/Gypsies, a process characterised by the notable difference between the educational deepening involvement of Non-Governmental circumstances of Roma/Gypsies in Hungary and Organisations (NGO) developing either new those in the former Czechoslovakia. The practise initiatives or complementing those taken by of educational segregation, particularly the national authorities. Given the huge range in the sidelining of Roma/Gypsy children into special circumstances, needs and aspirations of remedial schools, is well entrenched in the Czech Roma/Gypsy populations in respect of education, Republic and is practised, to a lesser extent, in these policies and approaches vary considerably Slovakia. The gross over-representation of from state to state. Although progress has been Roma/Gypsies in these schools demonstrates slow (and sometime measures are contradictory) that their placement often has little to do with the fact that more attention and resources are educational need or ability, but reflects the failure available is promising. If proper consultation is of the mainstream education to adapt to the conducted with Roma/Gypsy pupils, parents and needs of those who use it. communities, there is the potential for all Roma/Gypsies to eventually be in a position In Hungary, the post-communist period has been where they can, alongside their neighbours and characterised more by an embrace of minority fellow citizens, enjoy their right to a relevant rights and the discourse of Roma/Gypsy education.

6

Terms used

Each of the terms below is understood differently for young people aged from 14/15 years up to by different people. This list describes how we are 18 years. In Western Europe, secondary using them in this report: education also follows on from primary education (ie, starting from 10/11 years) but is compulsory Preschool – sometimes referred to as nursery or up to the age of 16 years. Pupils then have the kindergarten. This refers to the non-compulsory option of continuing in further education up to stage of schooling immediately prior to primary the age of 18 years and the higher education education. post 18 years.

Primary education – sometimes referred to as basic Community – a group of people who live within a or elementary education. This refers to the defined context (eg, a Roma/Gypsy community foundation stages of a child’s school education. in a remote rural area). When talking about In the Central and South-Eastern Europe “consulting with Roma/Gypsy communities”, context this means the compulsory element of we do not assume they are cohesive or that there schooling which in most cases caters for children is an organised structure to work through. between 6/7 and 14/15 years of age. In the West European context it refers to the stage of NGO (Non-governmental organisation) – this can schooling that comes after preschool and before be anything from a small voluntary group to a secondary. It can start for children as young as large development agency. More specifically: 4/5 years and usually goes up to the age of 10/11 years. Local NGO – a group working within a particular country, run by nationals, but who may be Secondary education – sometimes referred to as “outsiders” to the local communities with which further education according to context. In Central they work. and South-Eastern Europe, further education is the non-compulsory stage of schooling that INGO – an international non-governmental immediately follows primary education. It caters organisation.

8 Abbreviations used

CERD UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination CJPOA Criminal Justice and Public Order Act (UK) CRE Commission for Racial Equality CSCE Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe DETR Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (UK) DfEE Department for Education and Employment EC European Community ECMI The European Centre for Minority Issues ECRI European Commission against Racism and Intolerance ECU European Currency Unit EFA Education for All EMTAG Ethnic Minority and Traveller Achievement Grant EOC Equal Opportunities Committee of the Scottish Parliament EOTAS Education Otherwise than at School (UK) ERRC European Roma Rights Centre ESYE National Statistical Service of Greece EU European Union GDP Gross Domestic Product GHM Greek Helsinki Monitor GSAE General Secretariat for Adult Education (Greece) ISPO EC Information Society Project Office JRF Joseph Rowntree Foundation LEA Local Education Authority (UK) MCDC Model Centre of Daily Care (Slovakia) MPE Ministry of Public Education (Italy) MSP Member of the Scottish Parliament NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NMGS-G National Gypsy Minority Self-Government (Hungary) OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

9 DENIED A FUTURE?VOLUME 2

OFMDM Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister (Northern Ireland) OFSTED Office for Standards in Education (UK) OSCE Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe PSI Promoting School Inclusion (Northern Ireland) RNN Rom News Network SME Small and Medium-sized Enterprises SPOLU NGO based in the Netherlands Sk koruna (the Slovakian currency) TES Traveller Education Service (UK) UNESCO United Nationals Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund WWII World War Two

10 Preface

Why Denied a Future? was produced the impact of this expenditure could be measured meant that it was difficult to assess whether these The idea for the Denied a Future? report emerged programmes were actually bringing about positive at the 1999 session of the UN Commission on changes for Roma/Gypsy and Traveller children. Human Rights. Save the Children presented There appeared to be hundreds of small projects, information about the ways in which the right many of which were highly innovative and to education of Roma/Gypsy and Traveller* successful. But it was hard to tell whether these children was being compromised or violated in a successful pilot initiatives were having any number of European countries. Various people significant impact in the long term or on a wider were interested in finding out more and asked us scale. In other words, was expenditure on pilots to recommend publications that they could refer and experimental initiatives leading to any to. We discovered that there were very few of systemic change? these. While there was a lot of information available, from research institutes, from Save the Children decided that there was a need governmental sources, from organisations for a basic text that described legislation, policy working with Roma/Gypsy and Traveller and practice with regard to education provision communities and from activists in those for Roma/Gypsy and Traveller children in a communities, this information was in libraries, number of European countries. Denied a Future? archives and in people’s heads, in many different therefore describes law, policy and practice in the locations and languages. period June 2000 to June 2001. We intend the report to serve as a benchmark against which Large sums of money are being spent by the impact of current and future investments governments, intergovernmental agencies and by the World Bank, the European Union, national international NGOs on programmes that aim and local governments and other agencies can to reform education provision in Central and be assessed. South-Eastern Europe and to improve the situation of Roma/Gypsy and Traveller children The issues addressed in Denied a Future? are in Western Europe. The absence of an accessible of growing significance and relevance in text describing the starting point against which contemporary Europe. They feature in the debates leading up to the enlargement of the European Union and in the work of the Working * Given the vast number of names applied to the people who are Table on Democratisation and Human Rights the subject of this report, the term “Roma/Gypsies” is employed in accordance with Liégeois and Gheorghe’s Roma/Gypsies: a of the Stability Pact for South-Eastern Europe. European Minority (Minority Rights Group, 1995). In some Western The failure to safeguard the right to education European countries, the term “Traveller” is preferred. Therefore, of large numbers of Roma/Gypsy and Traveller in this report we employ the term “Roma/Gypsies and Travellers” children was highlighted at the UNESCO or “Roma/Gypsy and Traveller” when we are referring also to Education for All 2000 regional meeting for countries with populations whose preferred term is “Traveller”. Europe and North America. It was also

11 highlighted at the European Conference against Who Denied a Future? is for Racism, which was organised by the Council of Europe in preparation for the UN World Denied a Future? comprises a Summary, an Conference against Racism. International Legislation Handbook and two volumes of country reports. The International Legislation Handbook describes the international How Denied a Future? was produced and regional legal frameworks guaranteeing the right to education of children of minority groups. Each Denied a Future? country report was Volume One of the country reports covers co-ordinated by a single author or editor. South-Eastern Europe and Volume Two covers However, the authors/editors drew upon a wide Central and Western Europe. There are range of written and verbal contributions in the summaries for each country report as well as countries concerned. The drafts were widely volume summaries to allow for quick reference circulated by the co-ordinating team, and and ease of navigation. The Summary identifies comments were particularly sought from the main findings of the 14 country reports, Save individuals in Roma/Gypsy and Traveller the Children’s conclusions and recommendations communities who are clients and users of the for future action. education services under discussion. The views and experiences of Roma/Gypsy and Traveller We expect different types of reader to use Denied children, young people, parents and teachers are a Future? in different ways. For international and central to the conclusions and recommendations locally based NGOs, we hope it will be useful as of Denied a Future? an advocacy tool. In the International Legislation Handbook, the relevant laws and articles are

12 PREFACE

explained and analysed, and the “control results. Our aim in producing Denied a Future? mechanisms” related to them are described. is to demonstrate where governments need to Each country report contains a section outlining focus their efforts because their actions are such the international legal instruments that have been an important part of the solution. However, the ratified in that country. As a practical advocacy country reports also indicate where action is tool, Denied a Future? contains most of the needed by professionals, practitioners, NGOs, information needed by NGOs that are interested community leaders and activists. in using international law to lobby for change at national and community level. The limitations of Denied a Future? We hope that Denied a Future? will be widely used as a planning and briefing resource by staff and We should acknowledge from the outset that volunteers of intergovernmental agencies and Denied a Future? is not the final word in the issue international NGOs. The individual country of the right to education of Roma/Gypsy and reports provide an overview of law and policy, Traveller children. In some countries, it has and also a detailed description of the situation proved difficult to get reliable information. in schools and communities and the views of However, in cases where we believed there was pupils, parents and teachers. They also provide a possibility of bias, or where we were given information about the different Roma/Gypsy and information that was contentious or possibly out Traveller communities, their histories and the of date, we commissioned additional research and languages they speak. Within each country report sought alternative views. We have not succeeded there is a set of recommendations that Save the in getting as much information as we would have Children believes should be the focus for further liked about how a child’s gender influences attention and action. decisions about education. Also, the important issue of labour-market discrimination falls outside We hope that policy-makers will find Denied a the parameters of this report. Future? a useful source of information about developments in other European countries. Denied a Future? presents a “snapshot” in a A great deal of good practice has been developed dynamic period. Although every effort has been that can be scaled up and built upon. Although made by the project’s co-ordinators to ensure that some of the country reports are critical of the the information is up to date, it is possible that, records of governments to date, the intent in even in the few months between conducting producing Denied a Future? is constructive. research and going to print, new policies or We are aware that there are significant initiatives will have been introduced. This is to financial and other barriers impeding policy be welcomed. We hope that the existence of implementation and also that a number of Denied a Future? will make it easier for people to positive initiatives are underway, but have been identify where and how things are changing for instituted so recently that it is too early to discern the better.

13 DENIED A FUTURE?VOLUME 2

How we selected countries for Who are the children in the Denied a Future? photographs?

A number of people have asked us how we Most of the photographs that appear in Denied a selected the 14 countries that feature in the Future? were taken in Roma/Gypsy and Traveller Denied a Future? report. Save the Children’s UK communities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Europe Programme works in the United Hungary, Italy, Serbia, Romania and Wales in the Kingdom and South-Eastern Europe. For our summer of 2001. The reports also feature images own purposes we were, of course, particularly from the photographer’s archive of work from interested in the situation in those countries. other countries including the Czech Republic, We wanted to include reports from other member England, Poland and Slovakia. states of the European Union in order to draw attention to issues which need to be addressed As a rule, the children and young people were there too – the denial of the right to education of closely involved in directing how they would be children who are labelled as “Gypsies” is often portrayed in the photographs. In many cases, they wrongly perceived as a problem limited to Central chose to be photographed alongside things and and South-Eastern Europe. Partner organisations people that were important to them: brothers and in Italy, Finland and Greece were able to assist us sisters, friends, pets, toys, places where they play in producing reports for these countries. and work. Unfortunately, with the time and resources available to us, we were unable to extend the The photographer, Poppy Szaybo, has worked scope of the report to, for example, Spain, as a documentary photographer and organiser of Germany, Ireland, Poland, Slovenia, the Baltic cultural and educational projects with Roma/ States or Russia. We have included reports on the Gypsies and Travellers throughout Europe for Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary because, over a decade. She extends her thanks to all of the in these countries, segregation of Roma/Gypsy communities she visited in summer 2001 for their children and the practice of educating them in kindness, hospitality and generosity. In particular, special schools for the mentally disabled present she would like to thank the young people that she particular challenges. worked with and photographed for sharing with her their humour, energy, vitality and warmth, making Denied a Future? an unforgettable and inspiring project with which to be involved.

14 1 Roma/Gypsy and Traveller education in Europe: an overview of the issues

Introduction Education passed Resolution 89/C 153/02 “On School Provision for Gypsy and Traveller The people to whom the term “Roma/Gypsy and Children”. Traveller” has been attached represent a unique phenomenon in European history and culture. As its title suggests, the 1989 Resolution was From their first appearance in the historical drafted with reference to the circumstances and record over 600 years ago, the relationship needs of the more mobile Roma/Gypsy and between Roma/Gypsies and mainstream societies Traveller populations of the member states of the has been marked by many tensions and changes. European Union (EU) at that time. The emphasis Roma/Gypsies are now widely considered to be was on developing innovative practice to meet the Europe’s largest ethnic minority. The continental needs of children and young people whose population is estimated to be between 7 to lifestyles presented practical and cultural 8.5 million and rising. There are Roma/Gypsy challenges to service providers. The Resolution and Traveller communities in practically every sought improvement rather than the achievement European country.* of any final aim and did not refer directly to rights. Over the following decade dramatic This report examines educational policy and changes occurred both in terms of how Roma/ provision in relation to Roma/Gypsy and Gypsies were perceived (to include the whole Traveller people from a child rights perspective. European diaspora), and in terms of how Access to formal education is more important practice was developed, including the increasing than ever in enabling individuals to maintain and importance of a human rights framework. develop living standards in Europe’s increasingly This report aims to provide a basis for ongoing knowledge-based economy. Formal education also research into the relationship between rights plays an important role in promoting awareness and Roma/Gypsy and Traveller education. of the diversity within society, as well as the By gathering data on educational services and recognition of our common humanity, providing initiatives specifically targeted at Roma/Gypsies, the basis for our concepts of democracy and and by compiling a summary of relevant national human rights. This report reflects growing and international legal instruments, the report will concern in recent years about the failures of provide a resource for all those involved in the educational provision to Roma/Gypsy and field of Roma/Gypsy and Traveller education, Traveller people. In 1984 the European including authorities with statutory duties to make Commission instigated research into Roma/ appropriate provision. The need for such work is Gypsy and Traveller education, on the basis of underlined by the recognition that the report which in 1989 the Council and Ministers of comes at a time of rapid social, economic, cultural and political change, not only for Roma/Gypsy *It is important to note that Roma/Gypsies are not unique to and Traveller people, but also for European Europe, but can be found in continents throughout the globe, society as a whole. including the Americas and Australia for example.

15 DENIED A FUTURE?VOLUME 2

East and West communities represent different stages of the transition from Romani to mainstream languages Since 1989, policy approaches towards the as mother tongue. Although the majority of overwhelming majority of Roma/Gypsies and Roma/Gypsies in Central and South-Eastern their access to public services, including Europe live in the countryside, the region also has education, have undergone dramatic changes as more and larger urban Roma/Gypsy populations a result of the collapse of communism and the than Western Europe. Finally, historically the process of European reintegration. Over three- relatively greater integration of Roma/Gypsies in quarters of the continent’s Roma/Gypsies live in the former communist states means that the former communist countries of Central and Roma/Gypsies in Central and South-Eastern South-Eastern Europe. There are considerable Europe have been more exposed to majority differences between Roma/Gypsies in Central cultural norms than their Western European and Eastern Europe, Roma/Gypsies in counterparts. South-Eastern Europe and Roma/Gypsies and Travellers in Western Europe, in terms of their demographic distribution, and their historical, A growing population social, economic and cultural circumstances. Yet such divisions in themselves are arbitrary; Roma/Gypsy populations in both parts of there are just as many differences within Europe differ in terms of their absolute and countries as there are between countries. relative size. The often subjective nature of ethno-cultural identities, combined with the diversity and spread of Roma/Gypsy and Cultural and linguistic diversity Traveller communities, means that population figures should be treated as estimates. It is broadly The inclusion of Roma/Gypsies from Central accepted that approximately 4.2 million and South-Eastern Europe into Europe-wide Roma/Gypsies live in eight Central and Eastern policy initiatives emphasises all the more the need European states (which have a total population of for policy-makers to consider the full range of 56 million). Only 1.5 million Roma/Gypsies live cultural and linguistic diversities that exist. in the five largest Western European states (which Central and South-Eastern Europe contain the have populations of between 30 and 80 million overwhelming majority of Romani speakers in the each) – over half of these live in Spain. whole of Europe, yet Romani speakers account for only around 40 per cent of Roma/Gypsies in the region. Furthermore, native Romani speakers use a wide variety of dialects. Most Roma/ Gypsies speak the language of the surrounding society as their main language, and different

16 1 ROMA/GYPSY AND TRAVELLER EDUCATION IN EUROPE: AN OVERVIEW OF THE ISSUES

Table 1.1 Estimated size of Roma/Gypsy populations and GDP per head in selected EU and post-communist countries

Country Total population GDP per head Roma/Gypsy Roma/Gypsy % of ($US) population (est.) total population

EU members

France 59.3m $23,000 340,000 0.6%

Germany 82.8m $22,700 130,000 0.2%

Italy 57.6m $21,400 100,000 0.2%

Spain 40.0m $17,300 800,000 2.0%

UK 59.5m $21,800 120,000 0.2%

Post-communist states

Bulgaria 7.8m $4,300 800,000 10.3%

Czech Republic 10.3m $11,700 300,000 2.9%

Hungary 10.1m $7,800 600,000 5.9%

Romania 22.4m $3,900 2,000,000 8.9%

Slovakia 5.4m $8,500 520,000 9.6%

Sources: Jean-Pierre Liégeois and Nicolae Gheorghe, Roma/Gypsies:A European Minority, Minority Rights Group International, London, 1995; CIA Fact Book, 2000

The context of transition low-skilled employment within the centrally planned economy, in both agriculture and As well as considerable differences in wealth industry. between the two halves of the continent, differences in economic development also have a The transition in Central and South-Eastern major effect on the opportunities of Roma/ Europe to a market economy has dramatically Gypsy people and populations. Whereas Western undermined the formerly state-owned extractive, European states generally allowed Roma/Gypsies manufacturing and agricultural concerns that and Travellers to develop traditional practices (for provided the main employment opportunities example, as private traders or seasonal farm for most Roma/Gypsies in this region. The result labourers), in the communist states Roma/ has been widespread long-term structural Gypsies were usually targeted for relatively unemployment and a deepening dependence

17 DENIED A FUTURE?VOLUME 2

on dwindling state benefits and services. In Western Europe the main challenge has been Economic difficulties for Roma/Gypsies are to connect mobile or socially isolated Roma/ exacerbated by slow economic recovery in some Gypsy and Traveller children to the education countries, coupled with the emergence of system. By contrast, in Central and Eastern widening gaps between the more- and less- Europe the vast majority of Roma/Gypsies are developed areas both within countries and settled, with most children enrolled in primary between Northern Europe and South, East and school (although this is not necessarily the case in Central Europe. South-Eastern Europe). The question for many countries in Central and Eastern Europe is more one of the quality of education received rather The importance of children than one of access. Currently about half of Roma/Gypsy and Traveller children in the EU Within this wider context, the situation of never attend school, although the situation Roma/Gypsy and Traveller children and young varies from country to country and between people is particularly important. Throughout communities. In Central and Eastern Europe Europe national populations are in greater or attendance rates (especially in primary school) are lesser decline, and there is growing concern at least 50 per cent higher, although again with about the implications of an increasingly ageing wide variations within the region. population. However, the age profile of Roma/ Gypsy and Traveller communities diverges considerably from the national average in many A European issue states. A combination of higher fertility and lower life expectancy means that young people In spite of such huge diversities among Roma/ constitute a majority in most Roma/Gypsy Gypsy and Traveller communities across Europe, communities and the percentage of Roma/ one feature is more or less ubiquitous: the Gypsies of school age is greater than that of the persistence of prejudice and discrimination. Roma/Gypsies as a whole within national This in turn reinforces their relative lack of populations. Addressing the educational success within mainstream institutions and disadvantages of Roma/Gypsy and Traveller processes and, in particular, in formal education. children is therefore a matter of particular This focuses attention on the importance of urgency in order, firstly, to ensure that a growing tackling anti-Roma/Gypsy and Traveller prejudice. number of individuals can enjoy their human However, there are a variety of other factors that rights and equality of opportunity, secondly, to also affect the access of Roma/Gypsy and contribute to the development of Roma/Gypsy Traveller people to education. This demands that communities and cultures, and finally, to ensure policy-makers be aware of the diversity that exists the economic development and social cohesion within the pan-European Roma/Gypsy and of Europe and its individual countries. Traveller diaspora. This has proved particularly difficult to achieve, given the inherent tendency in

18 1 ROMA/GYPSY AND TRAVELLER EDUCATION IN EUROPE: AN OVERVIEW OF THE ISSUES

all policy-making to over-simplify issues in order European institutions with a pan-European to make the policy-making task both manageable membership (Council of Europe, OSCE) have and cost-effective. shown particular interest in Roma/Gypsies. To date, their activities have largely centred on During the Cold War division of Europe, policy information gathering, including the towards Roma/Gypsies was almost exclusively establishment of offices to provide continual framed within national boundaries. Since 1990, monitoring and information exchange on there has been a dramatic increase in the levels Roma/Gypsy-related developments within of attention and in the number of initiatives individual countries. EU activity has been divided focusing on Roma/Gypsies drawn up by between the provision of ongoing support for supra-national European institutions. Their initiatives aimed at improving the educational number is so great (and rapidly increasing) that opportunities of Roma/Gypsy and Traveller the timeline (see pages 22 and 23) indicates only children and voicing concerns about the human the main developments explicitly relating to or rights situation of Roma/Gypsies in candidate directly affecting Roma/Gypsies. countries within negotiations on EU enlargement.

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Table 1.2 Timeline of main European initiatives aimed at Roma/Gypsies and Travellers

1969 Council of Europe Recommendation 563 (1969) “On the Situation of Gypsies and other Travellers in Europe”.

1975 Council of Europe Resolution (75)13 “Containing Recommendations on the Social Situation of Nomads in Europe”.

1983 Council of Europe Recommendation R(83)1 “On Stateless Nomads and Nomads of Undetermined Nationality”.

1984 Resolution C172/153 “On the Situation of Gypsies in the Community” was passed in the European Parliament. It recommended that national governments of member states co-ordinate their approach to the reception of Gypsies.

1987 EU Report “School provision for Gypsy and Traveller Children”.The report was extended until 1989 to take account of new member states (Spain, Portugal, Greece).The full report was published as “School Provision for Ethnic Minorities:The Gypsy Paradigm” in 1998 (Interface Collection).

1989 EU Council Resolution No. 89/C 153/02 (No. C 153/3) “On School Provision for Gypsy and Traveller Children”.

1991 Paris Charter for a New Europe (CSCE) – which made specific reference to the need to address the “particular problems” of Roma/Gypsies and also developed a framework of explicit minority rights.

1992 Office of High Commissioner on National Minorities established in the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) (since renamed the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe – OSCE) with responsibility for monitoring and resolving potential ethnic conflicts.The High Commissioner has taken particular interest in the situation of Roma/Gypsies.

1992 Council of Europe European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages – provisions of which may be applied in respect of “non-territorial languages” such as Romani.

1993 High Commissioner on National Minorities (CSCE) first report on “Roma (Gypsies) in the CSCE region”.

1993 Council of Europe Recommendation 1203 (1993) “On the Situation of Roma in Europe”.

1993 Standing Conference of Local and Regional Authorities in Europe, Resolution 249 (1993) “On Gypsies in Europe: the Role and Responsibilities of Local and Regional Authorities”.

More broadly, the OSCE and the Council of in issues of racism and inequality and a number Europe have been active in developing the of fora have emerged through which interested concept of minority rights and proactive parties, including Roma/Gypsies and their engagement to encourage the preservation and organisations, can contribute to debate and promotion of distinctive minority languages, policy-making at the European level. cultures and identities. The EU has concentrated more on anti-discrimination and equal opportunities measures. Overall, in the 1990s, there has been a significant increase of interest

20 1 ROMA/GYPSY AND TRAVELLER EDUCATION IN EUROPE: AN OVERVIEW OF THE ISSUES

Table 1.2 Timeline continued

1994 Appointment of a Co-ordinator of Activities on Roma/Gypsies, Directorate of Social and Economic Affairs – Council of Europe.

1995 Council of Europe – Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities – requiring states to develop a proactive approach to enabling minority communities to develop and promote their culture and identity.

1995 Specialist Group on Roma/Gypsies established in the European Committee on Migration (CDMG) – Council of Europe.

1996 Contact Point for Roma and Sinti Issues established in the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights – OSCE.The Contact Point’s role is to co-ordinate Roma/Gypsy-related initiatives within European institutions, to monitor relevant legislative and political developments in individual countries and to promote Roma/Gypsy self-organisation/representation.

1997 EU – Amsterdam Treaty,Article 13 of which provides the basis for the EU (and member states) to develop initiatives aimed at combating racial discrimination and promoting equal opportunities.

1997 Accession negotiation for membership of the EU opened with Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and Slovenia.The situation of Roma/Gypsies is dealt with under Political Criteria, and the EU’s annual “Opinions on Progress towards Accession” includes specific reference to the situation of Roma/Gypsy minorities in individual countries.

1998 EU – European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia established to monitor development in race relations throughout Europe, publishing annual reports on each of the member states of the Council of Europe. Since its inception, it has taken a special interest in the situation of Roma/Gypsies.

1999 EU adopts “Guiding principles for improving the situation of Roma” in Candidate Countries that includes a large number of recommendations in the field of education.

2000 EU Race Directive 2000/43/EC, making provisions for equal treatment, regardless of ethnic origin, binding on member states.

2000 Second report by the High Commissioner on National Minorities (OSCE) “On the Situation of Roma and Sinti in the OSCE Area”.

Information and policy-making Roma/Gypsies in general. This failure is rooted in the inability and, in most cases, the reluctance The way that Roma/Gypsies are viewed by of policy-makers and decision-takers to fully policy-makers shapes how policy towards them appreciate the history, circumstances, aspirations is formed and implemented. The current lack of and capabilities of Roma/Gypsy and Traveller success of Roma/Gypsies and Travellers within people. There are few, if any, other population mainstream educational systems reflects a long groups in Europe against which regular racist history of governments failing to adopt pronouncements and actions still pass largely appropriate and effective policies towards unremarked. The tendency has been for

21 DENIED A FUTURE?VOLUME 2

Roma/Gypsies to be seen as “the problem” rather this is the need to develop a dialogue that does than the key to the solution, and it is still unusual not reinforce a Roma/Gypsy elite, but that to come across acknowledgements that “the reflects their diversity. The question is not only problem” could be the outcome of personal to what extent decision-takers invite and or institutional racism or well-meaning but understand the views of Roma/Gypsies, but also ill-advised policies. The consequences of failed to what extent they take into account these governmental initiatives have been deepening representations when decisions are made. It is misunderstanding, fear and suspicion, important that supra-national institutions, contributing to the generation and reproduction governments, NGOs and other organisations are of prejudice on both sides. The end result is able to evaluate the growing data on Roma/ frequently to apportion blame to Roma/Gypsy Gypsies and their circumstances in order to avoid and Traveller people themselves for policies and joining the long list of those who have failed to practices that were derived without any find an answer to the “Gypsy Question”. consultation with, or involvement of, their end users. A “common European home”

Problems of accountability The movement towards the greater internationalisation of Roma/Gypsy and Traveller Being aware of the reasons for past policy policy began in 1984 with the passage in the mistakes may help to avoid their repetition. European Parliament of Resolution C172/153 In recent years this process has been greatly “On the Situation of Gypsies in the Community”, facilitated by the unprecedented degree of which recommended that governments of self-organisation displayed by Roma/Gypsy and member states co-ordinate their approach to Traveller people, and their desire to engage in the reception of Gypsies. The collapse of decision-making processes that affect them. communism and the continuing process of EU There are still significant obstacles to the enlargement have served to increase the diversity development of reliable mechanisms of of legal instruments which can be deployed in accountability between those who represent relation to the education of Roma/Gypsy and (especially at national and international levels) and Traveller children and young people. Indeed, the those who are represented. Every activity in which creation of a “common European home” could Roma/Gypsies and Travellers come into contact have particular significance for Roma/Gypsies. with mainstream institutions (such as education) By making Roma/Gypsies and Travellers citizens should have a basis of dialogue and consultation. of a multicultural Europe rather than minorities It is increasingly recognised (at least in Central within nation states, they may finally be able to and Eastern Europe) that government policy overcome some of the many problems they face. cannot be implemented without the consent of However, at the same time, the debate on EU Roma/Gypsy and Traveller people. Underpinning enlargement has created scope for some national

22 1 ROMA/GYPSY AND TRAVELLER EDUCATION IN EUROPE: AN OVERVIEW OF THE ISSUES

governments to seek to evade their responsibilities implement international agreements relating to towards their Roma/Gypsy populations by Roma/Gypsies. Offices have been established portraying Roma/Gypsies as a stateless within the Council of Europe (Specialist Group) “European problem” for whom no national and the OSCE (Contact Point) to monitor and government need take responsibility. advise on policy towards Roma/Gypsies against a rights background. Furthermore, the OSCE’s High Commissioner on National Minorities has The rights framework conducted two detailed investigations into the circumstances of Roma/Gypsies (1993 and 2000). In addition to the current context of changing In respect of post-communist states (many of policy approaches to Roma/Gypsies, this report which have large Roma/Gypsy populations), their is being compiled at a time when large-scale aspirations to join the EU are conditioned by the political changes in Europe are creating new Copenhagen Criteria, which demand the “stability fora and an enhanced role for the discourse on of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule human rights. For much of the post-war period, of law, human rights and respect for and international law and the domestic legislation of protection of minorities”. European states have dealt with the rights of ethnocultural minorities by guaranteeing their right not to be discriminated against. Policy Minority rights affecting Roma/Gypsies – including education policy – was developed and implemented within As a result of these developments there are now individual states and is therefore subject to accessible institutions, charged with collating domestic political and cultural considerations. data and facilitating good policy and practice Since they had little political influence at this level, across Europe, working to a more rights-oriented Roma/Gypsy and Traveller people and their agenda. The process of Europeanisation also interests were rarely taken into account. means that more Roma/Gypsies are able to promote their interests at a wide range of European enlargement has strengthened the international fora and may seek remedies at position of international agreements with regard the European Court of Human Rights. to domestic legislation through the process of legal harmonisation. In addition, new bodies A key change in the rights discourse has been the have been established to monitor political development of special rights for ethnocultural developments within states and to check groups, known collectively as minority rights. compliance with international agreements. The degree to which minority rights will evolve, In 1993 the Parliamentary Assembly of the and the extent of their application with regard to Council of Europe endorsed Recommendation Roma/Gypsies, is a matter of conjecture and will 1203 “On the situation of Roma in Europe”, be decided ultimately by how useful they are which explicitly requested that governments perceived to be in different local contexts and at

23

1 ROMA/GYPSY AND TRAVELLER EDUCATION IN EUROPE: AN OVERVIEW OF THE ISSUES

the regional (European) level. In 1991, minority Human rights rights achieved detailed expression in the Paris Charter (CSCE/OSCE). This was followed, in Human rights mechanisms have also dealt 1995, by the Council of Europe’s Framework with rights for Roma/Gypsies and Travellers. Convention for the Protection of National The UN Commission on Human Rights, the Minorities, which implicitly recognises minorities UN Sub-Commission for the Promotion and as collective entities with legal entitlements. Protection of Human Rights and its Working Given the wider debates about Roma/Gypsies, Group on Minorities are examples of fora and most recently Travellers, as ethnic minorities, where the issue of Roma/Gypsy rights have minority rights have an important bearing on been made explicit. For example, in 1999 the Roma/Gypsy and Traveller education. Sub-Commission entrusted one of its members to prepare a working paper on the human rights The primary justification of minority rights lies problems and protection of Roma/Gypsies. in the acknowledgement that the right not to In addition, the reports of the Special Rapporteur be discriminated against has not ended on Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial discrimination. Their justification also lies in Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related the recognition that minorities possess certain Intolerance have frequently referred to characteristics that are not dealt with by discrimination encountered by Roma/Gypsies anti-discrimination and often require additional and Travellers. institutional or legal support to maintain. Whereas anti-discrimination rights seek to make sure that members of minorities can access mainstream Child rights resources, services and individual remedies, minority rights focus on enabling the minority Finally, the existence of the United Nations community to develop and reproduce itself as a Convention on the Rights of the Child and its distinct cultural community. almost universal ratification by governments across the globe has helped to reduce the Extensive linguistic and cultural diversity and invisibility of children and establish their value in the wide variation in relationships with extra- their own right. The establishment of formal communal institutions, societies and cultures mechanisms to monitor child rights and in that characterise Roma/Gypsy and Traveller particular the UN Committee on the Rights of communities pose fundamental challenges to the the Child have been instrumental in holding development of a distinct cultural community. countries to account on a number of issues, some However, it is precisely because the Roma/Gypsy of them specific to Roma/Gypsy and Traveller diaspora exhibits diverse circumstances and needs children. that minority rights may well prove to be the most useful instrument in addressing a particular issue or situation.

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A voice for Roma/Gypsies and explaining policy to Roma/Gypsy and Traveller Travellers communities. The balance in these relations varies according to the political context, ie, the degree of The development of appropriate and effective political authority that Roma/Gypsy and Traveller policy and other initiatives targeting Roma/Gypsy representation can command in any situation, and and Traveller education has been facilitated the extent to which policy-makers are interested in by improved channels of communication taking on board what Roma/Gypsies might have between Roma/Gypsy and Traveller people to say. and mainstream society, resulting from the unprecedented growth in formal Roma/Gypsy Decisions taken at local-government level often self-organisation. Since 1970, five World Gypsy have direct significance for Roma/Gypsies and Congresses have been held, with a continually Travellers, especially in the field of education. expanding number of affiliated organisations. Local authorities usually have the primary role in Since 1979, the International Romany Union allocating resources and monitoring the quality has enjoyed Consultative Status at the UN of educational provision. As Roma/Gypsies (enhanced in 1993). European institutions have and Travellers perceive the need to develop proved less enthusiastic about supporting the mechanisms for representing their view to local establishment of a permanent representative body decision-makers, the response of authorities for Roma/Gypsies; however, the Specialist Group ranges from conflictual to co-opting. Roma and the Contact Point (see page 15) encourage self-organisation can also take cultural or religious both national and international Roma/Gypsy and forms and manifests itself within the activities Traveller organisations to play a greater role in of mainstream NGOs and other organisations. decision-making. The development of Roma/Gypsy and Traveller media throughout Europe also provides means by At the national level, the steady growth in the which Roma/Gypsy and Traveller people and number of Roma/Gypsy and Traveller mainstream actors can establish a dialogue and organisations in Western Europe since the 1960s aim for greater mutual understanding. has been enhanced by Roma/Gypsies in Central and South-Eastern Europe exploring new Finally, there are the Roma/Gypsy and Traveller opportunities to adopt a public role with the individuals themselves, including children and development of civil society in this region and the young people. The arena of education is naturally end of one-party political systems. Roma/Gypsy favourable to identifying and establishing dialogue and Traveller representation currently plays a with those targeted by educational initiatives. mediator role, allowing Roma/Gypsy and In respect of education, it is particularly Traveller people to transmit information up to important to identify, understand and take Government as well as providing policy-makers account of the views of those most directly with a means of disseminating information and affected by education: children themselves.

26 1 ROMA/GYPSY AND TRAVELLER EDUCATION IN EUROPE: AN OVERVIEW OF THE ISSUES

Therefore, the Denied a Future? report includes themselves and their activities among many direct quotations from school pupils and Roma/ Gypsy and Traveller communities. other young people in which they explain their Such confidence is best achieved through the experiences and aspirations. representatives of mainstream bodies demonstrating their ability to understand the The diversity of Roma/Gypsies and Travellers, concerns of Roma/Gypsy and Traveller people, their long history and the continued pervasiveness including those of children, and to establish a of anti-Roma/Gypsy and Traveller prejudice consensus on how Roma/Gypsy and Traveller means that governments and NGOs must be people can enjoy their educational and aware of the need to establish confidence in other rights.

27 2 The Czech Republic

“According to an estimate of some experts and employees of the Ministry of Education, Youth Summary and Sport, up to 80 per cent of all Romani children go to special schools.” Context Racism, Xenophobia and the Position of Romanies, Czech Roma/Gypsies have very high levels of Czech Helsinki Committee, unemployment, and suffer discrimination in 21 February 1998. housing and education. There is severe racial violence, with little protection provided by the “What would you like to be?” police or judiciary. Government policy has “I would like to be a teacher. My mum wants me lacked coherence, but the approval in 2000 of to change schools, because she says that it is the the “Concept of the Governmental Policy only way for me to become a teacher.” towards the Members of Romany “What subject do you like best?” Community” indicated a changed attitude. “I like mathematics and Czech language.” Roma/Gypsy girl, 11 years old, in a special Roma population remedial school for the mentally handicapped There are 200,000-250,000 Roma/Gypsies, mainly Slovak, Hungarian and Vlach Roma. They live in all parts of the country, with the highest concentrations in the north of Bohemia and the north of Moravia. Almost all are settled, often in poor and effectively segregated housing. The main dialects of Romani spoken are Slovak and New Vlah. There are several Roma/Gypsy organisations and publications, and Roma/Gypsy members of municipal councils and Parliament.

Roma and education The education system is highly segregated. The education Roma/Gypsy children receive is generally of very low quality and they leave with no or few qualifications. The ‘Concept of the Governmental Policy’ recognises the severe inequality in the education system, but as yet has had little impact.

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Czech Republic report contents

Introduction – the Roma/Gypsy population 30 Demography and Roma/Gypsy groups 30 Language provision The socio-economic status of Roma/Gypsies 31 There is little education in Romani language and culture, although there have been recent Minority rights 31 moves by government to improve this The right to education 33 situation. In practice 34 Special schools The right to education of Roma/Gypsies 34 Two-thirds of Roma/Gypsy children attend Citizenship and education 36 special schools for the “intellectually Special schools 37 deficient”. Their misallocation lies in biased Elementary schools 44 IQ tests, prejudice and the lack of Roma/Gypsy children in institutions 46 information given to parents about their Language provision 47 options. They are over-represented in Government and private initiatives 48 children’s homes and instruction centres. Conclusion 51 Other separate provision Voices of Roma/Gypsy children 51 Attempts to create separate provision for Roma/Gypsies have had varied results. Recommendations 53 Parental participation appears to be important Czech Republic: Notes on the text 55 to the success of these endeavours.

Balance of NGO and government activity “Zero year” classes and teaching assistants in schools are the two main government projects to improve educational attainment. There are several joint NGO-government initiatives.

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Introduction – the Roma/Gypsy In addition, Hungarian and Sinti are spoken by a population number of families. In the Slovak villages from which the families of current Czech Roma/ Demography and Roma/Gypsy groups Gypsies have recently migrated, the first language According to unofficial estimates the number of was overwhelmingly Romani. In the Czech Roma/Gypsies living in the Czech Republic is lands these Roma/Gypsies were subjected to between 200,000 and 250,000 – about 2-2.5 per considerable social change and resulting cent of the total Czech population (although assimilatory pressure. Extended family structures according to the official census the figures are and traditional trades were partly lost as much lower). According to the Prague-based Roma/Gypsies were proletarianised in the Fund for Threatened Children, Roma/Gypsy industrial areas around the frontiers of Bohemia children now make up about four per cent of and Moravia, and under strong anti-Romani all children. language pressure from the communist government. As a result, the use of Romanes has Roma/Gypsies live in all parts of the country, tended to decline, with third-generation Czech with a stronger concentration in the north of Roma/Gypsies often being monolingual in Czech. Bohemia and the north of Moravia (areas of the former Sudentenland). Almost all Czech and However, there is no consistent pattern of Moravian Roma/Gypsies were exterminated language use. In communist days, Romanes was during WWII, and most Roma/Gypsies currently variously characterised as a language which living in the Czech Republic have either migrated “would only slow down the process of from Slovakia since 1945 or are descendants of re-education of Roma”, or as the “decaying those who have done so. Of these, about 90 per language of a socially and culturally backward cent are “Slovak” and “Hungarian” Roma – the part of the population”. Specifically, in schools, descendants of Roma/Gypsy communities Roma/Gypsy children were punished for speaking settled in Slovakia since at least the 18th century. Romanes. Punishments included fines for each The remaining approximate ten per cent are word of Romanes spoken, refusal of access to mainly Vlach Roma1 – descendants of Roma/ camps and clubs, and even the shaving of Gypsy slaves from Romania liberated during the Roma/Gypsy children’s heads. It is not surprising 19th century, who lived semi-nomadically until that parents, under this pressure, tried to speak 1958, when the Czechoslovak “Law on the Czech to their children, or, if they couldn’t, tried Permanent Settling of Nomadic Individuals” to hide the fact. After the Velvet Revolution in enforced their settlement.2 1989, however, Roma/Gypsies began asserting their distinct identity, producing Romani Czech Roma/Gypsies speak in the main two language periodicals and literature. In 1991, dialects of Romani: Servitka and Vlashika a Czech-Romani dictionary was published. (ie, the Slovak and New Vlah dialects).

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The socio-economic status of Roma/Gypsies Minority rights Roma/Gypsies have suffered from high rates of unemployment, discrimination, segregation and In its 1998 concluding observation on the Czech racial violence. Unemployment for Roma/Gypsies Republic, the UN Committee on the Elimination ranges between 70 per cent and 90 per cent. of Racial Discrimination (CERD) noted with Discrimination in jobs and services is common. concern that the Czech Republic does not have Many Slovak-descended Roma/Gypsies were civil or administrative law provisions expressly denied citizenship of the Czech Republic outlawing discrimination in education, housing following the division of Czechoslovakia, and and healthcare. It further noted that there was no although the situation has since been remedied administrative regulation explicitly prohibiting somewhat, there is a feeling among many racial discrimination by public institutions and Roma/Gypsies that they are without a recognised agencies. The denial of access to public places place in Czech society. such as restaurants, pubs, discotheques and similar establishments by people belonging to some ethnic minorities, especially Roma/Gypsies, is also

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noted with concern, as is the marginalisation of regards Roma/Gypsy children, in particular the Roma/Gypsy community in the field of those who are in detention or otherwise education. Evidence that a disproportionately institutionalised. large number of Roma/Gypsy children are placed in special schools, leading to de facto racial The Opinion on the Czech Republic’s Application segregation, and that they also have a considerably for Membership of the EU from July 1997 lower level of participation in secondary and expressed concerns over the treatment of the higher education, raises doubts about whether Roma/Gypsy population in areas of education, Article 5 of the International Convention social situation and called for stepping up on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial measures to combat discrimination against the Discrimination is being fully implemented. Romani population.

In its 2000 report on the Czech Republic, CERD The Progress Report 2000 of the European still expressed concern with issues raised in 1998 Commission calls for intensifying protection of and recommended that the government women and children against trafficking. Although “undertake effective measure to eradicate racial the situation of Roma/Gypsies in the area of segregation in the area of housing and education education was judged to have improved due to of the Roma population.” CERD further the support of the education system, the Czech expressed the opinion that measures taken to Republic was still seen as not having achieved combat racial discrimination in the field of lasting improvement for the overall situation of teaching, education, culture and information Roma/Gypsies.5 should be intensified.3 It further reiterated its concern at the “lack of criminal, civil or In early 2001 the Czech Republic agreed administrative law provisions expressly outlawing that CERD can hear individual cases under racial discrimination in education [...]”4 Article 14 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial In its 1997 concluding observations on the Discrimination. This may provide opportunities Czech Republic, the Committee on the Rights of for redress that are currently denied by the Czech the Child noted with concern that adequate judicial system. In April 2001 the Deputy Foreign measures had not been taken to prevent and Minister, Martin Palous, signed a memorandum of combat all forms of discriminatory practices understanding on co-operation towards improving against children belonging to minorities, including the condition of Roma/Gypsies. In May the Roma/Gypsy children, or to ensure their full Foreign Ministry set up a department specifically access to health, education and other social to deal with Roma/Gypsy issues, and announced services. The Committee is concerned that the that it will appoint an advisor on Roma/Gypsy principles and provisions of the Convention on affairs. the Rights of the Child are not fully respected as

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The right to education child’s sixth birthday. It lasts nine years and ends on the last day of the academic year in which the Article 33 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights pupil completes his or her compulsory school and Freedoms, published as Law No.2/1993, is attendance. People who endanger the education the constitutional safeguard of the right to and upbringing of minors by failing to register a education. It states that: child for compulsory school attendance, or by neglecting to supervise the compulsory school 1 Everybody has the right to education. School attendance of a pupil, are guilty of an offence.6 attendance is obligatory for a period specified by law. 2 Citizens have the right to free education at Rules on schools providing special instruction for elementary and secondary schools and, depending on people belonging to national minorities are set the citizen’s ability and the potential of society, also out in Law No. 29/1984 Coll. on the system of at university-level schools. elementary and secondary schools, as amended. 3 Schools other than state schools may be established, In the academic year 1995/96, some 30 schools in and instruction provided there, only under conditions the Czech Republic provided instruction in the set by law. Polish language (in the north of Moravia), and 4 The conditions under which citizens are entitled to one school in the Slovak language. assistance from the state during their studies are set by law. An amendment (no. 19/2000 Coll.) to School Act No. 29/1984 Coll. slightly improved the Article 3, paragraph 1, of the Charter proclaims situation of the vast generation of Roma/ the general right to education without Gypsies that completed their education at special discrimination. Pupils and students may attend remedial schools for the mentally handicapped. any kinds and grades of school according to their The amendment says that all pupils – not only abilities, academic achievement and state of those who completed primary schools and thus health. completed their primary education, but also those who only finished primary schools without The primary legislation is contained in Law actually completing their elementary education – No. 29/1984 Coll. on the system of elementary are now entitled to continue at the secondary and secondary schools, as amended; in Law school (Article 19, Section 1 of the School Act).7 No. 171/1991 Coll. on universities, as amended, However, in practice, as pointed out by a Prague- and in Law No. 390/1992 Coll. on preschool based NGO, Counselling Centre for Citizenship, facilities and schools, as amended. Civil and Human Rights, “many Roma have not accomplished the basic education that allows School attendance is compulsory in the Czech them to benefit from the amendment.”8 Republic, and generally starts on the first day of the academic year (1 September) following the

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In practice many ways a reworking of Roma/Gypsy laws from 1927. It obliged local councils to support The right to education of Roma/Gypsies the process of making “regular working citizens” out of nomadic individuals, and imposed “Special measures should be taken as regards prison sentences upon anyone who insisted on education and training of the members of continuing with a nomadic lifestyle in the face minority groups, particularly members of the of such “help”. In practice, while the law made Roma/Gypsy community.” no specific reference to Roma/Gypsies, and European Commission against Racism while the great majority of Roma/Gypsies in and Intolerance, ECRI’s country-by-country Czechoslovakia were already “settled”, the law approach, Vol. I, 1997, Report on was often used as an excuse to forcibly relocate the Czech Republic, G. 9. Roma/Gypsies, whatever their lifestyle. In 1965, In the Czech Republic, Roma/Gypsy children are the “Ordinance on Provisions for the Solution of about 15 times more likely than non-Roma/ Questions of the Gypsy Population” attempted Gypsy children to be placed in special schools to deal with “undesirable concentrations of for children with learning disabilities. Research Gypsies”, aiming particularly to break down conducted by the European Roma Rights Centre settlements (osady) in Slovakia and move their 11 (ERRC) resulted in a similar conclusion. inhabitants into the Czech Lands. In 1998/99, ERRC found that Roma/Gypsy children outnumbered non-Roma/Gypsy children These two political moves, which had a serious in special remedial schools by more than 27 to 1. impact on social structures within the Roma/ Although Roma/Gypsies represented fewer than Gypsy community, were not matched with five per cent of all primary school-age students adequate guarantees of state support. in Ostrava, they constituted 50 per cent of the In particular, the 1958 law did not even register special school population.9 In this way, more the educational needs of newly “settled” or than two-thirds of Roma/Gypsy children are resettled Roma/Gypsy children, while the 1965 institutionally deprived of the education and Ordinance only repeated weakly (three times) qualifications necessary for them to lead a full and that “more attention” should be devoted to varied life. In addition, the special school system, Roma/Gypsy children. There was no recognition in which an estimated 75 per cent of children of a Roma/Gypsy identity and, in general, laws are Roma/Gypsies, is effectively a substandard directly and indirectly concerning Roma/Gypsies segregated system. There is no doubt that this is were based on the assumption that they were the most serious problem to be addressed with ill-adapted Czechoslovaks. The same was true in regard to the education of Roma/Gypsy children education. The tradition of the “unified” school, in the Czech Republic. dating back to Austro-Hungarian times, and re-encapsulated in the 1948 Schools Act, provided The Czechoslovak “Law on The Permanent a system in which ethnic difference, just as any Settling of Nomadic Individuals” (1958),10 was in other deviation from an average which became a

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norm, was treated as a failure to adapt. At no ordering the Plenipotentiary for Human Rights point in the communist period did Roma/Gypsies and the Chair of the Inter-Ministerial have nationality or minority status. Commission for Roma Community Affairs to draft a “Concept of the Governmental Policy From the 1960s onwards, the failure of the towards the Members of Romany Community” Czechoslovak education system to provide [hereafter Concept]. On 14 June 2000, the adequate education for Roma/Gypsy children is Concept was approved by the government in reflected in the steadily growing proportions of Resolution no. 599. Roma/Gypsy children sent to special schools. In special schools where the proportion of The Concept shows a changing attitude towards Roma/Gypsy children seems to have been Roma/Gypsy children in the educational system realistic originally, that proportion rose to 50 per on the part of the government. Research that cent or more. It was over this period that the preceded the drafting of the policy document and popular and professional educators’ view of that became a second part of the Concept special schools as the “solution” to the problem devotes a substantial section to the education of Roma/Gypsy education was formed. This system. Although the Concept and the view remains prevalent in many places today. accompanying study analysing the situation of Roma/Gypsies present a relatively new and After 1989 a new and democratic Government refreshing approach to the issue there are still a did not appear to have time to deal with the number of concerns: problem of Roma/Gypsy children in special • While the commitment to a more flexible schools. A 1996 Human Rights Watch/Helsinki education system is welcome, the terms are report was forced to conclude that “the situation extremely vague. However, the commitment to with special schools [had] not improved much in equality of opportunity is made clearly for the recent years.” 1997 brought a chance for change. first time, as is the principle of state On 29 October 1997 the Czech Government responsibility. accepted the Council for National Minorities’ • The approach to education of Roma/Gypsies “Report on the Situation of the Romani as “primarily” a question of dealing with Community in the Czech Republic,” including mother tongue Romani-speakers is inaccurate its 44 recommendations, 11 of which were and will lead to waste of energy and funds. addressed to the Ministry of Education. • The statement still stops short of discussing On 1 November 1997 a Roma/Gypsy wrong diagnosis, and fails to refer to co-ordinator was appointed at the Ministry, with discrimination (although the accompanying the task of supervising the implementation of the notes are clearer on this). As a result, the government’s recommendations. However, two concern arises as to who will decide on the subsequent changes of government have reduced placement of children in the proposed the impact of these recommendations. On 7 April “flexible” classes? There still appears to be 1999 the government issued Resolution no. 279 an assumption that it is Roma/Gypsy pupils

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who have inherent problems, rather than the representations to the Czech government now. school system which has problems with One encouraging sign is the publication in Roma/Gypsies. December 2000 by the Inter-Ministerial • There is no reference to anti-discrimination Commission for Romani Community Affairs legislation in schools. of a detailed report relating to the Concept and • The idea of scrapping special schools entirely previous government resolutions on Roma/Gypsy has been entertained by some at the Ministry issues.12 Another is the recent completion of the of Education for a while now. This would have introductory Report on Human Rights Education in the particular advantage of liberating large the Czech Republic, to be submitted to the UN, and amounts of money for integrative projects the related government resolution.13 (a special school place currently costs twice as much as an elementary school one). However, Further government-supported initiatives include there will be considerable opposition to this the launch in March 2001 of Varianty, a project to from special schools and from the MPs (at the tackle xenophobia. Although concerned with all time of writing it was proposed that the forms of xenophobia, its primary focus will be on Schools Law be discussed in the Lower Roma/Gypsies. It is sponsored by the EU and Chamber of the Parliament). According to organised by the People in Need Foundation, with some observers there is a little chance that the Czech government support and involvement. law will be passed in its present form, because The government has emphasised the aims of the it proposes abolition of special schools as well project in contributing to the development of a as elite gymnasiums. Several MPs have a vested multicultural curriculum and greater acceptance of interest not to support this law, since their Roma/Gypsies and other minorities by Czechs. children attend the elite gymnasiums. • There is no clear indication of time-scale. Citizenship and education Since the Resolution was passed, the Czech In spite of such attempts at improving the Commission for Human Rights has criticised situation for Roma/Gypsies in the area of Ministries for dragging their feet. education, the general context of citizenship remains a major problem for many Roma/ Overall, though, this is an encouraging document, Gypsies. The 1993 Law on Citizenship effectively starting as it does from educational needs as prevented about 30,000 Roma/Gypsies living perceived by Roma/Gypsy parents, rather than on the territory of the Czech Republic from from abstract ideas of what minorities might obtaining Czech citizenship. Among those want. Previous experience however has shown affected were many thousands of children whose that this working-out period is very unpredictable, parents lost their entitlement to child benefit, and and that many recommended policies disappear who found themselves required to pay fees at into individual Ministries, only to be lost entirely secondary school. While recent amendments to at the next change of government. It is therefore the citizenship law should now enable many of crucial that international bodies make informed these families to claim citizenship successfully,

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the situation must be monitored. One group As mentioned above, a Roma/Gypsy child is of people who may not be helped by the amend- almost 15 times as likely as a non-Roma/Gypsy ments are those who have returned to the Czech child to be designated “intellectually deficient” Republic after seeking asylum, thus losing their and placed in a special school. As a result, permanent residence. In the early 1990s, when estimates suggest that more than two-thirds of some Roma/Gypsy families sought asylum in Roma/Gypsy children pass through special Germany, their children were all placed in special schools, and that in many special schools schools on their return because they were behind Roma/Gypsy pupils make up of over 80 per cent with the Czech syllabus. At present, many families of the school population.14 The result is greatly seeking asylum in the United Kingdom, Canada reduced educational success and employability and elsewhere will be extremely vulnerable if for Roma/Gypsies. returned to the Czech Republic. It will be particularly important to ensure that those The UN Human Rights Committee in its children who have been successful in education Concluding Observations (July 2001) on the systems in other countries are not automatically Czech Government’s compliance with the placed back in the special school system. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights expressed “particular [...] concern [...] Special schools about the disproportionate number of Roma “Considering the fact that education is a key children who are assigned to special schools area in view of Romani integration, efforts of designed for mentally disabled children, which the Czech State have been insufficient so far ... would seem to indicate the use of stereotypes in Although the Czech Republic undertook to the placement decisions in contravention of [...] develop an active policy, we do not see the Covenant.” The Committee called upon the integration but on the contrary segregation government to “take immediate and decisive activities.” steps” to eradicate what it termed “the Development of the Situation of Romany segregation of Roma children in its educational 15 Minority in View of Compliance with the system.” Framework Convention, Czech Helsinki Committee Annual Report for 1998, Sources for information about the education of http//www.helcom.cz/en/zprava98. Roma/Gypsy children include the most recent officially held statistics on the ethnicity of school “According to an estimate of some experts and children, published in 1991 by the Federal employees of the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Work and Social Affairs and the Youth and Sport, up to 80 per cent of all most recent (1999) volume of the Institute for Romani children go to special schools.” Information on Education’s Statistical Yearbook. Racism, Xenophobia and the Position of However, the Statistical Yearbook does not make Romanies, Czech Helsinki Committee, full reference to ethnicity. It has therefore been 21 February 1998. common practice in the Czech Republic to

37 suggest that there are no accurate statistics on The following sections consider the legal status of the distribution of Roma/Gypsies within the special schools, the procedure by which a child is education system, and to claim as justification placed in a special school; some of the reasons for this the “civic principle” which refuses to why Roma/Gypsies are so over-represented in distinguish between citizens on the basis of their these schools and the possible legal remedies ethnicity. Concern at this approach was raised by available to Roma/Gypsies who are discriminated ECRI’s suggestion in 1997: “steps should be taken against in this way. to improve information on the Roma/Gypsy community at the level of local authorities, What are special schools? research institutions and non-governmental Section 4 of the Czech Schools Law is devoted to organisations in order to facilitate the planning “specialised schools”, at both elementary and 16 of social policies in relation to the Roma/Gypsy secondary levels. community.” To this it should be added that research has shown that many local authorities “Specialised schools offer, using special do, in practice, keep records of ethnicity in educational and teaching methods, means, and schools which are not made public. As a result, forms, education and teaching to pupils with the possible beneficial aspects of statistics mental, sensory or physical handicap, pupils (in campaigning for improvements in educational with speech impediments, pupils with multiple policy) are prevented, while the privacy of the impediments, pupils with behavioural Roma/Gypsy individuals involved is still not difficulties and sick or weakened pupils placed respected. in hospital care; they prepare these students for integration into work processes and the life of society.”

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There are three subcategories of “specialised decision to allocate a small child to a special schools”: those that offer the full elementary school has immediate implications for the school syllabus to pupils with physical handicaps whole of his or her future education. or behaviour disorders; “special schools” offered in the place of elementary schools to pupils with How do children enter special schools? learning disabilities and “auxiliary schools”, for “pupils who cannot even be educated in special “The majority of Romani children are, from schools.”17 Roma/Gypsy children are massively the very beginning, perceived as outsiders who over-represented in special schools; they are not will not succeed, both in their own community significantly over-represented in specialised and by the school, and it is only a matter of schools or auxiliary schools. time until these students are transferred to a special school. Many, if not most, elementary Despite smaller classes and higher funding school teachers follow teaching methods per pupil, it is unambiguously disadvantageous which try to ‘paint Romani children white’, for a social group to have its children without considering the fact that a Romani disproportionately allocated to special schools, student is just as valuable a client as any other, for several reasons. First, the Schools Law is whatever his starting position. ... The clear on who special schools are for:18 traditional solution in situations where the difference between Romani and other “in special schools pupils are educated who children’s achievements is unmanageably high have intellectual deficiencies [rozumové has been transfer to a special school – seen by nedostatky] such that they cannot successfully both sides as a release. be educated in elementary schools, nor in ‘Report on the situation of the Romani specialised elementary schools.” community in the Czech Republic’, attached to Resolution No. 686/1997, on the present It also clearly states where “mentally situation in the Romani community, of the handicapped” children and pupils are to be Czech Government, 29 October 1997, designated: “special kindergartens, remedial Sections 4.1.2. and 4.1.7. special schools, auxiliary schools, technical training centres and practical schools”.19 The organisation, funding and structure of specialised schools, and the process by which Secondly, pupils in special schools are not pupils are placed in them, are the subject of the provided with an education of equal value to that 1997 Specialised Schools Decree of the Ministry received in elementary schools, and are able to of Education.20 The Decree reiterates the fact, progress only to “technical training centres” and established in the Schools Law, that special “practical schools” – which offer shortened schools are offered to pupils with learning and limited programmes and do not award full disabilities, here reformulated as “mentally school-leaving qualifications. In other words, a handicapped”. According to the ERRC,

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“This is the only group of students to whom The parents and special school director respond special schools are offered; in other words, to an initial recommendation, which may come special schools are designed to meet the needs from one of a variety of people:23 of ‘mentally handicapped’ children, and of no other group. It is therefore evident that “A suggestion to place a child or pupil in one 80 per cent of Roma/Gypsy children are now, of the schools referred to in No. 7/1 may be de facto, designated ‘mentally handicapped’ by made to the director of that school by any of the Czech education system.”21 the following: the pupil’s legal guardian, the school already attended by the pupil, an Article 7 of the Decree establishes the process educational psychologists’ centre, a health by which a child is placed in a special school. establishment, an organ for family and child The placement depends upon three things: the care, an education centre or a diagnostic decision of the director of the (designated) institute of social care for mentally- special school, the consent of the legal guardian handicapped youth.” of the child, and the opinion of an educational psychologists’ centre. While the director makes In practice, it is normally made by the “mother” the final decision, he or she can only place a child school, and there is a tendency for teachers in this outside the mainstream system with the school to attempt to get rid of the “weaker” agreement of the legal guardian:22 children. This initial recommendation is followed by an assessment made by an educational “The placement and transfer of children and psychologists’ centre. The decree fails to define pupils into specialised kindergartens and the precise nature of this assessment: specialised elementary schools, special schools, auxiliary schools and preparatory-level classes “an educational psychologists’ centre will is decided by the director of the school, with collect together all the materials necessary for a the agreement of the pupil’s or child’s legal decision and will suggest to the director of the guardian.” school the placement of the child or pupil in the appropriate type of school.” The requirement for parental consent is often used to refute the idea that Roma/Gypsies are The tests usually performed by the educational sent to special schools regardless of their actual psychologist are of the IQ-test type. These may abilities. However, there is ample evidence be supplemented by a doctor’s report and, if the that many Roma/Gypsy parents are either child has already started school, a report from the manipulated into consenting or inadequately mainstream school. On the basis of the tests and informed of the effect of their consent. other information, psychologists can recommend that the child is sent to a special school. While in theory this initial placement should be temporary,

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and while the pupil’s stay at a special school Crucial in the decision to allocate a child to special should always hold open the possibility of a school is the examination and expert opinion of transfer back, in practice neither of these the educational psychologists’ centre, and crucial correctives is used. Although the recent amendent in that expert opinion is the IQ, or psychometric, to the Schools Law makes transfers possible, there test. A 1997 Czech government report states is still a significant group of children who do not that “Romani children are transferred [to special have access to the benefit of transferring to a schools] on the basis of a standard procedure, a regular primary school. Most children are placed psychological examination”.24 The key word here in special schools either at the beginning of is “standard”: a frequent argument against the school attendance or within the first two years, existence of discrimination in the allocation of and nearly all of these pupils stay in special school Roma/Gypsy children to special schools is that for the remainder of their primary education. they are placed there on the basis of objective tests. There is nothing in the Schools Law or the Specialised Schools Decree that is explicitly The tests include verbal and non-verbal elements discriminatory. In fact, neither refer at all to and are based on the Wechsler and Stanford-Binet ethnicity nor nationality. However, they provide tests used in the West. A significant step against the framework against which the discriminatory the discrimination of Romani children in placement of Roma/Gypsy children in special schools is the recent standardisation of new test schools is carried out, and establish that special WISK-III-UK, which is less culturally biased than schools will then provide Roma/Gypsy children previous tests. The debates about the effectiveness with second-rate education. Ultimately, the laws of IQ tests in general, and about their tendency fail to provide any mechanism for specific to reflect racial biases in the society in which they complaint or legal remedy against placement in are applied are well documented. On top of this, special school. the use of the tests in the Czech Republic is further complicated by the fact that they have The educational psychologist and the IQ test never been properly reconfigured even for the Reasons for the over-representation of Czech language (let alone for Romani). As a Roma/Gypsies in special schools include the result, in practice, different psychologists use linguistic and cultural specificity of the IQ tests different tests or different versions of the same used; the failure of elementary schools and tests. However, some commentators feel that assessment systems to take into account the discussion about altering IQ tests to make them linguistic situation of young Roma/Gypsy reflect the cultural specificity of Roma/Gypsy children, and sometimes explicit discrimination pupils is unproductive; the evidence suggests that, by teachers and educational psychologists who while IQ tests may be the basis of educational see special schools as the “natural home” of psychologists’ decisions about ethnic Czech Roma/Gypsy children. children, they are not crucial in decisions about Roma/Gypsies.

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There is no definition of, or administrative co-operate in placing their children in remedial decision about, the cut-off point at which a special schools or, in a scenario decried by pupil’s IQ test designates him or her as having many Roma and non-Roma, request that their “intellectual deficiencies” (Schools Law), and children be placed there.” therefore as being special school material. As a ERRC, A Special Remedy: Roma and result, even the supposedly “standard” IQ test Schools for the Mentally Handicapped results are subject to non-standard interpretation. in the Czech Republic, June 1999 p.11 In practice, investigations (both by NGOs and by the Ministry of Education itself) have found A number of other factors may be important in Roma/Gypsy pupils with IQs as high as 120 who the pattern of gross misallocation of Roma/ have nonetheless been placed in special schools. Gypsy children to special schools. One is the Reasons given in these cases include “antisocial problem of parental consent. It has been a great behaviour” in the classroom. This is very source of frustration to Roma/Gypsy leaders in worrying for two reasons: first, if a child – recent years that many Roma/Gypsy parents Roma/Gypsy or non-Roma/Gypsy – genuinely continue to give their consent to, or even to shows behaviour disorder, he or she should be request, the placement of their children in special placed in a specialised school offering the full schools. There may be several reasons for this. normal syllabus, rather than being inappropriately Roma/Gypsy parents have very often been placed in a school for children with learning educated at special schools themselves and are disabilities. Secondly, it seems that while this unable to help their children with the very heavy misdiagnosis is not exclusive to Roma/Gypsy burden of homework required by the Czech basic children, it is very widely applied to them. school system. They are often inadequately This generates the speculation (supported by informed of the educational difference between Roma/Gypsy parents and activists) that when special school and elementary school, and may, Roma/Gypsy children misbehave in the class- wrongly, believe that special schools are room of an elementary school, they are punished advantageous for Roma/Gypsies. by effective “demotion” to special schools. In addition, in many towns special schools are located in areas with high concentrations of Other factors leading to placement in special schools Roma/Gypsies, and families may feel under “Romani children are disproportionately placed economic pressure to send their children to the in such schools because they under-perform “local” school. Special schools, with their high in tasks designed for majority Czechs, and budget per child, provide children with books and because of the racist attitudes of schooling club activities, and poor families may feel that authorities. As a result of centuries of their children are getting a better deal going to a discriminatory and degrading treatment at the school which imposes less of a financial burden hands of authorities, some Romani parents on them.

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A further factor behind the placement of in accordance with the Article 58 of the Schools Roma/Gypsy children in special schools is that Law for children from socially disadvantaged many Roma/Gypsy parents remove their children environments. Ironically the majority of the from elementary schools as a result of the preparatory classes were established in the special discrimination and bullying which the children remedial schools for mentally handicapped. suffer there. In 1999/2000 there were 1,425 children in 114 preparatory classes. Yet another factor is particularly worrying. There are frequent examples of special school heads Legal remedies canvassing Roma/Gypsy parents of preschool The Framework Convention for the Protection children to persuade them to send their children of National Minorities was ratified by the Czech to special school. In such cases, with parental Republic in December 1997, and entered into consent and the consent of the special school force on 1 April 1998. In accordance with Article head, children may be in special school for years 10 of the Czech Constitution, this Convention is before they even have a psychologist’s assessment, “directly binding and take[s] precedence over the by which time it may be too late for them to law”. However, previous experience has shown catch up on the elementary school syllabus. that local courts, and even the Supreme Court and As schools in the Czech Republic are now the Constitutional Court, are reluctant to give financially self-regulating, there is increasing weight to international treaties. pressure on special school heads not to risk losing their Roma/Gypsy pupils. The most recent Resolution passed on matters concerning the Roma/Gypsy community was the While there is clear evidence that psychologists “Concept of the Governmental Policy towards are responsible for sending many Roma/Gypsy the Members of Romany Community” in June children inappropriately to special schools, they 2000. This requires the Ministry of Education to are to some extent only responding to demands “create conditions limiting racial (and other) from the “mother” elementary schools and from discrimination and if necessary present to the the “destination” special schools. Roma/Gypsy government suggestions for amendments to parents are not properly informed of the existing laws.” Such amendments have not, so far, implications of the decisions they are making been presented to the government, although work for their children. on a new Schools Law has been in progress since early 1998. In particular, the recommendations As a response to this situation, Article 60 of made by CERD in 1998 do not appear to be the Amendment to the Schools Law allows leading to laws specifically protecting against organisations of courses that are aimed at discrimination in the Czech Republic. As the completing elementary education. Another major Commissioner for Human Rights said in a speech step is the establishment of preparatory classes, in December 1998, “at the moment we have no

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stipulation under which it would be possible to The Court also questioned the issue of whether punish a school headmaster who says to a Romani the parents and the ERRC had successfully mother ‘Romani children do not attend this exhausted all domestic remedies, pointing out school. Go a kilometre or two further along, that that ERRC filed a complaint directly with the is where Romani children go.’” Practices of this Constitutional Court, rather than with lower kind are outright racial discrimination, and a courts. The Court effectively refused to apply violation of the agreement by the state (CERD), applicable international legal standards for yet the state has no means of preventing them. proving racial discrimination. On 18 April 2000, In other words, the lack of legislation converting representing 18 Roma/Gypsy children from constitutional guarantees of equal opportunity Ostrava, the ERRC and local counsel filed an into anti-discriminatory laws renders those application with the European Court of Human constitutional guarantees functionally useless. Rights in Strasbourg. At the time of writing this is still on-going. These problems were illustrated recently by a case put together over two years by the ERRC. In spite of such developments, it is clear that such In January and February 1999 ERRC conducted intensive legal activity, supported by a specialised research in Ostrava, the third biggest city in the international organisation, is simply unavailable to north east of the Czech Republic. The parents most Roma/Gypsy parents. This gap will become of 12 Roma/Gypsy children from Ostrava were increasingly apparent to Roma/Gypsy parents as assisted in filing a lawsuit with the Czech they learn more about their children’s educational Constitutional Court and the Ostrava School rights. Bureau, charging the Czech Ministry of Education and local school authorities with Elementary schools segregating Romani children into remedial special schools for the mentally deficient because they “The level of education among Roma is are Roma/Gypsies. In all instances, there was particularly low [...] Czech curricula do not strong evidence (including IQ re-testing) that include Roma history, language or culture, the children had been incorrectly placed and the Roma advocates assert that many Roma view case was backed by a large amount of objective the offered education as ‘foreign’ and not evidence. However, the case was rejected by relevant to their well-being.” the Constitutional Court. In its decision of UNHCR, Guidelines Relating to the 20 October 1999, the Court acknowledged the Eligibility of Czech Roma Asylum-Seekers, “persuasiveness” of the applicants’ arguments. 21 April 1998. However, it did not find that a policy or practice could be unintentionally discriminatory and ruled Roma/Gypsy children who do start at elementary that it had no authority to consider evidence schools may find themselves alienated by the demonstrating a pattern and practice of racial absence of any reference to Roma/Gypsies in discrimination in Ostrava or the Czech Republic. Czech schoolbooks; by attitudes of non-Roma/

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Gypsy pupils (who receive no multicultural “effect changes in syllabi at basic and education) and by the inexperience of teachers, secondary school in order that these syllabi the vast majority of whom receive no information contain information about Roma, their history about Roma/Gypsies before arriving in the (including the history of the Nazi holocaust), classroom. The fact that so many Roma/Gypsy their culture and their traditions.” children are placed so early in special schools means that Roma/Gypsy children in basic Until then, school textbooks on history, schools may feel extremely isolated, and geography, literature and civic society had no may request to go to a special school with mention at all of Roma/Gypsies (with the their friends. exception of very brief references to the Roma/ Gypsy holocaust). The result of this is implicitly Many Roma/Gypsy parents complain that their to present Roma/Gypsies (who have been on children suffer bullying in elementary schools, and the territories of the Czech lands for at least that teachers are not prepared to defend them. 500 years) as having no part in Czech history, In addition, fears are expressed about the violence and therefore as being recent, foreign immigrants that Roma/Gypsy children may suffer on the way without a history of their own. This gives Roma/ to or from school; there have, in fact, been a Gypsy children in basic schools the feeling that number of skinhead attacks on Roma/Gypsy they are outsiders – a feeling that continues to be schoolchildren in recent years. Government and widespread among the majority of Czechs. other reports on the education of Roma/Gypsy children confirm the practice of seating these Any incorporation of Roma/Gypsy history and children at the back of the class, excluding them culture is therefore to be encouraged. Some from classroom activity. These problems must researchers have expressed concern about the be seen in addition to an elementary school question of who will be given the crucial task of system which is widely criticised for its preparing documents on Roma/Gypsy history. excessive demands on all pupils and its failure However, it is probable that, as in the writing of to accommodate those who diverge from the the history of any group, accurate and interesting average (including gifted children, children accounts will be arrived at by a process of trial from minorities and children with special and error, once the first important step of educational needs). No attempt to prevent introducing Roma/Gypsies into the syllabus has Roma/Gypsy children from being sent to been taken. Another concern involves the special schools will be successful until the financing of such textbooks. Previous materials, elementary school system is made radically including a valuable anthology of writings by more accommodating. and about Roma/Gypsies published in 1998, have been supported by the Czech Ministry of The Concept of a Government Policy towards Education. However, they have been inadequately the Members of the Romani Community (June funded, with the result that they have been 2000) requires the Ministry of Education to: available only to a very small number of schools,

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usually ones which already had specific projects school is learn songs?”.) Here, as elsewhere, it is aimed at Roma/Gypsies. It is essential that any crucial that the rights of the Roma/Gypsy teaching materials on Roma/Gypsy history and minority should be seen as based on equal access culture be made available to the entire community rather than on concern for a Roma/Gypsy of children in the Czech Republic, and not only to “cultural identity” which, in practice, leads Roma/Gypsy children. Otherwise, Roma/Gypsy towards segregation. children and their parents will consider Roma/ Gypsy culture to be a non-prestige and useless Roma/Gypsy children in institutions subject at school. This has already been seen In addition to residential schools (including to be the case in projects, for example, that teach residential special schools) there are two main Roma/Gypsy folksongs to Roma/Gypsy children. kinds of institution for school-age children – Their parents have objected to what they children’s homes and instruction centres. perceived as both segregation (“Why should our Children’s homes, mainly for children aged children learn something different from white 6 to 18 (with a very few for three to six year olds), children?”) and a waste of valuable school time receive children after a court decision based on (“How will they ever learn Maths if all they do at the quality of home care available to them.

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Previously it was possible for municipal Language provision authorities to place a child in a home on the basis It has become common in sympathetic accounts of a preliminary decision. Children’s homes are of the difficulties faced by Roma/Gypsies in the often misleadingly referred to as “orphanages”, Czech education system to talk of “linguistic whereas in fact most children have living parents, handicap”, or of the linguistic situation of who often retain legal guardianship. Instruction Roma/Gypsy children as a reason for their centres also receive children on the basis of a non-achievement. The 1997 Czech Government court decision – usually in connection with a report was criticised by some educationalists for criminal process. They exist for teenagers aged using this terminology, in that it suggested that 15 to 18 and are used by courts as alternatives to full or potential bilingualism may be a “linguistic prison sentences or fines. handicap”. In order to assess the effect of linguistic difference on the education of Roma/ Roma/Gypsy children are severely over- Gypsy children, it is necessary to consider the represented in both kinds of institution. linguistic situation of Roma/Gypsies in the According to the Prague-based Fund for Czech Republic as discussed earlier in the report. Threatened Children, Roma/Gypsy children In particular it is important to counter the notions now make up about four per cent of all children, both that the Romani language has effectively but their presence in institutions is far higher – died out and that Romani-language teaching could between 30 per cent and 60 per cent, depending solve the problems of Roma/Gypsy children. upon the kind of institution. In instruction Given that Roma/Gypsies have traditionally been centres, the figure can be as high as 90 per cent. discouraged (often actively) from speaking The relatively high proportion of Roma/Gypsy Romani, many developed a Romani ethnolect of children in children’s homes – which is linked at Czech, immediately recognisable, and marked by least in part to the social fragility of Roma/ literal translations into Czech of characteristic Gypsy families – includes many with unresolved Romani constructions, judged to be “wrong” in citizenship. The shocking figures for instruction Czech schools. Roma/Gypsy parents deliberately centres suggest a worrying pattern of try to use this ethnolect with their children, but, discrimination. Placements in these institutes are as historian Ctibor Necas has written: made without specific terms, so a 15 year old placed in one can expect to be there until he or “The majority even of those children who now she is 18. Does this mean that a high proportion know little or no Romani fail in the teaching of Roma/Gypsy offenders aged 15 to 18 are language and have disproportionate problems receiving long terms in institutions while their in understanding national history and non-Roma/Gypsy contemporaries are far geography and other subjects dependent upon more likely to receive halved or suspended the language. This is because, while their sentences under normal criminal law? The mother language is not Romanes in its formal institutionalisation of Roma/Gypsy children structure, its structure continues to be present requires further study. and to be expressed in indirect ways.”

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Then, as the 1997 Report states: future, if Romani becomes perceived as a prestige language, some parents will want their children to “as the demands made by the curriculum learn in Romani. For the moment, this is very increase, the language deficiency markedly clearly not the case. On the other hand, the deepens, and its results are often mistakenly introduction into schools of Romani as an judged to be a handicap justifying the transfer optional subject, and assessment systems which of the child to a special school.” would record and value Roma/Gypsy pupils’ bilingual skills, should be supported. There is therefore at least a double question. First, psychologists assessing young Roma/Gypsy The government, in aiming to create the children must be able to judge whether they conditions for changing the education system, are in fact doing so in a language that the child hopes to introduce methods that will break down understands. Second, both those responsible for this language barrier. These include: assessing children and the education system as a • preparatory classes whole must be prepared for the existence of a • Romani as an auxiliary teaching language non-standard ethnolect of Czech. • Romani assistants in schools • an individual approach to pupils. A quite different question is whether it would be useful to introduce Romani, either as a teaching The government also plans to introduce a system language or as an optional second language, in of flexible and permeable remedial classes in basic schools. Some international assessments have seen schools with a lower number of pupils than this as the logical way to tackle a problem of standard classes. It also plans to offer adult educational exclusion. The Slovak Romani dialect Roma/Gypsies the chance of completing basic most frequently used in the Czech Republic has and, if appropriate, further education. been well codified; there are a number of books and a dictionary. In theory it would be possible to teach the language immediately (which is an Government and private initiatives important counter-argument to many in the Czech ministries which still argue that Romani is The two main government-supported projects to not a “proper” language). improve the educational record of Roma/Gypsy pupils in the Czech Republic are the preparatory However, it remains true that the great majority year and the programme of Roma/Gypsy of Roma/Gypsy parents in the Czech Republic teaching assistants. Any school may set up a want their children to have equal opportunities in so-called “zero-year”, aimed nominally at “socially Czech. All international support of Romani handicapped” or “socially weak” children, but in educational projects should take account of this. practice directed at Roma/Gypsy children, to Such a desire on the part of Roma/Gypsy parents provide a preschool introduction to the school is not socially neutral, and it is possible that in the environment. Such a project is particularly

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important now, as the introduction of fees for inadequate solution, because there is no guarantee kindergartens in the early 1990s prevented many that the government will have the means or will Roma/Gypsy parents from sending their children to pay teaching assistants. Some Czech there. The teaching assistant programme educationalists have suggested that the only real originated in a similar idea – that the unfamiliarity solution is to have officers for Roma/Gypsy and foreignness of the school environment to (or minority) education attached to each local Roma/Gypsy children must be broken down. authority, charged with assessing needs on a In the programme, Roma/Gypsy assistants regional basis. In this way, the state would be able co-teach in elementary school classes, acting as to commit itself to offering a certain level of linguistic and cultural translators for Roma/Gypsy support, rather than naming acceptable projects children. but leaving individual schools or charities to finance and run them. Both these projects have a clear and significant effect on the children who pass through them, There have been a few examples of entirely and greatly increase the likelihood of those private schools with mainly Roma/Gypsy children remaining in the elementary school students. For example, a Roma/Gypsy Social and system. There are, however, a number of Legal Secondary School was established in the problems. First, the projects are dependent upon central Bohemian town of Kolín in September the host school making a request for them, and 1998. The aim, drawing on previous part-time allocating funds. The willingness, and financial schemes, was to provide Roma/Gypsies with ability, of school heads to take such a step is very qualifications that would enable them to work in uneven. Second, the state has not provided the state sector as social workers. Funding was adequate instruction to schools as to how to run entirely private, partly from international sponsors the projects, with the result that in some places and partly from private (mainly Roma/Gypsy) zero-years have collapsed due to inadequate sponsors in the Czech Republic. However, this communication with Roma/Gypsy parents. Third, school functioned for only one year, as a result of these projects, tacked on to the already existing administrative inexperience and problems with elementary school system, may not go far enough. sponsorship. This failure illustrates some of the problems with expecting the private sector to Overall, with a school-age population of provide an educated Roma/Gypsy workforce. more than 30,000 Roma/Gypsy children in 88 educational authorities, it is clear that the There are also a number of locally based 114 or so zero-years and the 20 teaching assistants state-funded initiatives, but these remain sporadic. are inadequate. In addition, a large number of the For example a clerical school in Ostrava, run by teaching assistants are paid for by NGOs on a a former special school teacher, has piloted one-year-contract basis, and there have been zero-years, teaching assistant projects, examples of projects suddenly being cut due to microclasses and syllabus reorganisations at the funding drying up. One-year contracts are an school. The school employs seven Roma/Gypsy

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assistants to work alongside teachers. The school Under the auspices of the Varianty project, Brno also incorporates within its programmes aspects University is developing a research programme on of Romani culture, such as music and dance. race relations to examine how conflict between Another important aspect of this school is that it the Czech majority and the Roma minority can be welcomes the participation of Roma/Gypsy reduced or resolved. In addition, courses will be parents, some of whom come to the school held for Roma/Gypsy activists, and the project every day while others come for special will also support the Roma/Gypsy teaching programmes. Finally, the school employs a social assistants employed in schools. In August 2000 worker whose responsibility lies with maintaining the New School Association received 2 million Kc social contacts between the school and the (just over $US 50,000) from the government to students’ families help integrate Roma/Gypsy children into mainstream schools. The results are impressive. Now in its seventh year, the school is sending Roma/Gypsy children The Ministry of Culture has supported Roma/ to gymnasiums (the most prestigious secondary Gypsy cultural activities. It funds the Museum of schools). However, the Director repeatedly Romani Culture in Brno, and has subsidised the expresses frustration that the successful production of books in the Romani language. experiments carried out at her school are not Drom, the Romany Center in Brno, also runs being systematically incorporated into the cultural and educational programmes. It offers structures of the Czech educational system. after-school activities for Roma/Gypsy school Thus, the school, although originally aiming at children and works with Masaryk University and providing an example if integrative educational the Brno School Office to train Roma/Gypsy mechanism for Roma/Gypsies and non-Roma/ teaching assistants. It also is involved in Gypsies, remains largely a Romani school. promoting Roma/Gypsy culture, and is in the process of setting up a recording studio in There are a number of other initiatives with co-operation with the Stories Exchange Project Government involvement or support which aim and the Museum of Romani Culture. The studio to develop Roma/Gypsy education and also will record, document and publicise the work improve race relations. The Ministry of Education of Roma/Gypsy musicians. developed a project entitled Complex Improvement of Roma Education. Part of the EU’s PHARE Several universities include Romani issues as part programme, it is designed to develop the Roma/ of the undergraduate curriculum. These include Gypsy education syllabus better to reflect the Charles University (Prague), Palackého University needs of Roma/Gypsy children and also to (Olomouc) and the University of Jan Evangelista educate schoolchildren from the Czech majority Purkyn (Ustí nad Labem). Other universities about Roma/Gypsies and other minorities. include Romani studies in more specialised parts of their curricula.25 The government has also launched a preparatory police training course to

50 2 THE CZECH REPUBLIC

encourage minorities to join the police. At the Voices of Roma/Gypsy children moment the numbers involved are small: two Roma/Gypsies and five Poles passed the most Roma/Gypsy boy, six years old, in a preparatory class recent course in February 2001. which runs the Step-by-Step programme, using a special method for activities in the class “What do you like to do best in school?” Conclusion “I like to go to the number corner and look at the numbers, I talk to the aunt [Romani The overwhelming majority of Roma/Gypsy assistant] and she explains.” parents in the Czech Republic clearly express the “Do you go also to other corners in the class?” desire that their children’s education should be “Yes, I like to go to the logical corner and play accomplished, fairly, within the framework of with the games.” the mainstream Czech education system. This “What language do you speak at school?” subjective desire must be taken into account as “I speak with the aunt, she can understand me the Czech government develops, and international better, but also the teachers shows us how to organisations support, policies to remove the do some things.” critical discrimination from the Czech education “Do you like it?” system. A three-pronged policy approach is “Yes, I like very much.” required: • the practice of sending Roma/Gypsy children Roma/Gypsy girl, 11 years old, in a special remedial to special schools must be stopped school for the mentally handicapped • the elementary school system must be altered “What would you like to be?” (both in terms of syllabus and in terms of “I would like to be a teacher. My mum wants education of teachers) to make it capable of me to change schools, because she says that it embracing multiculturalism is the only way for me to become a teacher.” • effective legal remedies must be introduced to “Do you like your school?” protect Roma/Gypsy children from ongoing “Yes, I have many friends here.” discrimination. “What subject do you like best?” “I like mathematics and Czech language.” If such measures are not introduced, the growing “Do you also speak other languages?” political and social impact of an under-educated, “Yes, I speak Romanes and a little English and therefore practically unemployable, minority from the TV.” will soon be felt by the entire EU. Roma/Gypsy girl, 14 years old, in a regular elementary school “What would you like to be?” “I would like to be a model and make a lot of money.”

51 “Do you have any hobbies?” establishment, somewhere in the 1920s, I can’t “Yes, I like very much dancing.” tell you exactly, but it is interesting.” “What do you do for making your dream true?” “Would you like to be a teacher?” “Many things, for example, I am on a diet, “No, I don’t think so, I am not patient enough. because all models must be very slim. My mum It is very tough you know, sometimes, we don’t is angry and calls me a crazy goat and says that know anything and the teacher gets very upset if I do not stop dieting, she will drag me to the with us sometimes. I get angry with the others doctor and they tie me to the bed and will give in the class myself, because they don’t know me food through tubes, directly into my veins.” the answers, so I tell them quietly so at least “What subjects do you like in school?” they can repeat, but then the teacher gets angry “None in particular, maybe music classes, and with me.” physical education, but I like to talk in the class and answer the questions of the teacher.” Pavel, nine years old, Special Remedial School for Mentally Handicapped Roma/Gypsy boy, 15 years old, at regular elementary [During arts class]: “This is a nice picture you are school drawing, what is it?” “What subjects do you like in school?” “It is bunch of flowers I would like to give to “I like history. We have a very young teacher my mum for her birthday.” and he tells us all about what happened. He “Do you like drawing” likes me, because I know the answers to the “Yes, I like the colours and I like to mix them questions.” all together and make new ones.” “What are you discussing now?” “What would you like to be when you finish school?” “We are in the middle of Czechoslovakia’s “I don’t know, I could be a teacher or a cook.”

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Recommendations • the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (signed 30 September 1990, ratified 7 January Given that the Czech Republic has ratified: 1991, entered into force 1 January 1993) • the European Convention on Adoption of • the UNESCO Convention against Children (ratified 8 October 2000) Discrimination in Education • the European Convention on Recognition and • the European Convention for the Protection Enforcement of Decision Concerning Custody of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Children and on Restoration of Custody of (ratified 18 March 1992; entered into force Children (ratified 8 October 2000) 1 January 1993) • the European Convention on Legal Status of • the First Protocol to the European Convention Children Born out of Wedlock (ratified for the Protection of Human Rights and 26 April 2000) Fundamental Freedoms (ratified 18 March • the European Convention on the Exercise of 1992; entered into force on 1 January 1993) Children’s Rights (ratified 26 April, 2000) • the Framework Convention for the Protection • the European Charter for Regional or Minority of National Minorities (ratified 18 December Languages (ratified 9 November 2000) 1997; entered into force on 1 April 1998) • the Hague Convention on the Protection of Children and on Children Participation in and that it has not yet ratified: Armed Conflicts (ratified 24 January 2000) • the Optional Protocol to the UN Convention • the Hague Convention on the Rights of on the Rights of the Child (signed on 6 Authorities, Legal Remedies, Recognition October 2000) and Co-operation in matters of Parental • the Protocol instituting a Conciliation and Responsibility and Measures for the Good Offices Commission to be responsible Protection of Children (ratified 2 February for seeking the settlement of any dispute 2000) which may arise between States Parties to the • the International Covenant on Civil and Convention against Discrimination in Political Rights (ratified 22 February 1993, Education. entered into force 1 January 1993 – this Save the Children recommends that: discrepancy and those below are due to the fact that the Czech Republic has assumed The Government of the Czech Republic: some of Czechoslovakia’s obligations) • Ratifies the Optional Protocol to the UN • the International Covenant on Economic, Convention on the Rights of the Child. Social and Cultural Rights (ratified 1 January • Ratifies the Protocol instituting a Conciliation 1993, entered into force 1 January 1993) and Good Offices Commission to be • the International Convention on the responsible for seeking the settlement of any Elimination of All Forms of Racial dispute which may arise between States Parties Discrimination (ratified 22 February 1993, to the Convention Against Discrimination in entered into force 1 January 1994) Education.

53 DENIED A FUTURE?VOLUME 2

• Takes measures to end segregation of The international organisations, including Roma/Gypsy and non-Roma/Gypsy children the UN Commission on Human Rights, in schools as perpetuated through the special the Special Rapporteur on Contemporary school system. Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination, • Adopts the appropriate anti-discrimination Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, legislation as recommended by CERD and European Commission against Racism and other international bodies. Intolerance: • Accords priority to the principle of an • Closely monitor the international obligations integrated and equally accessible education undertaken by the Czech government in for all. respect of the right to education with • Establishes Romanes as both subject and particular attention to the right to education of medium of teaching, where relevant, and as a Roma/Gypsy children. supporting language in preparatory classes and • Make informed representations to the Czech first grade of elementary school. Government in respect to the Plenipotentiary • Establishes a fund to support extra-curricular for Human Rights and the Chair of the and training programmes for Roma/Gypsy Inter-Ministerial Commission for Roma children. Community Affairs, “Concept of the • Establishes training of teachers on issues of Governmental Policy towards the Members human and minority rights, ethnic and of Romany Community”, which was approved multicultural issues including Roma/Gypsy by the government on 14 June 2000. history and culture. As part of this it should provide teachers in all elementary schools with supporting textbooks. • Provides free integrated kindergarten for all children, including Roma/Gypsies. • Bases education on the principle of intercultural and multicultural education and modifies the curricula to include history, culture and languages of all minorities including Roma/Gypsies.

54 2 THE CZECH REPUBLIC

Czech Republic: Notes on the text 9 For more see ERRC, A Special Remedy: Roma and Schools for the Mentally Handicapped in the Czech Republic, Country Report Series 1 Vlach Roma in the context of Central Europe are communities No. 8, June 1999. that speak the New Vlax dialects, referred to in other contexts as Kardarasha, Vlah or Olah. 10 Zákon o trvalém usídlení kocujících osob, No. 74/1958, 17 October 1958. 2 Zákon o trvalém usídlení kocujících osob, No. 74/1958, 17 October 1958. 11 Usnesení vlády CSSR o opatreních k resení otázek cikánského obyvatelstva, No. 502, 13 October 1965. 3 Concluding observation of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Czech Republic CERD A/55/ 18, paras 271 – 288. 12 Government of the Czech Republic, Report of the Inter-Ministerial Commission for Romani Community Affairs, December 2000. 4 Concluding observation of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Czech Republic CERD/C/SR.1411 and 1412. 13 Government of the Czech Republic, Report on Human Rights Education in the Czech Republic, 2001, and Resolution of the Government 5 EU Progress Report, 8 November 2000, pp 22–27. For more see of the Czech Republic No. 28, 3 January 2001. http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/index.htm 14 ERRC, A Special Remedy: Roma and Schools for the Mentally 6 Under Section 31 of the Law of the Czech National Council handicapped in the Czech Republic. Country Report Series No. 8. No. 200/1990 Coll. on offences, as amended. June 1999.

7 Until 1999 the Law on Schools [Skolsky zakon] did not recognise 15 Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: the Special Remedial School as an institution where one can obtain Czech Republic. 24/07/01. CCPR/CO/72/CZE. complete primary education. This prevented Roma/Gypsy children from further studies at secondary schools. A Roma/Gypsy MP, 16 Schools Law, No. 77/1996, October 10, 1996, 28 (1). Monika Horakova, was the main initiator of this legislative change 17 Schools Law, No. 29/33. and the government supported her undertaking. For more see the Report of the Plenipotentiary for Human Rights, 14 June 2000, 18 Schools Law 1996, No. 31/1. Part II. pp.22. This aims to outline the contemporary situation of 19 Article (2) 4, 1997 Special Schools Decree Roma/Gypsy communities. Government policy towards members of Roma communities is ultimately aimed at assisting their 20 Decree on Specialised Schools and Specialised Kindergartens, integration in society. No. 44/1997, 7 May 1999.

8 Even though the legal aspect of the problem may have been 21 ERRC, A Special Remedy: Roma and Schools for the Mentally solved, education provided by special schools still does not prepare handicapped in the Czech Republic, Country Report Series No. 8. pupils for further studies. Furthermore, the amendment has failed June 1999. to establish a subsidiary form of extra education that would 22 Specialised Schools Decree, No. 7/1. balance the difference between basic and special schools. For more on this, see Comments on the Report on the Czech Republic on Performance 23 Specialised Schools Decree, No. 7/2. of the Obligation Arising from the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination: http://www.pili.org/library/ 24 1997 Report, 6.1.7. brief_bank/commets_to_the_czech_report.htm 25 Dobal, V, Report on the Situation of the Romani Community in the Czech Republic, website: http://www.cts.cuni.cz/~dobal/report/ index.html, 1998.

55 3 Finland

The main stated objective of the Finnish education policy is to provide all citizens with equal Summary opportunities to receive education, irrespective of age, domicile, economic situation, sex or mother Context tongue: “Education is considered to be a Finland has a long track record of positive fundamental right of all citizens”. work with Roma/Gypsies. It spends a high UNESCO, Education for All, Finland Report proportion of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on education, although cuts were made following the recession of the early 1990s.

Roma population In 1995 Roma/Gypsies in Finland gained the same minority status as that enjoyed by the Swedish and Sami. Unofficial estimates put their number at 10,000. Most are concentrated in urban areas, especially the south. Discrimination exists in housing, education and employment, leading to marginalisation, although there is a lack of research into their living conditions. There are several Roma/Gypsy representative groups.

Roma and education The educational level of the Roma/Gypsies has improved, but remains low compared to the overall population. Most do not complete comprehensive school and cannot progress on to further education. The Government created the Education Unit for the Romani Population to develop training and education for Roma/Gypsies.

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Finland report: contents

Introduction – the Roma/Gypsy population 58 Demography 58 Language provision Language 58 Most Roma/Gypsies speak Finnish as their first language. The Government has Minority rights 58 stimulated interest in Romanes through the The right to education 60 Romani Language Board. Roma have the right to be taught in Romanes, although there is a In practice 61 dearth of suitably qualified teachers and The right to education for Roma/Gypsy teaching materials. children 61 Language provision 64 Balance of NGO and government Government initiatives 66 activity The Advisory Board on Romani Affairs 66 Finland has a high number of government The Education Unit for the Romani Population 67 initiatives regarding Roma/Gypsy education. The Inter-Ministerial Working Group for The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health has Roma Affairs 69 a longstanding “Advisory Board for Gypsy The Romani Language Board 70 Affairs,” half of which is made up of The Rom-sf project 70 representatives of national and local Roma/Gypsy associations. In 2000 it NGO practice in the area 71 established the Inter-Ministerial Working International covenants, conventions and charters 71 Group for Roma Affairs. The Government’s work is not balanced by a high level of Finland: notes on the text 72 NGO involvement, although there are two well-established charities and a number of newer NGOs working with and for Roma/Gypsies.

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Finland stands out as one of the few countries in Language Europe that appear to have many positive There is no recent research data on the languages examples of government initiatives in this area. spoken by Roma/Gypsies. According to a survey We therefore felt it important to include Finland carried out in 1981 it was reported that 81 per in this report. However, despite our best efforts, cent of Romani youth knew less than 50 words in it was possible to gather only limited, anecdotal the Romani language.4 In research carried out in information on NGO activity in this area. 1954 about 80 per cent of Roma/Gypsies We were able to identify just a few key NGOs interviewed most commonly used Finnish in their working with Roma/Gypsies and detailed daily conversation; this would suggest that most information had not arrived by the time this Roma/Gypsies in Finland speak Finnish as their report went to print. The Finland report is first language. therefore based mainly on secondary research and primarily focuses on formal government initiatives as an example of the more active role Minority rights that governments can play. More research is required in order to make recommendations. International law and international conventions are not directly applicable to Finnish domestic law. Broadly, however, international conventions, can Introduction – the Roma/Gypsy be incorporated into domestic law in three ways. population The most usual method is by Act of Parliament or by Decree. International law may also be Demography incorporated by harmonising existing domestic Most commentators believe that Roma/Gypsies law with the convention in question. The third first began to arrive in what was then the method is to insert special clauses into existing Kingdom of Sweden during the mid-16th national legislation, explicitly referring to an century.1 It is difficult to estimate their current international convention.5 numbers. Finnish citizens are not officially registered according to their ethnic origin, and For international conventions relating to human many Roma/Gypsies maintain a dual Finnish and rights however, there is a little more leeway. Romani identity. According to unofficial sources, The Finnish constitutional framework includes a there are at least 10,000 Roma/Gypsies in provision guaranteeing that, as a rule, the rights Finland.2 In the most recent official survey (1995) enshrined in human rights treaties apply to all 8,910 Roma were counted. This survey showed persons residing within the jurisdiction of Finland that Romani communities are concentrated in whether or not they are Finnish citizens. Although urban areas, particularly in the south of the race is not explicitly mentioned as a ground of country. Most Roma in the Uusimaa County live discrimination, it can be presumed that it falls in Helsinki (about 85 per cent).3 under the general expression “other reason

58 3 FINLAND

relating to person”. At the time of writing this • the establishment of an office of a report, we were not aware of any test cases, so it discrimination ombudsman as of 1 September is difficult to assess if and how this translates into 2001 practice. Furthermore, the government noted that • a duty placed on every branch of state the concept of “origin” found in Article 5 of the administration to promote recruitment from all Constitution covers the concepts of race, national ethnic minorities origin, ethnic origin and colour. This Article • measures by all branches of the administration provides the principle of non-discrimination and to provide services for ethnic minorities and to is fundamental to the protection of all human develop consultation rights. • a study to be commissioned by the government to examine the roles, regulation In February 1995, Finland amended its and practices of ministries and administrations, Constitution in order to raise the level of including the Social Insurance Institution, in protection for Roma/Gypsies as a minority to order to determine whether they include match that granted to Swedish and Sami practices that infringe on the rights of minorities.6 This protection covers the adoption immigrants and ethnic minorities of measures for maintaining and developing their • arrangements ensuring the availability of own language and culture. These measures, as well resources and development of research in as the amendments of the Constitution, are the this area. result of a consultation process between the Roma/Gypsy communities and the local and In addition to this, the Foreign Minister gave a national authorities. report in November 2000 to the Foreign Affairs Committee which assessed progress to date with The Ministry of Labour has recently proposed an human rights policy and offered new objectives. action plan to combat ethnic discrimination and It devotes particular attention to the fight against racism, which is due to be adopted in the course racism and the promotion of Roma issues at of 2001. If adopted it will run in the period international forums. In January 2001, the 2001-2003. The programme refers to a number President proposed to the Parliamentary of minority groups including Roma/Gypsies. Assembly of the Council of Europe that a Measures will be carried out at national, regional Pan-European Consultative Roma Assembly be and local levels. Although they do not refer set up and supported.8 specifically to education, these measures will certainly have implications for education policy and practice. They include:7 • a government report to Parliament in 2002 on measures to promote ethnic equality and diversity

59 DENIED A FUTURE?VOLUME 2

The right to education A large number of municipalities have arranged preschool instruction targeted in particular The Act on Children’s Day Care (36/1973) at children aged six years, but also at younger incorporates a special obligation on the children. municipality to arrange daycare: a so-called “subjective provision on the right to day care”. An amendment to the Children’s Day Care Decree This provision is contained in paragraph 1 of entered into force on 1 January 1995 (1336/94). §11a of the Act on Children’s Day Care: It builds on the earlier Act by stating that one of the educational goals of daycare is the promotion “it must be possible for a child to attend the day care of the language and culture of Sami, Roma/ referred to in the provision until he or she, as a child Gypsies and immigrant children, with the help subject to compulsory school attendance, as referred to of representatives of the culture in question. in the Act on Comprehensive Schools, starts attending However, in practice, municipalities have yet to a comprehensive or comparable school”. take measures regarding Roma/Gypsies as a result of the amendment. On the basis of the provision, since 1996, all parents and carers of children of preschool age §1 of the Act on Basic Education (628/1999), have been entitled to obtain for their child daycare which took effect at the beginning of 1999, centre or family-care placements, as provided by concerns not only basic education and the municipality (referred to in paragraph 2 or 3 compulsory school attendance but also, inter alia, of §1 of the Act). preschool instruction in the year prior to compulsory school attendance.9 According to Under paragraph 1 of §2a of the Act on §2 of the Act, preschool instruction is designed Children’s Day Care, the core task of daycare is to to promote the general objectives set for basic support in the nurturing of children attending education and, as part of early education, to daycare and to further balance the development of improve the child’s capacity to learn. Under §9 of the child’s personality in consistency with their the Act, preschool instruction lasts for one year. home life. Under §1a of the Decree on Children’s Under §15 of the Act on Basic Education, the Day Care (239/1973), the objectives in §2a of the body which arranges preschool instruction is Act on Children’s Day Care also include support obliged to draw up a curriculum for teaching. for their native tongue and culture. This applies to The teaching of minority languages and minority children of Finnish- and Swedish-speakers, Samis, cultures has been made possible at all levels of Roma/Gypsies and various immigrant groups and schooling: primary, secondary and vocational. is to be done in collaboration with representatives The curriculum is approved separately for of the group in question. instruction in Finnish, Swedish and Sami and, where relevant, instruction in other languages The Act on Children’s Day Care does not include including Romanes and sign language. special provisions on preschool instruction. The obligation to provide preschool instruction

60 3 FINLAND

will be imposed on the municipalities under a In practice separate act, which will enter into force in 2001. These amendments will be made to both the Act The right to education for Roma/Gypsy on Day Care and the Act on Basic Education. children Preschool instruction can be introduced prior to Among the Nordic countries, Finland is generally the entry into force of the Act. regarded as having worked progressively with Roma/Gypsies for the longest period. It set up an Advisory Board on Romani Affairs in 1956 and was one of the first countries to ratify the

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European Charter for Regional or Minority “Education is considered to be a fundamental Languages and the Council of Europe Framework right of all citizens”.13 The right to free basic Convention for the Protection of National education for all residing in Finland – not just Minorities.10 However public opinion and official Finnish citizens – is guaranteed by statutes, which policy up until the 1970s were still very much also set out provisions on compulsory education. based on ideas of assimilation. For example, Moreover, the public authorities are obliged to Romani children were forcibly removed from secure an equal opportunity for all in respect parents and placed in state-run children’s homes.11 of obtaining education beyond the basic level. This equal opportunity is according to abilities Although Roma/Gypsies are entitled to the same and special needs underpinned by an impetus to education as the majority population, in practice ensure development regardless of economic their position as regards education is more circumstances. In principle, post-compulsory difficult than that of Finnish citizens. In recent education is also free of charge, with students years, the educational level of Roma/Gypsies has being entitled to the state’s financial aid. improved considerably, but, compared to the majority population, it remains low. Many Roma/ Finland’s regular education system is financed Gypsy children fail to complete comprehensive almost entirely out of public funds.14 In 1995, school, which makes it difficult for them to enter public expenditure on educational institutions further education. On the other hand, their came to 6.6 per cent of GDP, one of the highest participation in and experience of formal in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation education is still relatively recent. There are no and Development (OECD) countries.15 It is comprehensive data on dropout or attendance important to note, however, that this was rates with reference to Roma/Gypsy children. immediately preceded by a recession, which meant This is a gap that has been identified by the that in 1993, education spending had fallen back Education Unit for the Romani Population, to levels reached in 1988. This had meant that which has initiated a nationwide survey of cuts were made in the comprehensive school by 4,000 schools. Each school was issued with a combining schools, reducing the range of tuition questionnaire on a number of issues including the (curtailing remedial teaching and club activities) question of how many Roma/Gypsy pupils drop and increasing the size of the teaching groups. out and why. At the time of writing it was hoped The biggest relative cuts were made in that results would begin to be analysed in administrative expenditure. Spending cuts on August/September 2001.12 real estate and student welfare were made at the general and vocational upper secondary level.16 In the Education for All Report, the main stated objective of the Finnish education policy is to The responsibility for education provision, provide all citizens with equal opportunities to construction and financing is divided between receive education, irrespective of age, domicile, central government and local authorities or other economic situation, sex or mother tongue: education providers. In addition to their own

62 3 FINLAND

funding, local education providers are entitled to It expressed concerned that immigrants, refugees receive a state subsidy for the founding and and minorities, in particular Roma/Gypsies, have operating costs of educational institutions. higher rates of unemployment, difficulties in accessing housing and social services and higher Despite progress in recent years in promoting the rates of school dropout. CERD recommended level of education for Roma/Gypsies, it remains that the Finnish government take additional lower than that of the mainstream population. measures at national and municipal levels to The transfer of Roma/Gypsy pupils to special improve the situation of the Roma/Gypsy groups and their modest participation in further minority with a view to preventing social education continues to raise questions. exclusion and reducing discrimination.18 Furthermore, austerity measures taken by municipalities have affected Roma/Gypsies more Provision for Roma/Gypsy children faces a than most in terms of cut backs in remedial number of difficulties. Teachers’ limited instruction. A large number of Roma/ Gypsy knowledge of Romani culture and the inadequate children still leave comprehensive school without co-operation between the school and home are completing it, and of those who do, very few two reasons why Roma/Gypsy children are more pursue further studies. As a result, Roma/ likely to discontinue comprehensive education Gypsies have more difficulty than most in than most. entering the labour market. This was recently confirmed by the Finnish government on 24 May Some projects to support Roma/Gypsy children 2000 before the sixth session of the UN Working and their parents in matters relating to schooling Group on Minorities. In her oral declaration, the have been launched. These include Romano Missio’s delegate from Finland paid special attention to Aina ammattiin asti (Right through to a job) educational rights. She added that “a low level of project, which is designed to help young Roma/ education is common among the Roma and an Gypsies complete comprehensive school and take unfortunate reason for many consequences, such up further education. It also aims to determine as unemployment, social problems and resulting the difficulties that arise in the schooling of social exclusion”. Furthermore, in its 1999 Roma/Gypsy children. A study conducted during Concluding Observations on Finland the UN the project indicates that, depending on the Committee on the Elimination of Racial locality, as many as 10-20 per cent of Roma/ Discrimination (CERD) recommended that the Gypsy pupils discontinue school. government adopt additional measures to alleviate the situation of the Roma/Gypsy minority with In its second report to the Committee on the respect to housing, employment and education.17 Rights of the Child, the Finnish Government In its 2000 Concluding Observations on Finland recognised that Roma/Gypsy children have in CERD noted with concern that Roma/Gypsies recent years often failed to complete school.19 continue to experience discrimination in the The situation in respect of school attendance fields of housing, education and employment. and acquired post-school education had been

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improving every year, but there was still a high in the same vein: “The language of instruction school dropout rate among Roma/Gypsy at school shall be either Finnish or Swedish. children. Furthermore Part II of the 1998 Annual The language of instruction can also be Sami, Report of the European Monitoring Centre on Romanes or sign language.” (§12 Instruction in Racism and Xenophobia indicated that social and the mother tongue: Paragraph 2). Likewise, economic inequality between Roma/Gypsies and “In accordance with the guardian’s choice, the Finnish population was still very significant, Romany, sign language or some other mother resulting in problems with accommodation, tongue of the pupil may also be taught as the unemployment, education and social mother tongue.” (Act on Basic Education, marginalisation.20 §10 Language of instruction: Paragraph 1).

The Advisory Board for Romani Affairs has Official statistics show that the Finnish State pays drawn attention to the fact that since the early 86 per cent of the costs required for the teaching 1970s no overall investigation has been made of minority languages. This, together with the into the living conditions of Roma/Gypsies in reform of school legislation has made it possible Finland. This lack of thorough basic research for instruction to be carried out in the Romani makes it difficult to intervene in serious problems. language at comprehensive and senior high school The latest survey (1985) showed that 20 per cent levels, as well as in vocational training and adult of the Roma/Gypsies lived in “very poor” education. However, it is not possible to study the housing conditions or had no housing, while in Romani language at university level. the entire population the proportion of those with “inadequate” housing was 13.5 per cent. Romanes has been taught at a comprehensive Although some municipalities have taken steps to school in Finland since the early 1980s, although improve the living conditions of Roma/Gypsies, initially provided in the form of extra-curricula the Advisory Board believes that, in the country activity. Since 1989, instruction in the Romani as a whole, the housing conditions of Roma/ language and culture has been provided more Gypsies have not improved since 1985. broadly at comprehensive schools, such as Helsinki, Espoo and Vantaa schools. National Language provision curricula for the Romani language have also been Legislation on comprehensive schools guarantees drawn up for senior high schools. certain prerequisites for maintaining and develop- ing Romani language and culture. For example, However, despite legislation in this area, the Basic Right Reform of 1995, §14.3 of the municipalities are under no obligation to provide Constitution observes that: “the Sami, as an this kind of education. In practice, no such aboriginal people, and the Roma and other groups separate education or cultural allocations have are entitled to develop and maintain their own been assigned for Roma/Gypsies, as they have language and culture.” The reform of the school been for Samis. Out of the approximately legislation, which took effect in 1999, continues 1,700 Roma/Gypsy children of comprehensive

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school age, just 250 children in about ten localities In addition to this, the teaching of Romanes is receive instruction in Romanes.21 Furthermore, hampered by a lack of teaching materials. instruction in Romanes is often arranged in An ABC Book in the Romani language was first accordance with the notice issued by the Ministry published in 1982 and a grammar book in 1987. of Education concerning instruction in the New textbooks for the Romanes language were mother tongue for children who speak a foreign published in 1996. In 1989, a booklet on the language. This means that instruction tends to be opportunities of Roma/Gypsy children in Finland provided to groups of four to five Roma/Gypsy and Sweden was published jointly by the two children for just two hours a week either within or countries. A 1991 report by the Working Group outside the curriculum. Ultimately the question for Day Care established by the Ministry of remains of whether, by excluding the Romani Social Affairs and Health (Romanilapsen maailma, language from the main curricula, it is effectively “The world of a Romani child”) gives important rendered an “extracurricular activity”, thus background information, drawing attention to the confining it to outside of official school hours. linguistic and cultural needs of Roma/Gypsy children in daycare. Further to this, little There are a number of reasons for the scarcity information on aspects of “Romani culture” or of instruction in Romanes. The main reason cited on ways of working with Roma/Gypsies has by municipalities is lack of funding and resources. been provided in the training of daycare centre Other major obstacles include the lack of personnel. It has been estimated that the number qualified teachers of Romanes. In response to this of Roma/Gypsy children in daycare or the Education Unit for the Romani Population preparatory school is relatively small compared arranges further training for teachers of Romanes to other children. In the summer of 1991 an in collaboration with Heinola Education Centre. international summer school was organised in The training, which is offered free of charge, has Finland; participants from Finland and other been running now for two years and has so far countries were taught such subjects as the Romani involved ten Roma/Gypsies.22 and Hindi languages and the history and culture of the Roma/Gypsy peoples. Another reason given is that requirements concerning the size of groups have made it As well as teaching Romanes, teachers are also difficult to extend the teaching of the Romani required to perform a number of other tasks language to children living in sparsely populated such as mediation. Roma/Gypsies acting as areas. The Advisory Board for Romani Affairs is Romani language teachers and as school assistants of the opinion that the economic problems of support Roma/Gypsy pupils and function as municipalities (austerity measures taken as a result mediators between teachers on the one hand and of reduced state subsidies) have affected the schools and homes on the other. They are also capacity of schools to offer teaching in the expected to teach aspects of Romani culture. mother tongue of minority groups. The Education Unit is therefore extending training for teachers of Romanes to include a

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Further Qualification of Culture Instructor and The Board has 16 members who are renewed Specialist Qualification of Culture Instructor for every three years by the Council of State. Roma/Gypsies. These qualifications are required Half of its members represent the central for teaching in vocational schools and the basis of government administration and the other half the syllabuses is currently being compiled by the are representatives of national Roma/Gypsy National Board of Education. The intention is to associations. These include Romano Missio, The have a syllabus that will help Roma/Gypsies to Finnish Free Romani Mission, The Finnish obtain work with municipal offices as contact Romani Society and other local Romani groups.24 persons, cultural interpreters, school assistants Currently the Board’s main concern is to give and teachers of Romanes. more opportunities for Roma/Gypsies to become involved in the community at large and influence society. Its functions cover a number of areas: Government initiatives • monitoring Romani living conditions and opportunities for social participation The Advisory Board on Romani Affairs • taking initiatives to improve economic, An “Advisory Board for Gypsy Affairs” was first educational, social and cultural living established in 1956 in conjunction with the conditions for Roma/Gypsies Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. Its original • working to end all forms of discrimination aim was to establish a permanent link between the • furthering Romani language and culture Roma/Gypsy population and local and regional • participating in international co-operation to authorities. In 1989, the Board was given improve conditions for Roma/Gypsies. permanent status and was renamed The Advisory Board on Romani Affairs. It is now a central The work of the Board is shared and taken instrument for co-operation between the forward by three subcommittees: the preparatory authorities and Roma/Gypsy communities. It has working group for the Board’s monthly meeting, become an avenue through which Roma/Gypsies the committee on international affairs and the can put their demands to the authorities and in Committee on Health and Social Affairs. this capacity is frequently called upon to represent the Roma/Gypsy minority and defend its According to a report entitled Strategies of the Policy interests.23 It works with the assistance of on Roma, originally published in Finnish in 1999 Roma/Gypsy social workers whose task is to and then in English in 2000, the Board needs enable Finnish social workers to understand the additional resources in view of the increase in its specific needs and problems of Roma/Gypsies. international contacts. The rapporteurs proposed Municipalities employ Roma/Gypsy mediators that it be given a statutory basis and that it be (usually elder people from local Roma/Gypsy transferred to the Ministry of Education. This is communities) when particular questions or seen as important for developing its work in the problems arise. areas of cultural, linguistic and educational policies.25

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In addition to this Advisory Board, there are a On 1 February 1994, the National Board of number of other formal groupings representing Education, with support from the Advisory Board Romani interests: on Romani Affairs, established the Education • the Education Unit for the Romani Population, Unit for the Romani Population, sometimes established by the National Board of referred to as the Romani Education Unit. Education in 1994 The Education Unit for the Romani Population • the Inter-Ministerial Working Group for Roma acts independently and, as a management group, Affairs established by the Ministry of Social Romani members take forward the work. The Affairs and Health in September 2000 and, at National Board of Education ultimately appoints the time of writing, due to operate until the all members of the Romani Education Unit end of May 2001 management group and Roma organisations are • the Romani Language Board established in able to nominate Roma/Gypsy individuals.26 1997 within the Research Institute for the The Unit has three Roma/Gypsy members of Languages of Finland. staff and the management group consisting of 18 members, has nine members of Roma/Gypsy The Education Unit for the Romani origin. The Unit has a number of aims: Population • to develop and implement nationwide training The Finnish Parliament is ultimately responsible and education for the Roma/Gypsy population for enacting laws on education and thus deciding • to promote the Romani language and culture on the general principles of education policy. • to engage in information and publicity activity The Government, the Ministry of Education and in areas of “Romani culture” and education the National Board of Education are responsible • to carry out the increasing number of for implementing these principles at the central international tasks which have arisen as a result administration level. Nearly all publicly funded of Finland’s EU membership. education is steered or supervised by the Ministry of Education. Most existing private institutions The permanent activity of the Education Unit for are in the vocational sector, but they, too, rely the Romani Population includes further training heavily on public funding, and the education they arranged annually for teachers of the Romanes provide is subject to public supervision. language, training of contact persons and summer schools in Romanes. The Unit undertakes The National Board of Education is a national curriculum planning, eg, currently for the expert agency responsible for development of Further Qualification of Culture Instructor and primary, secondary and adult education. It draws Specialist Qualification of Culture Instructor up and approves national guidelines for curricula for Romani. These qualifications aim to provide and qualifications. It is also responsible for teachers of Romanes who are already in work in assessing the education system, with the exception particular with formal competence so that they of institutions of higher education. can find work in the municipalities on a broader and more equal basis.

67 Learning materials have been and are being • a booklet and cassette of children’s songs in drawn up by the Education Unit for the Romani Romanes, 1997 Population aimed at meeting the needs of both • a video called Samuelin päivä (Samuel’s day), the majority and Roma/Gypsy populations. which describes Romani culture through a Material for the majority population is designed Roma/Gypsy boy’s day at school and with his to improve knowledge of “Romani culture” family, 1997 and thereby “reduce prejudices” and “foster • Romanioppilas koulussa (the Romani student at tolerance”. The material for Roma/Gypsies is school) are materials designed to provide ideas designed to increase the knowledge of their own for school authorities, headmasters and other roots, to strengthen their own identity, and to individuals who need to know about Romani bolster and develop Romanes.27 In addition to culture in school work, 1997 national funding, there has also been support • a primer and grammar book in Romanes to from the EU’s Comenius programme. support language instruction, 1995 • Romanit ja terveyspalvelut (Roma and health The National Board of Education has produced services) – a guide for public health the following learning materials for promoting the professionals. Romanes language and “Romani culture”:

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The Ministry of Education has also provided knowledge of opportunities for education, funding for a Romanes-Finnish-English training and of society in general and secondly, to dictionary, completed in 1994. provide the majority population with information on “Romani culture”. Although no formal evaluation has taken place, the Unit claims that this material has contributed Publicity work also includes arranging and taking to a growing interest among Roma/Gypsies in part in various seminars, lectures, and exhibitions their own language. They see this as having as well as participation in multicultural and influenced their self-confidence, most notably in “tolerance” events. The work seeks to distribute terms of helping to motivate Roma/Gypsy information on both sides and to improve children to attend school. In addition, they claim opportunities for co-operation. The Education that the majority population has learned more Unit, for example, has arranged workshops on about “Romani culture” and as a result, the levels issues affecting women. Attended by Roma/ of hostility and prejudices against Roma/Gypsies Gypsy women,29 these examined issues such as have decreased.28 It is important to note that no parenthood, childcare, schooling and “Roma figures are provided to back this up, nor would it culture”.30 Although we have no examples of be possible to identify clear causal links. these, the Education Unit also supplies various Finnish authorities, the Council of Europe and The National Board of Education and the other international bodies with statements and Education Unit together are currently planning a stances on educational matters affecting three-year (2000-2002) package of learning Roma/Gypsies. materials in Romanes for comprehensive and senior high schools. The package includes practice The Inter-Ministerial Working Group for Roma books and workbooks, readers, a basic guide to Affairs civic skills, senior high school textbooks and other This working group was established by the peripheral material. The Education Unit is also Ministry of Social Affairs and Health in starting an extensive long-term comprehensive September 2000. At the time of writing it was due school project. One of its aims is to work with to continue until the end of May 2001. Members teachers and Roma/Gypsy families to find ways of this group include representatives from the of encouraging Roma/Gypsy children to Ministry of Education, Ministry of Labour, complete comprehensive school. Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Social Affairs and Health as well as from the Associations of The Unit also publishes an information bulletin Finnish Local and Regional Authorities. The task on Roma/Gypsy issues, Latso Diives, four times of the working group is to make proposals on a year. It is aimed at the majority as well as how best to administrate Roma affairs at state, Roma/Gypsy populations. Its aim is twofold: provincial and municipal levels in order to achieve first to increase the Roma/Gypsy population’s greater participation from Roma communities.

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The Romani Language Board The idea for it was conceived in 1996 by the Area The Romani Language Board was established in Advisory Committee on Romani Affairs of the 1997 within the Research Institute for the Provincial Government of Southern Finland and Languages of Finland. As part of the overall aim what was then Hšme province. The National of researching various languages, the Romani Board of Education and the Education Unit for Language Board is responsible for developing, the Romani Population applied for and obtained preserving and researching the Romani language support from the EU for the two-year project, and offering recommendations on its usage. running from 1998 to 1999. The EU support As part of this and in conjunction with the totals 60,000 ECU, most of which have been Advisory Board on Romani Affairs, the Romani spent on gathering interviews and on the practical Education Unit and the Finnish Romani Society, costs of the project (publicity, a national seminar The Romani Language Board arranges annual etc.). The national share of the funding includes seminars on the Romani language. the project secretary’s salary, and publishing activity such as writers’ and illustrators’ fees. The Rom-sf project Since Finland’s accession to the European In Portugal, the Ministry of Education and four Union, it has been able to take part in the EU’s schools are taking part in the project. In Sweden, Socrates training programmes, and in particular the Nordic Romani Council and the National its Comenius programme. Comenius is an Association of Finns in Sweden are involved. inter-school programme and focuses on training In Finland, the Provincial Governments of and education for migrant workers, the itinerant Southern and Western Finland, Järvenpää population and Roma/Gypsy children, and on Parish institutes and the lower forms of two intercultural instruction. One goal of the Socrates comprehensive schools are running the project. programme is to foster skills in seldom-used languages within the European Union and the As part of the project more than 120 interviews European Economic Area. The Socrates were conducted in Finland, approximately 100 in programme incorporates the Comenius-2 Portugal and 40 in Sweden, all aimed at gathering programme, which focuses on the education of information on Romani traditions.31 We do not migrant workers, the itinerant population and know at what level these interviews were Roma/Gypsy children, as well as on intercultural conducted, ie, whether at individual or household instruction. The Education Unit for the Romani level, so it is difficult to have a sense of the scale population is currently co-ordinating the of this research. Nevertheless, from this research, Comenius-2 programme’s Rom-sf project in two books have been published, one of which is a collaboration with Sweden and Portugal. volume of stories to be used for teaching in the The Rom-sf project is concerned with gathering, lower grades of the comprehensive school.32 recording and publishing Romani biographies The publication is targeted at both Roma/Gypsy and stories. children, to strengthen their culture and identity,

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and at the majority population, in order to Romani organisations, it has carried out a number increase knowledge of “Romani culture” and of projects, such as working with young drug “promote tolerance”.33 offenders. It also offers scholarships for young Roma/Gypsies who would otherwise not be able The other work is for use in teaching in the upper to afford further education.36 grades of comprehensive school, at senior high school and in tertiary and university education. Other smaller NGOs include:37 It is a compilation of biographies based on • Suomen Vapaa Romaniyhdistys (Finnish Free interviews with Roma/Gypsies. Roma/Gypsies Romani Mission). Established in 1964 it has a talk in their own words about their lives and spiritual and social work focus. experiences in and of Finland within the context • Soumen Romaniyhdistys (Finnish Romani of Finnish history. It does not consist, therefore, Association). This was established in 1967 as a solely of entire biographies.34 A working group pressure group for Roma with an emphasis on with Roma/Gypsy members supports the writers social affairs. of both books. A book of stories and a book of • Ryhdys. This was set up in 1993 as an biographies are also being produced in Portugal. association or network for all those working Both countries will publish their own books, in with Roma. These include those working with their own languages. The aim is to apply to the youth, the elderly and drug users. EU for additional support for possible translation • Gypsies Future. This is a Romani youth of the works into a language of the EU and to organisation established in 1998. It carries out subsequently publish the books as a complete set. volunteer work in child welfare.

NGO practice in the area International covenants, conventions and charters There are a small number of national NGOs in Finland working specifically with Roma/Gypsies.35 Finland has ratified: The largest and oldest Romani NGO is Romano • the International Covenant on Civil and Missio established in 1906. With a membership of Political Rights (ratified 19 August 1975, about 400, it works primarily in the areas of entered into force 23 March 1976) national child welfare and social services. It also • the International Covenant on Economic, provides one of the members of the Advisory Social and Cultural Rights (ratified 19 August Board on Romani Affairs. It produces Christian 1975, entered into force 3 January 1976) and educational services aimed specifically at • the International Convention on the Roma/Gypsies. In co-operation with the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, United Discrimination (ratified 14 July 1970, entered Christians, communities, state bodies and other into force 13 August 1970)

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• the Convention on the Rights of the Child Finland: notes on the text (ratified 20 June 1991, entered into force 1 Information provided by Henry Hedman, Romano Missio, 15 July 20 July 1991) 2000. • the UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Protocol 2 Core Document Forming Part of the Reports of States Parties, instituting a Conciliation and Good Offices Finland., UN Doc. HRI/CORE/1/ Add.59/Rev.1, 25 June 1996; Commission to be responsible for seeking the National Board of Education, Education Unit for Romanes settlement of any dispute which may arise Population, Report on the Education for Romanies in Finland, 1999. between States Parties to the Convention 3 Suonoja, K. and Lindberg, V., Strategies of the Policy on Roma, against Discrimination in Education Reports 2000: 8 eng Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, • the European Convention for the Protection Helsinki, 2000. pp. 4–5. of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 4 Jokela, J., A Child Must be Held Like a Glass Dish: Romani parents (ratified 10 May 1990, entered into force estimate goals of upbringing, Graduate Thesis in Pedogogics, 10 May 1990) University of Jyväskylä, 1992. Suonoja and Lindberg, Strategies of the • the First Protocol to the European Convention Policy on Roma, op. cit. for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ratified 10 May 1990, 5 Report of Finland on the Application of the Framework entered into force 10 May 1990) Convention on the Protection of National Minorities, submitted • the European Framework Convention for the on 16 February 1999. Protection of National Minorities (ratified 6 The Samis or the Lapps are considered as an indigenous people 3 October 1997, entered into force 1 February in Finland. The Sami Parliament estimates that there are 1998) approximately 6,400 Samis in the country, representing 0.1 per cent • the European Charter for Regional or Minority of the total population. The Statistical Yearbook of Finland gives Languages (ratified 9 November 1994; the the figure 1,738 for the Samis at the end of 1993. The counting Charter entered into force 1 March 1998. methods of the two differ. Most of the Samis live in Lapland in the north of Finland (see: Core Document Forming Part of the Finland has signed: Reports of States Parties, op. cit.); Vuolasranta, M. and Suonoja, • Protocol 12 to the European Convention K., The Advisory Board on Romani Affairs, Finland, distributed at the OSCE Supplementary Human Dimension Meeting on for the Protection of Human Rights and Roma/Sinti issues, 6 September 1999. Fundamental Freedoms (signed on 4 November 2000, due to be ratified in 2001). 7 Alvaro Gil-Robles (Commissioner of Human Rights), Recent Government Measures, Finland, Ministry of Social Affairs and Health in co-operation with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2001.

8 Alvaro Gil-Robles (Commissioner of Human Rights), Recent Government Measures, Finland, op. cit.

9 Roma/Gypsies, like their school peers, are subject to compulsory school attendance.

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10 Olgac, C. R., ‘Roma children in a Nordic perspective’, paper 23 Council of Europe, Second Meeting of National Consultative Bodies presented at the seminar Children’s Rights in Europe – Challenge and between Roma/Gypsies and Governments, Helsinki, 30 October – Responsibility, organised by the Swedish Embassy, Swedish Institute 1 November 1997, MG-S-ROM (98), 15. and National Széchényi Library, Budapest, Hungary, 26 March 24 Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, Finland’s Romani People, 2001. Brochures 1999: 14 eng. Helsinki 2000. 11 Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, Finland’s Romani People, 25 Suonoja and Lindberg, Strategies of the Policy on Roma, op. cit. Brochures 1999: 14 eng. Helsinki 2000 p. 5. See also: Sloane, W., “Gypsies Still on the Fringe in Finland”, Patrin Web Journal, 1995, 26 Information provided by a member of staff of the Education available from: http://www.grocities.com/Paris/5121/finland.htm Unit for the Romani Population.

12 Information provided by Eine Lillberg, National Board of 27 National Board of Education, Education Unit for Romanes Education, June 2001. Population, Report on the Education for Romanies in Finland, 1999.

13 EFA Finland Report http://www/unesco.org/education/efa. 28 Information provided by a member of staff at the Education Unit for the Romani Population. 14 EFA Finland Report http://www/unesco.org/education/efa. 29 Information provided by a member of staff at the Education 15 The OECD brings together 29 countries: the original Unit for the Romani Population. 20 members of the OECD are located in Western countries of Europe and North America. Next came Japan, Australia, New 30 National Board of Education, Education Unit for Romanes Zealand and Finland. More recently, Mexico, the Czech Republic, Population, Report on the Education for Romanies in Finland, 1999. Hungary, Poland and Korea have joined. 31 Information provided by a member of staff at the Education 16 EFA Finland Report http://www/unesco.org/education/efa. Unit for the Romani Population.

17 Concluding Observations of the Committee on the 32 This is available in Finnish and Portuguese. Information Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Finland, 4 April 1999. provided by Eine Lilberg, National Board of Education, June 2001. CERD/C/304/Add.6. 33 The authors of this book are Leena Laulajainen and Malla 18 Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Pirttilahti, and Kari Lindgren is the illustrator. It was published by Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Finland, 9 August 2000. the National Board of Education, spring 2000. CERD/c/57/CRP.3/Add.3. 34 The author of this book is Marketta Ollikainen. The report was 19 See: Finland, 18 November 1998, CRC/C/70/Add.3. published by the National Board of Education in summer 2000.

20 See: European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia, 35 While Save the Children Finland includes Roma/Gypsy children The Situation Regarding Racism and Xenophobia in the European in its programmes, it does not have a programme specially aimed at Community. Looking Reality in the Face, Annual Report 1998, Part II. working with this group.

21 Report of Finland on the Application of the Framework 36 This information was taken from their web site: Convention on the Protection of National Minorities, submitted on http://www.romanomissio.fi/. 16 February 1999. 37 Suonoja and Lindberg, Strategies of the Policy on Roma, op. cit. 22 National Board of Education, Education Unit for Romanes It was not possible to gather more detailed information from the Population, Report on the Education for Romanies in Finland, 1999. NGOs themselves in time for the publication of this report.

73 4 Greece

Save the Children Greece estimates that illiteracy is as high as 80-90 per cent among Greek Roma/ Summary Gypsy adults, and approximately 80 per cent among Roma/Gypsy children. Context Greece lacks specific anti-discrimination “If I were a teacher I would place the children in legislation and mechanisms. It does not more classrooms so they can learn better. All recognise Roma/Gypsies as a minority and is children need to learn to read and write.” generally hostile to the concept of minority Roma/Gypsy boy, ten years old rights. The education system is relatively centralised and uniform.

Roma population There are no census figures on numbers of Roma/Gypsies. Independent estimates suggest there are about 300,000, making them the largest minority in Greece. Large numbers live in tents and shacks, and many are semi- nomadic, moving to follow seasonal agricultural work. Many are unable to claim health and welfare rights, lacking required documentation. There is a high level of hostility towards them, with discrimination in housing and services, and police brutality.

Roma and education Illiteracy is very high, at 80-90 per cent. There are low levels of school enrolment and attendance. Roma/Gypsy children often attend classes with younger children because of late enrolment or falling behind. There is some segregation due to Greek parents refusing to enrol their children in schools with

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Greece report contents

Introduction – The Roma/Gypsy population 76 Demography 76 Roma/Gypsies. Disruption caused by eviction A brief historical overview 76 or the need to move to find work is also The legal status of Roma/Gypsies 77 common. The content of the education The socio-economic situation of Roma/Gypsies 77 curriculum does not include Roma/Gypsies Inter-ethnic relations 78 and their contribution to Greek history. National legislation 79 Language provision Minority rights 81 Most Roma/Gypsy children speak Romanes and often have little Greek. There have been The right to education 83 no attempts made by the Government to In practice 85 introduce Romani language teaching into The general context in relation to the right to schools. education 85 The right to education for the Muslim minority 86 Balance of NGO and government The right to education of Roma/Gypsy children 86 activity Discrimination at school 89 In the absence of any serious government Language provision 90 activity there are several NGOs working with Roma/Gypsies to improve their education and Government initiatives 90 living conditions, Save the Children Greece Programme of Social Integration for being especially active. The Government is Roma/Gypsies 90 assimilationist in its approach, and is heavily University of Ioannina “Education of Roma criticised for this by NGOs. Its Education of Children” programme 92 Roma Children programme has been criticized The GSAE programme 93 for being ethnocentric and undermining NGO practice in the area 97 Roma/Gypsy identity. The General Secretariat Roma/Gypsy mediators 101 for Adult Education (GSAE) project has had more success, focusing on integration rather Voices of Roma/Gypsy children 101 than assimilation. Recommendations 103

Greece: notes on the text 105

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Introduction – The Roma/Gypsy descent”.4 Despite the United Nations Resolution population on the Naturalisation of Roma/Gypsies which came into force in 1954, they had to carry special Demography identification documents, which needed to be Since the Greek national census does not make renewed every two years. any reference to ethnic affiliation, language or religion, there is no concrete way of determining A large number of Roma/Gypsies arrived in the population of different ethnic groups in Greece from Turkey after the exchange of Greece, including that of Roma/Gypsies. There populations in 1923. The rest came from families has not been a census with questions on religion that had been living for centuries in the territories and language since 1951, and the government has of today’s Greece. The so-called Roma/Gypsy stated that the National Statistical Service will not population constitutes a number of different be collecting ethnically desegregated data in the ethnic groups, including Gatze, Katsivel, Romi 2001 census. According to the General Secretariat and Sinti. Most of them identify themselves for Adult Education (GSAE), a governmental as Greek Orthodox Christians. However, agency, the Roma/Gypsy population for 1997 according to the Government, there are some was estimated to be approximately between 14,7005 (or, approximately 22,000 according to 150,000 and 200,000 out of a total population non-governmental sources6) Muslim Roma/ of some 10,000,000.1 Findings of independent Gypsies, who mostly live in western Thrace sources show however that a figure of 300,000 is among the population of Turkish Muslims. more realistic. The Minority Rights Group – As well as differences in ethnic identity and Greece claims that the number of Roma/Gypsies religious affiliation, Roma/Gypsies also lead in the country may even exceed 300,000, number- very different lifestyles. Almost half of them are ing 350,000. This would make Roma/ Gypsies the permanently settled, mainly in the Athens area. largest minority of Greece, constituting about The other half are semi-nomadic, although the three to four per cent of the total population. number of Roma/Gypsies who move around the country is reported to be gradually decreasing as A brief historical overview families settle in the outskirts of major cities. According to historical records, the presence of According to research carried out by the Ministry Roma/Gypsies in Greece dates back to the of Health and GSAE, 72 per cent of Roma/ 11th century,2 although other sources cite 13th or Gypsies surveyed lived in houses, 22 per cent in 14th century.3 With the exception of the Muslim tents, 15 per cent in “shacks” and 0.9 per cent Roma/Gypsies in Western Thrace, many Roma/ in converted buses.7 Gypsies were unable to acquire Greek citizenship until 1975. Many of the Roma/Gypsies who Until 1975, when their citizenship was finally had been expelled from Turkey as part of recognised, Roma/Gypsies in Greece had very “The Exchange of Populations” in the 1920s little by way of political, civil and legal rights. were seen and treated as “aliens of Gypsy Consequently, their participation in political

76 parties, cultural associations, trade unions, Greek Roma (founded in 1939), the Roma education and the media were negligible. Cultural Association, the Progress (founded in According to Save the Children Greece, it is the 1990) and the Panhellenic Federation of Greek lack of any tradition of collective, institutionalised Roma Associations (founded in 1998).9 Another vindication of rights within the Roma/Gypsy example of their “informal” recognition is the communities in Greece, and in particular their notable increase in state programmes aimed at lack of cohesion and unity, as well as problems of raising general awareness specifically on the illiteracy and lack of self-confidence, that explain Roma/Gypsy issue. However, this type of the so-called “representation deficit”.8 recognition termed as “minority recognition through special administration measures”, is less The legal status of Roma/Gypsies binding than that provided by constitutions, It is increasingly possible to identify the “implicit” separate laws or bilateral agreements.10 recognition of the Roma/Gypsy minority on the part of government, such as through the judicial The socio-economic situation of Roma/Gypsies status of Roma/Gypsy cultural associations at Most Roma/Gypsy families in Greece continue to local, regional and national levels. For example, face extremely harsh living conditions. Many live private institutions representing the interests of in shacks, without electricity, water or sanitation. Roma/Gypsies have been officially registered Roma/Gypsy children often face high health risks. through court decisions. Some of these most The lack of appropriate immunisation and access prominent Greek Roma/Gypsy organisations to health information and accident prevention include: the Panhellenic Cultural Association of measures exacerbate this problem.11

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It is widely recognised among health specialists large. Many NGOs have criticised governmental that certain groups, such as Roma/Gypsies and policy seeing it as assimilationist and Greek illegal immigrants, are seriously under-served in society as “racist, xenophobic and anti-Semitic”13. relation to social welfare in Greece. The US A study funded by the EU published in 1994 Department of State reports that integration of found that 55 per cent of the Greeks interviewed Roma/Gypsies into social security systems in expressed antipathetic feelings toward Roma/ Greece is relatively low; it estimates that 90 per Gypsies, 64 per cent said they would never marry cent of Roma/Gypsies are not insured by public a Rom/Gypsy and 48 per cent thought that social security systems, since they do not make the Roma/Gypsies would “still be dirty” even if their required contributions.12 Moreover, in many cases living conditions were improved. Another study Roma/Gypsies are excluded from the welfare found that 63 per cent of Greek school children system for lacking documents such as birth interviewed were hostile to the idea of having certificates and IDs that are required by the state. Roma/Gypsy children in their classes. Roma/ For a long time, the Government made no special Gypsies are also reported frequently to experience provisions in welfare policies vis-à-vis Roma/ discrimination in various areas of public life. Gypsies, claiming that they are considered citizens The European Commission against Racism and with equal rights and entitlements. However, Intolerance (ECRI) has reported that they face to illustrate the difficulties experienced by discrimination when attempting to rent Roma/Gypsies in exercising these rights, we can accommodation and they are often denied access take the example of health care. As with all Greek to public places such as discotheques, cafes citizens, Roma/Gypsies are entitled to free health and bars.14 care. However, most Roma/Gypsies are not aware of their rights. In addition, their access to health Discrimination against Roma/Gypsies is not care is often hindered by the fact that their limited to discriminatory attitudes. Reports of settlements are located far from public health incidents of police brutality against Roma/ facilities. Another difficulty is that some Gypsies are frequent. On a ten-day mission to municipalities refuse to register Roma/Gypsies. Greece in 1998, the director of the European Children’s rights advocacy groups also cite the Roma Rights Centre (ERRC) noted that such inadequate funding of the welfare system and the incidents were never taken up by the authorities. lack of co-ordination between welfare services In 2001, ERRC appealed to the Committee for and the courts in dealing with the needs of the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Roma/Gypsy children. Discrimination (CERD), stating that:15

Inter-ethnic relations “Roma throughout Greece report being As is the case elsewhere there is considerable subjected to systematic police abuse ... prejudice and discrimination against Roma/ Ill-treatment of Roma in police custody is Gypsies, both by state authorities and by society at commonplace ... Police raids are regularly

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carried out on entire Romani neighbourhoods of the Greek Romani population have for a variety of purposes [and] routinely effectively been rendered homeless.” subject Romani inhabitants, including women and children, to various forms of intimidation ECRI has also voiced concern that these and abuse.” expulsions were sometimes accompanied, apparently unhindered by the police, by the In June 1998, Amnesty International also destruction and arson of houses, and by threats submitted a complaint to the Greek government on the part of local authorities and municipal after uncovering evidence that police assaulted employees. two young Roma/Gypsies with iron bars and machine guns in May of that year.16

Discrimination is particularly evident in regional National legislation authorities. They are known frequently to prevent settlement of Roma/Gypsies by refusing their In accordance with Article 28, Paragraph 1, of the registration, which deprives them of their civic 1975 Constitution, the rules of international law, rights and entitlements as Greek citizens. Unless as well as the international conventions that the registered as a citizen or in possession of legal country has ratified, become an integral part of residence, one is not entitled to a range of the domestic Greek law and prevail over any other governmental services provided by municipal contrary provisions of the law. Thus international authorities, or vote or start a business. In recent human rights instruments are directly applicable years, including 1999, there have been numerous by the courts and other tribunals or administrative reports of municipal authorities expelling authorities.19 Courts have the power and the duty communities of Roma/Gypsies from the not to apply a legislative provision contrary to the settlements in which they had lived for many Constitution or to international legal standards. years, in some cases without providing alternative They also give due attention to the case law of the accommodation.17 This has sometimes resulted international judicial or quasi-judicial bodies when in Roma/Gypsies being repeatedly expelled interpreting human rights instruments.20 from each new place they attempted to settle. As ERRC explains in its letter to CERD:18 Article 4 of the Constitution of Greece stipulates that all Greeks are equal before the law.21 Article 5 “Roma in Greece live under constant threat proclaims that: of forced eviction ... evictions are often • All persons shall have the right to develop carried out without proper notice or legal freely their personality and to participate in the authorisation. The systematic expulsion of social, economic and political life of the entire communities has been compounded by country, insofar as they do not infringe the the failure to provide the expelled Roma with rights of others or violate the Constitution and alternative housing. As a result, large segments the good usage.

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• All persons living within the Greek territory ECRI and CERD this has resulted in a piecemeal shall enjoy full protection of their life, honour approach to discrimination issues.23 and liberty irrespective of nationality, race or language and of religious or political beliefs. One of the mechanisms for the redress of human Exceptions shall be permitted only in cases rights violations is the National Human Rights provided by international law. Committee, the mandate of which could include issues of discrimination. This Committee The criminal provisions combating racism and composed, inter alia, of government officials, intolerance are contained in Law 927/1979, and NGO representatives, trade unions, political supplemented by Law 1419/1984. Law 927/1979 parties, university professors and Supreme Court punishes:22 judges, reports to the Prime Minister. It was • incitement to discrimination, hate or violence established in 1998, by degree of Law 2667/1998. against individuals or groups because of Its tasks are: to monitor the human rights their racial, ethnic or [by virtue of Law situation, to raise awareness of the general public No 1419/1984] religious origin and the media on human rights issues and to • establishment of, and membership in, make proposals on human rights legislation.24 organisations which proceed to organised At the time of writing, the Committee had yet propaganda or other activities aimed at racial to meet. ECRI has recommended that the discrimination Committee devotes special attention to • public, oral and written, expression of combating racial discrimination and intolerance.25 offensive ideas aimed at racial discrimination Although the Greek Government had recently • the act of refusing to sell goods or supply told CERD that: “Without any doubt, issues of services, or subjecting the aforementioned non-discrimination will be on the agenda of the activities to special conditions, on racial National Committee”,26 no cases were brought to grounds. the attention of CERD at the examination of the periodic report in March 2001. In order to enhance the effectiveness of the above provisions, the draft Immigration Bill In 1997, the Office of the Ombudsman was set enables prosecuting authorities to press charges up by Law 2477/1997. The ombudsman ex officio in case of racist and discriminatory acts. (“Defender of the Citizen”) is appointed by the Council of Ministers following a proposal by However, there is currently no single specific the Parliamentary Committee on Institutions body of legislation in Greece which concerns and Transparency. The Office enjoys full discrimination in education, housing, independence from government instructions in employment, public services or social services. exercising its functions. There are currently four Moreover, there appears to be no specific sections in the Office of the Ombudsman, government authority charged with overall dealing with human rights issues, relations responsibility for these matters. According to between the administration and the public,

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quality of life and social protection. The Office tend to be reluctant to do so.30 A constitutional formulates proposals and provides non-judicial safeguarding of the ombudsman has recently settlements or recommendations to the public been proposed, and it is hoped that this will service concerned in order to remedy the substantially contribute to further strengthening underlying causes of violations of citizens’ rights. the status and institutional independence of It may also act on its own initiative in cases which the Office. have aroused the interest of public opinion. The ombudsman draws up an annual report, explaining the work of the Office, presenting Minority rights the most important cases and formulating recommendations for the improvement of There is no formal legal definition of “minority” the public services and the adoption of the or of “national minority” in Greece. The rights of necessary legislative measures. The Office of the minority members are covered within the Ombudsman began its work in September 1998 provisions of common law and on an individual and is said to have received several thousands of basis. Individuals who belong to minority groups complaints during its first year.27 A significant therefore enjoy general rights as citizens rather number of complaints were submitted by than having minority-specific rights. The clause on individuals belonging to vulnerable and/or equal treatment, as set out in the constitution, minority groups such as the Roma/Gypsies, underlines the absence of any supplementary foreigners, refugees and returning migrants. protection for minorities. It is said that some of these complaints were related to discrimination. The Office has been The only minority formally recognised is a significantly involved in dealing with petitions religious one: the Muslim minority. Their status concerning the illegal evictions and police abuses was guaranteed in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne against Roma/Gypsies. For example it has signed between Greece and Turkey. The signing contributed effectively to the resettlement of of this treaty led to what is called “The Exchange 15,000 Roma/Gypsies living in squalid conditions of Populations”. The Turkish authorities expelled on the borders of Gallikos Potamos in approximately 150,000 Greeks (ie, Christians Thessaloniki to the former Gonou military camp regardless of language, which included after two years of negotiations and promises. Roma/Gypsies) from Asia Minor and the It has also supported the resettlement efforts of Aegean Islands to Greece. The Greek Roma/Gypsies living in private property in Government in turn expelled approximately Chalandri.28 While the Government maintains 500,000 Turks (ie, Muslims regardless of that alleged victims of racial discrimination may language) from Greece to Turkey. apply to the ombudsman in order to seek an extra-judicial settlement of any dispute with the The Greek Government does not otherwise administration,29 it has been noted that individuals formally acknowledge the existence of other belonging to vulnerable minority ethnic groups ethnic or linguistic groups under the term

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“minority”.31 Although Greece has signed the minority rights. Notably, in an unprecedented Framework Convention for the Protection of move in June 1998, the government repealed National Minorities in 1997, the Convention is Article 19 of the Citizenship Code. This article only applicable for the Muslim minority in was described by the Greek Helsinki Monitor as Western Thrace. It is important to note however the government’s tool to “revoke the citizenship that the Muslim minority in Western Thrace is not of non-ethnic Greeks who did not comply with ethnically uniform: it consists of ethnic Turks, [the government’s] assimilationist policy”.32 Roma/Gypsies and Pomaks. It stipulated that Greek citizens who were not ethnically Greek could have their citizenship In recent years there have been some examples of revoked if they left the country, should the Greek an improvement in the government’s approach to authorities have reason to believe that they

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did not intend to return. Since 1955, almost Education is the constitutionally designated 60,000 people belonging to the Muslim minority responsibility of the state, and is provided free at and of Turkish ethnic origin were deprived of all levels of the system from preschool to citizenship, most of them on the basis of this university. Education is compulsory through to Article.33 Following the repeal of Article 19, the ninth grade. A relatively small private school former Greek citizens who had lost their sector exists, but only state universities and citizenship on the basis of this Article were given institutions provide tertiary level education and the option of applying to the Citizenship Council grant degrees. The Greek education system is very for the cancellation of the decision if they could centralised, in terms of both organisation and prove that a mistake was committed in arriving administration.34 There is a national curriculum, at the decision. Such individuals were also given uniform school timetables and approved the option of applying for Greek citizenship textbooks, which are compulsory for all schools through ordinary naturalisation. including those in the private sector.

The Ministry of Education is the main centre for The right to education decision making and the formulation of educational policies and it controls most of Article 16 of the Constitution stipulates that: the educational establishments in Greece. The Ministry formulates education policies 1 Art and science, research and teaching shall be free according to the political orientation of the and their development and promotion shall be an country’s administration. Draft laws are obligation of the state. Academic freedom and generated from these policies and are submitted freedom of teaching shall not exempt anyone from to Parliament for debate, after which – with his duty of allegiance to the Constitution. occasional amendments – they become laws 2 Education constitutes a basic mission for the (decrees). The Ministry of Education is then state and shall aim at the moral, intellectual, responsible for their implementation and puts professional and physical training of Greeks, the them into action through decrees, directives and development of national and religious consciousness circulars addressed to regional and local and at their formation as free and responsible educational authorities, to the legal entities of citizens. public law or the civil entities that the Ministry 3 The number of years of compulsory education shall supervises. The Ministry follows up the be no less than nine. implementation of these laws and intervenes 4 All Greeks are entitled to free education on all if necessary, to adjust or correct their levels at state educational institutions. The state implementation. The Ministry of Education shall provide financial assistance to those who decides on almost all the issues that concern distinguish themselves, as well as to students in need teaching, personnel administration, expenditure of assistance or special protection, in accordance and school operation. with their abilities.

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A law establishing a National Council for Public education, which is fully supported and Education was introduced by the Minister of controlled by the state, is organised vertically into Public Education in October 1995. It consists of three levels: primary, secondary and tertiary (see a president, representatives from other ministries, Figure 4.1). representatives from various professional groups, all university rectors and technological education Kindergartens, where preschool education is institute presidents, the Pedagogical Institute, the provided, operate as independent units. political parties, the Orthodox Church, the Attendance is not obligatory, but participation is National Federation of Local Government, continuously rising. This level of education lasts teaching and research staff in higher education, for two years. Children who are three and a half the Confederation of Parents, the National years old by 1 October are accepted. Kindergarten Students Union, the Federation of Primary education could be obligatory, if both the and Secondary School Teachers and the Minister of Public Education and the Minister of Confederations of Greek Industries. This Council Health and Social Welfare issued a joint resolution serves to guarantee the participation of these according to the needs of the region. representatives in all procedures for the three levels of education and especially in terms of Attendance at elementary school is obligatory. their design and organisation. Additionally, the There are six grades at elementary level. Children following councils exist at the national level: of sixth years of age (by 31 December) can enrol • the Council for University Education in the first grade. Students who finish elementary • the Council for Technological Education – school are given a certificate which allows them to acting for higher education, non-university, enrol in the gymnasium. technological institutions • the Central Council for Secondary Education The gymnasium constitutes the lower level of • the Central Council for Primary Education. secondary education (lykeio). Attendance at a gymnasium is compulsory. It lasts three years Besides these agencies, there are also the follow- and is intended for pupils aged 12 to 15 years. ing legal entities of public law: the Organisation The upper cycle of secondary education “aims to for School Buildings, the Organisation for build the character and personality of the pupils Publication of School Textbooks and the so that they may contribute towards the social, Organisation of Vocational Education and economic and cultural development of the Training. There are also two Secretariats under country, along with guidance for their further the Ministry of Education: the General Secretariat studies or career choice”.35 There are four for Adult Education (responsible for literacy, different types of lykeio: the general lykeio, the some courses of vocational training and special technical-vocational lykeio, the integrated lykeio programmes) and the General Secretariat for and the technical-vocational school. Youth (responsible for various youth issues including social participation).

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Figure 4.1 Structure of primary, secondary and tertiary Table 4.1 Educational attainment of the population aged 25 to education in Greece 64 in 1991

Tertiary University = University and Educational level Number Percentage highest school, Non-university 4-6 years (18+) Tertiary 663,000 12.5

Secondary Upper = Lyceum, 3 years (15-18) Upper Secondary 1,290,000 24.2

Lower = Gymnasium, 3 years (12-15) Lower Secondary 367,000 6.9

Primary Elementary = School, 6 years (6-12) Primary 2,311,000 43.4

Pre-primary = Kindergarten (usually 4-6) Less than Primary* 692,000 13.0

Source: Ministry of Education, Greece.Taken from: Organisation for *Includes the following categories:“attended primary school”; Economic Co-operation and development, OECD Reviews of National “no schooling but literate”;“no schooling and illiterate”. Policies for Education; Greece, OECD Head of Publications Service: Paris, 1997, p 45. Source: OECD Reviews of National Policies for Education: Greece, OECD Head of Publications Service, Paris, 1997, p. 8, originally estimated from ESYE, 1991 Census

During the years 1982-85, a major movement to reform education took place and was evidenced through the application of several fundamental In practice new laws. The most important structural changes at the level of primary and secondary education The general context in relation to the right to was the 1566/85 Law, which concerned itself education mainly with the reorganisation, democratisation Currently, over a tenth of the Greek population and decentralisation of primary and secondary aged 25-64 holds a higher education degree, about education by introducing new national, regional a quarter are secondary school graduates, almost and local bodies and authorities, and new half are primary school graduates and over a procedures. This reform was all-encompassing tenth have no educational credentials, ie, have shaping the profile of the present education not completed primary school (see Table 3.1). system particularly in terms of promoting The overall educational level of the general special education, adult education and developing population is said to have risen considerably in in-service training for teachers. It also introduced recent decades. The proportion of graduates of the new institution of integrated lyceum, tertiary education has quadrupled since 1971, simplified the language-grammar by establishing secondary education graduates have doubled, and the “one-accent-only” approach, modernised the number with less than primary education has and revised curricula and textbooks, abolished significantly decreased, from 37 per cent in 1971 entrance-exams to upper secondary education to 13 per cent in 1991. Illiteracy rates among the and created the post-lyceum public preparatory general population have also fallen sharply from centres for higher education. 14 per cent in 1971 to 7 per cent in 1991.

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The right to education for the Muslim minority the educational level of Roma/Gypsies tends to The Thracean Muslims, by virtue of the be higher than in the rest of the country, Doctors protection provided by the Treaty of Lausanne, of the World – Greece found in January 2000 that are granted preferential status by the Greek state only 14 per cent of the Roma/Gypsies in the four in education. The provisions of the Treaty of settlements studied had some sort of education, Lausanne provide that the Muslim minority shall just 7 per cent were registered at the high school be taught their own language and the Islamic level and only 2 per cent at the college level. religion. The Public Laws 694/77 and 695/75 and The fact that there is little difference between Presidential Decree 1024/79 specifically address adult illiteracy and child illiteracy rates among the education of Muslim children. In addition, Greek Roma/Gypsies indicates that formal the Greek Government adopted a new law in education has yet to have any major impact. October 1995, which aims at upgrading the Despite EU subsidies and the latest efforts of the quality of education available to Muslim Greeks. Greek government to confront the problem of More precisely, economic and career incentives illiteracy, little progress has been made so far.39 are offered to Christian teachers who are A Programme Against Illiteracy was organised by stationed in minority schools and at the same time the General Secretariat of Continuing Education efforts are made to improve the qualifications of together with the establishment of a system of Muslim teachers. Under Article 2 of this new law, identity cards for students whose parents are Muslim high school graduates are given nomadic. However, levels of enrolment among preferential treatment in terms of admission to Roma/Gypsy children remain relatively low. universities and technical institutions. The law requires universities and technical institutes to Ultimately, enrolment and attendance must be create a certain number of places for Muslim treated as separate issues. To tackle illiteracy and students each year, according to the fixed quota of the problem of integration in the official school 0.5 per cent.36 Special examinations for admission system, enrolment is not enough; regular to universities have been fixed in order to meet attendance must also be guaranteed. Many Roma/ this quota.37 Gypsy children who are enrolled in school do not attend regularly. Generally, school attendance is The right to education of Roma/Gypsy children higher for younger pupils, and declines as they The reality for Roma/Gypsy children with regard get older. Figure 4.2 shows the rate of attendance to education is much bleaker. Save the Children and dropouts, according to each grade of Greece estimates that illiteracy among Greek primary school and Fig. 4.3 shows the number Roma/Gypsy adults is as high as 80-90 per cent, of Roma/Gypsy children enrolled in primary and approximately 80 per cent among Roma/ school in 1988. Gypsy children.38 The “Interface” report of the EU refers to a recent survey which indicated that The reasons behind low enrolment and among the 1,067 Gypsies aged six years or over, attendance levels are multifaceted. Even when 82 per cent were illiterate. Even in Athens, where Roma/Gypsy children do attend school, it is a

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Figure 4.2 Number of Roma/Gypsy children who have Figure 4.3 Number of Roma/Gypsy children enrolled in attended primary school, 1988 primary school, by grade

Enrolled Attended irregularly 450 Attended regularly Dropped out 400 120 Number of enrolled children 350

100 300

80 250

200 60 150 40 100

20 50

0 0 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade

Source: Dimitris Vergidis,“The extra-curriculum literacy of Gypsy Source: Dimitris Vergidis,“The extra-curriculum literacy of Gypsy children in Kato Ahaya – the research-action as evaluation method” in children in Kato Ahaya – the research-action as evaluation method” in GSAE, Education of Gypsies: Development of Teaching Material,Athens, GSAE, Education of Gypsies: Development of Teaching Material,Athens, 1997. 1997.

struggle to continue their formal education. hunger is an additional factor to consider.41 Many Given that problems in the educational realm practitioners believe that such children should be are undoubtedly linked to other problems faced given food at school, not only as an incentive to by Roma/Gypsies such as legal status, attend, but also as a means for improving the accommodation, employment, and health, it is health of those children who would otherwise not worth examining these problems in some detail. have access to nutritious food.42 However, while the provision of food may boost school One of the main obstacles to the education of attendance figures, it does not always address the Roma/Gypsy children is the economic hardship root causes of poverty nor does it guarantee that experienced by many families. Many families do once in school, pupils receive a relevant education. not have enough income to support their children in formal education, and additionally, by sending Another problem is the insufficient consideration children to school, the family may lose the income given to Roma/Gypsy families’ way of life on the the children would otherwise have brought in. part of teachers and officials. For example, public One study states that Roma/Gypsy children in primary schools are generally located far from Greece do on average 7.5 hours of paid work Roma/Gypsy settlements, and as a result a day.40 The Greek Helsinki Monitor says that parents are not able to send young children to

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school. This seems to be confirmed in the assimilationist. For example, many Roma/ aforementioned study of the Doctors of the Gypsies are wary of Article 16.2 of the World – Greece in which it states that literacy is Constitution, which stipulates that: higher whenever there is a school near the settlement. It is also often the case that older “Education constitutes a basic mission for the children are enrolled in classes with younger state and shall aim at the moral, intellectual, children due to late enrolment or falling behind. professional and physical training of Greeks, For example, it is common to find Roma/Gypsy the development of national and religious children aged between 12 and 16 years enrolled consciousness and at their formation as free in and attending the first class of primary and responsible citizens.” school. Attending classes well below their own age group can damage Roma/Gypsy children’s A study undertaken by the General Secretariat self-confidence, and lead them to drop out. for Adult Education (GSAE) in 1987 found that many Roma/Gypsies do express a clear desire There is a direct correlation between the seasonal for themselves and their children to be literate.44 movement of Roma/Gypsy families and irregular However, many feel reluctant to engage attendance of their children. Most nomadic themselves in an “unfair game” whereby rules of Roma/Gypsy families in Greece are engaged in the dominant group in society are imposed upon seasonal agricultural jobs which, given the them.45 GSAE also identified that Roma/Gypsy inflexibility of the school system, means that children experience a contradiction between their Roma/Gypsy children attend school irregularly. initial socialisation process that takes place in the The Greek Helsinki Monitor reported in 1998 context of the extended family, and the attempted that in one primary school:43 second socialisation taking place in the classroom when they go to school. Thus the challenge “240 children were inscribed but only seems to be one of achieving a balance between 170 actually followed the classes at the maintaining a Roma/Gypsy identity and reaching beginning of the school year. Then, from their educational potential. March on, the number declined to 120, as the time came for the asparagus, and the families The Greek Helsinki Monitor also found that girl had to leave to work in the fields for the Roma/Gypsy children in particular face even harvest. It is indicative that attendance is greater obstacles to exercising their right to steadier in September and October, when education given that they are mostly expected to agricultural jobs are not that demanding.” take care of their younger brothers and sisters and help in the housework. Roma/Gypsy parents are Some commentators argue that the Roma/ also wary of sending their daughters to school, Gypsy parents’ own experiences of formal particularly once they have reached 12 years of education have meant that many are distrustful age for fear of harming the “honour” of the of the educational system, which they see as family.46

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Discrimination at school Prejudice and discrimination can also be found Incidents of racial insults against Roma/Gypsy among state officials. A joint statement of pupils in the classroom are frequently reported. prominent Greek NGOs states that:51 For example, in the Remvi neighbourhood in the town of Komotini, Roma/Gypsy children were “As far as education is concerned, few Roma reported to be refusing to attend school on the of compulsory schooling age (between six grounds of other children’s discriminatory and 15) attend school owing to indifference, attitudes. Ms V., a teacher interviewed by the if not racist attitudes of state officials Greek Helsinki Monitor, noted that, although (municipal counsellors, school teachers co-existence between Roma and non-Roma pupils and directors).” is usually quite good, in cases of big quarrels, On 22 May 2000, the daily paper Eleftherotypia children stand by their own ethnic groups. reported that Roma children in the municipality of Velo (Corinthia, Peloponese) were not allowed There have also been cases when schools to attend classes in the local primary school. have been closed due to the refusal of some The reason given by school authorities in Tarsina non-Roma/Gypsy parents to send their children for refusing to accept Roma/Gypsy children for 47 to a school attended by Roma/Gypsy children. morning preparatory classes under the Ministry For example, the municipality of Halastra near programme was “lack of space”. Evening classes Thessalonika, in November 2000 was forced to were not allowed either: the school was used by close a local public primary school for about one non-Roma/Gypsy children as a playground in the week as a result of pressure from the local parents afternoons and apparently football and classes 48 and guardian association. Some non-Roma/ could not coincide. In fact, this decision was made Gypsy parents prevent Roma/Gypsy children’s following the reactions of non-Roma/Gypsy enrolment in schools, and when unsuccessful, residents and teachers who had locked the school. they remove their own children. The President of As a result, children missed more than one year of the Union of Parents and Guardians has in the preparatory classes. The municipality served to past tried to organise protests in order to expel exacerbate the situation by helping local residents 49 Roma/Gypsy children from school. They argue to buy off the land where the camp was that their children’s coexistence with Roma/ established. As a result Roma/Gypsies were Gypsy schoolmates downgrades the overall level simply forced to leave. Likewise, in November of education. So-called “Roma schools” have 2000 the newspaper Elefterotypia disclosed a emerged as a result of this. For example, the proposal by the Mayor of Nea Alikarnasos, Crete, third primary school of Zefyri (Western Attica), to expel 15 Roma/Gypsy pupils from the 3rd and and the Christian school in Evlalo, which is an 4th primary schools, so as to prevent these ethnically mixed village in Western Thrace, have schools from becoming “overburdened” with become exclusively Roma-only schools; non- Roma/Gypsy pupils.52 Roma/Gypsy parents transferred their children to other schools by declaring false addresses.50

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Language provision textbooks. The majority of Greeks ignore the fact Many Greek Roma/Gypsies speak Romani as that Roma/Gypsies had also participated in the their first language. However, there are few Greek Revolution against the Ottoman Empire in special provisions at schools aimed at providing 1821 and in the National Resistance during the instruction in Greek as a second language and, German Occupation in Greece (1941-1944).55 therefore, on entering school, many Roma/ Gypsy children start at a disadvantage and their In response to the recommendation of the ECRI academic performance suffers. The Report of the “to ensure that school curricula ... are set up in Organisation for Security and Co-operation in such a way to enhance the appreciation of cultural Europe (OSCE) High Commissioner on National diversity”, the government stated: “The policies of Minorities in 2000 refers to a primer produced by the Greek Government in the fields falling in the the Greek Ministry of Education on the Greek purview of the ECRI ... of course ... do not imply language written from a Romani perspective.53 adherence by the Greek Government to the Although some teachers have successfully used notion of a multicultural character of the Greek the primer, it is now out of print. In an interview society”.56 Also, in February 2000, the former with the Greek Helsinki Monitor, one teacher Minister of Foreign Affairs, Theodoros Pangalos, described the existing educational infrastructure expressed his regret that Roma are one of the and materials as insufficient and inappropriate for “unassimilated groups” in contemporary Greece. teaching Roma/Gypsy pupils.54

The OSCE High Commissioner on National Government initiatives57 Minorities has noted the importance of having the Romani language, culture and history Programme of Social Integration for introduced into the curricula of public schools in Roma/Gypsies the OSCE participating states in order to combat Increasingly, the Greek Government has sought racial prejudices and negative stereotypes against to improve the living conditions of Roma/ minorities. Overall there have been few efforts to Gypsies and has constantly maintained that its offer Romani language tuition in Greek schools policy is to encourage their integration.58 In June and likewise few attempts to integrate elements of 1996, the ‘Office for Quality of Life’ of the Roma/Gypsy culture or history into mainstream Greek Prime Minister announced a Framework classes. Although there has been some progress of a National Policy on Greek Roma/Gypsies, made during the last ten years, Greek textbooks admitting that the basic needs and problems of generally contain references only to the Greek Greek Roma/Gypsies had not been solved. ethnic nation and its history. Despite their long The Framework was accompanied by a 3 billion presence in the Greek territories and their drachma grant over two years (equivalent to contribution in the formation of modern Greece, about $US13 million).59 Roma/Gypsies are excluded from history

90 This programme rested on the co-ordination programme in such a way that central government of all the relevant ministries and a number of would exercise overall control over the way the non-governmental agencies, resulting in the programme was implemented at the local level. establishment of a consultative and co-ordinating Specific programmes were to be carried out by governmental Council for Roma Policy. the local authorities of the various regions where This was comprised of representatives from the Roma/Gypsies communities lived. These public and local authorities, health organisations, programmes covered housing, education, health, Roma/Gypsies and others. The Council’s main vocational training and employment, culture responsibility was to implement the Framework. and sport. Initiatives taken as part of this It was a comprehensive government action plan, comprehensive strategy included: aimed at removing the obstacles to the social • training courses for civil servants, policemen integration of Roma/Gypsies and to raise and teachers to increase their awareness of awareness among the general public. For a while, Roma/Gypsies it had been recognised by the central government • a programme financed by the Ministry of itself as well as non-governmental observers that Interior providing funds to local government the system of allowing local government to deal bodies for the improvement of living with the question is ineffective.60 The government conditions of Roma/Gypsies itself has noted on several occasions that • a programme financed by the Ministry of persistent prejudice at the level of local Education and Religious Affairs aimed at administration and among some members of integrating Roma/Gypsy children into schools the police force has been hindering its efforts. nation-wide. Thus the government implemented the

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University of Ioannina “Education of Roma endowed with the same rights, irrespective of Children” programme any individual differentiation said person is The “Education of Roma Children” programme likely to entertain began in the school year 1996/97, with a nation- • fighting against deeply rooted prejudices which wide scope. In the words of the Permanent harbour and provide a mantle of legality to Mission of Greece to the OSCE in Vienna images/myths which are socially harmful for (September 1999), the programme aims at:61 the Roma.”

“providing continuous education to teachers of The methodology of the programme has been Roma children, publication of teaching described as follows:63 materials, strengthening intercultural schools, • “collection and processing of data relative to helping high school students, etc.” the educational status of Roma children • detection of factors placing a strain on The government has described the objectives of communication that is bound to exist between the “Education of Roma Children” programme the educational institution and the family as follows:62 environment of the student • “mass admittance into and systematic • setting up of a network of partners designed attendance of Roma children in schools of to build stable functional relationships between compulsory education by means of a system the school and the family environment of the facilitating enrolments, along with support target population provided to children by their parents in order • production of teaching material relating to the that the former should put their trust in acquisition of basic knowledge school, as well as by providing assistance to • production of material geared to language school in order that it may respond to its new teaching aimed at fostering anti-racist role and overcome all inherent organizational behaviour and providing anti-racist education disfunctions to all children • ensuring equal opportunities for learning and • organization and operation of a monitoring social integration to students of the target and intervention unit in instances where population discriminating behaviour has been noted on • recurrent training provided to teaching the part of the educational organization personnel, particularly in matters related to • refresher training courses, which: intercultural education and teaching – operate nationwide methodology – operate on a system of decentralized • advancement of social learning, so that every activities and respond to local particularities student should look up to his/her schoolmate – are based on the participation of persons as a person possessed of the same undergoing such training.” characteristics, motives and aspirations, and

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As part of the programme a “card for itinerant among Greek Roma/Gypsies, particularly students” was introduced in 1996/97 for pupils tent-dwellers, remains extremely high at 80 per who move frequently from one place to another. cent, occasionally reaching 90 per cent. This is Mobile Roma/Gypsy pupils are provided with after four years after the programme was first cards, showing their results from the first implemented. Many NGOs and international semester, as well as courses they have attended. NGOs also identify problems with what they see When they go to another town for work, it is their as its underlying principles of assimilation and right to attend a school in the new area. The card ethnocentricity.66 Despite the fact that most Greek is then completed with the new results and Roma/Gypsies and almost all tent-dwelling Greek returned to the old school when the family Roma/Gypsies speak the Romani language, this returns. According to the US Department of project stipulates that preparatory classes and State, 1,200 children (i.e. 0.4 per cent of the teaching material are to be provided solely in the overall Roma/Gypsy population) participated in Greek language. this system in 1996/97.64 Numbers had increased to 1,260 in 1997/98, and a further increase has The programme director in charge of “Education been noted for 1998/99. However, according to of Roma Children” has publicly criticised multi- the Greek Helsinki Monitor, many primary school culturalism on many occasions, for example at the teachers found that most Roma/Gypsy children Symposium “Gypsy Populations in Europe: From either declared that they have lost the card or Social Exclusion to Violation of Human Rights” returned it blank. which was organised by Doctors of the World – Greece in January 2000.67 He believes that the aim For the last few years, the government has of the project should be “to minimise the claimed in a number of international forums importance of cultural background as a that, overall, it is making vast improvements in contributing element to the organisation of a the field of Roma/Gypsy education through this class” and that by making Roma/Gypsies less programme. It has also been claimed that as a Romani and more Greek, the standard of their direct result of the programme, the dropout rate children’s education will improve.68 in secondary education fell from 75 per cent to 25 per cent in 2000.65 The GSAE programme Less controversial than the University of Ionnina However, the programme as a whole has been programme on Roma/Gypsy Education has been the target of severe criticisms from many of the General Secretariat for Adult Education the organisations involved in protecting the (GSAE) programme, targeting the age group educational rights of Roma/Gypsy children. 4-14 years. This programme was developed in A number of these organisations have reported 1986 within the framework of the working group that despite the billions of drachma allocated to set up by the Resolution of 22 May 1989 of the programme, the percentage of illiteracy the Council of Ministers. It aims to combat

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Roma/Gypsy children’s illiteracy. It is a The GSAE has said:69 state-sponsored programme, developed after the government expressed an urgent need to “The GSAE attempts to develop its ensure the social integration of Roma/Gypsies. educational programmes having as a main The GSAE is part of the Ministry of Education objective, the social integration of the Gypsies. and has been working in close collaboration with The term “integration” contains a dynamic the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, the dimension and suggests the autonomous, equal Ministry of Interior and local authorities. In order and accepted coexistence of individuals and to exchange experience and technical expertise, groups in social practice, with respect to the the GSAE has also been working in collaboration ways of life, cultures and manners and the with UNESCO and the Education Task Force of preservation of a cultural identity. We therefore the European Communities within the framework distance ourselves from any kind of of the International Education Project. assimilative or philanthropic tendencies.”

The programme is part of the GSAE Programme Also, as explained by the co-ordinator of the for Roma/Gypsy Training and Social Integration. GSAE programmes on Roma/Gypsies:70 Its primary goal is said to be the integration of Roma/Gypsy children into the official system “[GSAE is] not looking for mutual overlapping and, ultimately, their social integration. The four with the official educational system, but for categories of Roma/Gypsy children targeted by mutual complementarity. One of our main this programme are: concerns is how will the official educational • those who have never been to school although system be able to use different teaching they are of school age materials through parallel forms of education • those who have been to school, but whose or through forms of education that will lead to attendance has been interrupted it or function in it.” • those who have been integrated into school, but whose academic performance has been Literacy programmes are taught mainly by very poor primary school teachers, but also by • those of pre-school age requiring preparation representatives of other disciplines, such as social before taking part in regular schooling. workers, psychologists and doctors. Specific teaching materials have been developed, covering The programme also targets 19 specific a range of topics from approaches to the teaching geographical areas where Roma/Gypsies have of mathematics, to group exercises and reading settled, whether temporarily or permanently. and writing. There was also an accompanying teacher’s manual with concrete notes and The principle underlying the programme is said to explanations to assist the teacher-trainer be one of integration, rather than of assimilation. employing the materials. Roma/Gypsy ways of

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conceptualising and learning, as well as elements attended GSAE courses and learned to read and of their culture, are said to have been taken into write. The first positive results of the programme account when producing the materials. The work became evident in the case study of the region of proceeded along the three basic lines: training Achaia carried out by the Pedagogic Department Roma/Gypsy children and adults, training of the University of Patras. Particular attention teachers and raising awareness among both had been paid to this region, in order to maximise Roma/Gypsy and non-Roma/Gypsy populations the success of the programme. Special emphasis with the aim of encouraging mutual respect. had been placed on raising awareness on issues concerning Roma/Gypsies. Efforts were also Aside from the main programme which intended made to work in co-operation with municipalities to facilitate the literacy programme, a wide variety and school authorities. The results showed that in of parallel support activities were developed to Achaia, all of the 180 pupils who attended the improve the success of Roma/Gypsy children’s course were successfully integrated into ordinary integration into the mainstream educational classes; in other regions the percentage was system. Between 1984 and 1995, a number of between 50 per cent and 60 per cent. Figure 4.4 initiatives took place, such as: shows the enrolment and attendance of • preparing a special Roma/Gypsy education kit Roma/Gypsy children, at the Second Primary for teachers • conducting studies into problems faced by Roma/Gypsies Number of children enrolled • creating new audio-visual materials to be used Number of children attended in classrooms. 140

Many of these initiatives were undertaken with 120 the co-operation of Roma/Gypsy parents, 100 associations and schools, and due consideration was given to Roma/Gypsy families’ social needs, 80 which may influence programme development directly or indirectly. The plan was to introduce 60 the teaching materials used by GSAE throughout 40 the Greek school system upon completion of the programme. 20

After a year of GSAE courses, Roma/Gypsy 0 1990–1991 1991–1992 1992–1993 children were reported to be attending ordinary classes even if the family had moved. During the Figure 4.4: Enrolment and Attendance of Roma/Gypsy Children at the Second Primary School of Kato Ahaya,Achaia, 1992/93 school year, some 700 Gypsy pupils 1990-1993

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School of Kato Ahaya, Achaia. Although a Thus, according to teachers, the problem seems to relative degree of success had been attained in lie, at least in part, in the lack of willingness of increasing enrolment of Roma/Gypsy children, Roma/Gypsy parents to supervise and pressurise the graph shows that attendance is much harder their children to engage in the official learning to improve. The high dropout rate was identified system. by those who evaluated the programme, as a serious problem: “...despite ... the positive The programme evaluation in Kato Ahaya developments as far as attendance is concerned, revealed that although a significant number of the dropping out of school remains still an Roma/Gypsy children are enrolled in primary undeniable reality of the Gypsy children.”71 school and attend regularly, their school performance tends to be low. This is not due to The government ensured that evaluation of economic constraints, since most Roma/Gypsy this programme was carried out thoroughly. families in Kato Ahaya are relatively wealthy, In addition to the case study of Kato Ahaya in most of them being merchants and street sellers. Achaia region, a questionnaire was conducted The primary factor identified was that Roma/ with all the teachers who used the GSAE teaching Gypsy children are bilingual, and that teaching material in their classrooms. was not geared to dealing with this effectively. According to GSAE writing and reading are not Interviews were conducted with primary school part of a Roma/Gypsy child’s upbringing because teachers in Kato Ahaya concerning the Romanes is an oral language.73 It therefore argues performance of the Roma/Gypsy children. that special consideration must be taken of In these interviews, teachers said that, with some Roma/Gypsy children’s linguistic needs in order exceptions, Roma/Gypsy children performed that they progress in school alongside other poorly at school and that they were significantly children. behind in language classes. Performance in mathematics, however, was reported to Based on this feedback, the GSAE developed a be better.72 textbook called Matheno Grammata (Learning how to Read and Write) aimed specifically at dealing Teachers interviewed attributed the poor with this linguistic issue. Although the book is performance of Roma/Gypsy children to the based on school material produced by the following causes: Ministry of Education, it is designed in • not doing homework accordance with Roma/Gypsy children’s “special • not having any pressure from their parents to characteristics” and needs as bilingual students. study A manual for teachers and trainers was also • a lack of interest on the part of parents in the developed alongside the textbook explaining its children’s school progress purpose, suggesting teaching methods and giving • gaps in attendance. basic information on the Romani language and on Roma/Gypsies, including their history and

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culture. The manual also suggests auxiliary games children’s participation in a number of school and supervisory materials that can be used in activities, such as school meals, break times and classrooms. Roma/Gypsy tales are also cited, classroom exercises, their degree of integration in and a bibliography is included for reference. school remains extremely low.76 However, the role The feedback given to the GSAE from teachers of the teacher, was also identified as a key factor reads as follows: influencing the degree of integration. Much depends on whether teachers spend the time “We observed a positive attitude of the needed to promote interaction between Roma/ children towards the book, as they were Gypsy children and non-Roma/Gypsies. Another pleased and happy with the familiar pictures key factor in the success of integration was the of their life thus accepting it very quickly. availability of educational materials that meet the We also observed an increase in the presence specific needs of Roma/Gypsy children. and regular attendance of children. In some cases, however, after the first enthusiastic welcome of the book [there] followed negative NGO practice in the area reactions with respect to specific pictures ... the children reacted in a negative way claiming A number of NGOs are working to improve the ‘We don’t live in tents, we have houses, we living conditions of Roma/Gypsies in Greece. don’t want to see tents in a book that is written The Greek Helsinki Monitor (GHM), DROM for us.’ ... The poem written by Kostis Palamas Network for Roma Social Rights and Doctors of for the Gypsies, and included in the book in the World have been working together for a order to give the trainer the opportunity to number of years, and their activities are discuss with the children about their culture documented in the reports of the GHM Roma was a bad choice because it described the way Office. Teams from these NGOs often visit Gypsies used to live long time ago, a way that Roma/Gypsy settlements to examine the state of has no relevance to today’s lifestyle.”74 living conditions. They began providing services in Roma/Gypsy settlements in Athens and The feedback also identified that the book did not Thessaloniki in late 1997. Doctors of the World deal with the teaching of Romanes. The GSAE typically examine residents and administer claims that it is not possible to teach Romanes, vaccinations to children. The other two NGOs on the grounds that there are no teachers in investigate the general living conditions of Greece who know or are qualified to teach residents. Doctors of the World believe that their this language.75 work in Roma/Gypsy settlements is a necessary alternative to mainstream healthcare given that The GSAE focus is on low integration as an issue Roma/Gypsies tend not to trust the public for Roma/Gypsies rather than an issue for the health system and rarely go to public hospitals. majority population. According to a study carried They have found that this is due to a number of out by GSAE that investigated Roma/Gypsy reasons, such as being mistreated by hospital

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personnel, not being able to afford to take time discrimination within the school context. It has off work since they are paid by the hour and been developing alternative teaching methods and being afraid to expose themselves to non-Roma/ processes in co-operation with a selection of Gypsies. As a result, morbidity and mortality rates 22 secondary level schools nationwide. Activities among Roma/Gypsies are very high, and in the include: words of GHM, “absolutely unacceptable in a • educational seminars modern society”.77 The NGOs however have • awareness-raising activities for education reported recent difficulties: in one camp mobile professionals clinics were destroyed and training seminars • the organisation of student groups around abandoned due to a growing drug market. specific activities related to anti-racism/ intercultural education and human rights The University of Thessaloniki has been running • the preparation of an educational package a pilot project entitled Philoxenia which aims to which can be applied within the school combat racism, xenophobia and other forms of context.

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The anticipated results include the development Centre, it does not provide financial support and adoption of a holistic approach (of good for teachers, who work on a voluntary basis. practices and methods) in relation to Ms Laimou was however satisfied that she has intercultural/anti-racism education within the been able to gain the trust of many Roma/Gypsy school context at a national level.78 parents and convince them about the necessity of education. The Centre for Social and Educational Action, otherwise known as the Centre for the Since 1980, Save the Children Greece has been Rehabilitation of Street Children, is a facility for working with Roma/Gypsy communities, street children in Athens that deals mainly with particularly in the areas of Ano Liossia and Roma/Gypsy children. This seems to be one of Megara in Attica.80 Objectives of their Programme the few NGOs in Greece that specifically for Roma Communities include: dedicates its work to the education of Roma/ • to ensure equal access of Roma/Gypsy Gypsy children. The Centre provides social and communities to social welfare and other educational services to Roma/Gypsy children local and regional services who are working on the streets, most of whom • to ensure integration of Roma/Gypsy had never been to school. The Centre also does children in the formal education system outreach work, targeting Roma/Gypsy families, • to provide Roma/Gypsy children with particularly mothers, in order to gain their interest culturally appropriate activities with an and trust with regard to the Centre’s services and educational and recreational focus, aiming to activities. It functions mainly through donations, stimulate their interest in learning, and to with a minimum level of support from the provide recreational activities that are not government. The founder and co-ordinator, otherwise available to them Ms Laimou, believes that the public education • to enhance the level of participation and system is unprepared to deal with street involvement of Roma/Gypsy communities in children, most of whom are Roma/Gypsies. programme implementation as well as Her organisation therefore has established improving their social representation preparatory afternoon classes to help children • to sensitise the general public to the specific study and prepare for lessons in school. Children needs of Roma/Gypsies, with the aim of are helped by volunteers to write, draw and do combating discrimination and social their schoolwork. In an interview with the Greek exclusion Helsinki Monitor,79 Ms Laimou said that, due to • to respect, support and promote Roma/Gypsy their particular social and cultural background, culture, and to enhance the communities’ sense Roma/Gypsy children need additional attention of identity and care. Many 18 year olds who come to the • to establish and maintain effective working Centre are only just learning to read and write. networks of relevant organisations and Although the government has promised money services. for maintaining the basic infrastructure for the

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Activities of the programme include the In the area of education, Save the Children following: Greece has implemented the following • providing a support, counselling and programmes and activities: referral service by qualified social workers • Environmental Education Programme: to Roma/Gypsy children and their which aims at sensitising and educating families children and members of the general public • implementing educational and recreational about environmental issues. Roma/Gypsy activities, on an individual and group basis, children participated in the construction of with the aim of: toys from recyclable material, which were later – preparing preschool aged children for the exhibited at a central location in Athens. schooling experience • Immunisation Programme: in collaboration – ensuring and maintaining their smooth with the local Red Cross in Ano Liossia and integration into the formal education system the local Community Health Care in Megara. – through these activities, giving each Roma/ • Social Support Programme: which aims to Gypsy child the opportunity to externalise generate an interest in learning and to enhance his/her cultural heritage by building on school attendance rates of Roma/Gypsy his/her oral language and literacy skills children by providing support classes during (the distinctive language skills that the child their first year of primary education. brings into the group are duly respected, • Basic Education Programme: which aimed and are used as a basis for planning and at ensuring that each Roma/Gypsy child implementing various activities) (10-15 years of age) acquires basic reading • improving the quality standards of service and writing skills. It was targeted at children provision to Roma/Gypsy communities and who would not otherwise have had such an combating discrimination and exclusion by: opportunity due to work commitments. – focusing on the real needs of Roma/Gypsy The programme includes the development children and their families of a educational package which focuses on – identifying gaps in service provision developing an understanding of the relevance – establishing effective working networks with and impact of education upon all aspects of relevant organisations and services life. A total of 73 children, aged 11 to 15 years, – making relevant recommendations to participated in the programme. government authorities • Asoun Man (Listen to Me) – Promoting – sensitising mainstream society and thus the Social Inclusion of the Roma improving communication between Population: which aimed at promoting good Roma/Gypsy and non-Roma/Gypsy practice methods, leading to improvements in communities. the quality of service provision to Roma/ Gypsy and Traveller populations at national and trans-national levels. Save the Children

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Greece was the project leader; other In its Statement of Good Practice, Save the participants include Pavee Point in Ireland, Children Greece has recommended the use of Instituto das Communicades Educativas in Portugal mediators for the following purposes: and Union Nationale des Institutos Socialles d’action pour les Tsiganes in France. Involvement: • serving as role models within their own Roma/Gypsy mediators communities, fostering the recognition that Research carried out by Save the Children Greece public services will benefit the community in 1999 as part of Asoun Man identified training • giving a feeling of ownership of the service to and the use of Roma/Gypsy mediators in all areas the community. of service delivery as an effective means of responding to and reflecting the needs of Roma/ Roma/Gypsy mediators must be integrated in all Gypsy children. Many organisations, particularly areas – formulation of policies, structural those involved in developing training programmes planning and management. They must also be for Roma/Gypsies have taken this on board. supported and encouraged by service providers. Roma/Gypsy individuals are trained to act as Both statutory and voluntary bodies must be community workers within their own community. prepared to employ Roma/Gypsy trainees The use of mediators and their official alongside key workers. recognition by authorities/services aims at Education: improving communication and the relevance of Integration of Roma/Gypsy mediators in the services to Roma/Gypsy communities. More educational system helps earn acceptance and specifically, objectives of mediators were respect of the mainstream society for their work, described as being: particularly that of the service providers. • to disseminate relevant information to their community • to consult and inform their community on relevant developments with regard to public Voices of Roma/Gypsy children81 policy, service provision, etc. • to be actively involved in planning, The following interviews were semi-structured implementation and evaluation of specific and undertaken in pairs. Six Roma/Gypsy programmes and/or services for their children between the ages of 9-11 years who community attend a state school in their area of residence • to be involved in case management were interviewed. A characteristic of this (eg, mediating between an individual/family particular school is the fact that there are two and an organisation). separate classes for Roma/Gypsy children. The school principal states that due to regular absences by Roma/Gypsy children as well as

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their limited knowledge of the Greek language, I like it... I have friends and cousins here at they often are not able to meet the demands school and we play together. The children from of the school curriculum. The aim of these the other classes tease us.” separate classes is to meet the educational needs of these children and to ensure their smooth Roma/gypsy girl, nine years old integration into the school system. “I go to school whenever I do not have any house chores or when I am not taking care of Roma/gypsy girl, ten years old my younger brother and sisters. The children “It is very good that children go to school here make trouble and they’ve hit me, that’s because they can learn to read and write. why most of the time I do not want to come Here at school we learn many things. We draw here... I come to school with my cousin and the teacher reads us stories. I want to because it is too far from our house and we are continue school and go to high school so I can scared to walk alone. Our teacher is very nice help my own children with their homework in but sometimes she shouts when the children the future. Our teacher is very nice. She wants are noisy. I want to learn to read so I can us to learn. Some children are noisy in the read magazines and watch foreign films on classroom and do not listen to the teacher... TV... Sometimes I do not understand our The book we have for school is very good, schoolwork and no-one at home is able to help but sometimes I do not understand it and then me because they cannot read or write... I want when I go home I cannot read it; I do not my teacher to help me more.” remember what the teacher had said. I would like my teacher to help me more with my Roma/gypsy girl, ten years old schoolwork. During our breaks, the other “I like going to school but the other children children tease us ... they do not want to play do not want ‘us’ here. They tease us. I want to with us and we do not want to play with them become a teacher and teach all the children to either.” read and write. If all of us Roma knew how to read and write no-one would tease us... Roma/gypsy boy, 11 years old I know nothing about Roma history and we “I like going to school, I want to learn to read do not learn anything about it here at school... and write just like my big brother who knows With the eldest children we do not talk nor do how to read and write. Everyone brings their we play together.” papers to him and he reads them for them. I want to learn to count and calculate. I want Roma/Gypsy boy, nine years old to become a merchant and sell chairs. I do not “I have been coming to this school for a want to go to high school because I want to month now. I used to go to another school in work and make money... If I was a teacher Thiva. I was in third grade. Here, because I would punish the children who are noisy I cannot read I have been placed in second and fight... I want to learn English because grade. I do not have many friends here. I have

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two cousins in first grade. I want to read • the International Covenant on Economic, and write so I can work and buy a car. Social and Cultural Rights (ratified 6 May 1985, I want to have my own shop and sell things. entered into force 16 August 1985) The teachers and the other children do not • the International Convention on the seem very nice.” Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ratified 18 July 1970, entered Roma/Gypsy boy, ten years old into force 8 July 1997) “If I were a teacher I would place the children • the Convention on the Rights of the Child in more classrooms so they can learn better. (ratified 11 May 1993, entered into force All children need to learn to read and write... 10 June 1993) Many children do not come to school because • the Convention on the Elimination of All they do not have proper clothes to wear and Forms of Discrimination of Women (ratified are embarrassed.” 7 June 1983, entered into force 7 July 1983) • the European Convention for the Protection Roma/Gypsy boy, nine years old of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms “My father knows how to read and write and (ratified 28 November 1974, entered into force he wants me to finish primary school. I cannot on 28 November 1974) go to high school because I will have to work as soon as I finish primary school. I would and has signed but not ratified: have liked to learn more at school, to draw, • the Framework Convention for the Protection to learn music and do more gymnastics of National Minorities (signed 22 September and soccer.” 1997)

and has neither signed nor ratified: Recommendations • the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Given that Greece has ratified: • the International Covenant on Civil and Save the Children recommends that: Political Rights (ratified 5 May 1997, entered into force 5 August 1997) The Government of Greece • the Optional Protocol to the International • Ratifies the Framework Convention for the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Protection of National Minorities. (ratified 5 May 1997, entered into force • Signs and ratifies the European Charter for 5 August 1997) Regional or Minority Languages. • the Second Optional Protocol to the • Signs and ratifies the UNESCO Convention International Covenant on Civil and Political against Discrimination in Education. Rights (ratified 5 May 1997, entered into force • Invites the UN Special Rapporteur on the 5 August 1997) Right to Education to conduct a field visit in

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order to assess the implementation by the • Bases education on the principles of Greek Government of its obligations in intercultural and multicultural education, relation to the right to education in general, through a modification of curricula which and in particular of the right to education of should be enriched with lessons on the history Roma/Gypsy children. and culture of Roma/Gypsies as an integral • Adopts a single and comprehensive body of part of Greek history and culture. anti-discrimination legislation covering discrimination on the basis of race and ethnic Greek NGOs origin, in all fields of life and providing for • Actively engage in and monitor the reporting effective enforcement. It is recommended that process of the government to the Committee such a body of legislation is placed under the on the Rights of the Child and its steps in aegis of a single department charged with meeting any other international obligation. responsibility for overseeing and monitoring the effectiveness of such legislation. The international organisations, including • Produces accurate and comprehensive statistics the UN Commission on Human Rights, the on Roma/Gypsies, including educational data Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education on access of Roma/Gypsy children to school, and the Special Rapporteur on Contemporary and on their attainment. Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination, • Extensively consults with NGOs that work for Xenophobia and Related Intolerance and or with Roma/Gypsy communities when the European Union devising national policy plans for implementing • Closely monitor the international obligations the right to education of Roma/Gypsy undertaken by the Greek Government in children. respect of the right to education, with • Integrates Roma/Gypsy representatives in all particular attention to the right to education of areas of policy formulation, structural planning Roma/Gypsy children. and service provision. • Through awareness-raising projects, works towards the formation of a social climate that will facilitate the recognition and acceptance of Roma/Gypsies by Greek society. • Addresses related problems, such as living conditions and discrimination (including ill-treatment by public authorities), which inevitably affect the access of Roma/Gypsy children to education.

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Greece: Notes on the text 13 Greek Helsinki Monitor (GHM), Activity Report of the GHM Roma Office, 1999. 1 US Department of State, Greece Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1998, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, 14 The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance available at: www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/ (ECRI), Second Report on Greece, 27 June 2000, available at 1998_hrp_report/greece.html. www.ecri.coe.int

2 Rougheri, C., Theory and Practice: Roma in the Southern Balkans, MA 15 ERRC, Letter to the UN Committee on the Elimination of All thesis for the Central European University, 1999, unpublished, p. 8. Forms of Racial Discrimination, 7 March 2001, Budapest. For more details, see ERRC, Focus: Roma in Greece; Published Materials 3 Bereris, P., “Greece- Information File”, Interface 13, Gypsy 1997-2000, Budapest, 2001. Research Centre (funded by Council of Europe): Paris, 1994, p. 16; Save the Children Greece et al., “Roma and Roma Children in 16 ERRC, Focus: Roma in Greece; Published Materials 1997-2000, Greece” Asoun Man (Listen to me); Promoting the Social Inclusion of Budapest, 2001. Roma/Traveller Populations, Final Report, 2000, p. 1. 17 ECRI, Second Report on Greece, op. cit.

4 European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC) Focus: Roma in Greece; 18 ERRC, Letter to CERD, op. cit. Published Materials 1997-2000, Budapest, 2000, p. 18. 19 UN document CERD/C/363/Add.4. 5 UN document CERD/C/363/Add.4, The State Report submitted by the Greek Government to the Committee on the 20 The Stockholm International Forum Combating Intolerance, Elimination of Racial Discrimination, considered at its 29-30 January 2001, Greek State Report on Legislative Measures and 58th Session (5-23 March 2001). policies against Xenophobia and Racism in Greece, available at http://www.stockholmforum.gov.se/se/documentation.html. 6 Centre for International Development and Conflict Management, Minorities at Risk Project, Roma (Gypsies) in Greece, 21 Constitution of the Hellenic Republic, available at available at: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/greeroma.htm. http://www.hri.org/MFA/syntagma/artcl25.htm#A4.

7 Bereris, P. “Greece- Information File”, op. cit. p. 16. 22 The Stockholm International Forum Combating Intolerance, Greek State Report, op. cit. p. 1. 8 As reported by Save the Children Greece. 23 ECRI, Second Report on Greece, op. cit. 9 The Panhellenic Federation of Greek Roma Association has 400 active individual members, and is being subsidised by the 24 UN document CERD/C/363/Add.4, op. cit. Prefectural Committee of Popular Training. 25 ECRI, Second Report on Greece, op. cit. 10 As reported by Save the Children Greece. 26 UN document CERD/C/363/Add.4, op. cit. p. 4. 11 Save the Children Greece et al. “Roma and Roma Children in 27 UN document CERD/C/363/Add.4, op. cit. p. 4. Greece)”, op. cit. p.6. 28 The Hellenic League of Human Rights, Alternative Report of the 12 US Department of State, Greece Country Report on Human Rights Hellenic League of Human Rights on the Implementation of the Convention Practices for 1998, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination in Greece, at the available at: www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/ 58th session of the Committee on the Elimination of all Forms of 1998_hrp_report/greece.html. Discrimination, 2001, p. 5.

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29 UN document CERD/C/363/Add.4, op. cit. p. 4. 42 According to research carried out by the Head of a 12-place school on the status of feeding of the children in the Roma/ 30 The Hellenic League of Human Rights, Alternative Report, op. Gypsy settlement of Sofades, 70 per cent of the children eat cit. p. 5. nothing up to lunch-time, 20 per cent drink a cup of tea and 31 US Department of State, Greece Country Report on Human Rights 10 per cent a glass of milk. The Head believed that if pupils were Practices for 1997, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, provided with food in the mornings they would be more inclined 20 January 1998, available at: www.state.gov/www/global/ to attend the school. Although his efforts to find sponsors to human_rights/1997_hrp_report/greece.html provide the food was supported by the Vice-Minister of Health, no concrete measures have yet been taken. 32 Greek Helsinki Monitor, Activity Report of the GHM Roma Office, 1999. 43 Greek Helsinki Monitor, Activity Report of the GHM Roma Office, on a visit to the primary school in the Village Drossero of Xanthi, May 33 The Hellenic League of Human Rights, Alternative Report, op. 1998. cit. p. 4. 44 General Secretariat for Adult Education (GSAE), Education of 34 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and development, Gypsies: Development of teaching material, Ministry of National OECD Reviews of National Policies for Education; Greece, OECD Head Education and Religious Affairs, Athens, 1997. of Publications Service: Paris, 1997, p. 33. 45 GSAE, Education of Gypsies, op. cit. 35 OECD, Reviews of National Policies, op. cit. p. 50. 46 Greek Helsinki Monitor, Activity Report of the GHM Roma Office, 36 UN document CERD/C/363/Add.4, op. cit. p. 8. GHM mission to Gallikos River, 29 September, 1999, p. 27.

37 Abdekfattah Amor, Special Rapporteur of the United Nations 47 Greek Helsinki Monitor, Activity Report of the GHM Roma Office, Commission of Human Rights, Human rights questions: including May 1998 (GHM Report to ERRC No.37: 6 June 1998). alternative approaches for improving the effective enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms. Implementation of the declaration on the 48 ERRC, “Public school in Greece closes in order to exclude elimination of all forms of intolerance and of discrimination based on religion Romani children”, Roma Rights, No. 1, 2000. or belief (Greece), UN Department for Policy Co-ordination and 49 Greek Helsinki Monitor, Roma Problems Around Greece, Violations Suitable Development, 7 November 1996, p. 9. of human rights in Ano Liosia, February 1998, (GHM Report to 38 Save the Children Greece et al., “Roma and Roma Children in ERRC No.31: 30 March 1998) Greece” Asoun Man (Listen to me); Promoting the Social Inclusion of 50 Greek Helsinki Monitor (GHM), Activity Report of the GHM Roma/Traveller Populations, Final Report, 2000. Roma Office, September 1999. 39 Poulton, Hugh, Minorities in Southeast Europe: Inclusion and 51 International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights, Greek Exclusion, MRG Publications, London, 1998. p. 19 Helsinki Monitor and Minority Rights Group – Greece, Report to 40 Haritos-Fatouros, M. and Dikaiou, M., The Street and Homeless the OSCE Implementation Meeting on Human Dimension Issues: Greece, Marginalized Youth, Report to the EU Youth for Europe Warsaw, 17-27 October 2000 Programme, unpublished, 1997, p. 12. 52 ERRC, “Public school in Greece closes in order to exclude 41 Greek Helsinki Monitor, Activity Report of the GHM Roma Office, Romani children”, Roma Rights, Nr. 1 2000. 1999.

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53 High Commissioner on National Minorities, Report on the 66 For example, the International Helsinki Federation for Human Situation of Roma and Sinti in the OSCE Area, OSCE, The Hague, Rights, the Greek Helsinki Monitor and the Minority Rights 2000, p. 82. Group – Greece.

54 Greek Helsinki Monitor (GHM), Activity Report of the GHM 67 Scientific symposium, organised by the Doctors of the Roma Office, September 1999. World – Greece, “Gypsy Populations in Europe: From Social Exclusion to Violations of Human Rights”, 15 January, 2000. 55 Crowe, D. M. and John Koltsi (eds.), The Gypsies of Eastern Cited in AIM Athens, 29 February 2000; “Assimilationist vs. Europe, M.E. Sharpe, Armonk New York/London, 1991. p. 44. Multiculturalist Approaches to Greece’s Roma”, available from 56 The International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights, Greek http://www.aimpress.org. Helsinki Monitor and Minority Rights Group- Greece, op. cit. 68 AIM Athens, 29 February 2000 , “Assimilationist vs. 57 At the time of writing we were aware of a number of Multiculturalist Approaches to Greece’s Roma”, available from government initiatives, which due to lack of information and time http://www.aimpress.org , pp. 1-2. could not be included in the report. Examples are the Romani 69 General Secretariat for Adult Education (GSAE), Education of language course at the University of Thessaloniki and the work Gypsies: Development of Teaching Material, Ministry of National carried out by students there with Roma children aimed at Education and Religious Affairs, Athens, 1997, p. 49. preparing them for school, and the Intercultural project at the University of Ioannina, which involves the publication of school 70 GSAE, Education of Gypsies, op. cit. p. 228. materials. 71 GSAE, Education of Gypsies, op. cit. p. 129.

58 See http://www.primeminister.gr/lq/page-10.htm. 72 GSAE, Education of Gypsies, op. cit.

59 Equivalent to $US 13,156,505 (on 25 April 2001). 73 GSAE, Education of Gypsies, op. cit.

60 Greek Helsinki Monitor and Minority Rights Group – Greece, 74 GSAE, Education of Gypsies, op. cit. p. 228. Report about the Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention, p. 20. 75 GSAE, Education of Gypsies, op. cit. p. 228.

61 Permanent Mission of Greece to the OSCE Statement made by the 76 GSAE, Education of Gypsies, op. cit. p. 145. Greek delegation On Roma and Sinti, Vienna, 22 September 1999. 77 Greek Helsinki Monitor, Activity Report of the GHM Roma Office, May 1999. 62 UN document CERD/C/363/Add.4, op. cit. 78 Information provided by Save the Children Greece 21 June 63 UN document CERD/C/363/Add.4, op. cit., p. 12. 2001. 64 US Department of State, Greece Country Report on Human Rights 79 Greek Helsinki Monitor, Activity Report of the GHM Roma Office, Practices for 1997, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, May 1999. 20 January 1998, available at: www.state.gov/www/global/ human_rights/1997_hrp_report/greece.html 80 This section of the report was based on a report submitted by Save the Children Greece. 65 The Stockholm International Forum Combating Intolerance, 29-30 January 2001, Greek State Report on Legislative Measures and 81 This section of the report was written by the Save the Children policies against Xenophobia and Racism in Greece, p. 2. Available at Greece, which conducted the interviews on behalf of the Save the http://www.stockholmforum.gov.se/se/ documentation.html. Children UK.

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“I’m in 3rd grade. I want to study catering, but I won’t be able to work around here. I’ll have to go Summary to Pécs or around there for work.” Roma/Gypsy boy Context During the communist period the situation of “I remember at school the Gypsies were always the Roma/Gypsy minority changed treated differently. Then I realised this was not significantly, leading to a high degree of because they had particular problems, but simply integration with the mainstream economy and due to prejudice... I saw how they were treated society. Roma/Gypsies were hit particularly differently. They had to work harder to get hard by the change of system. They have anywhere and they would often be humiliated.” experienced high unemployment and Young Hungarian man deepening impoverishment, which have had knock-on effects in many other areas such as housing, health and social relations. The post- communist period has also been characterised by the unprecedented development of Roma/Gypsy self-organisation and interest representation. Perhaps more than in any other country, the situation of Roma/Gypsies is a central issue of mainstream public and political discussion, offering both opportunities for progressive change and the danger of debate being undermined by the subjectivity of opinions on the issue.

Roma/Gypsy population Roma/Gypsies have been a notable aspect of Hungarian society for hundreds of years and there is a long tradition of state policies towards them. The population has grown markedly since the end of WWII and now constitutes a significant element of the

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Hungarian population. They account for education went to vocational schools. Roma/ 500,000 people or 5 per cent of the total Gypsy participation in higher education is population. They are culturally and linguistically practically invisible, estimated at less than diverse, most being native Hungarian speakers. 0.1 per cent. Although Roma/Gypsies live throughout Hungary, the population is concentrated in Special schools the poorer regions of the country, with Currently just 3 per cent of children in Hungary around 60 per cent still living in the countryside. (over two-thirds of these at primary level) are The post-communist period has brought involved in remedial education. The proportion dramatic changes in the circumstances of of Roma/Gypsies amongst them rose from Roma/Gypsy people, in particular with 26 per cent in 1974/75 to 43 per cent in Hungary’s embrace of minority rights. 1992/93 (the last year of statistics by ethnicity). Other research indicates that for some regions Roma/Gypsies and education up to 90 per cent of special school pupils are Multiple and extensive educational Roma/Gypsy children. disadvantages as well as wider problems, such as impoverishment, deteriorating living conditions Balance of NGO and government and poor health, have a cumulative negative activity effect on educational opportunities for Roma/ The range of government initiatives on Roma/ Gypsy children. Since 1993 it has not been Gypsies and education in Hungary far exceeds possible to publish data on educational access that in other countries. The key issue however is and attainment by ethnicity, so estimates of the ambiguity of the status and sustainability of Roma/Gypsy participation in schooling are these initiatives. Both the state and NGO sector derived from a variety of sources. According to have been active in developing initiatives both as these sources, Roma/Gypsy children are under contributions to the reform of the educational represented in preschool. A survey in 1993/94 system and through the promotion of minority found that fewer than three per cent of rights and support for Roma/Gypsy Roma/Gypsies completed grammar school communities. and that most Roma/Gypsies in secondary

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Hungary report contents Introduction – the Roma/Gypsy population Introduction – the Roma/Gypsy population 110 Terminology 111 In the post-communist period the lives of A brief historical overview 111 Roma/Gypsy individuals and communities have Demography 113 undergone massive changes that have affected Geographic distribution 114 educational opportunities. Roma/Gypsies are The socio-economic status of Roma/Gypsies 115 widely perceived as being amongst the main losers Minority rights 115 as a result of the introduction of a market economy, with the re-emergence of long-term Government policy towards Roma/Gypsies 117 structural unemployment and impoverishment The right to education 119 blighting the lives of most Roma/Gypsy people. At the same time, there has been an In practice 121 unprecedented promotion of Roma/Gypsies The right to education for Roma/Gypsy children 121 as a distinct ethno-cultural group. In 1993 the Roma/Gypsies and discrimination 123 Hungarian parliament approved Europe’s Roma/Gypsies and special schools 123 foremost charter of minority rights, including the Language provision 124 creation of a representative mechanism by which Educational initiatives for Roma/Gypsies 125 Roma/Gypsies (along with the 12 other Gandhi Grammar School and Hostel 126 acknowledged minority communities) may Roma Chance Alternative Vocational exercise collective minority rights. Foundation School 126 Don Bosco Vocational Training Centre and Education plays a significant role in determining Primary School 128 the present and future circumstances of Roma/ Kalyi Jag Minority and Informatics Professional Gypsy people, as well as of the Roma/Gypsies as School 128 a minority community. The aspiration for equality Collegium Martineum 128 of opportunity for Roma/Gypsy citizens can be Józsefváros School 129 fulfilled only by ensuring that children receive an effective preparation for life within the school Voices of Roma/Gypsy children 129 system, which includes compensating for the

Voices of teachers, parents and educationalists 130 disadvantages stemming from low social and economic status. However, for education to have Conclusion 132 an effective socialising role, the relationship

Recommendations 133 between equality of citizens and recognition of differences pertaining to minority identity or Hungary: Notes on the text 134 culture must be addressed. In other words, the issue of Roma/Gypsy education in Hungary goes beyond questions relating to resource allocation

110 and pedagogical effectiveness to achieve and within the Minority Self-Government improvement in formal educational attainment. system. Therefore as with the other country It also includes the considerable intellectual and reports, the term Roma/Gypsy will be used professional challenges relating to constructing throughout unless, in light of above, this is an educational environment which can overcome not appropriate. social disadvantages while also allowing for the development of minority cultures and identities. A brief historical overview The first reliable sources indicate the appearance Terminology of Gypsies on historical Hungarian territory at It is historically inaccurate to talk about “Roma” the end of the 15th century. Shortly afterwards prior to the post-communist period. In Hungary much of Hungary came under Ottoman imperial Roma/Gypsies have been known usually as influence which conditioned the development of “Cigány”, a word with a different etymology the country (and its Gypsy inhabitants) for much from the English “Gypsy” but which is usually of the next two hundred years. The relative social, translated as such. At present “Roma” is economic and cultural stability of the Ottoman essentially a political term used to collate three period enabled Gypsy communities to evolve a linguistically differentiated groups (Romungre, wide variety of social and economic relations, Vlach Roma and Beash ). The members of these most commonly as servants of landlords or civic communities, in both the past and the present, authorities. Records indicate that Gypsies engaged may or may not have considered themselves to in many different occupations including hangman, be “Roma”. Whilst “Roma” is increasingly used market inspector, labourers and international in political and academic discourse, the term traders. Gypsy quarters sprang up in a number of “Cigány” is still widely used, not least by the Law towns, including around the castle in Buda, on the Rights of National and Ethnic Minorities subsequently Hungary’s capital.1

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The feudal conditions conducive to the Most Gypsies conformed to this process, integration of Gypsies prevailed until the most likely through adapting to the need to Habsburg conquest (1678), which ushered in a communicate with the rising number of century of increasingly hostile policies. Initially Hungarian speakers with whom they either government decrees sought the eradication of worked or traded, rather than through the masterless itinerants through expulsion, but by education system or from the ambition for a job the mid eighteenth century this was perceived in the civil service. as a failure and a more sophisticated policy of assimilation was adopted under Empress For most of the 19th century there was no Maria-Theresa and her son Joseph II. This policy identifiable policy towards Gypsies, but the arrival sought the disappearance of Gypsy distinctiveness of a new wave of immigrants from Romania from through their absorption into the ranks of the the 1860s led to renewed state preoccupation serfs. In addition to stimulating widespread with Gypsies. Harsh but ineffective measures hostility and fear towards Gypsy people and against itinerants revived old stereotypes of identity the effect of this initiative was to anti-social and criminal Gypsies and intensifying subjugate Gypsies to landlords and to marginalise Magyar nationalism (particularly after the economically and socially those who did not recreation of the much-reduced Hungarian state conform. Habsburg assimilation policies had the in the inter-war years) promoted the idea of paradoxical affect of both demonising Gypsies Gypsies being alien to the Magyar nation. within mainstream culture while stimulating A national census of Gypsies was carried out in fascination in their perceived exoticism. It was 1893. It found the overwhelming majority during this period that Hungarian Gypsies (93 per cent of the almost 300,000 strong acquired an international musical reputation and it population (in Greater Hungary)) to be was reaction to the cruelty of assimilation policies permanently settled and in regular employment. in Hungary that led to the growth in literature However, the research was carried out at a time about Gypsies, including the publication of when agricultural depression and the rise of Grellmann’s landmark text Die Zigeuner in 1783.2 manufacturing was fatally undermining the economic position of much of the Gypsy The development of nationalism during the population dependent on craftwork and labouring. 19th century created a new obstacle to the The vicious cycle of persecution and poverty integration of Gypsies. Initially Gypsies in intensified throughout the 1930s and provided Hungary were not adversely affected and many the basis for the Nazi attempt to exterminate the contributed both militarily and culturally to the Gypsies, though the extent to which this policy anti-Habsburg struggle of the Magyars. In 1868 was put into practice in Hungary is still a matter Hungary achieved a large degree of autonomy of intense debate.3 within the Habsburg Empire and a policy of Magyarisation was introduced to make Hungarian In the first decade after WWII the state paid little the primary language of the state and its citizens. attention to the Gypsies, the vast majority of

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whom lived in great poverty in isolated rural were defined as those whose mother tongue was settlements. This approach was reversed from not Hungarian, producing conveniently low the 1960s when the Gypsy population became figures of 21,387 (1949) and 25,633 (1960). targeted for inclusion in the industrial labour The introduction of the economically driven force. A variety of measures was introduced to integration policy in 1961 saw a dramatic revision improve the quality and accessibility of Gypsy of the size of the Gypsy population to 200,000 as labour, including resettlement programmes and Hungarian speakers were included. Kemény’s provision of greater access to mainstream research in 1971 demonstrated that, despite a education and health care services. Policy was decade of attempted assimilation, the number of explicitly aimed at the assimilation of Gypsies, Roma/Gypsies, far from disappearing, was rapidly meaning the disappearance of Gypsy identity increasing: he estimated the population to be within the Magyar nation. However, the state around 320,000. failed to address the issue of prejudice and discrimination against Gypsies and faced In addition to the fivefold increase in the increasing resistance to its integration policies, absolute size of the Roma/Gypsy population especially at the local level. As a result of in recent decades, the Roma/Gypsy population economic crisis, the integration policy was has also increased relative to the rest of the abandoned and the emphasis switched to treating Hungarian population. For a number of years the the Gypsies as a distinct ethnic community. This total population of Hungary has been slowly approach has continued into the post-communist declining primarily due to decline in the birth rate period leading to the current situation (over 80 per cent of the Hungarian population is characterised by the promotion of Roma/Gypsy over 18). By contrast the Roma/Gypsy population cultural “difference” at the expense of integration is relatively youthful (over 50 per cent under 18). and equality.4 If current trends continue it is estimated that Roma/Gypsies will comprise nine to ten per cent Demography of the Hungarian population within the next two Today Roma/Gypsies represent the fastest- decades. This process already has implications in growing section of the Hungarian population. the field of education as Roma/Gypsy pupils Research carried out by the Hungarian Academy account for over seven per cent of children of of Sciences in 1993/94 estimated the Roma/ primary school age.5 Gypsy population at around 500,000 (or five per cent of the country’s total population) and The relative and absolute growth in Roma/ projected to rise to 700,000 by 2015. Gypsy numbers is crucial for understanding the Such dynamic growth is closely related to contemporary debate about Roma/Gypsies. industrialisation/modernisation. It is reliably The fact that Roma/Gypsies have become a estimated that towards the end of WWII the numerically significant proportion of the Gypsy population stood at around 100,000. population means that the state has to devote In the immediate aftermath of the war Gypsies more attention and resources towards them.

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Greater numbers also mean that Roma/Gypsies counties of Hungary, although significant clusters have significantly greater political potential than can be found in central Hungary and in the previously, a fact which manifests itself in the south west. This distribution is a significant proliferation of Roma/Gypsy organisations. factor in Roma/Gypsy impoverishment in the However, the importance of national identity in post-communist period as these regions have the country means that although higher Roma/ been particularly badly hit by industrial decline Gypsy fertility helps to reduce the overall and a lack of new investment that instead favours decline in the county’s population, the exclusive western Hungary and Budapest. The distribution interpretation of national identity means the also affects educational opportunities since, increase in the Roma/Gypsy population is throughout the country, pupils attending smaller generally perceived as a threat to the Magyar schools in rural areas tend to achieve poorer nation.6 Therefore, government and the wider results than their urban counterparts. society are faced by the dilemma of having to manage the circumstances of a growing section One of the main targets of government policy of the population for the good of Hungary as a from 1961 was the elimination of “Gypsy country, while they are unwilling to support the Settlements” (Cigánytelep) and improvement in the Roma/Gypsies and their place in Hungary, widely quality of Roma/Gypsy housing. Through a perceiving them as, at best, a burden on the combination of slum clearance, access to public Magyar nation.7 sector housing and low interest loans, Roma/ Gypsies were able to leave settlements with little Geographic distribution or no sanitation or infrastructure and to reduce The growth in the size of the Roma/Gypsy the social distance between them and the rest of population resulted from Roma/Gypsy people society. However, the quality of much of the new enjoying better health care and an improvement housing provided for Roma/Gypsies was poor in living conditions. Communist policies also saw and in the late 1980s it was acknowledged that a significant switch in the location of Roma/ Roma/Gypsies generally occupied the smallest Gypsy populations characterised by a movement and worst forms of housing. As employment closer to the centre of settlements and greater opportunities declined from the mid-1980s many penetration into urban areas as part of their Roma/Gypsies found it difficult to maintain their integration into the mainstream economy. property. The movement into larger and smaller towns was hindered by the inability to develop sufficient Since the change of system, a more mixed pattern housing to ensure that Roma/Gypsies and other of movement can be discerned. Some Roma/ workers could live near to their new workplaces Gypsies have left urban areas (when workplaces so, despite significant relocation, by the early closed) and returned to the countryside where 1990s 60 per cent of Roma/Gypsies still lived in accommodation and life can be cheaper, whilst rural areas. Roma/Gypsies also remained heavily others have been drawn into larger conurbations concentrated in the poorer northern and eastern (particularly Budapest) in the search for work of

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some kind or another. Freeing up of the housing at least a century; this seems to be very restrictive. market has also led to “white flight”: some poor The absence of demographic data on minorities villages have lost many non-Roma/Gypsy in different districts of the country makes any residents and are becoming largely or exclusively evaluation of activities intended for their benefit Roma/Gypsy (Gilvanfa, Csetenye). Deepening difficult. Equally, the lack of data on the poverty has led to increasing tensions with local representation of minorities in local authorities, authorities and others over squatting and the and the lack of recent data on the situation of non-payment of bills, loans and rents. A number minorities in the fields of education, culture, the of high profile incidents have occurred in which media and employment is regretted. Concern is local authorities have sought to rid their areas of also expressed about the lack of clarity “problematic” Roma/Gypsies (Székesfehervár, concerning the status of the International Zámoly). The 1993/94 survey concluded that up Convention on the Elimination of Racial to 60 per cent of Roma/Gypsies live alongside Discrimination in Hungarian law. other Roma/Gypsy neighbours and that Roma/Gypsy housing is still “strongly segregated”. At the same time, Roma/Gypsies Minority rights who have done well out of the economic changes have enjoyed unprecedented opportunities to The status and rights of minority languages, build or move into high quality and more cultures and identities were formally codified in expensive accommodation. the Minorities Law of 1993 – Europe’s most comprehensive charter of individual and collective The socio-economic status of Roma/Gypsies minority rights.8 The Minorities Law recognises In its 1996 concluding observations on Hungary, Roma/Gypsies as one of 13 domestic minority the Committee on the Elimination of Racial populations (honos népcsoport) (61(1)) and Discrimination stated that the persistent recognises the Romani and Beash languages (42). marginalisation of the large Roma/Gypsy population, in spite of continuing efforts by the The Minorities Law created the basis for the government, is a matter of serious concern. minority self-government system whereby It is noted that the de facto discrimination faced minorities can establish elected institutions to by Roma/Gypsies in the enjoyment of their promote their minority rights in partnership with economic, social and cultural rights increases their local and national government. vulnerability in a context of economic crisis. Concern is expressed that three-quarters of Self-governments have the right to be consulted Roma/Gypsies are unemployed, with almost no upon and to veto any local government decisions prospect of entering the labour market. Concern concerning education affecting that minority. is also expressed that, according to the Act of They must also agree to the appointment of 1993, for an ethnic group to be recognised as a the head of any minority institution and to minority, it must have lived on Hungarian soil for decisions affecting the training of minority

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members (29(1-2)). The Minorities Law also teacher and pupil exchanges as well as recognising encourages self-governments to take over qualifications achieved abroad (46). educational institutions (27(a)) though they must ensure that the standard of education is no National minority self-governments have worse than that provided in the state sector (47). particular rights conferred on them in respect In practice self-governments lack the experience to the development and implementation of and resources to undertake educational provision education policy and materials. They have the themselves for which there is also little demand. right to participate in the development of all Political weakness also means that veto rights legislation affecting the minority. They also have cannot always be exercised. However, the system the right (together with the relevant state organs) does give status to minority communities and to supervise the provision of minority education their representatives. Roma/Gypsy self-govern- and must agree to the production of all school ments usually try to facilitate communication materials about the minority (except for those between Roma/Gypsy communities/parents, used in tertiary education) (38 (1-2)). The extent schools and local government. to which national representation contributes to the education of Roma/Gypsy people The Minorities Law also gives the minorities the depends largely on the ability, authority and right to “knowledge, maintenance, enrichment representativeness of the National Gypsy and passing on of the mother tongue, history, Minority Self-Government (NMGS-G). Since culture and traditions of persons belonging to its formation in 1995 the NMGS-G has been national and ethnic minorities” (13a). Greater active in developing materials for Roma/Gypsy detail is provided by Section VI which deals education and promoting scholarships for exclusively with education. Members of a Roma/Gypsy pupils. However Roma/Gypsies do minority have the right to special minority classes not represent a strong interest in government and in or alongside normal schooling if the parents of the limited nature of Roma/Gypsy politics is at least eight pupils so request. Mother tongue or illustrated by the fact that the main initiative mixed language education can be provided in the of NMGS-G is the Roma Chance School in nursery, primary and secondary sectors (43(2-4)) Szolnok. This school is run in association with and minority classes must teach the culture, the organisation Lungo Drom, the political base of history and values of the minority and its mother the NMGS-G’s president, Florian Farkas.9 country (45(3)). These rights are subject to the qualification that “possibilities” in each case be Unsurprisingly in a charter of minority rights, the conducive (ie, that the intellectual and material overwhelming emphasis in the Minorities Law conditions for such education exists). The state regarding education is for special and separate undertakes to bear the additional costs of this education. Rights to equality of treatment minority education via the local authority (44). within mainstream education are covered by the The state also guarantees the training of teachers single general clause prohibiting “all forms for minority education and supports international of disadvantageous discrimination against

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minorities” (5). Post-communist Hungary has yet perceived ethnic “difference”. Indeed, one cannot to adopt specific anti-discrimination legislation help having the impression that the pendulum has and the Minorities Law contains no definition of swung from one extreme to the other. The 1961 what might constitute discrimination, let alone watershed Politburo decree underlined the identifying a procedure for remedy (with the intention to achieve assimilation by abolishing exception of referral to the ombudsman for the short-lived Gypsy Alliance (Cigányszövetség). minority rights who may investigate breaches of This approach was based on the perception that minority rights). Furthermore, the Law’s Gypsy identity was irredeemably linked to prohibition of any register based on ethnicity negative attitudes and thus prejudice could prevents assessment of the scale of only be overcome by eliminating that which discrimination. Specifically within the field of “provoked” it. It was not the case that the education, the ombudsman noted in 1998 that: communist regime did not consider Gypsies “Neither nationally nor at the local-regional level to be a distinct ethno-cultural group, but that is there any educational conception which government decided it did not want to support includes provision for regulation, supervision, Gypsy identity and culture(s). Unfortunately the institutional or pedagogical development, state proved incapable of compelling lower level evaluation, research or financing which, in the authorities to end discriminatory practices and foreseeable future, may reduce the level of the failure to win over society to the need for discrimination against minority pupils.”10 integrating the Gypsies meant that policies became increasingly unpopular. Indeed the Minorities Law itself discriminates between Roma/Gypsies and all the other minority While providing Gypsy people with communities in respect to education, stating that unprecedented access to opportunities and “particular educational conditions can be created services provided by society, integration also to reduce the disadvantages in schooling of the imposed great hardship on many. Gypsies were Gypsy minority” (45(2)). This form of words has particularly affected by the shortage and low been criticised by the minority ombudsman for quality of much new housing and were heavily implying that Roma/Gypsies as a group, rather over-represented amongst those in the least than individual Roma/Gypsy pupils, experience desirable, dirty and low paid occupations. educational disadvantages. This construction also Furthermore, increased contact with the has important implications for how “minority non-Gypsy world which had not been required education” is defined for Roma. to address its own prejudices meant that Gypsy identity continued to represent a barrier to social, Government policy towards Roma/Gypsies economic and cultural mobility. Over the last 40 years, government policy towards Roma/Gypsies has exhibited a clear distinction Integration made it increasingly clear that it was between promoting the integration and equality of necessary to promote a more positive image of Roma/Gypsy citizens and the promotion of their Gypsies in order to overcome prejudice as well as

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to achieve greater solidarity amongst Gypsies in Fundamental change occurred in the early 1980s their relations with mainstream society. Rising when economic crisis led to a reassessment of numbers, better access to education and more Gypsy policies and the decision that these were regular incomes enabled some Gypsy artists and now prohibitively expensive, less effective than intellectuals to express their identity in a way anticipated and becoming steadily more mainstream society might better understand. unpopular. A new approach was developed which During the 1970s attempts were made to organise focused on treating Gypsies as a distinct ethnic cultural events focusing on work produced by community whose relationship with the state Gypsies. This campaign led to a concession in would now be negotiated between the state and 1979 in which Gypsies were granted the status of Gypsy “representatives”. Initially this took the an ethnic minority (as opposed to the previous form of the National Gypsy Council (Országos conception of the Gypsy population as a Cigánytanács) together with county-level “disadvantaged social stratum”). However this organisations reflecting the one-party system of meant little in itself and the same decree the country. The Cultural Alliance of Hungarian reaffirmed assimilation to be the aim of policy.11 Gypsies (Magyarországi Cigányok Kulturális Szövetsége)

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was set up in 1986 explicitly to fund Gypsy artists opportunities even if they are suitably qualified. and to promote Gypsy culture. However the fundamental problem is the collapse of the market for unskilled labour, a category in At the same time as the state expressing its newly which, due to their late arrival in the industrial found respect for Gypsy culture and identity, the labour force, Roma/Gypsies are highly over- effects on the living standards and social status represented. Roma/Gypsies are concentrated in of Gypsies was immediate: by 1990 around the regions hardest hit by industrial decline and one-third of Gypsy workers had lost their jobs. few have the resources to move to areas with In the post-communist period this process more work. In effect Roma/Gypsy intensified. As an ethnic minority Roma/Gypsies unemployment is long-term and structural and became entitled to the same protections as cannot be resolved by “market” mechanisms, but other nationalities contained in the amended requires substantial investment.12 Unfortunately Constitution. The greater availability of state and economic and political conditions in Hungary NGO money for Roma/Gypsy cultural events exclude the transfer of sufficient resources and civil society led to a rapid proliferation in towards those whose labour adds little value. Roma/Gypsy organisations and events. The However, as the multiple and cumulative effects institutionalisation of Roma/Gypsy identity and of long-term impoverishment intensify, Hungary “difference” was taken a step further with the faces growing inequality and social fragmentation passage of the Law on the Rights of National as the distance between most Roma/Gypsies and and Ethnic Minorities (1993). Following the the rest of society continues to widen. introduction of the Minorities Law, 422 local Roma/Gypsy minority self-governments were set up in 1994-95, rising to 877 following new The right to education elections in 1998. Education was not made compulsory in Hungary These dramatic developments in the field of until 1946. Previously schooling had been minority rights have been paralleled by a carried out largely by the church and municipal spectacular decline in living standards for the institutions and was available in villages too. vast majority of the Roma/Gypsy population. Amendments to the Constitution in 1990 Between 1961 and 1985 the proportion of established the right to education in one’s mother Roma/Gypsy men in regular employment rose tongue (68(2)), and prohibited discrimination on from 30 per cent to 85 per cent. By the early the grounds of ethnicity and denial of equality 1990s this had fallen back to 26 per cent. of opportunity (70/A). The legal status and the Roma/Gypsy impoverishment is intensified by entitlements of minorities were considerably the larger family size among Roma/Gypsies and extended in 1993 by Law LXXVII on the Right of the resurgence of prejudice that often excludes National and Ethnic Minorities, the educational Roma/Gypsies from employment or training provisions of which are discussed above.

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The main legislation reforming the educational than direct central control over teaching content. system was passed in 1993 Law LXXIX on Public The Law includes provision for minority Education and, in addition, a number of govern- education, the details of which were adopted ment decrees on the public education system: in 1997 (Decree 32/1997 of the Minister for • Government Decree 47/1990 (15 December) Culture and Education on Principles for Minority on the sphere of authority and responsibility Nursery and School Education). The 1993 of the Minister of Culture and Education educational reform also raised the school leaving • Government Decree 130/1995 (26 October) age to 16 and the basic school leaving on issuing the National Base Curriculum qualification from the eighth to the tenth grade, • Government Decree 137/1997 (28 August) on thus requiring pupils to complete at least two the national foundation programme of nursery secondary school grades. education • Decree 32/1997 of the Minister of Culture The above reforms have created a competitive and Education (5 November) on issuing the market amongst schools, supported by a funding directive on the school education of national mechanism largely based on pupil numbers at a and ethnic minorities. time when rolls are falling due to population decline. To comply with its statutory obligation to The preamble to the Law on Public Education support minority education, the state provides guarantees equality of opportunity, although, as additional resources (approximately $100 per year) with the constitutional and other prohibitions of for each pupil registered by schools as coming discrimination, the practical realisation of such a from a minority and engaged in some kind of guarantee is often non-existent, particularly in minority education. This method allows for the respect to Roma/Gypsies. The Law on Public collection of data on minority pupils, but data Education encapsulated a wider process of protection rules mean that they cannot be used reform of the educational system stretching back for ethnic monitoring purposes. Furthermore, into the late communist period, the defining registration as a minority pupil is meant to take feature of which is the decentralisation of place only with parental consent, though the decision making and the creation of a market in extent to which this is the case for many Roma/ educational resources and services which can be Gypsy pupils is questionable. purchased by schools (under local authority jurisdiction) from budgets provided from national, local and non-state sources.

A major innovation of the Law on Public Education was to provide schools with considerable autonomy as to how they meet the requirements for the national curriculum, establishing a system based on targets rather

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In practice rose, as did the number of those regularly attending school. Roma/ Gypsies were also able The right to education for Roma/Gypsy to make use of the increased nursery provision children provided by the state or workplaces. Given the scale of the problems facing Hungary today, particularly the high costs of reintegrating With the focus on primary education, it is much of the Roma/Gypsy population back into understandable that further progress up the the mainstream economy, education is universally educational ladder remained very difficult for perceived as providing the most effective means Roma/Gypsy children. From primary school of long-term assistance to Roma/Gypsies. students can go either to an academic grammar However, as has been noted in relation to school or into a vocational schools to learn a Roma/Gypsy policy in general, in addition to trade. The 1993/94 survey carried out by the serious political and economic obstacles to the Hungarian Academy of Sciences found that, mobilisation of sufficient resources to address after 30 years of promotion of Roma/Gypsy particular problems, a lack of clarity persists as to education, fewer than three per cent went on to what the precise aim of education should be for complete grammar school. Most Roma/Gypsies Roma/Gypsies. While there is no theoretical in secondary education went to vocational contradiction between promoting Roma/Gypsy schools. However, this sector of education has ethnicity and equality, in practice, within an been particularly hard hit by economic changes environment of scarce resources, there is a that have severely reduced the value of likelihood that a trade-off will take place. qualifications from these institutions as a means of gaining subsequent employment. Lack of Before education was made compulsory in 1946, development in the secondary sector means that Roma/Gypsies were entitled to education in Roma/Gypsy participation in tertiary education schools provided by churches and municipal is practically invisible, estimated at less than institutions and running in villages. Some certainly 0.1 per cent.13 attended, although few completed more than a couple of years. By the 1960s the education of The problems of the 1980s have multiplied Roma/Gypsies was perceived as requiring specific considerably by additional obstacles to educational attention and commitment to improvement. development thrown up over the last decade. Research on which the 1961 decree was based had Very high rates of unemployment, deepening shown that around 40 per cent of Roma/Gypsies poverty, growing inequality, decline in the quality were illiterate and only two to three per cent of and quantity of state provision, strengthening children completed the basic school leaving exam prejudice and an ideology of separation mean that taken at the end of the eighth grade. Emphasis Roma/Gypsy people, and Hungary in general, was placed on improving primary education. face a severe crisis in respect to Roma/Gypsy Throughout the 1970s and 1980s the number of education. In the post-communist period the Roma/Gypsy pupils completing the eighth grade emphasis on Roma/Gypsy ethnic “difference” in

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wider Roma/Gypsy policy has manifested itself in Table 5.1 Estimated populations of the 13 national/ethnic the field of education notably in the form of the minority communities recognised by the Minorities Law flagship Gandhi Grammar School in Pécs and the Minority Size of Population attention given to “minority” education through the Minorities Law. Roma/Gypsy 400,000 – 600,000 German 200,000 – 220,000

The Minorities Law provides for educational Slovak 100,000 – 110,000 initiatives specifically to address the disadvantages Croatian 80,000 – 90,000 of Roma/Gypsies. In effect this provides the basis for a type of “minority” education different Romanian 25,000 from that provided by or for the other minority Polish 10,000 populations of Hungary. There are considerable Serb 5,000 differences in the size, circumstances, needs and aspirations between Hungary’s minorities (see Slovene 5,000 Table 5.1). Greek 4,000 – 4,500

Armenian 3,500 – 10,000 Generally speaking, the smaller minorities (with populations of less than 5,000) utilise minority Bulgarian 3,000 – 3,500 education in addition to the school system Ukrainian 2,000

(ie, Sunday language classes etc.) Larger minority Ruthene 1,000 populations such as the Germans and Slovaks Total 835,000 – 1,083,950 often enjoy their own educational establishments including boarding schools or dual-language Source: Report No.J/3670 of the Government of the Republic of schools. For Roma/Gypsies, most minority Hungary to the National Assembly on the Situation of the National and Ethnic Minorities Living in the Republic of Hungary, 1997, p. 58. education takes the form of catch-up education (felzárkóztató) designed to give additional support to achieve greater success within the participate in some kind of catch-up education, wider educational system rather than the with many learning in fully integrated classes. nurturing of linguistic or cultural traditions and Catch-up programmes are also common in difference. nursery education, though Roma/Gypsies tend to be under-represented in preschool education Catch-up education aims to overcome the which runs for those aged from age three to multiple disadvantages faced by many Roma/ seven. Even though nursery attendance is Gypsy pupils which include poverty, poor living compulsory from age five, around 11 per cent of conditions, lack of parental education experience, Roma/Gypsies of that age do not go to nursery. poor relations between Roma/Gypsy parents and Catch-up is overwhelmingly a phenomenon of schools, low expectations and discrimination. primary schools as the post-communist period has Only around half of Roma/Gypsy pupils witnessed a considerable decline in the numbers

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of Roma/Gypsies going on to secondary school Roma/Gypsy pupils to write down “Gypsies can despite rising numbers completing primary be characterised by high rates of unemployment education (up to 75 per cent). This development and by their special odour”. The local mayor has has led to the evaluation that over the last decade apparently refused any responsibility for the or so the gaps between both the highest and the events and has defended the teacher’s actions. average educational attainment of Roma/Gypsies The Roma Press Center also reported that and the majority have become wider.14 since the leader of the local Roma/Gypsy self-government complained about the incident, A major problem facing the development of he has received anonymous death threats.15 Roma/Gypsy minority education is the lack of materials or even of any national or international Prejudiced attitudes clearly do exist within standards for what such minority education could Hungarian society and also within the educational or should include. Despite government initiatives system though, as the ombudsman notes “it is to produce such materials, the marketisation of unjustified and too simplistic to consider [all the educational system means that there is not yet discrimination against minority pupils] to result sufficient economic incentive for their production. from bad intentions”. Nevertheless, many Furthermore, many Roma/Gypsy parents have Roma/Gypsy pupils are taught in classes where a degree of concern about the value of such they are physically separated from other pupils, minority education since time devoted to and separate catch-up classes appear to produce minority-specific education is inevitably time significantly lower results for those Roma/ taken away from mainstream education where Gypsies who received their education in an many Roma/Gypsies already experience integrated environment. considerable disadvantage. Roma/Gypsies and special schools Roma/Gypsies and discrimination Compared with certain other countries in the Since 1993 it has not been possible to publish region, the issue of Roma/Gypsy pupils being data on educational attainment by ethnicity so categorised as having learning difficulties and estimates of Roma/Gypsy educational success their separation into special facilities is relatively are based on a variety of sources with no minor, but one growing in significance within the comprehensive overview of the whole system. wider educational debate. Currently some three This means that it is difficult to quantify the per cent of children (over two-thirds of them at extent to which conscious discrimination itself primary level) are involved in such remedial plays a part in Roma/Gypsy educational education. However, the proportion of disadvantage, though anecdotal evidence indicates Roma/Gypsies among special school pupils has that this may be a significant factor. For example, risen from 26 per cent in 1974/75 to 43 per cent the Roma Press Center reported that in February in 1992/93 (the last year of statistics by ethnicity), 2001 a teacher in the primary school in Erdőtelek, though other research indicates regional variations in north east Hungary, forced eighth grade with areas where up to 90 per cent of special

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school pupils are Roma. For the ombudsman for The ombudsman also urged local authority and minority rights this indicates that Roma/Gypsy special schools to resist the temptation to pack ethnicity is the main factor (as the figures reflect these institutions with the mentally normal the growth in the proportion of younger Roma/Gypsy children because they are less Roma/Gypsies of school age) rather than their disruptive and easier to teach than children with intellectual abilities. genuine learning difficulties.16

This view is supported by the ombudsman’s Language provision review of assessment procedures. These are The introduction of an ethnic/minority rights characterised by the superficiality of information dimension has considerably altered the concept of about Roma/Gypsy pupils, assumptions based Roma/Gypsy education and created unresolved on stereotypes of Roma/Gypsy culture and confusion regarding the ultimate aim of policy. circumstances and the fact that often As citizens of Hungary, Roma/Gypsies are Roma/Gypsies are placed in these schools despite entitled to the same rights to education as all getting higher IQ ratings than other pupils who other citizens. In 1964 Hungary incorporated the successfully remain within the mainstream system. 1960 UNESCO agreement into its domestic The drop in the number of specialist teachers legislation. Naturally the assimilation policy was in these classes (from 71 per cent to 61 per cent antithetical to the development of education to between 1971 and 1992) also indicates that this nurture and promote Romani languages or form of education is not based on special needs. cultures but was in tune with the wider Those consigned to special schools suffer severe discouragement (though not prohibition) of obstacles to obtaining secondary education or minority languages. Kemény’s research in 1971 acquiring employment skills. did much to overcome complacency when he showed that Roma/Gypsies whose mother In 1998 a governmental directive gave greater tongue was not Hungarian did less well in schools rights to parents to be included in decisions taken and, therefore, that schools should give some about allocating children into special education. recognition to Roma/Gypsy culture if equality of However, the ombudsman notes that this is but opportunity was to be achieved. However, figures the latest of a number of initiatives dating back to from the 1990s show this discrepancy by mother the 1980s which have not led to any significant tongue remains, with 77 per cent of Hungarian improvement. His conclusion is that very many speakers completing eighth grade compared with factors need to be taken into account in ensuring 58 per cent and 52 per cent for Beash and Romani that Roma/Gypsy pupils receive appropriate speakers respectively. Though Beash and Romani education, including the knowledge and support speakers form less than a third of the national given to parents about their rights, greater Roma/Gypsy population, they nevertheless understanding of Roma/Gypsies and the need constitute the largest linguistic minorities in the for teachers to fulfil their legal obligations to country. provide the best education for each pupil.

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Educational initiatives for steps to promote research into Roma/Gypsy Roma/Gypsies culture and to develop textbooks and new teacher training materials. The main initiative was Alongside changes in the education system and the development of the Gandhi Foundation and within the context of Hungary’s enthusiastic Grammar School as a flagship for specific 17 embrace of minority rights, the 1990s also saw the Roma/Gypsy educational initiatives. development of specific Roma/Gypsy policies which include an educational dimension. Since then the institutional support for Roma/ Gypsy education policy has evolved including the The framework for educational initiatives within creation of the Public Foundation for Gypsies broader Roma/Gypsy policy was laid out in 1992 which administers hundreds of grants to Roma/ and emphasised: Gypsy pupils to help them remain in education. • the creation of a nationwide network of The hostel system has been extended and remains hostels to provide a living environment more an important element of policy within the 1999 conducive to study for Roma/Gypsy pupils Medium-Term Action Plan of the Orbán 18 • the development of catch-up education Government. This latter policy also includes a • grants for the encouragement of talented programme to encourage the training and pupils employment of Roma/Gypsy nursery assistants. • the establishment of a Roma/Gypsy Despite the promotion of minority education dimension in teacher training courses and based on knowledge of a minority’s history and • the production of Roma-related textbooks. culture and the inclusion of intercultural education within the national curriculum, there In the following years a Romology Department has been less success with the development of was established in the Zsambék Catholic Teacher teaching materials and textbooks about Roma/ Training College and a National and Ethnic Gypsies and/or for cultural Roma/Gypsy Minorities Centre was set up within the National “minority” education. However, in the view of Institute for Public Education. the education expert Peter Radó the main problems with reforms to date has been the lack Given its tasks in redirecting Hungary’s economy of any standardised or comprehensive mechanism and political system (including the passage of for evaluating initiatives, stemming largely from the Minorities Law), the first post-communist the decentralisation of the educational system.19 government (1990-94) was not noted for its Whilst decentralisation opens up the possibility engagement with Roma/Gypsy issues. The first for schools (and those who run them) to become attempt to develop a comprehensive policy more sensitive to the specific needs of the pupils approach came in 1995 with the publication of a (and communities) which they have responsibility Minority Education development programme for, unless local decision makers have the targeting nursery education, grants for talented knowledge, willingness and resources to provide pupils and hostels. The programme also took the quality of education required, lack of central

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control can allow problems to persist or even Roma/Gypsies amongst the 39 teachers together worsen. with a supportive philosophy aims to produce intellectual Roma/Gypsies who can subsequently There is an apparent deterioration in the assist in the overall development of the Roma/ educational environment of most Roma/Gypsies, Gypsy population. It is not yet possible to assess especially for those who have completed the quality of education at the school, as the first secondary school but would prefer to learn a trade pupils to receive the full six grades of education rather than become of the narrow elite attending will only graduate in 1999/2000. However, the an academic grammar school. Therefore it is not school has proved popular with Roma/Gypsy surprising that a growing number of educational parents both locally and across the country. institutions are being established for Roma/ It employs rigorous selection criteria to cope with Gypsies outside of the mainstream integrated the high number of applications for places. system, either as private initiatives or with more direct state encouragement. The following Roma Chance Alternative Vocational Foundation identifies a number of these, though it should School not be considered a comprehensive list. Based in Szolnok, Roma Chance is the initiative of the National Gypsy Minority Self-Government Gandhi Grammar School and Hostel together with the Roma organisation Lungo Drom. The most high profile educational initiative Established in 1996, Roma Chance aims to regarding the Roma/Gypsies in recent years has provide vocational education to pupils who been the Gandhi Grammar School and Hostel in dropped out of education after primary school. the southern city of Pécs which has received over The policy of the school is to train Roma/ half a billion forints in public money since its Gypsies and non-Roma/Gypsies together: establishment in 1994. Though the school is not in 1998/99, 44 of its 102 pupils were Roma/ exclusively for Roma/Gypsies, the majority of Gypsies. The school aims to provide the support its 170 pupils come from local Roma/Gypsy necessary to help those who have already had an communities and so the pupil body includes a unsuccessful experience of the school system to high proportion of Beash speakers as well as acquire the skills and qualifications necessary those whose mother tongue is either Hungarian for work in the new economy. The education or Romani. provided includes knowledge about Roma/ Gypsies and this has been strengthened since The Gandhi provides an academic grammar 1999, with the school offering more academically school education and thus provides an oriented education alongside skills training. opportunity for Roma/Gypsies that is largely Because it opened so recently, the lack of unavailable elsewhere. The standard national graduates and of evidence of their subsequent curriculum is followed, though classes are also run experiences in the labour market means it is too in Romani and Beash languages and in Roma/ early to assess the success of the school. Gypsy history and culture. The employment of

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Don Bosco Vocational Training Centre and Kalyi Jag Minority and Informatics Professional Primary School School The Don Bosco School is located in Founded in 1994, the Kalyi Jag School is located Karzinbarcika, a large town in north east Hungary in central Budapest and currently has a roll of that has suffered severely from industrial decline 51 students. The school provides education to in recent years. The school was set up in 1988 and pupils who have completed primary school offers a combination of primary and vocational but have not enrolled in secondary education. secondary education. Of its 442 pupils, just over The school gives two years of vocational training 100 are Roma/Gypsies. The Christian orientation and encourages pupils to gain the certificate of of school is reflected in its aim of assisting secondary education. The philosophy of the disadvantaged children (originally children in school explicitly aims to nurture Roma/Gypsy care). The school began with programmes to identity and classes are run in Roma/Gypsy provide activities for mainly Roma/Gypsy youth culture and history. The school also aims to in an area where economic conditions restrict provide skills useful in the modern economy recreational opportunities and feelings of and Roma/Gypsies are able to learn computer inclusion. The ethos of the school is to instil skills and modern languages for which they can pupils with greater self-confidence. achieve a certificate. One of the main problems facing Kalyi Jag has been finding suitable Securing resources to improve facilities has been accommodation – a problem that has required a constant problem for the school as money substantial lobbying of the local authority. received directly from the state accounts only for around 40 per cent of the running costs. With the Collegium Martineum help of donations, a hostel was opened in 1995 to As its name suggests, the Collegium Martineum is provide residential accommodation to some not so much a school as an institution providing pupils. The range of educational provision has residential accommodation and educational been extended to include ninth and tenth grades support to disadvantaged students. The collegium as it was recognised that a primary school leaving is based near Pécs in the village of Manfa. certificate is inadequate to enable pupils to find Approximately half of its 30 pupils come from regular work. In 1998/99 eight pupils completed the Beash Roma/Gypsy community and provision their secondary education, of whom five went on is made for the development of the Beash to higher education. language. The aim is to provide an environment (both physically and culturally) conducive to further learning in secondary education for students whose background might prevent them from developing their talents. The school’s mission is to enable students to use their knowledge and skills to improve life in their local

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communities. Work is continuing on developing Voices of Roma/Gypsy children the infrastructure of the Collegium with the help of German, Dutch and American foundations Pupils in a Hungarian primary school 20 (state money only covers around a third of Session leader – “Is it a taboo subject? Don’t you talk running costs). As the Collegium was set up only about this in your school? Are they separated?” in 1997 it is too early to assess the contribution it Girl – “No, they’re not separated. But they can make to improving the employment cause trouble, they argue and damage things.” opportunities of its graduates. “What can be done to change this?” Boy – “They have to change, they should Józsefváros School respect the teachers.” Józsefváros is the popular term for the Girl – “They have to adapt. They should 8th District of Budapest. This part of the capital go to school and their parents should support is famous for the size of its Roma/Gypsy them.” population, which probably exceeds 20,000. It is also one of the poorest of the inner city districts Pupils in a primary school in a Romani district with a high percentage of low quality and Boy – “School is important because you can overcrowded housing. The Józsefváros School learn a skill.” is not so much a school as an institution for Interviewer – “What do you want to learn?” supporting Roma/Gypsy pupils enrolled in Boy – “I don’t know.” mainstream secondary schools. Indeed one of Boy – “I’m in third grade. I want to study the reasons for creating the Józsefváros School catering, but I won’t be able to work around was that Roma/Gypsy parents wanted to improve here. I’ll have to go to Pécs or around there educational opportunities for their children but for work.” did not want them to be segregated into a Boy – “My sister went to secondary school. separate institution. Józsefváros runs courses in She had to work a lot and studied when she the afternoon and occasionally at weekends. came home from school. All the family Emphasis is placed on Roma/Gypsy culture as supported her and we were very proud when well as on subjects in the national curriculum. she graduated [from secondary school].” The school also runs homework clubs and a variety of leisure activities to create a friendly Young Hungarian man and supportive environment for its 51 students. “I have always been interested in social issues... Begun in 1997, the school has only recently I remember at school the Gypsies were always received accommodation from the local authority. treated differently. Then I realised this was not because they had particular problems, but simply due to prejudice... I had a number of Gypsy friends at school. We used to like listening to Afro-American and Jazz music.

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I saw how they were treated differently. They Roma mother, Gilvanfa had to work harder to get anywhere and they “The kids go to school. They have to, its would often be humiliated.” compulsory.” Interviewer – “Do you send them so you can get welfare benefits?” Voices of teachers, parents and “We get benefits, but they are not enough to educationalists cover costs such as school lunches.”

A nursery school teacher Roma father, Gilvanfa “Even though half the children are Roma, we His child has been offered a place at the Gandhi don’t have any ‘catch-up’ programme, the Grammar School Clerk and the Mayor won’t designate any “I said she can’t go. Here she has a good catch-up class as we can’t get the extra teacher... I don’t know what would happen to government money for minority education... my girl without that teacher. I want her to stay Training can help in changing people’s minds in the local school. If there is any problem but words are not enough... The local I can go to the school and see the headteacher. government doesn’t acknowledge the In Pécs she would be too far away. problems. We need a survey carried out by experts to show what conditions are really Roma mother, Gilvanfa like... A lot of the Hungarian families are poor “In this village no-one studies beyond primary too. With such a small budget we can’t achieve school. They leave and work in the black anything. Equal opportunities are just empty economy... Everyone starts off in school, but words.” they all give up in the end. Some have done well. One girl finished the grammar school, but A nursery school teacher she couldn’t find work and came back to the “The local population is not declining because village. Others just don’t come back.” the Gypsies keep up the number of pupils in the school. This makes the local government Roma father, Gilvanfa more interested in them... A problem is that “After I finished eighth grade I studied most of the teachers come from out of town. agriculture at the technical school. Then I did a They don’t have any contact with the Roma course in how to run a smallholding – but now families and aren’t interested in them... I’m unemployed. I was meant to get a job on In recent years the Roma parents have become the agricultural co-op, but I finished in 1994 enthusiastic and some kids have done well. and that year they broke up the co-op. I came We help the families find places and get grants too late... Of course it is worth studying. for their children.” The more one knows the better.”

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Roma mother The teachers don’t know what to do. They are “I have two kids and they’re just finishing either inexperienced or authoritarian with the eighth grade, but only one can go on to Gypsy pupils... We are always talking about secondary school. Its too expensive... I get them, for them – but never with them. I try some kind of [skills] training. I go to school and talk to the families and they are very open from 8 am to 3 pm. I have two kids at school. and this can help make changes in the school. My daughter has got a grant, but I don’t know This Prussian, authoritarian method is not just what will happen. School costs so much.” bad for Gypsy children, but for all children.”

Roma father Roma young man leading a course at the Gandhi “If someone wants to get somewhere, they Grammar school and related initiatives have to learn. If you look around, you can’t “Where I live, in the village of Hidas, in even get a job as a cleaner with eighth grade 50 years no Roma child had gone to grammar now. It was different for my parents’ school. After I began going to secondary generation. Those that have done well have school I was joined by my sister. Other people the ambition to better themselves.” saw that this was a realistic choice and in the last three years six kids have gone on to Representative from the Hungarian Ministry of grammar school.” Education and Culture “It’s a big problem that Roma parents Teacher experienced hostility in school. They faced a “Some of the kids from the villages are not lot of cultural problems and don’t like official familiar with the city, things like public institutions and representatives of the state. transport. There was one instance when some But this is not just a problem in Hungary but is pupils, who were staying at the Gandhi Hostel, everywhere in Europe... If you ask two experts wanted to get back there. They knew it was on about the Roma issue, you get three opinions. the No.2 bus route, but not where to get off. It’s a harsh term – to segregate, but some of So they stayed on the bus all the way to my colleagues think it would be better so that the end station which is miles out of town. they [Roma] can learn in the way they like and By giving these kids instruction in these kinds are not endangered by the hostility of the of things it avoids the danger and bad majority. But official policy is against this and experience that such a mistake can cause.” aims to integrate them into society.” “When the Roma grammar school pupils are Hungarian educationalist trained they can go back to their villages and “We use the terms integration and assimilation, represent their communities in the local but never coexistence... A Romology faculty government, in the schools.” is a good idea, but we really need in-service intercultural education for teachers.

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Conclusion environment. Reform has initiated debate, but at the same time decentralisation, marketisation, The most notable feature of post-communist competition for pupils and scarce resources, Hungary’s approach towards its large and growing institutional changes and the lack of effective Roma/Gypsy minority, including in the field of monitoring of standards or co-ordination of education, has been the country’s embrace of pedagogical services and practice make it difficult minority rights. Within an environment to perceive positive results apart from a few characterised by very high rates of Roma/Gypsy high profile cases. In some respects the situation unemployment and impoverishment and a long has deteriorated with the prohibition of history of prejudice and discrimination against comprehensive statistical data concerning the Roma/Gypsies, minority rights have an achievement and experiences of Roma/Gypsy ambiguous impact. On the one hand, focusing pupils, as well as the paucity of measures to on the “difference” rather than the equality of counter revived prejudice and discrimination Roma/Gypsies may make policy makers and stemming from the general deterioration in the educationalists more aware of issues which they social and economic circumstances of most need to take account of to ensure Roma/Gypsies Roma/Gypsies. can benefit from educational provision to the same degree as other pupils. On the other hand, Education has been given a particularly prominent it can also be used to reassert prejudices and the role in the struggle to reintegrate Roma/Gypsies conception that Roma/Gypsies cannot be into the mainstream economy and society and to expected to achieve equal results because of establish equality of opportunity. It is widely inherent cultural characteristics. This dichotomy recognised that the multiple and extensive is played out within both state school and educational disadvantages most Roma/Gypsies non-state institutions ranging from elite initiatives face will take many years of hard work to correct. such as the Gandhi Grammar School through to However, it is also appreciated that wider catch-up classes and the dumping of Roma/ problems (such as impoverishment, deteriorating Gypsy in classes for those with learning living conditions, poor health etc.) have a difficulties. cumulative negative effect on educational opportunities and progress. After a decade of Considerable intellectual challenges are post-communist reform it appears that the represented by the issue of Roma/Gypsy ambiguities within the approach to Roma/Gypsy education, including linguistic and cultural education in Hungary are yet to be fully resolved division within the Roma/Gypsy population, and that the Hungarian state (and the wider and differences in location, circumstances, society) has not yet become convinced that its educational experience and aspirations. best interests lie in preventing the further In addition, Roma/Gypsy pupils and parents disintegration of the fastest growing section of (as well as educationalists) have had to contend the country’s population. with extensive changes to the wider educational

132 Recommendations between States Parties to the Convention against Discrimination in Education has not Hungary has ratified: been yet ratified) • the International Covenant on Civil and • the European Convention for the Protection Political Rights (ratified 17 January 1974, of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms entered into force 23 March 1976) (ratified 5 November 1992, entered into force • the International Covenant on Economic, the same day) Social and Cultural Rights (ratified 17 January • the First Protocol to the European Convention 1974, entered into force 3 January 1976) for the Protection of Human Rights and • the International Convention on the Fundamental Freedoms (ratified 5 November Elimination of All Forms of Racial 1992, entered into force the same day) Discrimination (ratified 1 June 1967, entered • the Framework Convention for the Protection into force 4 January 1969) of National Minorities (ratified 25 September • the Convention on the Rights of the Child 1995, entered into force 1 February 1998) (ratified 7 October 1991, entered into force • the European Charter for Regional or Minority 6 November 1991) Languages (ratified 26 April 1995, entered into • the UNESCO Convention against force on 1 March 1998). Discrimination in Education (the Protocol instituting a Conciliation and Good Offices Over the past decade, successive governments in Commission to be responsible for seeking the Hungary have put in place an institutional settlement of any dispute which may arise structure that has the potential to direct resources

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and expertise towards Roma/Gypsies and Hungary: Notes on the text improve their circumstances, while also encouraging greater involvement of Roma/Gypsy 1 An authoritative history of Roma/Gypsies in Hungary has yet to parents and communities. However, without an appear in English. Hungary has a long history of Gypsy literature and the best recent books on the subject are: Mezey, B., A effective legal framework to support the claims magyarországi cigánykérdés dokumentumokban 1422-1985, Kossuth, and interests of Roma/Gypsies a significant gulf Budapest, 1986; Nagy, P., A magyarországi cigányok története a rendi between intent and practice continues to exist. társdalomban, Csokonai Vitéz Tanítóképző Főiskola, Kaposvár, 1998. Save the Children therefore recommends that: 2 For a detailed account of the Hungarian sources used by The Government of Hungary Grellmann and of the intellectual/cultural context of his landmark Enacts effective anti-discrimination legislation work see, Willems, W., In Search of the True Gypsy, Frank Cass, • London, 1997, pp.22–92. which defines discrimination and identifies usable remedies and sanctions which can be 3 Janos Szonyi estimated that 25,000-30,000 Gypsies were used by Roma/Gypsies and others to reform deported in 1944-45 with 3,000-4,000 returning. Kenrick and practice and thus to realise their educational Puxon estimate Hungarian Gypsy losses at 28,000. However, the rights. historian László Karsai has produced a far lower figure of “a few • Develops methods for carrying out formal hundred”. Szőnyi, J., “A cigányok sorsa a fasizmus évei alatt’ ” in evaluations of all initiatives and thus ensure L. Szego (ed.), A cigányok története, Budapest, 1983, p.56; Karsai, L., their effectiveness and promote greater Út a Holocausthoz: a Cigánykérdés Magyarországon 1919-1945, Cserepfalvi, Budapest, 1992, p.144; Kenrick, D. and Puxon, G., accountability. Ethnic monitoring should only The Destiny of Europe’s Gypsies, Chatto-Heinemann, London, 1972, be done when confidence has been gained p. 125. among ethnic minorities that such monitoring is anonymous. 4 See Kovats, M., “Hungary: Politics, Difference and Equality”, • Addresses the issues of the disproportionate in Guy, W. (ed.), Between Past and Present: the Roma of Central and numbers of Roma/Gypsies and other children Eastern Europe, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, 2001. being misdirected into special schools. 5 Radó, P., Jelentés a Magyarországi Cigány Tanulók Oktatásáról, 1997, • Reviews the value of catch-up classes in order p. 8. to clarify the relationship between special minority education for Roma/Gypsies and the 6 In April 2000 a senior civil servant in the Prime Minister’s Office was forced to resign after publicly calling for Roma/Gypsies to be achievement of equal standards. given free contraceptives to restrict their “excessive reproduction”. Ensures greater provision for pupils from • Farkas, K., ‘Cigányosodó ország’, Lungo Drom 8(4): 6. Romani and Beash linguistic minorities. • In addition to supporting access to academic 7 This is the dilemma of the ethnic discourse and the minority secondary and tertiary education, ensures that rights process. Within an environment of increasing disintegration vocational education is more closely related to and competition for scarce resources, it is very difficult to job opportunities. construct a Roma/Gypsy identity in Hungary which is not perceived as exclusive and even antithetical to Hungarian/Magyar

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identity. As long ago as 1986 János Kenedi noted that “Hungarian 14 Radó, P., Jelentés a Magyarországi Cigány Tanulók Oktatásáról, 1997, ethnic consciousness regains its self-awareness by differentiating p. 45. itself from Gypsies”. Kenedi, J., ‘Why is the Gypsy the Scapegoat 15 European Roma Rights Centre, “Racist lessons in Hungary”, and not the Jew?’, East European Reporter 2(1): 12, 1986. Roma Rights, No. 1, 2001. 8 Law LXXVII on the Rights of National and Ethnic Minorities, 16 Kisebbségi, A., Ombudsman, Jelentése a Gyermekek Speciális Iskolai 1993. Oktatásáról Folytatott Vizsgálata Tárgyában, 1999. 9 For an analysis of the work of the first National Gypsy Minority 17 Post-communist Roma/Gypsy policy was first defined in Self-Government see, Kovats, M. ‘Az elsõ Országos Cigány Decree 1125/1995 on the Most Urgent Tasks Concerning the Kisebbségi Önkormányzat tevékenysége’, Regio, No.1, 1999, Gypsy Community and developed further by the Horn pp.36–63. An English version will shortly appear as ‘The First Government in Decree 1093/1997 on a Package of Medium-Term Minority Gypsy Minority Self-Government’, in the journal Measures Intended to Improve the Living Standards of the Contemporary Politics. Gypsies. 10 Kisebbségi A., Ombudsman, Jelentése a Kisebbségek Oktatásának 18 Government Resolution 1047/1999 on the Medium-Term átfogó Vizsgálatáról, 1998, pp. 46–7. Package of Measures to Improve the Living Standards and Social 11 Politburo decree on The Situation of the Gypsy Population, Position of the Roma. 18 April 1979. 19 Radó, P., Jelentés a Magyarországi Cigány Tanulók Oktatásáról, 1997. 12 Noting the structural factors underlying high Roma/Gypsy 20 The discussion centres on the relations with non-Magyars in the unemployment, in 1994 the Ministry of Labour argued that “in school. Although Roma/Gypsies are not explicitly mentioned at these circumstances they are not semi-skilled or skilled workers any first, by context it is clear that they form the basis for the more, they are Gypsies plain and simple”. Ágoston, E., Hungary – discussion. The session leader asks pupils how things are in their the State of Crisis-Management in the Social Stratum of Unemployed school. None of the children wish to answer. Gypsies, Ministry of Labour, 1994.

13 See, Havas, G., Kertesi, G. and Kemény, I. ‘The Statistics of Deprivation’, The Hungarian Quarterly, 36 (summer), 1995, pp. 63–85.

135 6 Italy

Most Roma/Gypsies in Italy either live in abandoned buildings or set up camps along the Summary road or in open spaces. Camps are either self-organised or officially authorised and Context administered. Self-organised camps generally Legislation gives members of a “historical have poor sanitary facilities and infrastructure and, linguistic minority” the right to be taught in since they are illegal, are subject to police raids. their own tongue. Roma/Gypsies are Official camps are often guarded at the entrance recognised as an ethnic/linguistic group, and walled in. but not a historical linguistic minority. Anti-discrimination laws are weak and “I was woken up by the police who made me go seldom enforced. on a coach. I was very frightened. When they took us away, I saw [them] smashing my house with all Roma/Gypsy population my family’s things inside, even my clothes and my Official statistics indicate there are 130,000 1 schoolbag. How can I go to school now?” Roma/Gypsies in Italy. Local NGOs suggest a range from 105,000 to 160,000. Of these, 45,000 to 75,000 are immigrants or children of immigrants. They are isolated from Italian society and often live in makeshift camps in poor conditions. Discrimination and harassment by local authorities and the police are common, as is hostility from the surrounding population. Many, but not all, are nomadic.

Roma/Gypsies and education Roma/Gypsy children mostly attend only primary school, with very low enrolment and irregular attendance. Few take up secondary education, which is often assimilationist and

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Italy report contents

Introduction – The Roma/Gypsy population 138 Demography 138 inflexible. Poverty, eviction and the Different Roma/Gypsy groups 138 destruction of their settlements by police Roma/Gypsy asylum seekers 139 makes attendance difficult. Inter ethnic relations 139 Socio-economic status 139 Language provision Italian Roma/Gypsies speak Romani, standard Minority rights 141 Italian and often another dialect of Italian. Government policy towards Roma/Gypsies 143 Those from abroad seldom speak Italian. Regional legislation 146 These groups need education in the language The right to education 147 of their home country as well as their dialect of Romani. Provision is variable at best. In practice 150 The right to education for Roma/Gypsy children 150 Other separate provision Preschool 150 One school in the Veneto region had some Primary school 151 success with additional language classes for Secondary school 151 children of Roma/Gypsies originally from Attendance and achievement 152 Yugoslavia, using Romani oral texts provided Poor and segregated living conditions 156 by adult relatives which have been translated Itinerancy 158 into Italian. Bureaucratic obstacles 159 Discrimination at school 159 Balance of NGO and government Language provision 160 activity Teacher training161 NGOs have a recognised role as cultural Government initiatives 163 mediators between institutions and Mediators 163 immigrants. The introduction of Roma/ Mediators for Roma/Gypsy Children 163 Gypsy mediators has had some success. Voices of Roma/Gypsy children 164

Recommendations 166

Italy: Notes on the text 167

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Introduction – The Roma/Gypsy the Abruzzo region). They abandoned the population semi-nomadic way of life decades ago and live in houses. The second most numerous group, which Demography is well established in Italy, is the Sinti. They live According to the Minority Rights Group there mainly in northern Italy. They traditionally run were between 90,000 and 110,000 Roma/Gypsies small circuses and funfairs or peddle haberdashery living in Italy in 1995.2 Local NGOs put the and lace tablecloths. They have maintained a figure a little higher, at 105,000-160,000.3 Official semi-itinerant way of life; and stay in large cities estimates are similar, with one count of 130,000,4 during the winter. although the methodology used to determine this figure is not clear.5 Other minorities include small Data is also available at regional and local levels. clusters of German Italians, French Italians and For example, one NGO recorded that in Slovene Italians in the north and Albanian Italians the period June-November 1999, there were and Greek Italians in the south. 2,148 Roma/Gypsies living in Tuscany; children constituted nearly half of this population (1,014).7 Local NGOs have broken down the Roma/ This population was further broken down into Gypsy population figures by groups. Of the different groups as follows, giving an indication of 105,000-160,000 estimated above, some the diversity of this population: 60,000-90,000 are believed to be Italian • 250 (12 per cent) were Roma from Bosnia and Roma/Gypsies, and 45,000-70,000 Roma/Gypsies Herzegovina, over half of whom were born outside Italy or born in Italy to immigrants children (138) parents. These Roma/Gypsies have immigrated • 781 (36 per cent) were Roma/Gypsies from from Eastern Europe, particularly the Federal Kosovo, nearly half of whom were children Republic of Yugoslavia. Many of them arrived in (369) the 1970s and their children were born in Italy. • 467 (22 per cent) were Roma/Gypsies from A second big wave of immigration occurred the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, between 1987 and 1990, mostly from Bosnia and over half of whom were children (236) Herzegovina and Kosovo. • 82 (4 per cent) were Roma identifying themselves as dassikané Kanjiaria, nearly half of Different Roma/Gypsy groups whom were children (38) Roma/Gypsies first arrived in Italy from the east, • 70 (3 per cent) were Roma/Gypsies from probably around the tenth century.6 The largest Istria, including 28 children (40 per cent) group are the Roma/Gypsies in southern Italy, • 447 (21 per cent) were Sinti, including who allegedly came from the Byzantine Empire in 181 children (40 per cent) the 14th century. Once coppersmiths, blacksmiths • 51 were identified as “others”. or horse traders, they can now be defined generically as vendors (especially those living in

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Roma/Gypsies in Italy are mainly bilingual or Equality and Integration of the Social Affairs trilingual, speaking Romani, an Italian dialect, Department, Roma/Gypsies are the least popular and/or standard Italian, plus many other minority in Italy. Only 11 per cent of Italians languages depending on the country of origin. believed Roma/Gypsies to be friendly.9

Roma/Gypsy asylum seekers Despite the fact that not all Roma/Gypsies are The situation of the non-EU Roma/Gypsy foreigners, the conflation of “Roma/Gypsies- immigrants in Italy is greatly affected by their nomad-vagrant-foreigner” produces a state of residence status as regulated by the various continuous suspicion. The formal link made immigration policies and laws which have between these terms is officially expressed by the proliferated in the past years. The residence status existence of offices within local authorities under of some of the earlier arrivals from non-EU the heading of “nomads and non-Europeans”. countries has been regularised by subsequent This is also reflected in the regional legislation, legislative provisions. These immigrants are which is discussed below.10 This legislation therefore legally resident in Italy and are entitled perceives all Roma/Gypsies as foreigners and to enjoy all human rights and fundamental vagrants.11 freedoms on almost the same basis as nationals. (There are restrictions in their right to vote or to Socio-economic status be elected, for example.) However those who have Most Roma/Gypsies in Italy live in a state of not been able to obtain a residence permit for a separation from mainstream society. They either number of reasons, including lack of identity live in abandoned buildings or set up camps papers, lack of regular employment, etc, are still along the road or in open spaces. Camps can “illegally” residing in Italy. In addition, many of vary in size between 12 and 1,500 people. In the their children have been unable to request Italian Casilino camp in Rome, for example there are nationality despite being born in Italy and having 700 inhabitants. Camps tend to comprise Roma/ lived in the country all their life, because Gypsies of one extended family or at least of one traditional and common law marriages are often nationality. Where camps are large, smaller groups not recognised by the authorities. Those who within them are divided by places of origin.12 arrived in 1999 following the war in Kosovo are likely to be classed either as illegal or as asylum Camps are either self-organised or officially seekers. authorised and administered. Self-organised camps generally have poor sanitary facilities and Inter ethnic relations infrastructure and, since they are illegal, are In the minds of many Italians, Roma/Gypsies subject to police intrusion, abusive raids and are the archetype of unwanted “criminal” eviction from law enforcement officials at any and immigrants.8 According to a survey carried out in all hours of the day. They are muddy in winter 2000 by ISPO on behalf of the Commission on and dusty in summer and are often located near

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city dumps. Camps of the second type are not to integrate Roma/Gypsy families into public characterised by such dire sanitary conditions, but housing, declaring their strong opposition to the are often guarded at the entrance and walled camps.15 Other local authorities have pledged to in.13 These camps came into being at the end of offer rent-free, prefabricated housing with toilets, the 1980s and early 1990s when ten out of the free water and electricity to Roma/Gypsy families 20 regions in Italy adopted laws aimed at “the who send their children to school.16 protection of nomadic cultures” through the construction of such camps. This served to As camps are often located near motorways and perpetuate the perception that all Roma/Gypsies busy streets, there are often reports of accidents are nomadic and formed the basis of the involving cars and Roma/Gypsy children.17 government’s inactivity in adopting appropriate In addition, as the infrastructure within camps, integration and housing policies for this minority.14 including electricity and gas systems, is so run Some local authorities have only recently started down, there have been many reports of children

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dying due to fire and other domestic accidents.18 was enacted in 1995. This legislation provides for It is reported that in the last 12 years around the adoption of urgent measures in order to 40 Roma/Gypsy children in Italy have died in tackle racial, ethnic and religious discrimination. camps due to fires, cold or other domestic accidents.19 Law 286 of 25 July 1998 is the latest immigration legislation. Article 2 of this Law first states that foreigners who are at the border or in the Minority rights country are guaranteed all the human rights and fundamental freedoms included in domestic General international law is directly applicable in legislation, international conventions and the the Italian legal system. International treaty law is generally recognised principles of international applicable after the promulgation of an order of law. In addition the Law reiterates the principle of execution which reproduces the international non-discrimination. This legislation provides for a provisions contained in the instrument concerned definition of discrimination, along the lines of in the national legislation. that given in international human rights law, and its Article 42 provides for a specific judicial Before examining any particular provisions, it is remedy for victims of alleged discriminatory important to refer to the Constitution which sets treatment. out the principles on which the state bases the social pact which supports the nation and which However, it seems that the definition of forms the basis on which the other laws must be discrimination is not legally very clear. modelled. For example, the definition provided for by Law 286/98 does not seem to cover verbal racist The principle of non-discrimination is enshrined insults. Therefore, it remains extremely difficult in the Italian Constitution, which is the principal and cumbersome to report this kind of source of law. Article 3 states that all citizens discriminatory abuse. In addition and also as a have equal social dignity and are equal under the result, individuals who are victims of such abuse law, regardless of sex, race, language, religion, tend not to report it. This is a cultural problem in political persuasion or personal and social Italy: individuals are mostly not aware of their conditions. It is the Republic’s task to remove rights or they think that there are no effective obstacles of an economic and social nature remedies to redress these human rights violations. which, in limiting the freedom and equality of This is also a consequence of the fact that in the citizens, would impede the full development order to seek redress for these abuses it is of the human personality and real social necessary to go through long bureaucratic participation. proceedings. Furthermore, the sanctions provided for by the anti-discrimination laws are In addition, in response to the increasing number extremely weak and rarely enforced.20 of racist and xenophobic incidents, Law No. 205

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Law 286/98 provides also for the establishment which guarantee equality before the law without of regional centres/observatories which would any distinction based on sex, race, language, monitor the extent of racial discrimination, religion, political opinions and personal and social provide information on the remedies available and conditions. eventually provide legal advice and counselling. However it appears that none of these bodies has On 25 November 1999, the Italian Parliament yet been established. passed legislation on the protection of historical linguistic minorities. However, this does not In 1998 the Social Affairs Department, in the include the Roma/Gypsy minority. This law lists Prime Minister’s office, established a National 12 minority groups whose languages and cultures Observatory monitoring all forms of it safeguards. It grants to these groups the right to discrimination, racism and xenophobia in relation learn their mother tongue in pre-primary, primary to minors. Unfortunately this initiative lasted only and secondary schools, upon request from the one year and its work has not been disseminated parents (Article 4). In addition, the Ministry of yet. It collected cases of discrimination through Public Education may promote research and study schools, local authorities and focus groups of on the languages and cultures of these groups immigrants using reports given on anonymous (Article 5). As a result, the Italian report to the forms. However, the Observatory did not have Council of Europe Advisory Committee on the the mandate to follow up and take action further Framework Convention on the Protection of to receiving these cases. The Observatory National Minorities deals in detail only with the also monitored the national and local press. officially recognised minorities. However, Its findings showed that negative events strangely enough, this report includes also a involving violence are more likely to be reported. table indicating the total number of “Gypsies” (the term used by the report). The Social Affairs Department also established a Commission on Equality and Integration which The government has recently enacted some deals with issues related to non-discrimination legislation to protect the Slovene ethnic minority in various aspects of life. There is specific and guarantee its right to use the Slovenian anti-discrimination legislation in certain fields, language. There are about 90,000 Italian Slovenes such as in employment where, for example, mostly living in the north east, near the cities of Law 300/70 prohibits all forms of discrimination Trieste, Gorizia and Udine, close to the borders in relation to employment law. with Austria and Slovenia. The law will now provide for some degree of autonomy for these The concept of a linguistic minority is recognised communities over their education system, in Article 6 of the Italian Constitution. Other government offices and road signs. However aspects related to the concept of a minority, such there is still no information on whether and as ethnic origin, religion and race, are generally how this law will protect and/or affect the recognised in those articles of the Constitution Roma Slovene minority.21

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Government policy towards Roma/Gypsies The Ministry of Interior Circular No. 559 of Italy, urged by European Community institutions, January 1991 also deals with Roma/Gypsies, but tackled the issue of Roma/Gypsies for the first from a public order perspective only. In particular, time in October 1973. The then Ministry of it deplores the racial and intolerant incidents Interior issued Circular No. 17 which deplored against both Roma/Gypsies and non-EU the intolerance of the population and of local nationals. It goes on to say that, although these authorities towards Roma/Gypsies. Furthermore, incidents do not yet represent an emergency the circular called upon the mayors to: situation, they may constitute a possible • ensure the equal treatment of Roma/Gypsies disruption of public order. and other citizens • promote a policy which would remove the Decree No. 3068 of 1991 on “The Protection of obstacles to the active participation of Linguistic Minorities” identifies the Roma/Gypsy Roma/Gypsies in decisions affecting their people as an ethnic/linguistic group having the future same status as other non-Roma/Gypsy groups. • register Roma/Gypsies in the civic register • consider setting up proper camps In regulating the right to education, it is possible • take measures to facilitate business licences and to identify two stages: the first from the early • abolish all prohibitions for stopping places 1960s to the mid-1980s, and the second starting which were not in conformity with Articles from the 1986 Circular of the Ministry of Public 3-16 of the Italian Constitution. Education (MPE).

The second circular, issued in July 1985, reiterated Before the 1960s the education of Roma/Gypsy the call for a greater awareness of and respect for children was implemented by volunteers in a the traditions and habits of Roma/Gypsies, and piecemeal way.22 In 1965, the special classes Lacio a more appropriate response to their concrete Drom were established on the basis of the first needs. In addition, this circular called for: convention between the Ministry of Education • civic registration of Roma/Gypsies, on which and Opera Nomadi, a nationwide association the granting of a work permit depended working for nomads. However, the cultural • promotion of schooling, due to the high rate context did not favour the work of teachers and of non-attendance among Roma/Gypsy other staff: in the early 1960s Italy was still children and struggling with illiteracy and primary education, • co-operation between various public including public, private and “subsidiary” schools. institutions. There were still “popular, evening, summer, weekend and prison” schools. The Lacio Drom This circular also proposed the establishment of classes became special classes for socially an Inter-Ministerial Commission, and called for disadvantaged children and children with serious respect for the constitutional guarantees for learning difficulties. These classes were offered to Roma/Gypsies. Roma/Gypsy children. Later on the measures

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adopted and carried out by MPE in co-operation improve interventions. In order to achieve with Opera Nomadi, maintained the division complete school provision for Roma/Gypsy between Roma/Gypsy and non-Roma/Gypsy children, the Council deemed it necessary to: pupils. Roma/Gypsy children were still • promote teacher training according to a educated in special classes. The convention of precise plan, which could also be funded 12 December 1976 turned these classes into through Regional Institutes for Research, remedial classes, and set up 60 primary school Experimentation and In-Service Training in classes for Roma/Gypsy children of compulsory regions where there is a greater need for school age, although it considered their specialised staff to welcome Roma/Gypsy integration into mainstream classes desirable. children and their families • motivate these staff by making their positions In 1982 a new convention between MPE and permanent, thus allowing them to work in a Opera Nomadi provided that all Roma/Gypsy specific area with continuity and children of school age must be included in • take measures to promote the training of mainstream classes, and an additional teacher teachers within the Roma/Gypsy community allocated for the support of every six Roma/ itself, in order to contribute more effectively to Gypsy pupils. These teachers were also expected safeguarding the cultural heritage and ethnic to mediate between the school and the Roma/ identity of the community. Gypsy community. According to Article 9 of Law 979/70, specialised teaching staff in schools Article 14 of Law 270/82 stipulates that staff of any level can be assigned to mainstream may be assigned to schools to undertake support, schools to provide individual support for pupils in remedial and integrative activities with pupils in general, and in particular for those with specific disadvantaged situations, or with pupils with learning difficulties. learning difficulties, as well as special teaching and complementary or extra-curricular activities as Article 2 of Law 517/77 states that, without provided by current legislation. disrupting the unity of each class, and with a view to facilitating the implementation of the right to The Ministry of Education Circular 207 of 1986 education and the full development of pupils’ is a fundamental document in the process of personalities, educational programmes may integration of Roma/Gypsy children. It consists include integrative teaching activities organised of three parts, each of equal importance: for groups of pupils from the same class or from problems of principles, organisation and different classes. Individual help according to the implementation. It states unequivocally that needs of each pupil may also be provided. Roma/Gypsy children have the right to access state schools, even if they are not legally resident. With Resolution 1548 of 14 April 1981, the National Council of Public Education became This Circular marks the passage from the first to ever more aware of the need to increase and the second stage. Roma/Gypsy children are

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considered disadvantaged on social and cultural cultures are considered positive resources for levels, and the school is mandated to guarantee children’s development. that personal differences are not turned into inequality in the achievement of specific learning As many Roma/Gypsy children are foreigners, goals. The public and compulsory education the immigration legislation concerning education system is therefore made responsible for the and related regulations must also be mentioned. whole education process. It may also involve agencies, such as Local Education Offices, that Directive No. 73/1994 of the Ministry of can offer support schooling and training services. Education focuses on intercultural dialogue and The Circular emphasises the important concept democratic coexistence. Furthermore it states of the mutual responsibility of compulsory that Roma/Gypsies are, as distinct ethnic groups, education, according to which children have the both a national minority and a foreign group. duty to attend school and institutions have the In addition, it prohibits concentrating children corresponding duty to equip themselves in such a who speak the same foreign language or a way as to provide the best possible service with language belonging to the same linguistic group in respect for cultural diversity. a single class. Children of the same age as Italian children beginning the school year, or who have The Ministry Circular No. 301 of 8 September received an education of the same kind and level 1989, “The Inclusion of Foreigners in the as that provided by the Italian school system, will Compulsory School: Promotion and normally be placed in a suitable class. Those who Co-ordination of the Initiatives to Implement are illiterate or who are at a decidedly lower level the Right to Education”, calls on local authorities than children of the same age should receive a to promote and trigger initiatives for the linguistic personalised, accelerated programme comprising and cultural training of those teachers who will extra classes out of school hours, tutoring and be responsible for foreign pupils. additional Italian language courses during school hours. The Ministry Circular No. 205 of 26 July 1990, “The Compulsory School and Foreign Pupils: Article 38 of Law No. 286/98 regulates the right Multicultural Education”, establishes committees to education and duties in relation to education or working groups at the level of the local for foreign minors. In addition, paragraph 2 of education authority (provveditorato agli studi ) to act Article 38 stipulates that the state, regional as focal points for all problems related to foreign and local authorities shall guarantee the pupils, in co-operation with other local authority implementation of the right to education. It is departments. This circular also regulates also stated that schools should welcome linguistic enrolment and the recognition of foreign school and cultural differences as an added value. This certificates, the organisation of schools with shall constitute the basis for respect, exchange foreign pupils, multicultural education and teacher and tolerance. In this regard, schools are required training. Within multicultural education, different to promote initiatives for the protection of the

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language and culture of origin of all school Education on issues relating to Roma/Gypsies. children. Law 286/98 stipulates that the One such question, submitted on 6 October 1986, protection of the language and culture of origin requested quantitative data on Roma/Gypsy must be considered one of the priorities of the children enrolled in schools, the functions and school. Intercultural activities must be planned work of the Working Group on the Education of locally and supported both by the public Roma/Gypsy children to be instituted according administration and by immigrant associations, to Circular No. 207/1986 and the school voluntary organisations, etc. Certain educational registration of Roma/Gypsy children. The answer aspects should be analysed in greater detail in from the MPE, dated 23 December 1987, points projects such as language courses, teacher training, out that the education of Roma/Gypsy children curricula, recognition of certificates and diplomas has been monitored and taken into consideration issued in other countries, etc.23 continually. The answer lists a number of ministry initiatives in relation to the enrolment of these Presidential Decree No. 1 of 29 January 1999 children and their transfer from one school regulates the residence of foreigners in Italy. to another. Its Article 44 stipulates that foreign minors have the right to education regardless of their residence Regional legislation status in Italy. Their enrolment in schools shall Since 1984 some regional authorities have issued occur in the same way as for Italian nationals. legislation for the protection of the Roma/ Article 44 also states that school registration may Gypsy groups and their cultures. The content of be requested at any time during the school year. these regional regulations is very similar with Foreign minors who do not have any civic or regard to the following points: other regular documentation shall be registered in • the right to travel schools, subject to confirmation. However, this • the setting-up of stopping places conditional registration shall not prevent them • facilities for those who wish to buy a house from obtaining certificates at the end of the • education and vocational training school year. Foreign minors shall be registered in • opportunities for local authorities, “mountain grades corresponding to their age, unless teachers authorities” and private agencies to initiate decide otherwise on the basis of a number of schooling activities and vocational courses and reasons listed in this article. • opportunities for work, including craftwork.

The Ministry of Education established a Each of these laws includes a specific regulation Commission on Intercultural Education which concerning educational provision.25 The regional has produced documents and material on this law of Piemonte, for example, stipulates that: topic over the past few years.24 “City Councils, their Consortia and mountain There have been parliamentary questions to the Communities can promote the education of Ministries of Interior, Foreign Affairs and Public Roma/Gypsies with particular attention to

146 children of school age, as well as adult In some cases, there are sanctions for not education, in a form that is compatible with attending school; these may even take the form the Roma/Gypsy culture, and in accordance of expulsion of families who do not send their with the suburban offices of the Ministry of children to school from their stopping place. Public Education.” Other authorities provide for the establishment of a consultation group which is is mandated to Local government bodies and bodies that hold analyse the phenomenon and propose solutions. vocational training courses can also instigate work-training initiatives whose content is preferably related to the kind of work and The right to education artisanship typical of the Roma/Gypsy culture. Article 30 of the Italian Constitution stipulates By enforcing the provisions made by the regional that bringing up, instructing and educating their councils, local councils can aid Roma/Gypsies in children is a duty and a right of parents. Article 34 a number of ways, including the provision of states that schools are open to everyone. Decree halting sites, social assistance and educational Law No. 444 (18 March 1968), which set up state support (transport, refectories, support and preschool, and the subsequent Directives of 1969 remedial teaching, summer activity centres). regarding educational activities were instrumental in carrying out the constitutional precepts. They Some regional authorities adopted measures also increased consciousness about the value of which impose the obligation to attend school. early intervention, and transforming the structure

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and role of the family. The establishment of state support teacher is provided in order to foster preschools has led to a gradual and increasingly integration and learning. broad provision of school services. The Directive regarding educational activities, issued by the The lower secondary school (scuola media) is Ministerial Decree of 3 June 1991 confirmed compulsory for all pupils aged 11 to 14 years; the educational and institutional autonomy of it is free of charge and lasts three years. preschools. The requirement for admission is the possession of the primary school-leaving certificate, Preschools accept all children between the ages of which is normally obtained at the age of 11. three and six years, including those with special The Ministerial Decree of 9 February 1979 needs and learning difficulties. Children attending established the programmes for lower secondary preschool are organised into sections of between education – still in force today – modifying the 15 and 25 children. Sections may comprise formulation and content of programmes initiated children of the same age or of mixed ages. in 1962. In 1994/95, new criteria for pupil Attendance at state preschools is free of charge; assessment were introduced. This concluded a a contribution is requested from families for long experimental phase which had started in transportation and meal services provided by 1977 with the approval of Law No. 517, the municipality. The state does not, however, which abolished the traditional grading system cover the requirements of the entire age group. and replaced it with analytic and synthetic Approximately 50 per cent of these children evaluations. attend non-state institutions (local organisations, associations and private schools), which receive There are a variety of educational channels contributions from the state and the regions available at upper secondary level. After the when certain basic conditions are ensured. lower secondary school examination, successful students may undertake courses of study lasting Primary education, lasting for at least eight years, for five, four or three years. All schools offering is compulsory and free of charge. Compulsory post-compulsory instruction are part of upper education used to cover children from 6 to secondary education. They include the following 14 years, until the extension of compulsory categories: schooling up to the age of 15 years was approved • Classical, Scientific and Primary or Preschool in January 1999. Compulsory education may also Teacher Training School (commonly be carried out in non-state schools or through designated the “Classical” category): Liceo education organised by families. In the latter case, classico (five-year course), Liceo scientifico the state has the right to monitor pupils’ levels of (five-year course), Istituto magistrale (four-year competence by means of a final examination. course) and Scuola magistrale (three-year course) Classes are made up of no more than 25 pupils, • Artistic Education: Liceo artistico (four-year with a limit of 20 pupils for classes hosting up to course), and art schools, Istituti d’arte (four-year three special needs children. In these classes, a course)

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• Technical Education: technical schools, Istituti were established in schools, both at the local and tecnici ( five-year course) and the national levels. Within the limits of national • Vocational Education: vocational schools, legislation, these committees were entrusted with Istituti professionali (three- or five-year course). several functions of a consultative and managerial nature, formerly carried out by administrative Presidential Decree No. 419 of 1974 permits bodies. According to the law, the participatory upper secondary education schools to use committees are responsible for running schools innovative programmes and methodologies. on a participatory basis, making the school a Many of these came about spontaneously at the “community which interacts with the wider social initiative of teachers’ committees. As required by and civic community”, so that parents and the law, they have been absorbed into ministerial students become active participants in the programmes, which have thus rationalised educational process. projects and resources. Decree No. 419 defined activities and modalities of in-service training Between 1985 and 1990, primary education in for school heads, inspectors and teaching staff, Italy underwent a process of profound renewal and the ways to implement experimental and which was completed by the new programmes, innovative activities. It also created several approved in 1985, and the new system set out in institutions to act as support structures for these Law No. 148 of 1990. This Law indicates the activities: ways and means by which the conditions for • the Regional Institutes for Research, continuous educational activities at preschool, Experimentation and In-Service Training primary and lower secondary level can be brought (the main technical advisors concerned with about. It outlines the directives of the new in-service training and educational educational and organisational features for experimentation) primary schools, and allows for adjustments to • the European Centre for Education (which meet cultural complexities and social needs. carries out studies and research at national and European levels) and The recent Law No. 59 of 15 March 1997 defined • the Educational Documentation Library. principles and guidelines for the autonomy of educational institutions. According to this law, all Law No. 754, passed on 27 October 1969, schools having full legal status are autonomous introduced experimental teaching in vocational with regard to their organisation and programmes, training schools. It extended the duration of the within the framework of the general goals and course by two years, thus bringing the length of objectives of the national education system and of studies in vocational training schools in line with national standards. School autonomy also means the rest of the upper secondary system. that school directors are school managers, responsible for the school’s budget and outcomes, In accordance with Presidential Decree No. 416, and for managing, co-ordinating and improving passed on 31 May 1974, participatory committees the school’s human resources.

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During the 1990s the Italian education system was In practice deeply affected by a number of factors, including demographic and economic developments which The right to education for Roma/Gypsy children had a remarkable influence on the education Preschool policy. A declining birth rate had been apparent The new guidelines for nursery schools, issued since the 1980s. The impact of this on the school in 1991, contain an appeal to all those involved system became clear during the 1990s, with a to be aware of the changes taking place in conspicuous decrease in the young population, Italian society, which is becoming increasingly in particular at pre-primary, primary and lower multiethnic and multicultural. Nursery schools secondary school age. Accompanying the should be ready to implement integration, as far declining school population, there has been a as regulations, organisation and teaching significant reduction in the number of schools, approaches are concerned, and undertake the classes and teachers. These elements contributed necessary conscience-raising in teachers. to a slight reduction in public expenditure on education: in 1990 direct public expenditure for The guidelines include some important points, the educational institutes was 4.9 per cent of including: GDP; in 1997 it was 4.6 per cent of GDP for all There has been a proliferation of situations 26 • levels of education. The Italian Report for the of a multicultural and multiethnic nature. Education for All campaign does not contain any These are sometimes met with intolerant or data or information on the level of schooling of even racist attitudes, but could be turned into Roma/Gypsy children. It states that 95 per cent opportunities for personal enrichment and of the young children of pre-primary school-age maturation if seen in terms of cohabitation attended some kind of education and/or care based on co-operation, reciprocation and the setting, and that 100 per cent of 6-14 year old productive acceptance of diversity as being children attended formal education in primary and something of value and an opportunity for lower secondary schools. However, the report democratic growth. speaks in terms of the Italian population. It seems • Boys and girls have an inalienable right to life, to ignore the fact that the Italian Government has health, a decent upbringing and education, and an obligation to protect and promote the right to to respect for their personal, ethnic, linguistic, 27 education of all children within its jurisdiction. cultural and religious identity. These form the basis for the promotion of a new quality of life, which is today’s educational goal. • Nursery schools should perceive and interpret the complexity of children’s life experiences and take them into account in their educational planning in order to be able to filter, enrich and value extra-scholastic experiences.

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• Orientation and welcoming should provide a The primary school curricula have led to a privileged meeting point between school and restructuring of the school system itself, codified families, offering a precious opportunity for by Law 148/90. In particular, this restructuring making acquaintances and for collaboration. has entailed the introduction of a “modular • Nursery schools are particularly suitable places approach” (a different teacher for each subject) to encourage boys and girls to recognise, which should, during the lessons where two appreciate and understand their own cultural teachers are present, allow them to organise identities and the values of the community to remedial activities, especially for Roma/Gypsies, which they belong – not in an exclusive or and non-EC pupils. However, this system of ethnocentric fashion, but with a view to shared teaching time may lead to cutting back on understanding communities and cultures that – if not complete elimination of – many are different from their own.. resources, such as extra-curricular activities, remedial classes, special project teachers and Primary school educational psychologists. Although the present curriculum for primary school dates back to 1985 (Decree No. 104 of It is all too evident that the success of education 12 February 1985), it does deal with the issue of programmes for Roma/Gypsy children so far the integration of minorities. First schools must has depended mainly on the sensitivity and raise awareness of the various forms of diversity initiatives of individual teachers and on charities and marginalisation in order to prevent and which are prepared to act as mediators between oppose the formation of stereotypes and Roma/Gypsy communities and the school. prejudices against peoples and cultures. When teachers are motivated and the school environment is not hostile, the school may In addition “the primary school has the duty to constitute a valuable opportunity for integration. ensure, as far as possible, that diversity is not transformed into learning difficulties and/or Secondary school behavioural problems, as these factors are almost Presidential Decree No. 50 of 6 February 1979 always forerunners of the phenomena of failure sets out the principles and general aims of and scholastic death and, consequently, of compulsory education. With regard to the lower inequality on a social and civil level”. level of secondary education (scuola media, which is compulsory), this Decree states that it aims to Furthermore, “programming will have to be raise the level of education of each citizen and of organised and developed in such a way as to the Italian population in general and their ability provide for the fine planning and execution of to participate in cultural and social life and to individual learning routes which, after the initial contribute to personal development. level has been accurately established, set a series of progressive goals, the attainment of which is In addition, lower secondary schools should to be verified along the way”. facilitate the formation of European and world

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citizens by teaching a mental attitude which that the teachers sampled had a negative promotes understanding and the overcoming of a stereotype of Roma/Gypsy children. Teachers of unilateral vision of problems and society. both integrated (Roma/Gypsy and non-Roma/ Gypsy children) and non-integrated classes The curricula for upper secondary schools set out attributed characteristics like “cunning”, in 1992 contain several suggestions related to “superstitious” and “dirty” to Roma/Gypsy intercultural education in various subject areas. pupils.29 For instance, programmes for teaching foreign languages suggest that schools should promote In addition, intercultural education, particularly the redefinition of pupils’ attitudes towards those with reference to Roma/Gypsy children, has not who are different from them. yet produced the radical changes which were expected. Therefore many problems remain in Despite all the legislation and regulations, schools this area. One of the main obstacles is the lack remain linked to very traditional schemes and do of a global and concerted policy of which not facilitate the integration of different cultures intercultural education in school should constitute in the current society. Roma/Gypsy families do only a part. The educational policies in Italy not normally feel obliged to send their children to reflect well the contradictions of all national secondary schools because the course contents are policies for Roma/Gypsies and they highlight alien to the life they lead. The rigid structure of the urgent need for all these policies to be the courses and the lack of flexibility on the part integrated.30 of the teachers drive Roma/Gypsy children away. Sometimes Roma/Gypsy parents fear that Attendance and achievement formal education may become an element As with the general data on Roma/Gypsies, leading to disintegration of their community Italian statistics on school provision for and to opposition between parents and children. Roma/Gypsy children are quite fragmentary. These fears are not far from reality as some The most comprehensive ones are dated, as the teachers’ reports show the assimilationist central government has stopped gathering and tendency in schools. These teachers reported elaborating data on Roma/Gypsies. Statistics may their success with Roma/Gypsy children in the be available at the regional and local level where sense that they became ashamed of belonging to there are voluntary organisations working on and their communities.28 with Roma/Gypsies.

Teachers still hold many prejudices towards For example, data collected by the local section of Roma/Gypsy children, as shown by a study Opera Nomadi shows that out of 800 school-age carried out in elementary schools in a Roma/Gypsy children in Milan, only 400 (50 per medium-size town in southern Italy where a large cent) attend school. These figures are broken Roma/Gypsy community has been resident for down further to show the rates of attendance for some time. The research showed, for example, different groups:

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• 15 per cent (30 out of 200) of Roma/Gypsy 71 days.31 It is important to note that children children from the Federal Republic of who do attend for a number of years achieve Yugoslavia increasingly positive results and satisfactory • 21 per cent of Spanish and French progress, making enormous efforts to succeed Roma/Gypsy children (28 out of 133) despite the many difficulties with which they • 66 per cent of Italian Roma and Sinti children must contend. (210 out of 320). Half of these who complete primary school go onto complete the whole The national projection in Table 6.1, based on a cycle of compulsory school, including the study undertaken in five cities in 1991/92, may eighth grade. serve as a reference base, indicating a total of 32,000 school-age Roma/Gypsy children of both Compared to the other groups mentioned, Italian Italian and foreign nationality. Roma/Gypsies are at a relative advantage in that they are largely settled and live in authorised The same study shows that most of the Roma/ stopping places. Although for many, their mother Gypsy children attending school are Italian Roma tongue is Romanes, they can also understand and (26 per cent) and Sinti (58 per cent), whereas speak Italian adequately. only 16 per cent are from foreign Roma/Gypsy groups. It appears that in general few Roma/Gypsy children go on to secondary education. With regard to achievement, this study shows that For example, one regional study showed 15.2 per cent of Roma/Gypsy children enrolled 1,814 Roma/Gypsy children in primary school, in the first grade fail (receive an evaluation but only 193 in lower secondary school. “insufficient to pass”); 35 per cent do not receive Moreover, children may be counted as “enrolled” any evaluation at all; 6 per cent receive a “good” despite virtual non-attendance: 15 per cent of evaluation, and 1 per cent obtain an “excellent” them attend for fewer than ten days per year, evaluation. and a further 20 per cent between 11 and

Table 6.1 Numbers of Italian and foreign Roma/Gypsy children of school age in Italy, 1991/92

Primary school-age Secondary school-age

Enrolled in school Not enrolled Enrolled in school Not enrolled

Italians 9,000 6,000 400 4,600

Foreigners 1,500 9,500 100 9,000

European Commission, School Provision for Gypsy and Traveller Children Report on the implementation of measures envisaged in the Resolution of the Council and of the Ministers of Education meeting with the Council 22nd May 1989, (89/C 153/02, COM(96) 495 final, Brussels 22 October 1996.

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In 1994 Opera Nomadi conducted a survey in nine regularly; an average of 26.93 per cent attended cities. From the data collected, it emerged that fairly regularly; an average of 18.94 per cent Roma/Gypsy children mostly attend primary attended occasionally and an average of 31.34 per school, which allows them to acquire basic cent did not attend at all.34 writing and reading skills. Roma/Gypsies consider these to be essential. However, children who In 1996 there were approximately 500 Roma/ are enrolled do not attend regularly and their Gypsy children of school age in the province of attainment is low. Children who attend Naples, but fewer than 5 per cent were integrated pre-primary school attend systematically.32 in the educational system.35

In Tuscany, between June and November 1999, In 1988 Opera Nomadi conducted a national survey out of a total of 1,014 Roma/Gypsy children, on the implementation of Circular 207/86, and 196 were registered in preschool education; found that it remained largely unimplemented. 339 in primary school; 169 in lower secondary Schools, municipal agencies and local education school and 134 in upper secondary school. offices involved in the survey pointed out the Table 6.2 shows the regularity of attendance. most relevant parts of the circular, underlined the lack of implementation and suggested Data are also available on the schooling of Roma/ possible additions and changes. The findings Gypsy children according to groups of origin.33 were presented to MPE together with a series of proposals for in-service training professional In the period September 1999/June 2000, out of qualification, school organisation and a total of 1,290 children living in the camps in the experimentation.36 The meeting, although area of Rome, an average of 1,201 were registered cordial, had no practical effect. in the school system and also involved in other projects including transport to the school and Five years after Circular 207 was issued, in an different kind of support. Of these 1,201 children attempt to rekindle its spirit, and with the desire an average of 22.69 per cent attended school to implement it, Opera Nomadi again presented

Table 6.2 Regularity of attendance of Roma/Gypsy children enrolled in education,Tuscany, 1999

Level Regular Irregular Non-attendance

Preschool 50 41 105

Primary school 175 104 65

Lower secondary school 43 52 72

Upper secondary school 3 N/A 128

Source: Fondazione Michelucci, Regione Toscana,Osservatorio Sociale 1999.

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an official report to the Ministry – the Massano/ Many of the points contained in Circular Cumino Report (1991). It stated that: 207/86 were not, in fact, carried out. We refer to the setting up of specialised offices within “Circular 207, which was the first formal step local agencies; to the creation of liaisons with taken by the state in dealing with the issue of other levels of schooling; to the research into the presence of Roma/Gypsy minors in an and publication of informative data relative to educational system which is meant for the presence of Roma/Gypsies in school and everyone, has not substantially resolved the in our country; to the accessing of information fact of lack of attendance by these children. on school services; and, above all, to the Furthermore, it is necessary to emphasise teacher-training initiatives which were pointed that everything that was done in the way of out as being indispensable for the effective educational and organisational experiments implementation of the Circular itself.” has not had the opportunity to be translated into theory and productive evaluation at With regard to regional laws, these regulations are national level. being only partially implemented. There are many obstacles to implementation, including the lack of The wealth of experiences, the effort and available funding; the lack of will on the part of devotion of the teachers often did not manage some local authorities which do not submit to get past the gates of the individual proposals that would attract funding from the institutions in order to render more positive regional legislation; and obstruction from local the welcoming of nomad children who were populations to projects aimed at integration. about to face different scholastic realities.

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Poor and segregated living conditions outside the major cities. The committee’s The living conditions in campsites are such that observations were made in the light of reports they affect the implementation of the right to indicating discrimination against people of education of children living there. Roma/Gypsy origin, including children, in a number of areas, particularly housing. In addition The European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC) to a frequent lack of basic facilities, the housing submitted evidence to the UN Committee on of Roma/Gypsies in such camps leads not only the Elimination of Racial Discrimination on the to physical segregation from Italian society, schooling of Roma/Gypsy children in Italy. but to political, economic and cultural isolation ERRC found that the government’s racial as well. segregation of Roma/Gypsies in remote camps severely hinders the access of their children to Additionally, repeated raids and destruction of adequate education. Many Roma/Gypsy children dwellings and property of Roma/Gypsies by are denied the right to attend school altogether, as police significantly interfere with the ability of their camps are located far from schools or school Roma/Gypsy children to realise their right to transportation services.37 Furthermore, schools education.38 Every eviction represents the violent which are closer to the camps do not want to interruption of school and the violation of these receive all the children from the camp. For these children’s right to education.39 These raids have reasons, some local authorities, such as Rome and taken place repeatedly, almost everywhere Turin municipalities, have established a transport throughout Italy. service to pick up children from camps and bring them to various schools. In a number of cases “I was woken up by the police who made me the government has acknowledged this problem, go on a coach. I was very frightened. When but has provided inadequate remedies in the form they took us away, I saw [them] smashing my of visiting social workers offering classes in the house with all my family’s things inside even camps exclusively for Roma/Gypsy children. my clothes and my schoolbag. How can I go to Children attending these ad hoc classes are not school now? At the police station, I fell asleep. taught by professionally certified teachers and I was very scared and very hungry.”40 do not receive official grades; so they may not qualify for secondary school. They are denied On 3 March 2000 police raids and deportations of their right to an education solely because, as Roma/Gypsies took place in the Tor de’ Cenci Roma/Gypsies, they are subjected to racially and Casilino camps near Rome. These events segregated housing. were allegedly carried out by police officers with unreasonable use of violence and abuse. In 1999 the Committee on the Elimination of According to the Italian NGO, ARCI, minors Racial Discrimination expressed concern at the were also deported. For example, 19 year old situation of the many Roma/Gypsies in Italy who, B. O. was deported to Bosnia and Herzegovina being ineligible for public housing, live in camps despite being in her fifth month of pregnancy.

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She was deported with her daughter who it would be unthinkable to throw a non-Roma/ had been born in Rome in February 1999. Gypsy parent out of his/her home because 16 year old S. S. was deported with her infant he/she does not send her/his children to school.42 daughter, born mid-February 2000. 14 year old S. H., who was born in France, was expelled with One of the main obstacles to the education of his grand-mother. 15 year old M. O. was deported Roma/Gypsy children seems to be their families’ to Bosnia and Herzegovina; his mother is still lack of money, so that children often have to in Italy. contribute to the family income. Government programmes aimed at Roma/Gypsy education Within a few months, on 28 May 2000, police have not been designed to overcome the raids and deportations of Roma/Gypsies again significant financial burdens placed on Roma/ took place, this time in the Via Candoni-ATAC Gypsy families.43 and Arco di Travertino camps near Rome. It was alleged that unreasonable force was again In its 2000 Concluding Observations on Italy, the used. One family with four children, originally UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural from Bosnia and Herzegovina, was reportedly Rights noted with concern that a large number of expelled from Italy and sent back to Bosnia and Roma/Gypsies live in camps on the outskirts of Herzegovina. major Italian cities lacking basic sanitary facilities. The Roma/Gypsy population as a whole lives Additional problems are caused by lack of clothes below the poverty line and suffers high levels of and proper sanitary services. As a result, Roma/ discrimination. Life in camps has a major negative Gypsy children often go to school poorly dressed, impact on Roma/Gypsy children. Many children increasing the likelihood of their being rejected are forced or compelled to abandon primary and and discriminated against. Overcrowding and lack secondary schooling in order to look after siblings of proper infrastructure prevent Roma/Gypsy and/or help generate family income. As a result, children from carrying out their homework. the Committee recommended that the Italian state step up its efforts to improve the situation of the Camps also preclude the important aspect of Roma/Gypsy minority, inter alia, by: education which takes place outside the • replacing camps with low-cost houses framework of school: Roma/Gypsy children are • legalising the status of Roma/Gypsy rarely invited to non-Roma/Gypsy homes and immigrants non-Roma/Gypsy parents do not allow their • giving support to those Roma/Gypsy families children to visit their friends in camps.41 with children at school • providing better education for Roma/Gypsy Another discriminatory practice is that of making children officially authorised and organised camps available • strengthening and implementing only to those who send their children to school. anti-discrimination legislation. This practice has created double standards:

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Some voluntary organisations active in the nomad Itinerancy camps outside Florence recently reported that Travelling, which is necessary for the economic 34 children who arrived there during the war in activities of many families, constitutes an Kosovo and are now living in the camp important obstacle. It may mean that children Poderaccio (Area Four) have been refused their attend many different schools or none at all. right to go to school.44 Their families were told Some possible support for these children has that classes were already full, due to their arrival been planned with the publication of an annual after the start of the school year. Local authorities school booklet. This intends to record the classes claimed that it was impossible to send them to attended by the child; the programme and method other schools due to lack of transport services. followed by teachers; the objectives achieved, as Although Italian legislation guarantees the right to well as other useful information. The hope is that education to all children, and the right to be this will allow the child to follow a consistent enrolled in school at any time during the school educational process. Another option under year, many children have been left out of school consideration is the use of distance learning and spend their days in their camps.45 At the local methods. education authority ( provveditorato agli studi ) they talk not just of these 34 children, but of many Table 6.3 shows European Commission data on more. A contributing factor to this situation is occupational travellers in Italy. that Italian schools are often not equipped with relevant responses in order to cope with increasing numbers of disadvantaged children and foreign pupils who can neither speak nor understand Italian.

Table 6.3 Occupational Travellers in Italy, 1991

Kind of population Enterprises Families Total School-age population children

Bargees

Circus 130 650 2,902 1,109

Fairground 7,000 7,000 31,594 13,400

Others

Total 7,130 7,650 34,496 14,509

European Commission, School Provision for Children of Occupational Travellers: Report on the implementation of measures planned by the Council and the Ministers of Education, 22 May 1989 (89/C 153/01), COM(96) 494 final, Brussels, 28 October 1996.

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Bureaucratic obstacles actually required by law but many schools request Sometimes it is difficult for Roma/Gypsy children it. However, many Roma/Gypsy parents may not to register in school as they lack the relevant be aware of this procedure and may not be able documents for school registration, such as civic to pre-register their children due to travelling, registration and medical certificates. For example, illiteracy and other reasons. children must be registered within ten days of their birth. However, if the mother is a Discrimination at school foreigner, she must have a valid passport and an The ERRC reports that, notwithstanding legal authorisation from the embassy of her country provisions recognising their equal right to of origin before she can register her child. education, Roma/Gypsy children who attend Many foreign Roma/Gypsies do not have a mainstream schools face a series of racially valid passport, or they have lost it as a result of motivated obstacles. These include prejudice on eviction, travelling, etc. In addition, some of them the part of non-Roma/Gypsy parents who do may not want to go to their embassies if they fled not want their children attending school with their country of origin because of persecution. Roma/Gypsies, bullying by non-Roma/Gypsy Evidence of a birth, even if it happens in hospital classmates, and stereotyping by teachers and and before witnesses, is not enough to register school administrators who perpetuate myths of a child.46 “genetically” lower intelligence levels among Roma/Gypsy children. The provisional registration in school under reservation of foreign children, including foreign The ERRC report noted that children from six Roma/Gypsy children, whose residence status or Roma/Gypsy families who moved to a new that of their families has not yet been regularised school in Florence in September 1998 confronted constitutes a violation of their right to education. angry protests from non-Roma/Gypsy parents The right to education is so fundamental to the who threatened to withdraw their children rather development and well-being of children that it than have them share benches with Roma/Gypsy cannot be restricted even on a provisional basis. children. Rather than affirming the rights of the In addition, the legislation does not explicitly state Roma/Gypsy children to equal education, the what will happen to those children who start school administration reportedly dispersed them school under reservation and whose residence among several different schools to assuage status is unlikely to be regularised later on. Will prejudice. they be allowed to complete their schooling? The Committee on the Rights of the Child also Another bureaucratic requirement which may mentioned that sufficient measures had not been be an obstacle to accessing school is the taken to assess and provide for the needs of pre-registration which should normally take place children from vulnerable and disadvantaged around January of the year before children are groups, such as children from poor families and supposed to start school. Pre-registration is not from single-parent households, children of

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foreign and Roma/Gypsy origin and children There are two separate issues in relation to born out of wedlock. The committee expressed language. One is the problem of foreign Roma/ concern that children belonging to these Gypsy children when they first arrive and do not disadvantaged groups seem more likely to be speak Italian or speak only a little. In this regard, stigmatised in public perception, to drop out of there is no programme in Italy at the national school and to be employed in clandestine work level for teaching Italian to foreign children or or even in illegal activities, including criminal children of foreign origin. The responsibility falls activities. upon individual schools and each tackles the problem in its own way, with results which vary A survey carried out in 1999 in two primary considerably according to the resources employed schools in Brescia (using questionnaires to and the dedication of the teachers.48 non-Roma/Gypsy parents and teachers, and interviews with Roma/Gypsy parents) The other aspect is related to the learning of the demonstrates that many prejudices still exist, mother tongue. In this regard, it is worth mainly due to misinformation and ignorance. mentioning the experience of a small group of The survey found that Roma/Gypsy parents send Roma/Gypsy children attending a public primary their children to school because they do not want school in the village of Piove di Sacco, close to to be thrown out of their camps. They also realise Padua, in the Veneto region. The children belong that literacy is essential in today’s society. For its to the Roma/Gypsy Sloveni group found primarily part, the school is called on to guarantee to in northern Italy and Slovenia. These groups as Roma/Gypsy children their right to education and well as others known as Istriani or Hravati, arrived their right to cultural identity. However, teachers from Yugoslavia around 40 years ago as a result of have found it difficult to plan an educational Nazi-fascist persecution. The dialects of Romanes process, which facilitates literacy as well as spoken by these groups are related to the dialect creating an educational environment respectful of of the Arlija in Turkey and are very similar to different cultures and groups. Teachers themselves each other.49 are calling for professional training in the area of multicultural education. Finally, it was felt that These children were first enrolled in the Italian non-Roma/Gypsy parents should also receive school system in the 1979/80 and Romanes was some training or briefing to prepare them to introduced into their school curriculum in tackle, together with their children, their meeting 1981/82. The use of Romanes involved all five with different cultures.47 primary school classes. Twelve Roma/Gypsy children were involved and none dropped out Language provision although one moved to a new location and Roma/Gypsy children’s bilingualism or therefore registered at a new school. The use of trilingualism (Romani, Italian dialect, standard Romanes material varied depending on the grade Italian and others) must also be considered when level. Its was normally used in two situations: the analysing their schooling experiences. Italian version was used in class and the Romanes

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version was used with the group of Roma/Gypsy children in the classroom: strategies and children who met three times a week for half-hour intervention”. A number of in-service training sessions dedicated to Romanes.50 modules have been organised at local level by the education authorities themselves, or by voluntary From a technical point of view, the non-Roma/ associations. Gypsy children were given some elementary notions about languages and some information From the early 1970s MPE made available to about the oral tradition of the Roma/Gypsies. Opera Nomadi people to fulfil an essential role of In addition, Romanes was compared with co-ordination, support and mediation with local Italian, pointing out to the children the different bodies and various institutions. However, this was characteristics of the two language codes. discontinued in 1992 and co-ordination is now Romani oral texts provided by adult relatives of handled solely on a voluntary basis, at local level. the children were recorded, transcribed, translated into Italian and used as the basis for discussion, Gabriella Pellini, a primary school teacher who composition and grammar work, both in the works for Opera Nomadi in Reggio Emilia, has Romanes version in the time dedicated to carried out a survey on the integration of Romanes and in the Italian version with the Roma/Gypsy pupils in her province. Among whole class.51 other questions, teachers were asked what changes should be made in schools to avoid the Language education appears to be the area in school itself discouraging the attendance of which Roma/Gypsy children have the greatest Roma/Gypsy pupils. degree of difficulty. In a study carried out by Opera Nomadi in 1981, 70 per cent of teachers Eight out of 12 respondents suggested entrusting interviewed cited language as the area where the solution to people outside the teaching team Roma/Gypsy children had the least success. (support teaching; extra-curricular activities; Insufficient language competence precludes the after-school activities; workshops; specially trained study of other subjects such as history or science, staff; headmaster), or else they tended to suggest where language is not the subject but the vehicle postponing or refusing the placement of Roma/ of learning. Failure in this area is one of the Gypsy or nomad pupils in the classroom. Of the main reasons that Roma/Gypsy children fail to four respondents who would directly involve the reach higher than the first few classes of the teaching team, two suggested a change of primary school.52 approach in dealing with the problem (change of mentality, awareness-raising); the others referred Teacher training to the syllabus and the way schools are organised. At the behest of MPE, Opera Nomadi has organised teacher training courses: “Roma/ Teacher training on the subject of Roma/ Gypsy children in the classroom: interculturalism Gypsy culture is necessary to overcome the in the primary school”, and “Roma/Gypsy assimilationist approach of many teachers.

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For example, in Romanes the phenomenon of In the last few years, the promotion of metathesis (the transposition of sounds or interculturalism has concentrated its efforts on letters in a word) is common. A teacher with no teacher training. Teachers can, if they wish, attend training in the language is unable to distinguish external courses in intercultural or multicultural between learning difficulties such as dyslexia and education. These are held at independent dysgraphia, and problems caused by interference institutes or are arranged by individual schools. between two different language codes, common For teachers in Italy, hours spent attending to all bilingual children.53 In addition, teachers are refresher courses are considered as working hours blind to the products, characteristics, values and and participation in courses results in points for modes of transmission of a culture of which career advancement. However, there is a good they know nothing and every deviation from deal of freedom with regard to training (which the norm is deplored and related to common ceased to be compulsory in 2000): every school is negative stereotypes.54 free to design its own refresher courses and every

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teacher is free to choose which course to follow, provider. In addition, it is argued that mediation in accordance with his/her own needs. The result slows the development of inter-relational skills on is that the acquisition of specific content, both sides in the mediation process and in the including intercultural education, is not at all long run prevents the social inclusion of certain and that most of the teachers consider the foreigners.58 refresher courses useless except as a way of gaining points.55 Given the controversial role of mediators, the Italian National Labour and Economic Council In addition, some teachers who participated in attempted to draw up a formal profile of the training courses on intercultural education cultural mediator. It drafted a definition, complained about the excessively theoretical determined the requirements for such mediators methodology and the difficulty of translating the and for their training and suggested that a didactic into concrete work and activities in the certification system could be developed.59 classroom.56 Mediators for Roma/Gypsy Children Since 1992, the introduction of cultural mediators Government initiatives of Roma/Gypsy origin has been adopted in various schools in Milan, Udine and Turin. Mediators Following the first pilot projects, a national Law 286/98 was the first piece of legislation in experiment was carried out within the European Italy to mention mediators. Mediators are Project Socrates-Comenius, promoted by Opera recognised as an essential presence in managing Nomadi in 1995/96. the relationship between local communities and immigrants. Two different roles are contained in The introduction of such mediators has been the law: cultural mediators who assist in the supported by the educational institutions at interaction between the scholastic institutions and central and local levels. Ideally the cultural foreigners and intercultural mediators involved in mediator could play an important role in social integration activities.57 supporting Roma/Gypsy children who have difficulties in class and in linguistic workshops. However, there is still a fundamental ambiguity He or she could also contribute in talking about in the definition of the role and social and the culture of these groups, for example by telling professional profile of the mediator. The debate is stories and recounting traditions. In addition, the around issues of impartiality, as users, immigrants cultural mediator could represent a positive link and institutions must perceive the mediator as a between the family and its environment – most bridge and not a provider. Often the institution often the camp – and the school. sees the mediator as an assistant who can handle immigrants’ problems and the immigrant often In Turin, young Roma/Gypsies who had sees the mediator as an ally against the service completed their compulsory schooling were

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trained and then employed as cultural mediators Voices of Roma/Gypsy children in schools. From 1996 to 1999 the local authority in Turin funded the position of a cultural Roma boy, Abruzzo mediator for a particularly disadvantaged Roma/ “My name is E. and I am in the eighth grade. Gypsy group. The mediator’s tasks included My favourite subject is maths, because it is the raising awareness among families of the easiest. I also like Italian, but the grammar is importance of school to the children’s develop- rather difficult. I also like history and am doing ment; encouraging children at the time of quite well also in the other subjects. I get along departure to school; being present on the bus on well with my teachers; I joke with everybody their way to and from school and establishing a and they are all good. My classmates are all relationship of trust between the family, the nice and all the same – I do not have a children and the school. Upon parents’ requests, favourite one. I meet them also outside the the mediator could enter the school and talk to school and we play football together; we also teachers, the headteacher and other staff meet at church. A beautiful excursion we did members in order to discuss issues related to the was when we went to camp for six days. I don’t integration of Roma/Gypsy children in their remember where we went, though. We went to classes. At the end of 1999, six cultural mediators the mountains and we walked a lot and we were operational in the Turin municipality. were all together. It was beautiful. I like going to school because it will help me find a job in Roma/Gypsy cultural and linguistic mediators the future. After middle school, I chose to have also been introduced in the Console study tourism because I like travelling and Marcello Primary School in Milan, which is cooking.” attended by many children from disadvantaged backgrounds, and by many foreign pupils. Roma/ Roma girl, Abruzzo Gypsy pupils make up half of the school “My name is M. I am in the sixth grade and population. The mediators are mandated to I like going to school. I have many teachers support the children in their first steps in school but the nicest one is teacher F. She is always by welcoming them, by assisting them with with us; only on Saturdays she is not there. language problems and by developing good She helps us and thanks to her I caught up. relations with their families throughout the year. My favourite subject is maths because it is the The mediators obtain the necessary civic and easiest one and the maths teacher is nice. other documents, follow the children’s educational My classmates are all my friends. However, progress and visit their families at the camp. we never meet after school but sometimes they The project also involves some teachers acting as phone me up. At school we also do drama; facilitators, in order to promote the attendance now we are doing Pinocchio and I act as the and enrolment of children who have dropped out first medical doctor when Pinocchio is unwell. or have never started at school. I also act as the second boy who would be

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Pinocchio’s ghost when he is dying. We will Roma boy, Abruzzo show this play in May at the end of the school “What is your name?” year. I like going to school and will attend up “G.” to the eighth grade and then we will see.” “How old are you?” “Four.” Roma boy, Abruzzo “Do you go to kindergarten?” “My name is O. I am 13 years old and I am “Yes.” in the sixth grade. I had to retake the year “What do you do in the kindergarten?” because I was naughty. I am naughty because “I make drawings.” I want to be noticed by the others. Now I am “What do you do with your classmates?” not naughty any more but they always suspend “I play with the school games.” me from classes even when it is not my fault. “Which are the school games?” Once I wrote on one of my classmates’ book “They are all broken.” and I was immediately sent to the headteacher. “Which is your favourite game?” The headteacher is fascist because she always “Going to school.” reminds me of the nasty things I did last year. They always blame me even if I did not do Roma girl anything wrong. I like going to school because “My name is G. I am in the fourth grade. there I have got some friends; at home I do My teacher’s name is A. We always study good not do anything. My favourite subject is maths. subjects and during the break we play. When I meet my friends after school at the church we go after school, first we eat and then we do where we play football. I also meet some of the homework and then I play with my friend my classmates at Villa Laiza which is a park N. My favourite subject is geography, but where we throw stones at each other.” I never study it. Then I like maths. The teacher makes us do many things.” Roma boy, Abruzzo “My name is P. I am seven years old. I am in Roma girl the second grade. I call my teacher the “little “My name is G. I am 16 and I am in the eighth onion” because she likes eating onions. In class grade. Now, though, I no longer attend school. I always create confusion. My teacher is good. I stay at home. I help my sister to clean the I leave school at 4 pm. The other day I was house. In the mornings I clean and in the with C. and we went to ring the bells of some afternoons I watch TV. I am sorry that I left buildings and then we ran away.” school. I used to like computers very much, Italian, Physics, French and Music. During the music class, I did not play the recorder but I liked listening to it. I often meet my former classmates in the streets, but I do not greet them unless they do it first.”

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Recommendations Parties to the Convention against Discrimination in Education Given that Italy has ratified: • the European Convention on Human Rights • the International Covenant on Civil and and Fundamental Freedoms (ratified Political Rights (ratified on 15 September 1978, 26 October 1955, incorporated in the Act incorporated in the Act No. 881 of 25 October No. 848 of 4 August 1955 (published in the 1977 (published in the O.J. No. 333 of O.J. No. 221 of 24 September 1955), entered 7 December 1977), entered into force into force 26 October 1955) 15 October 1978) • the First Protocol to the European Convention • the International Covenant on on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ratified (ratified 26 October 1955, entered into force 15 September 1978, incorporated in the Act on the same day) No. 881 of 25 October 1977 (published in the • the Framework Convention for the Protection O.J. No. 333 of 7 December 1977), entered of National Minorities (ratified 3 November into force 15 October 1978) 1997, entered into force 1 March 1998) • the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial and that it has signed but not ratifed: Discrimination (ratified 5 June 1976, • the European Charter for Regional Minority incorporated in the Act No. 654 of 13 October or Minority Languages (signed on 1975 (published in the O.J. No. 337 of 27 June 2000) 23 December 1975), entered into force 4 February 1976) Save the Children recommends that: • the Convention on the Rights of the Child (ratified 5 September 1991, incorporated in The Government of Italy: the Act No. 176 of 27 May 1991 (published in • Ratifies the European Charter for Regional the O.J. No. 135 SO of 11 June 1991), entered Minority or Minority Languages. into force 5 October 1991) • Invites the UN Special Rapporteur on the • the UNESCO Convention against Right to Education to conduct a field visit in Discrimination in Education (ratified order to assess the implementation by the 6 October 1966, incorporated in the Act Italian Government of its obligations in No. 656 of 13 July 1966 (published in the relation to the right to education in general, O.J. No. 211 of 26 August 1966), entered into and in particular of the right to education of force 6 January 1967) Roma/Gypsy children. • the UNESCO Protocol instituting a • Develops a statistically precise and official Conciliation and Good Offices Commission to understanding of the data on school provision be responsible for seeking the settlement of for Roma/Gypsy children (numbers, any dispute which may arise between States enrolment, attendance, attainment, availability

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of support and other services, learning The international organisations, including success, etc.). the UN Commission on Human Rights, the • Files the innovative and experimental activities Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education in collaboration with the education authorities, and the Special Rapporteur on Contemporary teacher training institutes, universities, NGOs Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination, and others. Xenophobia and Related Intolerance and • Disseminates research results and their didactic the European Union: implications in order to encourage change. • Closely monitor the international obligations • Develops, for teachers and others involved in that the Italian Government has undertaken education, in-service training firmly based on in the field of the right to education with research findings, particularly as regards particular attention to the right to education teaching methods and materials, distance of Roma/Gypsy children. learning and pedagogical backup. • Trains and employs teachers from the Roma/Gypsy community. • Consults representatives of Roma/Gypsy communities in decision making related to education and the implementation of educational policy.

Italy: Notes on the text 6 ERRC, Campland: Racial segregation of Roma in Italy, Country Report Series No. 9, October 2000. 1 Taken from the Cultura Internazionali Politiche Sociali Servizi (Civic Association of Social Promotion) website: http://www.arci.it 7 Fondazione Michelucci, Regione Toscana, Osservatorio Sociale 1999.

2 ERRC, Campland: Racial segregation of Roma in Italy, Country 8 Child Immigration Project, Children in Between, European Report, Report Series No. 9, October 2000. Rome, December 2000; Brunello, P. (ed.), L’urbanistica del disprezzo, Campi Rom e societŗ italiana, 1996, pp. 12–13. 3 ERRC and Associazione per la difesa delle minoranze, an NGO based in Florence. 9 Dipartimento affari sociali, Presidenza del consiglio, Secondo rapporto sull’integrazione degli immigrati in Italia, Roma, 13 December 4 Italian Report on the Implementation of the Framework 2000. Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, 3 May 1999. 10 See: Brunello P (ed.), L’urbanistica del disprezzo, Campi Rom e 5 ERRC, Campland: Racial segregation of Roma in Italy, Country società italiana, 1996, Report Series No. 9, October 2000.

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11 Colacicchi, P., “Down by Law: Police Abuse of Roma in Italy”, 25 Abruzzo: Article 8; Emilia: Article 10; Friuli: Title IV, Articles in Roma Rights, winter 1998. 13–15; Lazio: Article 8; Lombardia: Article 5; Marche: Article 19; Piemonte: Article 7; Sardegna: Article 8; Toscana: Article 12; 12 ERRC, Campland: Racial segregation of Roma in Italy, Country Autonomous Province of Trento: Article 8; Umbria: Article 9; Report Series No. 9, October 2000. Veneto: Article 5. 13 The official justification for this is the need to defend 26 Italian Report for the Education for All 2000 Assessment. Roma/Gypsies from the intrusion of drug dealers. Personal communication with G. Restaino, Deputy Chair of Local 27 This is in accordance, for example, with Article 1 of the Authority 4, summer 2000. European Convention on Human Rights, which imposes obligations on States Parties for all those under their jurisdiction. 14 ERRC, Campland: Racial segregation of Roma in Italy, Country Report Series No. 9, October 2000. 28 Colacicchi P., Tratti salienti della storia e della struttura della società Rom e analisi delle condizioni di vita, dei problemi sociali, culturali, economic, 15 ERRC, Campland: Racial segregation of Roma in Italy, Country lavorativi, scolastici e igienico sanitari dei Rom presenti sul territorio di Report Series No. 9, October 2000. Firenze, Relazione di consulenza tecnica per la procura della 16 RomNews, 1 October 2000. Repubblica presso la Pretus circondariale di Firenze, June 1994.

17 For example, the death of a Roma/Gypsy child in Naples who 29 Trenti R., Monaci G. M., De Lumè F. and Zanon O., “Teachers’ was hit by a car. La Repubblica, Tuesday, 25 July 2000. Attitudes towards Scholastic Integration of Gypsies”, supported by the National Research Council grant CNR97.03733.CT08, 18 On 19 October 2000, for example, a girl, aged six, died in the forthcoming. Poderaccio camp in Florence as her trailer burnt. Her brothers were also injured; RomNews, 19 October 2000. 30 Dipartimento affari sociali, Presidenza del consiglio, Secondo rapporto sull’integrazione degli immigrati in Italia, Roma, 13 December 19 Dipartimento affari sociali, Presidenza del consiglio, Secondo 2000. rapporto sull’integrazione degli immigrati in Italia, Roma, 13 December 2000. 31 European Commission, School Provision for Gypsy and Traveller Children Report on the implementation of measures envisaged in the 20 Save the Children Italia, I diritti dell’infanzia: invisibili o dimenticati?, Resolution of the Council and of the Ministers of Education meeting with the November 2000. Council 22nd May 1989, (89/C 153/02, COM(96) 495 final, Brussels 21 InsideWorld, 15 February 2001. 22 October 1996.

22 Gomes, A.M., “Gypsy Children and the Italian School System: 32 Opera Nomadi, La scolarizzazione degli alunni nomadi e zingari in A Closer Look”, European Journal of Intercultural Studies, 10 (2): Italia, Elaborazione dati ed analisis a cura di Maura Amadei, 163–72, July 1999. Indagine statistica a campione, anno scolastico 1994, ottobre- marzo. 23 Child Immigration Project, Children in Between, European Report, Rome, December 2000. 33 Fondazione Michelucci, Regione Toscana, Osservatorio Sociale 1999. 24 Child Immigration Project, Children in Between, European Report, Rome, December 2000. 34 Data received from the Municipality of Rome on 2 January 2001.

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35 De Filippo E., “Rom nella provincia di Napoli”, in Brunello P. 47 Bornatici, S., Scuola italiana e bambini Rom, Quaderni zingari (ed.), L’urbanistica del disprezzo. Campi Rom e società italiana, 1996. No. 9, Associazione Italiana Zingari Oggi (AIZO), 1999.

36 Opera Nomadi, Un Omnibus per i Rom, 1994. 48 Child Immigration Project, Children in Between, European Report, Rome, December 2000. 37 For example, in the campsite in Giugliano, near Naples, many Roma/Gypsy children were registered in school in spite of 49 Dick Zatta, J., “The Use of Romanes in an Italian School”, reluctance on the part of the headteacher. However, they were in Acton, T. and Dalphinis, M. (eds), Language, Black and Gypsies, unable to attend due to the absence of transport from the camp to Whiting & Birch MM, London, 2000. the school. De Filippo E., “Rom nella provincia di Napoli”, in 50 Dick Zatta, J., “The Use of Romanes in an Italian School”, Brunello P. (ed.), L’urbanistica del disprezzo, Campi Rom e società op. cit. italiana, 1996. 51 Dick Zatta, J., “The Use of Romanes in an Italian School”, 38 ERRC, Campland: Racial segregation of Roma in Italy, Country op. cit. Report Series No. 9, October 2000. 52 Dick Zatta, J., “The Use of Romanes in an Italian School”, 39 Dipartimento affari sociali, Presidenza del consiglio, Secondo op. cit. rapporto sull’integrazione degli immigrati in Italia, Roma, 13 December 2000. 53 Dick Zatta, J., “The Use of Romanes in an Italian School”, op. cit. 40 Taken from the Cultura Internazionali Politiche Sociali Servizi (Civic Association of Social Promotion) website: http://www.arci.it 54 Dick Zatta, J., “The Use of Romanes in an Italian School”, op. cit. 41 ERRC, Campland: Racial segregation of Roma in Italy, Country Report Series No. 9, October 2000. 55 Child Immigration Project, Children in Between, European Report, Rome, December 2000. 42 Giovagnoli, S., “Zingari a Roma”, in Brunello, P. (ed.), L’urbanistica del disprezzo, Campi Rom e società italiana, 1996. 56 Dipartimento affari sociali, Presidenza del consiglio, Secondo rapporto sull’integrazione degli immigrati in Italia, Roma, 13 December 43 Giovagnoli S., “Zingari a Roma”, op. cit. 2000. 44 La Repubblica, 21 December 1999. 57 Child Immigration Project, Children in Between, European 45 Article 44 of Presidential Decree 1/00 regulating the residence Report, Rome, December 2000. of foreign people in Italy, mentioned in the legislative section of 58 Child Immigration Project, Children in Between, European this report. Report, Rome, December 2000. 46 Colacicchi P. cited in Giovagnoli S., “Zingari a Roma”, in 59 Child Immigration Project, Children in Between, European Brunello P. (ed.), L’urbanistica del disprezzo, Campi Rom e società Report, Rome, December 2000. italiana, 1996.

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A study conducted in three cities in Slovakia showed that the percentage of Roma/Gypsies in Summary special remedial schools for mentally handicapped children is at least 75 per cent. Context Policy has oscillated between ad hoc “I would like to be a waitress... I like to talk to paternalism and systematic co-operation. people and I like mathematics.” Negative attitudes persist in government, “Do you like your mathematics teacher?” exemplified by the commonly held assertion “Yes, she is very nice and we can laugh with her as that Roma/Gypsy parents have no interest in well. She explains everything very well.” education. From 1999 structures were “How about the other teachers?” developed for involving minorities, including “We make fun of the Slovak language teacher, Roma/Gypsies, in policy formulation, but because she is just awful. Sometimes she just says Slovakia lacks institutionalised means to that we will never achieve anything and that we are protect its minorities against discrimination. a bunch of losers.” 14 years old, Roma/Gypsy girl, Roma population special remedial school for mentally Government statistics put the number of handicapped children Roma/Gypsies at 82,591, but a more realistic estimate is 368,554 (7 per cent of the population). They are a young population, with high birth and mortality rates. They live in every part of the country, especially in eastern regions. Many live in isolated camps of flimsy wooden and mud huts, with no basic facilities. There are high levels of discrimination in education, housing and health care, as well as racially motivated violence. Currently there are no Roma/ Gypsies in Parliament, but there is some representation at a municipal level.

Roma and education At school there is a pattern of discrimination, segregation and exclusion. Cumulative discrimination affects all levels of education. *This report was co-funded by Save the Children UK and the Very few Roma/Gypsies attend the UNICEF Regional Office for the CEE/CIS and Baltic States. The views expressed in this report are those of the author and do not non-compulsory kindergartens. Attendance necessarily reflect the policies or the views of the United Nations in primary/basic education is low. Children’s Fund.

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Slovakia report contents

Introduction – the Roma/Gypsy population 172 Demography 172 Roma/Gypsies in mainstream schools are Language 172 often segregated into separate classes – those Inter-ethnic relations 172 for the “weakest” children. Non-attendance and dropout rates are high and rising. Minority rights 174

Government policy towards Roma/Gypsies 176 Language provision Roma/Gypsies speak Romanes and Slovak, The right to education 179 and depending on their area, often Ukrainian/ In practice 180 Ruthenian or Hungarian in addition. Although The right to education of Roma/Gypsy children 180 national minorities have the right to be Preschool education 181 educated in their own language, no schools Primary/basic education 182 provide a syllabus in Romanes. Zero classes – preparatory classes 184 Secondary schools 185 Special schools Universities 187 Up to 75 per cent of Roma/Gypsy children Special remedial schools for “mentally attend special remedial schools for the handicapped” children 188 mentally handicapped, placed there on the Language provision 190 basis of linguistically and culturally biased IQ tests. NGO practice in the area 193

Voices of Roma/Gypsy children 195 Other separate provision The government is running an experimental Recommendations 196 programme of preparatory classes for Slovakia: Notes on the text 198 disadvantaged children, which have been established in areas with high numbers of Roma/Gypsies.

Balance of NGO and government activity There is a lack of co-ordinated government activity, which tends to take the form of short-lived, relatively isolated projects. Some of the slack has been taken up by NGOs which have provided funding for “zero year” classes and Romani teaching assistants.

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Introduction – the Roma/Gypsy Romani children do not exist, though it has been population estimated that there are 107,431 (6.9 per cent of children in the whole population). Other estimates Demography on the number of Romani children put the figure The 1991 population census gave the total much higher – ranging between 150,000 and 9 population in Slovakia as 5,283,000 inhabitants. 321,000 (9.8 per cent – 20.9 per cent). Of these, 15 per cent were recorded as members of national minorities.1 In 1989, according to Roma/Gypsies on the whole live in settlements, the registration of nationalities, there were or ghettos, in nearly every municipal district of 10 254,000 (4.8 per cent) Roma/Gypsies living in Slovakia. The highest concentration is in the the Slovak Republic.2 The 1991 census however eastern part of Slovakia and in particular in the recorded just 80,591 (1.5 per cent). In the 1991 districts of Spišská Nová Vessince, Košice and census, the majority of Roma/Gypsies declared a Poprad, Stará Ĺubovnia, Rožňava and Bardejov. nationality other than “Roma”. As historian Their numbers vary: Roma/Gypsies make up Ctibor Nečas writes, “many Roma [...] tried to 4.1 per cent of the population in Bardejov and hide among other nationalities for fear of losing 7.9 per cent in Spišská Nová Vessince. There are their citizenship.”3 State statistics show that in 57 villages where Roma/Gypsies compose at December 1993, 82,591 declared themselves as least 20 per cent of the population. Roma, that is 1.6 per cent of the total population.4 A more realistic figure for the Roma/Gypsy Language population is estimated to be between Roma/Gypsies are all at least bilingual. These 480,000 and 520,000.5 Based on the birth rate of include Roma/Gypsies from western and central Roma/Gypsies and the number of Roma/ parts of Slovakia, who speak both Romanes and Gypsies registered in 1989 it is sensible to suggest Slovak; those from eastern Slovakia who are a final number of 368,554 Roma/Gypsies, that is trilingual in Romanes, Ukrainian/Ruthenian and 7 per cent of the total population. Slovak; and those in the southern part who speak Romanes, Hungarian and Slovak. On average, the non-Roma/Gypsy population has about 1.5 children per family, while the equivalent Inter-ethnic relations figure among Roma/Gypsies is estimated to be The European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC), in its 4.2 children per family. Roma/Gypsies, on country report Time of the Skinheads: Denial and average, die 12 years earlier than non-Roma/ Exclusion of Roma in Slovakia (1997), reported a Gypsies.6 Due to these high birth and mortality number of racially motivated attacks and rates, four-fifths of the Romani population highlighted linguistic and geographical exclusion are under 34 years of age.7 In 1995, the total of Roma/Gypsies in Slovakia.11 According to number of children aged between 0-18 years was Claude Cahn, Research and Publications Director estimated at 1,534,734 (29.3 per cent of the total of the ERRC, between 1997 and 2000 there have population).8 Official statistics on the numbers of been in effect no positive changes to the situation

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of Romani children in Slovak schools. In fact, charges raised against him and subsequent as of January 2001, linguistic and geographic imprisonment, he was suspended from mayoral exclusion of Roma/Gypsy children appears to be duties on 8 February 2001. There is some getting worse as a result of segregation and racist evidence of governments in the past trying to trends at the municipal level.12 prevent Roma/Gypsies from running for mayor.16

The International Organisation for Migration Minority rights (IOM) reported discrimination against Roma/ The Constitution of the Slovak Republic of Gypsy children in education and in access to September 1992 includes a number of minority- health care. It reports overcrowded classrooms relevant provisions. Slovak is declared the state and inadequate schooling materials, particularly in language of the Slovak Republic, while the use Roma/Gypsy neighbourhoods. Teachers are often of other languages in official communications under-qualified and do not pay adequate attention is subject to further legislation (Art. 6).17 to the needs of Roma/Gypsy children. IOM have Fundamental rights are guaranteed to everyone, frequently reported accelerating dropout rates regardless of sex, race, colour of skin, language, from elementary education, particularly in the case creed and religion, political or other beliefs, of children of Roma/Gypsy asylum seekers.13 national or social origin, affiliation to a national or Children of returnees often miss eight years of ethnic group, property, descent, or other status education leading to high rates of illiteracy. The (Art. 12). Membership in any national minority or state does not provide any assistance to children ethnic group must not be used to the detriment returnees, for example by offering tutorial classes of individuals (Art. 33). Citizens who are to enable children who spent time abroad to members of national minorities or ethnic groups catch up; upon their return to the Slovak are guaranteed equal opportunities. Specifically Republic, children are simply enrolled in a lower mentioned are the rights to promote their cultural grade.14 Given that a high proportion of asylum heritage, to receive and disseminate information seekers travel in family groups, where over half in their mother tongues, to form associations and take three children and a fifth between five and to create and maintain educational and cultural eight children with them, this represents an institutions, all of which are subject to further important and overlooked issue.15 simple legislation (Art. 34, paragraph 1). However, Slovakia has not adopted any anti-discrimination There are currently no Roma/Gypsy MPs in legislation nor has it adopted a law that would Parliament (the electoral process follows the legalise affirmative action towards a particular proportional rule with a threshold of 5 per cent). group.18 At the local municipality level, Roma/Gypsy mayors have been elected in regular elections. In addition to the right to learn the official For example in Košice, in the Roma/Gypsy language, members of national minorities or neighbourhood Luník IX, there was a Roma/ ethnic groups are also guaranteed the right to be Gypsy mayor, Mr Šana. However, due to legal educated in a minority language, the right to use

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a minority language in official communications on human rights issues. The Council for and the right to participate in decision making in National Minorities and Ethnic Groups, created matters affecting national minorities and ethnic by Government Decree No. 292/1998, is a groups (Art. 34). These provisions are restricted multi-level body incorporating members of by a regulation to the effect that the exercise of national minorities and ministry employees. these rights must not threaten the sovereignty and On 10 February 1999 the government adopted territorial integrity of the Slovak Republic or Resolution No. 127/ 1999 approving the office of discriminate against other citizens (Art. 34). the Plenipotentiary for Solving the Problems of Everyone has the right to education. School the Roma Minority. From 1 March 1999, Vincent attendance is compulsory and free of charge at Danihel was put in charge. The Plenipotentiary elementary and secondary levels and, depending together with an advisory panel of Roma/ on the resources of the state, also at university Gypsy representatives, drafts and submits level (Art. 45). recommendations to the government on issues relating to the Roma/Gypsy minority through International instruments on human rights and Deputy Prime Minister Csáky.21 Vincent Danihel, fundamental freedoms ratified by the Slovak however, does not have any executive power Republic and promulgated under statutory within the government requirements take precedence over national laws, provided that they guarantee greater The Plenipotentiary is also a member of constitutional rights and freedoms (Art. 11). the government’s Council for Combating After the split of Czechoslovakia, Roma/Gypsy Anti-societal Activity. The Council for Regional children from Slovakia placed in foster care Development does not explicitly address issues institutions in the Czech Republic were prevented relating to Roma/Gypsies, though it can raise from acquiring Czech citizenship.19 The Slovak issues of regional impact and put forward Law on Citizenship that contains inclusive recommendations on regions with a high formulation of citizenship did not have the same Roma/Gypsy minority concentration. At the effect. No instances have been officially reported parliamentary level, within the National Council on the difficulty of obtaining Slovak citizenship.20 of the Slovak Republic, there is a Committee on Human Rights and Minorities, dealing primarily Since early 1999, the Slovak Government has with drafting new minority legislation and developed a structure for institutionalising the addressing issues raised by members of minorities involvement of national minorities into the and citizens whose human rights have been process of policy formation. The deputy Prime infringed. The committee is chaired by László Minister for Human Rights, National Minorities Nagy, a member of the Hungarian Coalition Party and Regional Development, Pál Csáky, chairs and party colleague of Pál Csáky.22 four advisory Councils to the government. The Council for Human Rights provides the In its 57th session in 2000, the Committee on the government with advice and recommendations Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD)

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concluded its consideration of the fourth periodic demands immediate action. ECRI also points out report of Slovakia. It expressed concern that the with concern the over-representation of Roma/ Slovak Republic does not have an institutionalised Gypsy children in special schools for mentally form of protection against discrimination which handicapped children or their allocation to would meet the requirements of the International separate classes, effectively segregating them Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of from their peers. ECRI looks critically at the Racial Discrimination. On the issue of education, dropout rates of the Roma/Gypsy children from the Slovak delegation claimed that the reason for schools at an early age and calls for the promotion the unsatisfactory provision of education for of education programmes for Roma/Gypsy Roma/Gypsies was that the majority of Roma/ adults.26 Gypsy parents have no interest in sending their children to schools and that they have no motivation to send the children to preparatory Government policy towards education centres.23 However evidence shows Roma/Gypsies that, on the contrary, Roma/Gypsy parents are eager to send their children to school.24 Throughout the 1990s, the Slovak Government has practised two approaches in the formation of In October 2000, the Committee on the Rights of national minority policies towards Roma/Gypsies the Child pointed out with concern that there are that differ from one another in principle: deficiencies in co-ordinating the implementation (1) systematic, co-operative of the UN Convention on the Rights of the (2) ad hoc, paternalistic. Child. It noted in particular the absence of any collection of data on children under 18 years old, In the early nineties the governmental approach especially in terms of monitoring rights contained followed a path of developing systematic policies in the Convention. It also highlighted a lack of that would address the problems faced by transparency concerning state budget resources Roma/Gypsies in a complex manner.27 Several allocated for the implementation of economic, Roma/Gypsy MPs participated in drafting policy social and cultural rights of children. In the area documents in the areas of education, social of education, the committee noted with concern security, employment, culture and housing that most Roma/Gypsy children attend special of Roma/Gypsies in Slovakia. Resolution remedial schools for mentally handicapped No. 153/1991, “Principles of Government Policy children and that the School Act does not offer towards Roma”, laid out areas for improving the instruction in the Romanes language.25 situation of Roma/Gypsies. Moreover, Resolution No. 153/1991 approved the earlier Resolution In its Second Report on Slovakia (adopted on No. 50/1991, “Principles of Establishing and 10 December 1999) the European Commission Running of Schools in Ethnically Mixed Areas”, against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) states which was aimed specifically at four areas: that the field of education is a crucial area which • the upbringing of children and their education

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• psychological-pedagogical advice centres • to promote the Romani theatre Romathan • the education of teachers abroad • economic support for the schools. • to strengthen the education of Romani intellectuals at Constantine the Philosopher In 1992, the Ministry of Education introduced an University in Nitra and Prešov University in experimental project of “zero classes” to help compliance with the PHARE Minority and Roma/Gypsy children to overcome their social Tolerance Programme and linguistic exclusion.28 • to continue the project of preparatory classes (zero class) at basic schools. Following the split of Czechoslovakia, the Mečiar cabinet(s) adopted a paternalistic and nationalising However, the proposed action plan is not based populist platform.29 A good illustration of the on any systematic preliminary research into the paternalistic attitude in policies towards the situation of the Roma/Gypsy community, such as Roma/Gypsy community was the rejection of the needs of children, and it lacks the additional Resolution No. 153/1991 and the subsequent information that would support the proposed adoption of a policy paper drafted by the Ministry measures. of Labour, Social Affairs and Family, issued in April 1996, entitled “The Resolution of the Strategy II sets out the government’s goal of Slovak Government to the Proposal of the changing the educational system in order to Activities and Measures in Order to Solve the enable Roma/Gypsy children to be as successful Problems of Citizens in Need of Special Care.”30 as non-Roma/Gypsy children. The document states that concrete steps are to be proposed in Following the election in autumn 1998, the the Concept for the Education and Training of Romani Dzurinda cabinet signalled an attempt to return to Children and Students and that they will be the practice of the early 1990s by adopting implemented as part of the overall long-term Resolution “Strategy I” on 27 September 1999 Concept for Education and Training in the Slovak and “Strategy II” on 3 May 2000. In Strategy I the Republic – the so-called “Millennium Project”. government laid out the first necessary steps in addressing education in relation to Roma/ Strategy II contains proposals that are divided Gypsies. The explanatory part of the document into three areas of action: states that the education and training of Roma/ • ordering several state research institutions, Gypsy children is a priority in addressing the including the State Pedagogical Institute, the problems of the wider Roma/Gypsy community. Prešov Methodological Centre and the Child The document further specifies steps for Psychology and Pathological Psychology addressing the issue: Research Institute in Bratislava, to conduct • to implement the concept of preschool research into the main areas of concern education regarding the situation of Roma/Gypsy • to support the Secondary Art School in Košice children31

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• calling for co-operation between the evaluation of the projects is approximately three government and NGOs on the effective use of years. Therefore the testing of the adequacy of finance and experience in the “area of solving the preparatory classes and the use of art for problems of the Romani national minority” “developing the interests and motivation of • a promise to adopt a “long-term Roma pupils from socially and developmentally national minority educational policy”. However disadvantaged background through arts classes” a time schedule for this systematic change of will not be completed until 2003. In the meantime the educational system was not specified. no systematic or practical measures will be introduced in this area of education. The category According to historian and activist Anna Jurová, of “experimental projects” under which working at the Social Science Institute in Košice, several research projects are administered (eg, Strategy I and II signal a return to “socialist’s “preparatory classes”, “Romani assistants” and strategies” in that they focus on the social “methodological material development”) prevents and economic aspects of the situation of any guarantee of their being funded in the long Roma/Gypsies in Slovakia: term and thus becoming part of general practice.34

“The research institutions critically reviewed The tasks laid out in Strategy I and Strategy II are policy paper Strategy [I and II] ... but the state not based on previous systematic research and officials refused any critical comments from knowledge about the needs of Roma/Gypsy the experts and reacted negatively at every children. As observed by an expert on minority suggestion... I have to emphasise that the policy formation:35 Strategy [I and II] is a return to ‘old practice’.”32 “While in the case of the Czech Concept [Concept of Government Policy Towards the By “old practice” she refers to the top-down Members of the Romany Community], the socialist strategies of solving the “Gypsy government consulted experts and Romany question” by assimilation.33 She goes on to argue issues specialists, the Slovak policy papers are a that the government accepted only those result of work of the state administration recommendations that were consistent with its exclusively”. own view and refused all alternative opinions for solving the educational problems faced by Thus this can only be understood as a desperate Roma/Gypsy children. attempt to produce a policy document that would help to improve the reputation of the Slovak At a practical level, it is possible to observe Republic abroad. An educational expert, working very little progress in terms of meeting the in the field of school curricula, said that:36 government’s goal to change the educational system. According to the information available, “in fact, the government does not know the the government’s timescale for the research and situation of the Romany children in the

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educational system ... if you ask the of Education for Romani Children and Pupils government for details and action plans, you as part of the Millennium Project. As a result can only get an answer that they don’t know of educational policy stagnating at the level of or it does not exist ... sadly, only now is the experimental projects and several changes of government collecting data on the needs of government policy towards the Roma/Gypsy Romany children through questionnaires sent minority throughout the 1990s, Roma/Gypsy to the schools.” children continue to be denied their right to equal access to education. An explanation from the government itself reads as follows: “In order to facilitate objective and successful solution of the situation of The right to education Romany children in the process of education, the Government shall create conditions for the Kindergarten, or preschool, is not compulsory necessary research.”37 However, since the govern- and is attended by children aged three to six years. ment has been conducting research on the needs Education is obligatory for all children aged of the children in education for the past 20 years, 6-16 years and within that primary, or basic, one would believe that the implementation phase schooling is compulsory for all children aged should have started at least several years ago. between 6 and 14 years. In some cases, the child On the contrary, the government calls for can be enrolled a year later at the age of seven more research and so-called “new solutions.” upon request of the parents and subject to the As explained by a Romani activist Anna Jurová: recommendation of a physician. Primary “In fact, the real Strategy is still in preparation at education takes place in either a regular basic the end of the year 2000.”38 school or a special school. Both types of schools have nine grades. There are several types of Thus, Strategy II presents another example of a special school: special remedial schools for preparatory document failing to contain concrete mentally handicapped children (Speciálna škola pre measures for the formation and implementation mentálne postihnutých, otherwise shortened to of effective minority policies with respect to Speciálna škola), special remedial schools for Roma/Gypsies. In the opinion of the European physically handicapped children (ie, those with Commission, both Strategy documents lack sensory disabilities) and special remedial schools concrete tasks, definition of aims and evaluation for mentally and physically handicapped children. of measures that had been already undertaken and Special schools are clearly distinguished from they have failed to propose next steps.39 In its “specialised schools”, which offer bilingual evaluation report on the Strategy in January 2001, curricula or use a minority language as a the government stated that the tasks laid out for supporting teaching language.41 the year 2000 in the area of education had not been fulfilled.40 The Ministry of Education has While children from regular basic schools can continued with the preparation of the Concept pursue their studies in regular secondary schools,

179 such as grammar schools, secondary schools or In practice secondary training schools, children from special schools are obliged by law to continue at special The right to education of Roma/Gypsy children secondary schools.42 Special remedial schools for According to one educational expert, the mentally handicapped children do not have equal educational level of the Roma/Gypsy population status with basic schools. Education obtained at has significantly decreased in recent years.43 the former is not regarded by law as a completed There is alarming evidence about cumulative primary education. Incomplete primary education discrimination against Roma/Gypsy children in excludes children from pursuing their studies at a the educational system of the Slovak Republic. regular secondary school with a final exam and/or For example, the attendance of Roma/Gypsy later at university. children in kindergartens is very low. Conversely, Roma/Gypsy children are over represented in After completing the final exam at a grammar or special remedial schools for mentally handicapped secondary school, students are eligible to pursue children. Even those who do attend basic schools their studies at a university from the age of 18. risk facing segregation.44 Language forms another Of course, for those who have attended “special aspect of segregation. For example, Roma/Gypsy schools” this is not an option. children whose first language is Hungarian generally attend Hungarian kindergartens and schools. Underpinning all of this is a paucity or lack of teaching materials and under-qualified teachers revealing a basic inequality in Roma/ Gypsy children’s access to a relevant education.

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The Slovak education system lacks the financial rates. First, the monthly fees for the kindergartens resources necessary for providing basic materials. (approximately 700 Sk ($US 20) including food, It seems unable to cater for the needs of provided three times a day) are extremely difficult bilingual and multilingual Roma/Gypsy children. to meet given the low level of unemployment The Ministry of Education, which is responsible social benefits, which many families receive.50 for providing methodological guidance for Secondly, parents are often asked to cover teachers working in ethnically mixed areas, fails to additional expenses for materials such as pencils, provide appropriate guidelines. There are no paper, and other everyday school materials. Given methodological recommendations provided to such difficulties, the government took a decision teachers of preparatory classes or those teaching in 1997 to waive the monthly fee (which then was in largely Romani schools. Educational projects 100 Sk ($US 3.5)), for children from a socially oriented towards Roma/Gypsies are being disadvantaged background.51 However, expenses administered as “experimental projects” with a for food and school materials still had to be lack of guidance and a systematic approach. As a covered by the parents. result of such unequal treatment, Roma/Gypsy children are substantially under-represented in Roma/Gypsy children are often subject to secondary schools, and their attendance at racial segregation once placed in a kindergarten. university is negligible. The number of kindergartens in a city or village depends on the area population. For example, Preschool education there are four kindergartens in Kremnica, a town The state is responsible for securing the education in the central Slovakian regional district of Banská of preschool children (in co-operation with the Bystrica, with a population of 5,868, of whom family) although attendance at kindergarten is 286 are Roma/Gypsies.52 Three kindergartens are not compulsory.45 Up until 1991, 85-90 per cent of established by the state and the fourth, a ‘Model all Roma/Gypsy children attended kindergarten.46 Centre of Daily Care’ (MCDC), was established in However, between 1988 and 1995 the total 1991 by an NGO called Through the Children to number of kindergartens dropped from 4,042 to the Families. In the three state kindergartens the 3,321 and within that the total number of proportion of Roma/Gypsy children ranges from Roma/Gypsies in kindergartens dropped from 0.7 per cent to 2.2 per cent. The MCDC, however, 166,852 to just 1,181.47 Between 1995 and 1999 has a balanced attendance of 50 per cent Roma/ this low figure has remained consistent: in 1999, Gypsies and 50 per cent non-Roma/Gypsies. just 1,120 Roma/Gypsy children were attending This ethnic balance was not achieved immediately. kindergarten.48 At first, the MCDC became known as a “Gypsy kindergarten” and the non-Roma/Gypsy parents Once Roma/Gypsy have registered at preschools refused to enrol their children there. However, their attendance is low and varies from region to this changed in the second half of the 1990s. region (ranging from 0 per cent to 15 per cent).49 The director of the NGO believes that this was There are two reasons for such high dropout mainly because of the better conditions and play

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facilities in the kindergarten. The director of Primary/basic education MCDC agreed with this and added that the Primary or basic education is compulsory and non-Roma/Gypsy parents liked the additional free of charge for all children aged 6-14 years. child-friendly programmes organised by Through Basic schools are expected to develop the Children to the Families such as a film screening intellectual potential of the child and provide and cultural festivals. basic knowledge about the principles of morality, health, aesthetics and ecology. They are allowed to Whereas state kindergartens do not have any establish religious classes.55 The number of basic supporting materials that reflect the Roma/Gypsy schools grew between 1989 and 1995. In 1995 experience, MCDC uses Romani story books out of a total of 661,080 pupils in basic schools, (eg, the Romani textbook Luludi ) and encourages just 7,996 (1.2 per cent) were Roma/Gypsies. Roma/Gypsy children to communicate between In 1998/99 there were 622,665 pupils attending themselves in Romanes. Some Roma/Gypsy basic schools, of whom just 6,098 (0.97 per cent) trainees also participate in running the MCDC.53 were of Roma/Gypsies.56 There are no schools However, according to the director of the NGO, that provide instruction in the Romani language. Jana Tomová, their main objective is the In the eastern part of the Slovak Republic, integration of Roma and non-Roma children:54 however, there are some teachers who use Romanes in the first and preparatory classes.57 “It is wonderful to look back in our past years of existence and see that the Roma and In western and north-western parts of Slovakia, non-Roma children who went to our ‘Model teachers and NGO activists reported that Centre’ went together to the same basic school Roma/Gypsy children attending basic schools as good friends.” are segregated from their non-Roma/Gypsy counterparts.58 Grades are divided into classrooms Out of the 40 Roma/Gypsy children who have A, B, C and D, depending on the number of the attended the kindergarten since 1991, only eight pupils enrolled in a schooling year. In practice, the have been placed in special remedial schools for director of the school has the children divided mentally handicapped children and in the past two into classrooms according to their marks. years none of the children have been placed in This means that Roma/Gypsy children who are such schools. The proportion of Roma/Gypsies frequently diagnosed as the weakest students are and non-Roma/Gypsies in the three state concentrated in two classrooms, usually “C” and kindergartens in Kremnica gives an indication of “D”. It has been also reported that the directors overall segregation patterns in kindergartens in act on the request of the parents of non-Roma/ Slovakia. When a kindergarten becomes known as Gypsy children, who want to have their children a “gypsy kindergarten” non-Roma/Gypsy parents educated separately from “dirty Gypsies”.59 It is tend to put their children in other kindergartens. common knowledge among the pupils in the MCDC is a positive exception to the rule. school that the children attending classes “C” and D” perform most poorly. This has led to bullying

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and racial stereotyping.60 This practice has been Integrace Mládeže) has observed that the number of reported to be widespread throughout western, children in this settlement who do not attend central and eastern parts of Slovakia. According basic school has doubled since 1993.64 to the government the issue of racial segregation in school is not a new issue, and it is continuing The basic school in Luník IX does not have to take measures to stem it.61 In spite of this adequate resources for those children attending or rhetoric, it is not possible to find any evidence wishing to attend the school. While the capacity of government activity that aims to prevent or of the school is at most 300 pupils, 649 pupils address racial segregation in schools. are enrolled and all of these are Roma/Gypsies. The school operates in shifts, with morning and As well as formal segregation, there is the afternoon classes. There are 32 classes in the problem of dropping out and non-attendance. school covering seven first grades and one zero Luník IX, a Roma/Gypsy settlement in Košice in grade (the latter having been established in 1992). the eastern part of Slovakia, has about 4,500 Pupils do not have adequate school materials officially registered inhabitants among whom and since 1992, the building itself has been there are 1,925 children. Of these, 850 (44 per deteriorating. At the beginning of the 1990s the cent) are aged 0-6 years, 882 (46 per cent) are construction of the school was completed except aged 7-15 years and 193 (10 per cent) are aged for the gym. Despite several promises from the 16-18 years.62 Parents on the whole are reluctant Ministry of Education, the gym has still not been to register themselves and their children with the built.65 In January 2001, Pál Csáky, Vice Prime municipality office as they see it as harmful to Minister for issues of national minorities, their employment prospects. Many Roma/Gypsies promised that the construction of the basic who move to Luník IX do so to live with their school would be completed and that the relatives and look for seasonal work; as a result government would invest in the improvement they are likely to remain registered in their places of conditions in the school.66 of origin. Children who are not registered with the municipality also are not registered with The special remedial school for mentally schools. The only way for authorities to monitor handicapped children in Košice is located in the their attendance at school is if the child becomes Luník IX kindergarten. There are 70 pupils ill and parents seek medical help. Even in such enrolled in the kindergarten and 40 pupils aged cases, parents are likely to say that they are just 7-15 years attend classes there. This large number visiting.63 Nevertheless, informal estimates have of children is a result of the housing policy of the been made. According to the Luník IX Košice municipality, which aimed to move all municipality social worker, for example, there “problematic citizens” into one neighbourhood.67 has been an increase in the dropout rates of Although the school repeatedly expressed concern non-registered Roma/Gypsy children at primary with the schooling authority via the municipality school level. Likewise, a local NGO European and the state inspectors, this has had no impact Centre for Integration of Youth (Evropské Centrum on the policy of the municipality. For example,

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a request was made for several children from children are often overcrowded, lack basic Luník IX to be enrolled in basic schools in nearby equipment and have inadequate hygiene neighbourhoods. However this was refused with conditions.72 In Velká Lomnica, a village in north- the explanation that Luník IX basic school is a eastern Slovakia, school directors reported rat local school for Luník IX (spádová škola) and it is infestations and inadequate bathroom facilities.73 therefore not possible to enrol children in schools The basic school in Velká Lomnica is situated in in other neighbourhoods.68 Although in 2000, the the middle of the Roma/Gypsy settlement and regional office of Košice was given 261,000 Sk all the pupils who attend are Roma/Gypsies. ($US 5,800) from the state budget to support In Rožňava, a town in eastern Slovakia, similar the “Social and cultural needs of the Roma claims were made by teachers, who reported cases community in Luník IX”, neither school has of salmonella and scabies.74 Teachers working received any additional financial support.69 with Roma/Gypsy children are often under- qualified and have to teach in poor conditions to In central Slovakia the situation of Roma/ over-sized classes. In addition, Roma/Gypsy Gypsy children attending basic schools varies. parents are rarely, if ever, called to the schools For example, there are two basic schools in and therefore little communication is maintained Kremnica, in which the proportion of Roma/ between the school and the family.75 Gypsy pupils is 7 per cent. With no governmental support, Basic School II has recently developed Zero classes – preparatory classes programmes for Roma/Gypsy children, including In 1991 the government introduced a programme tutorial classes and consultation hours. However, of “zero classes” for children from socially and its request in 1999 to establish a preparatory class economically disadvantaged backgrounds. For for Roma/Gypsy children was refused on the example, in 1992 under the co-ordination of Eva basis that at least 12 children are needed to attend. Macejková, zero classes were established in the Both schools reported that although no additional Luník IX Basic School as well as in other basic materials were being sent from the Ministry of schools in Košice as part of an experimental Education, they were still being expected to project. This included the creation of a club for provide information on the Roma/Gypsy children teachers of zero classes. The teachers met and who attend.70 regularly discussed their experiences and consulted with children. In 1995 the “zero class” The International Organisation for Migration programme underwent a final evaluation by the (IOM) reported that Roma/Gypsy children suffer government. As a result, since 1996/97 “zero racial discrimination in respect of their access to classes” have been established in all regions where benefits provided by basic schooling. For example, there is a high concentration of Roma/Gypsies. unlike non-Roma/Gypsy children, Roma/Gypsies However, it is important to note that such classes are frequently requested to provide medical remain “experimental” and that the government certificates before participating in swimming at this time stopped any additional support of lessons.71 Schools attended by Roma/Gypsy zero classes over the next four years.76 It was not

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until 2000 that the government reintroduced the is 5 per cent. According to research conducted experimental “zero classes” throughout Slovakia, by Open School, an NGO active in the field of this time referred to as “preparatory classes”. improving curricula and conditions for Roma/ Despite systematic research on zero classes, Gypsy children, dropout rates have been “preparatory classes” are still administered as increasing since 1976. In 1976 the dropout rate experimental projects in several schools of Roma/Gypsy children from the first grade throughout Slovakia. The State Pedagogical was 46 per cent. By 1999 the rate had reached Institute, working on the evaluation of the 63 per cent (see Table 7.1). preparatory classes plans to submit its evaluation and recommendations by June 2003.77 Until the Secondary schools evaluation is completed, preparatory classes will Several types of schools offer secondary not be given any additional support from the education. Firstly, one must distinguish between government. In the meantime, therefore, there secondary schools that have programmes leading continues to be a lack of essential schooling to a final exam and those that do not. The final materials and the quality of teaching remains exam is necessary to gaining access to university. poor.78 Secondly, there are various types of qualifications that can be gained at this level, such as: expert Human rights organisations and NGOs claimed secondary education, complete secondary that by 1999, there were 4,579 children without education, complete secondary expert education education.79 If we take the population of children and higher expert education. in Slovakia as 107,431, their rate of illiteracy

Table 7.1 Dropout rates for Roma/Gypsy children (%)80

School year Grade 1st 2nd 6th 7th 8th 9th

1976/77 49 20+ 0.15+ 58 75 95

1987/88 61 31 36 46 46 0*

1988/89 56 32 81 46 88 0*

1989/90 64 33 32 41 96 0*

1990/91 61 28 23 30 87 0*

1997/98 63 30 28 30 61 88

1998/99 63 5+ 30 29 45 87

Average 61 20 30 40 71 90

*There was no 9th grade at elementary schools in Slovakia in these school years.

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Grammar schools provide general education that It is important to note that over half of these prepares students mainly for further study at students (109) were enrolled at the secondary art university. Grammar school programmes have a school in Košice, established with the aim of minimum of four and a maximum of eight developing and teaching “Roma culture”. grades. Passing the final exam in the final year of grammar school provides the student with a The secondary art school in Košice was complete secondary education.81 established in 1992, and offers education to both Roma/Gypsies and non-Roma/Gypsies in the Between 1989 and 1994 the number of grammar fields of music, drama, dance, and acting. The schools grew from 128 to 190; the number of school receives state subsidies and secures its own students grew from 51,531 to 70,072. Of the financial resources from various foundations.85 190 grammar schools in 1994, 157 had instruction Although the classes are mainly in Slovak, some in Slovak, 14 in Hungarian, 8 in Slovak and classes are held in Romanes. As stated, in 1998/99 Hungarian, 0 in Ukrainian, 1 in Ukrainian and the school had 109 students. In 2000 this grew Slovak and 1 in Bulgarian and 9 were “bilingual to 200 students, 95 per cent of whom were grammar schools”.82 There are no grammar Roma/Gypsies. All students so far registered at schools that teach in Romanes or that have the school have completed the course. After the established Romanes as a supporting language. fourth grade, students take a final exam in order In 1995, just two Roma/Gypsy students attended to progress onto the next grade. After completing grammar school; by 1998/99 this had increased the sixth grade, they can find work in the to six Roma/Gypsy students.83 Philharmonic Orchestra, the Romani theatre Romathan or the teaching profession more Unlike grammar schools, secondary expert generally, or they can pursue their studies at schools prepare students for a wide range of university. Although the director of the school, occupations including technical, agricultural, Gejza Adam, says that the aim of the school is to economic, pedagogical, medical, legal, “promote tolerance and equality”, it remains administrative, art and cultural professions. largely a Roma/Gypsy school.86 Students also have the possibility of pursuing their studies at university. Between 1989 and 1995 Secondary training centres prepare students for the number of secondary expert schools grew manual occupations. Between 1989 and 1995 their from 181 to 361. In 1995, the language of number grew from 311 to 358. Of these, 322 had instruction was as follows: Slovak, 335 schools; teaching in Slovak, 7 in Hungarian and 29 in Hungarian, 5 schools; Slovak and Hungarian, both Slovak and Hungarian. Out of the total of 20 schools; and Ukrainian, 1 school. In 1995 out 137,091 students in secondary training centres, of a total student population of 114,706, just 287 (0.9 per cent) were Roma/Gypsies.87 92 (0.08 per cent) were Roma/Gypsies. In By 1998/99 this had decreased to 169 (0.1 per 1998/99 this figure increased to 200 Roma/Gypsy cent) out of out of a total student population students out of a total population of 96,128.84 of 114,947.88

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Universities The diploma requires submission of a thesis In 1999 there were just 56 Roma/Gypsy students and the sitting of state exams in pedagogy, enrolled at universities in Slovakia.89 In 1992, a mathematics, Slovak language and literature, Department of Romani Culture was established Hungarian language and literature (in case of at the Pedagogical Faculty at the University of specialisation for teaching in Hungarian), and Nitra.90 The department helps prepare elementary Romani culture (in case of specialisation in level teachers for their work with Roma/Gypsy Romani culture).91 According to the draft paper, children. Curricula include Romani culture, Identification of successful Roma projects and principles history, ethnology, Romani language and aimed at the solution of the problems of the Roma didactics of Romani language, Romani literature, minority in the Slovak Republic (the basis for the social work, social pedagogy, law and health. Concept of Roma Integration), experts have

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proposed a critical examination of the Nitra activist working for the Civil Association for Roma studies department and in particular the Support and Development of Regions said that teacher qualifications and research results. he could not imagine how Roma/Gypsy children who have grown up in Roma/Gypsy settlements, This teacher training actually takes place at a sister and who do not speak the Slovak language, would organisation of Nitra University in Spišská Nová benefit from such a plan: “they are planning Vessince. In 2000, 77 teachers graduated from universities and 200,000 [Roma] children grow up the special preparatory study for teachers of in mud in the settlements.”95 Roma/Gypsy children.92 However, only one of them was a Roma/Gypsy. It is estimated that Special remedial schools for “mentally there are fewer than 50 qualified teachers of handicapped” children Roma/Gypsy origin in the whole Slovak Republic. Roma/Gypsy children face enormous difficulties Nitra University has proposed the opening of a when entering the educational system. They often similar course in Nitra with a specialisation for come from bilingual or trilingual families and in Romology studies. In addition to this, a course for many cases do not master the Slovak language.96 the education of Roma/Gypsy assistants is to be Psychologists and pedagogical advisors often opened in the Department of Romani Culture. diagnose such children as “social debilitated”.97 However, the project has not yet secured enough Despite not being mentally retarded, the funding. The Department of Romani Culture combination of linguistic and social-economic has also proposed to the Minister of Public disabilities, so called “social debility” has led in Education that it be made a co-ordinating practice to the placement of large numbers of point for all university activities on the issue of Roma/Gypsy children in special remedial schools Romani education.93 for mentally handicapped children. Segregation as practised here is actively supported by the At the European level an initiative to establish an educational system in its use of the child’s IQ international Romani University with a seat in and its reliance on schooling results. Košice was proposed by the International Romani Union, a transnational Romani NGO, A pilot study conducted in three cities in western, at its Fifth congress in Prague, 24-28 July 2000. central and eastern Slovakia showed that the The education co-ordinator for the International percentage of Roma/Gypsies in special remedial Romani Union, Gejza Adam, explained that there schools for mentally handicapped children is at is a plan to establish three faculties: Philosophy, least 75 per cent. For example, in Kremnica, a International Relations and Politics, and Law. town in central Slovakia, where Roma/Gypsy However, the project has secured neither pupils make up 14 per cent of the school academic nor financial support.94 The government population, 75 per cent attend the local special and the Plenipotentiary for Romani Issues, school. Roma/Gypsy children in Kremnica are Vincent Danihel, are reserved about supporting therefore 25 times more likely to be placed in the what they call a “megalomaniac plan”. A Romani special school than their non-Roma/Gypsy

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counterparts.98 According to controlled pilot which the IQ of Roma/Gypsy pupils in studies in western and eastern Slovakia, Roma/ special schools is substantially higher than their Gypsy children were between 22 and 26 times non-Roma/Gypsy counterparts.99 Likewise, more likely to be placed in a special school. dyslexia is a common disability diagnosed by The director of the special remedial school for Psychological – Pedagogical Counselling Centres. mentally handicapped children in Kremnica said While the non-Roma/Gypsy child would be that the ratio of 25:1 is fairly typical. allowed to stay in the basic school, the Roma/ Gypsy child would be transferred to a special Before being placed into one of these schools, school. In spite of such obvious problems, the children have to undergo an IQ test conducted at government has failed to propose any substantial a regional Psychological-Pedagogical Counselling changes to the diagnostic tests. It has further Centre. IQ tests are linguistically and culturally failed to provide any training in multiculturalism biased. There is clear evidence that the tests and human rights, as proposed in the policy used require a knowledge about issues that document Strategy II. Roma/Gypsy children are less likely to possess. For example, when an examiner asks a child what According to the director of a special school letter “sun” starts with, the Roma/Gypsy child they tend to get only “severe cases” from the tends to answer in their first language – Romanes non-Roma/Gypsy population.100 Up to 1997, – saying “k” (the Romanes for “sun” is khamoro). the school received children tested at the However, such an answer would be regarded Psychological-Pedagogical Counselling Centres as wrong and would serve as evidence of in the regional city of Banská Bystrica. In his IQ deficiency which in turn provides “evidence” opinion, the regional psychologist tended to for referring the child to a special school. recommend the transfer of Roma/Gypsy children who were not actually “mentally retarded”. In the Test results for Roma/Gypsy children are usually case of two or three Roma/Gypsy children “borderline” (hranicné pásmo), ie, between 75 and transferred to the special school in Kremnica in 80. However, while non-Roma/Gypsy children the 1990s, teachers monitored above-average IQs. “borderline cases” are permitted to attend the As a consequence of this, since 1997, the school regular basic school, Roma/Gypsy children are has created a position for a psychologist whose more likely to be recommended to attend the task is to re-diagnose all children sent to the special remedial school for mentally handicapped school upon their arrival.101 children. According to the director of a special school, “borderline cases” are at best dubious as The existence of special remedial schools for an indication of mental ability. In his view, it mentally handicapped children perpetuates simply means that in these cases the child discrimination against Roma/Gypsy children in develops at a later stage of life. The potential for that those who do not complete primary later development is allowed only for non-Roma/ education can not continue their studies at a Gypsy children. This results in a situation in regular secondary school. Instead they are obliged

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to pursue their studies at special secondary Roma/Gypsy children are also over represented in schools, which do not include a final exam. state foster case institutions, otherwise referred to Without a final exam, placement within the job as boarding special remedial schools for mentally market is very difficult and in practice leads to handicapped children (Osobitné školy internátné ).103 unemployment. For example, a 20 year old Roma/ Before 1989, the state tried to solve the problem Gypsy woman S.Z. from the village Kopernice, of Roma/Gypsy children living in poor social near Kremnica, recently returned to Basic School conditions, namely Roma/Gypsy settlements, II in Kremnica. She had been transferred from by placing them into state foster care institutions, this school to Kremnica’s special remedial school. or special boarding schools. Although the practice After completing special school, she went on to of placing children into state care institutions pursue her studies at a secondary training school decreased during the 1990s, there are still for waitresses and cooks. However, this school did about 32 Boarding Special Remedial institutions not provide her with the opportunity to sit the in Slovakia in which most children are Roma. final exam that would give her the possibility of The proportion of Roma/Gypsy to non-Roma/ higher pay, a managerial position in the workplace Gypsy children who attend such institutions is 4:1. or the chance to pursue studies at a higher In Eastern Slovakia, the percentage of Roma/ level, eg, at university or a secondary school. Gypsy children in foster-care institutions is closer She therefore requested to be re-enrolled at the to 95 per cent.104 Children stay in foster care basic school, explaining that she would like to sit institutions until the age of 15, after which they the final exam. The vice-director of the basic attend boarding homes at secondary training school, Maria Štefanová, approved her request:102 schools. They are obliged to leave these boarding schools immediately on accomplishing their “Her case was one of the typical border line qualifications for further employment. Children cases, her mother had six children and upon usually try to return to the boarding schools, but the recommendation of the school and the these institutions are not able to provide any director, she agreed to be sterilised. However, assistance. In effect, therefore, when they reach the mother could not help her children with 17 years of age they are left without any further their education, she could not tell the time for assistance from the state and usually end up on example... I could follow the case of the girl, the street.105 today a young woman, because my husband taught her at the Special Remedial School for Language provision the Mentally Handicapped. He [her husband] Linguistic exclusion, reported in 1997 by the told me that this girl is very talented and has ERRC, continues to exist up to the present day. above average IQ, her only problem was that The Constitution of 1992 provides in its her parents were completely uneducated Articles 34.2b that citizens who are members people and could not support her and help of a national minority “have the right to use a her in preparation for school.” minority language for official communications”,

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“the right to education in their language” Although the Law further realises that the state and a “right to participate in the solutions of language is Slovak, it does not specify the matters concerning national minorities and ethnic language for “official contact” or “public groups”. The practical arrangements were set out documents.” The practical implications however in law No. 428/1990 on the Official Language. are restricted by Regulation No. 221 of 1999 This text stipulated that if people belonging to a adopted on 25 August 1999. Here the government national minority constitute at least 20 per cent of adopted an annex that provides a list of the population of a town or a village, they have 656 villages where, according to its calculations, the right to use their language in these towns in minorities account for at least 20 per cent of official communications.106 However, according to the local population. It was reported by the Claude Cahn, research director of ERRC, the Hungarian Human Rights Foundation, however, required 20 per cent for official communication in that the government failed to list 66 municipalities a minority language is too high.107 with a majority Roma/Gypsy population and one Czech-inhabited municipality. Upon the initiative With Resolution No. 129/1990 the government of the chairman of the political party Roma Civic agreed that educational policy in ethnically mixed Initiative, the government has subsequently areas should stay neutral and offer equal included a further 57 villages which have over opportunity to all national and ethnic groups. 20 per cent Roma/Gypsy inhabitants.109 It further guarantees freedom in the language of instruction in schools and the education of In the context of Slovak legislation, the 1999 members of national minorities in their mother Language Law is a legislative Act and does not tongue in all types of school – from kindergarten take precedence over other laws. As there are no up to secondary school. Acts that would cancel the 1995 Law and as the 1999 Law does not contain any such provision, it Law 428/1990 was proclaimed to be null and void is very unclear which Act will take precedence.110 and a new law on the Official Language of the In practice NGOs have reported that Roma/ Slovak Republic was adopted on 15 November Gypsies fear to use their language in official 1995. The Law on the Use of the Languages of communications, as it has been frequently Ethnic Minorities was adopted on 10 July 1999. understood as provocation and thus has led to Since this Law does not require local officials to the harassment by municipal officials as well as by speak (nor even understand) minority languages, teachers in schools. Moreover, there is no known in practice the usage of a minority language instance in which Romanes has been successfully depends upon the goodwill of a given used as a language of official communication.111 municipality.108 The 1999 Law, in referring to the Constitution and to binding international In 1994, the Slovak Government drafted a agreements, recognises the mother tongues of Concept Paper for Using Romani Language and citizens who are members of a national minority. Literature at Basic and Secondary Schools.112

191 Although the Romani language has not been handicapped children claim that they do not have officially recognised as codified, plans (učebné trained teachers who could teach in Romanes or osnovy) for using Romanes in basic and secondary use the language as a supporting language even if schools have been drafted. While other minority they had the textbooks. In eastern Slovakia, many languages, such as Hungarian, Ukrainian, Roma/Gypsy children who were interviewed said Ruthenian and German are used as teaching that they could not understand the Romanes languages in kindergarten, primary and secondary dialect used in the textbook.114 A teacher from a schools, the Romani language has not been used basic school in Košice explained that if she wants at all in kindergarten or primary schools.113 to make her pupils laugh she reads out from the books Genibanica and Amari Abeceda: “The Romani The Ministry of Education however has children cannot understand the language, they supported the publication of several textbooks in laugh and tell me that they do not speak like this Romanes, such as Amari Abeceda (Our Alphabet) at home.”115 (1995) for pupils in the first and preparatory grades, a Romanes primer Romano hangoro (Little Research conducted in 2000 by the State Roma Voice) (1993) and a reading textbook Pedagogical Institute on schools in eastern Genibanica (1993). The Ministry of Education Slovakia showed that the use of Romanes in claims that all schools with a large number of schools is strongly desired by Roma/Gypsy pupils Roma/Gypsy pupils were given several copies of and parents.116 Similarly, according to Rudolf the publications. Even if this were the case, Tancoš, head of the Department of Romany several copies per school is clearly inadequate. Culture in Nitra, 56 per cent of Roma/Gypsy Indeed, evidence for western and central Slovakia parents in eastern Slovakia are in favour of their shows that many basic schools in fact did not get children being taught in Romanes.117 This is a any Romani-related textbooks. Likewise directors significant increase from 1994, when the of special remedial schools for mentally percentage of Roma/Gypsy parents who were

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in favour of teaching in Romanes was just 4 per Several examples of “good” practice however cent.118 Using Romanes has proved to be very can be identified at the grassroots NGO level, helpful for Roma/Gypsy children particularly in generated from the activity of local communities. kindergartens, preparatory classes and first and Local community-based projects are usually second grades of basic school. However, the funded by the EU programme PHARE or civil Ministry of Education does not provide any society-based foundations such as the Open methodological guidelines or training for teachers Society Fund and Associated Dutch Foundations. willing to use Romanes in their classes. Much funding comes from SPOLU, an organisation based in the Netherlands, mainly focused on the issue of improving the housing NGO practice in the area conditions of Roma/Gypsies in Slovakia.122 In the area of education SPOLU has supported There is no government “practice” as such in the the supply of teaching and safety materials to area of education and Roma/Gypsy children; schools. For example in Žehra, SPOLU provided we can only speak in terms of random projects. assistance to a forestry school in the form of Several pro-Roma oriented educational projects equipment and safety clothes and contributed to are administered as “experimental projects”. the construction of a classroom.123 Similarly in However, there has been no systematic attempt to Krompachy, SPOLU supported the establishment evaluate such projects and thus establish “good of a “zero class” for Roma/Gypsy children.124 practice”. One example of a government initiative In several schools, the directors have actively in 1998 is the “Educational Centre for the secured sponsorship for art classes and other Development of Roma National Minority for expenses that the “government fails to cover Children of the Košice region”. The centre from the state budget”. This includes donations presented its own model of integration and has of clothing for children in foster care institutions co-operated closely with the Office of the and facilities for art classes.125 President of the Slovak Republic. However its activity in the field of education has not been However, well established local NGOs are facing implemented as part of the government’s draft difficulties in achieving the self-sustainability of “Millennium Project.”119 According to the director their projects. This is due to the limitations of of the centre, although it received initial support grants and assistance available to local NGOs. from the government in terms of “getting For example Through the Children to the established”, there has been no support since.120 Families is a Kremnica-based network that According to the Evaluation Report of the provides a variety of assistance for Roma/ Strategy, the centre was given 7,515,000 Sk Gypsy children of different ages. The NGO ($US 178,928) in the first half of 2000. In the established a community centre, and over second half of that year, however, just 800,000 Sk several years its activities took the form of ($US 19,047) was made available.121 income-generating projects. Its activities cover a range of areas:

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• education (kindergarten – Model Centre of preschool preparation of Roma/Gypsy children Daily Care – see above in this chapter) who had not attended kindergarten. This model • employment (eg, a restaurant, cafe, of preparation is carried out by Roma/Gypsy hairdresser’s, wood workshop, sawing parents in the home environment under the workshop, art workshop, gardening services, guidance of a preschool teacher and a Roma/ handmade carpet production and handmade Gypsy assistant.128 At the end of the program, all postcards) children showed varying degrees of improvement. • housing (eg, building and repairing houses, Of the children aged 6 and 7 years old who had supporting children who have grown up in participated in the project, 71 per cent could be foster care institutions and who on leaving admitted to schools at the prescribed age. have nowhere to go). The PHARE programme 2000 “Improvement of However in order to continue its work, the the Situation of Roma in the Slovak Republic”, organisation is looking for a co-operation with an implementation phase 2001-2003, partner.126 Similarly in Košice, in the Roma/Gypsy contains a sub-programme: “Better Conditions settlement Luník IX, a locally based NGO for Roma Self-realisation in the Education European Centre for Integration of Youth has System”. The sub-programme is aimed at: focused its activities on educational projects and • increasing preschool education for leisure activities for children. The project is highly Roma/Gypsies successful, but requires funding. It plans to apply • increasing the number of preparatory classes for funding from PHARE.127 and their implementation within the educational system In response to the situation of Roma/Gypsies in • arranging a pilot training project for Roma/ the district Humenné, the “Hej – Rup: Home Gypsies who have not completed their Preschool Preparation of Roma Children with elementary education Parental Involvement” project was initiated in • supporting the university education of 1993/94. It is part of a more comprehensive teachers, with a high share of Roma/Gypsy program run by Pro-Familia aimed at students. strengthening the capacity of Roma/Gypsy families in the area. The project’s goals were to The sub-programme also funds existing enhance and develop the capabilities of Roma/ experimental projects, with a view to their Gypsy parents to influence positively the becoming a systemic part of the education system linguistic, cognitive, emotional and social of Slovakia. The total budget for the educational development of their children. In this way it was sub-programme is about 1.96 million Euro.129 hoped to improve the preparedness of Roma/ Gypsy children for entry into school, thus, in turn, A Slovak-based NGO, Open School, conducted improving their prospects at school. It was also several successful projects aimed at improving the concerned with testing a particular model of school conditions for Roma/Gypsy children.

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Open School follows the international Step-by-Step Maria, eight years old, primary school programme developed by the Open Society “Tell me what is your name, how old are you and how Institute. A project aimed at accelerating school do you like school.” success of Roma/Gypsy students was “My name is Maria, I am eight years old. I like implemented in several schools and the children drawing classes.” involved showed significant improvement in their “Do you have friends here in a class?” school results. The Roma Teaching Assistants [no answer] Program and Child Centred Methodology proved “What do you like to draw?” to be very successful for teaching Roma/Gypsy “My mum.” children of preschool age as well as those in primary schools. Research on a total sample of Peter, ten years old, special remedial school for mentally 240 children, found that all of those who had had handicapped children a Roma/Gypsy assistant achieved the same results “My name is Peter, I am ten years old, I like to as non-Roma/Gypsies. The NGO also offers a fight.” training module on child-centred education for “Do you fight at school?” Roma/Gypsy teaching assistants.130 The impact of “Yes, there are dilina [stupid] children, I can having a Roma/Gypsy teacher assistant in the not talk to them.” classroom has been significant most notably in “Why can you not talk to them?” terms of improving the general atmosphere and “They do not understand me.” helping to reduce bullying.131 “Do you speak Slovak with them?” “Of course, what do you think?” “How do you speak at home?” Voices of Roma/Gypsy children132 “Romanes.” “How do you prefer to speak, Slovak or Romanes?” Kristinka, six years old, preparatory class “Romanes.” “What is your name?” “Do you talk Romanes in school?” “My name is Kristinka.” “Yes, to my friends.” “How old are you?” “Who are your friends?” “I am six years old.” “My cousin, my brother, my sister, Dežo.” “What are you doing all day at school?” “Do you speak Romanes in class?” “We speak, we play, we sing, we count.” “No, we have to speak Slovak.” “How do you speak – like at home?” “Does the teacher speak Romanes?” “No, we speak not like at home. We speak “Sometimes, but not very well. We laugh.” Slovak.” “What do you like the best in school?” “I like to listen to the teacher.”

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Milan, 13 years old, special remedial school for mentally school, I can do the best car repairs. One day handicapped children I will be even better than my father.” “What would you like to be when you finish school?” “What do you do when you are not in school?” “I don’t know.” “I have a bunch of friends and we hang “What do you like at school?” around my father’s garage. Sometimes we “Nothing.” borrow his car, but he can’t know that, because “You must like something.” I am not supposed to. Hey, you are not going “Why?” to tell him?” [laughs] “Because you look like it.” “Will you stop asking me when I tell you?” “Yes.” Recommendations “Ok, I like cars.” “You do not learn about cars at school.” Given that the Slovak Republic has ratified: “No, but one day, I will buy and sell them.” • the International Covenant on Civil and “So you like mathematics?” Political Rights (ratified 28 May 1993), the First “Maybe. Bye.” Optional Protocol (ratified 28 May 1993) and the Second Optional Protocol (ratified 22 June Darina, 14 years old, special remedial school for mentally 1999) handicapped children • the International Covenant on Economic, “I would like to be a waitress. I will go to the Social and Cultural Rights (ratified 28 May secondary school for cooks and waitresses. 1993) I like to talk to people and I like mathematics.” • the International Covenant on the Elimination “Do you like your mathematics teacher?” of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ratified “Yes, she is very nice and we can laugh with 28 May 1993) her as well. She explains everything very well.” • the European Convention for Human Rights “How about the other teachers?” and Fundamental Freedoms (ratified 18 March “We make fun of the Slovak language teacher, 1992) because she is just awful. Sometimes she just • The UNESCO Convention against says that we will never achieve anything and Discrimination in Education (ratified 1962) – that we are a bunch of losers.” the Protocol Institution on Conciliation and Good Offices was to be responsible for Dežo, 16 years old, secondary training centre for car seeking the settlement of any dispute, which mechanics may arise between State Parties to the “I like fast cars. I like school because I can Convention learn everything about cars. My father repairs • the First Protocol to the European Convention cars and I want to do the same, because I can for the Protection of Human Rights and make money like that. I don’t want to be Fundamental Freedoms (ratified 18 March arrogant, but I am really the best student in 1992, entered into force the same day)

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• The Eleventh Protocol to the European • Establishes Romanes as a teaching language Convention for the Protection of Human option for all schools and in particular as a Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ratified supporting language in preparatory classes and 28 September 1994, entered into force the first grade of the elementary school. 1 November 1998) • Establishes a fund to support extra-curricular • the Framework Convention for the and training programmes for Roma/Gypsy Protection of National Minorities (ratified on children. 14 September 1995, entered into force • Provides teachers in elementary schools with 1 February 1998) supporting teaching materials. • The European Charter for Regional or • Secures non-hazardous conditions for all Minority Languages (adopted 17 January 2001, children in all schools. Governmental Resolution No. 27/ 2001) • Provides free integrated kindergarten for all children from poor backgrounds. Save the Children recommends that: The international organisation, including The Government of the Slovak Republic the UN Commission on Human Rights, • Takes measures to end racial segregation in all the Special Rapporteur on Contemporary schools. Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination, • Acknowledges that racial discrimination Xenophobia and Related Intolerance and the plays a major role in the lives of Roma/Gypsy European Commission against Racism and children and adopts appropriate Intolerance: anti-discrimination legislation. • Closely monitor the international obligations • Accords priority to the principle of an undertaken by the Slovak Government in integrated, multicultural and equally accessible respect of the right to education, with education for all. particular attention to the right to education of • Modifies curricula accordingly to include Romani children. lessons on the history, culture and language of • Closely monitor the implementation of the minorities, including Roma/Gypsies. This will policies laid out in Strategies I and II and the require a modification of the teacher training coming Millennium Project aimed at education programme. at the local level. • Implements fully within the educational system • Closely monitor affairs affecting Roma/Gypsy the proposed and tested “experimental children at the local level, ie, in towns and projects” such as preparatory classes, Romani villages. assistants/mediators and art classes. • Takes steps for the official codification of the Romani language which recognise the two main Romani dialects in Slovakia.

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Slovakia: Notes on the text 10 A Romani ghetto or settlement is a part of a town, city or a village with 90 – 100 per cent Roma/Gypsy inhabitants. While an 1 For an update on the demographic situation of the Slovak urban Romani ghetto may have its own shops and restaurants, a Republic see http://www.statistics.sk. rural ghetto or settlement is physically separated from the rest of the village by a large empty space or is built at the border line 2 Cangár, J., Up-bringing and Education of Roma. State Pedagogical between two villages. Romani settlements lack basic facilities, Institute, Bratislava, forthcoming, p. 2. such as running water, electricity and gas. The housing conditions 3 Nečas, C., Roma in the Czech Republic [Romové v České republice are below minimum standards of living, often little more than včera a dnes], Palacky University Press, Olomouc, 1995, p. 51. shack-like constructions and there are often no services or shops. In some settlements Roma/Gypsy children have difficulty 4 National structure of Slovak Republic with attention put on the situation of accessing elementary schools – since they often have to walk Hungarian national minority. Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic. between 1.5 km and 2.5 km. In other settlements, the elementary Bratislava, 1994. The population census offers a free proclamation school is built directly in the settlement, but this serves only to of belonging to national minority (nationality). The “Roma” limit the contact of Roma/Gypsy children with the outside world. nationality is categorised in the population census sheets. The contact between Roma/Gypsies from rural ghettos and the 5 Liégeois, J-P., Roma, Gypsies, Travellers, Council of Europe, 1995. majority population is limited. There is usually one Roma/Gypsy The Statistical Yearbook of the Slovak Republic, 1994, p. 127 leader who represents the whole settlement. shows an estimate of 350,000 Roma – Statistical Office of the 11 ERRC, Time of the Skinheads: Denial and exclusion of Roma in Slovak Republic, cited in http://www.iyfnet.org/document.cfm/ Slovakia, January 1997. http://www.errc.org 45/section2/278. 12 Cahn, C., personal communication with the author, New 6 Cangár, J. Up-bringing and Education of Roma. State Pedagogical Haven, December 2000. Institute. Bratislava., forthcoming, p. 2. The comparison between the death rate of Roma/Gypsies and non-Roma/Gypsies is based 13 IOM research focuses on Slovak Roma/Gypsies seeking asylum on the comparison of the population age graphs. abroad and does not include research of those seeking asylum within the Slovak Republic. There are no data available on the 7 For more see http://www.iyfnet.org/document.cfm/45/ situation of Romani asylum seekers in the Slovak Republic. section2/278. 14 M.P., personal communication with the author, Bratislava. 8 Children at risk in Central and Eastern Europe: Perils and promises, The situation of the children of rejected asylum seekers was also Economies in Transition Studies. Regional Monitoring Report reported in several Slovak dailies. For example see Dohovic, S., No. 4 , UNICEF, International Child Development Centre, Tazkosti navratilcov (Difficulties of the returnees), Pravda, Florence, Italy 7 February 2001. 9 Rolný, I., personal communication with the author, Košice, 15 Červenák. J., The Final Report of the Project: The Report on the reasons November 2000. Igor Rolný is a population register administrator of the migration of the Roma in the Slovak Republic, 2000. at the municipality office in Košice – Luník IX neighbourhood. See also Magdolenová, K., “Slovak society seems not to be 16 For example, in December 1998, residents of Petrova, a town in prepared for solving the Romany question” (Slovenská spoločnost, northern Slovakia with a 50 per cent population of Roma/Gypsies, zdá sa nie je pripravená na riešenie romskej otázky), Romano reportedly elected as mayor a Roma. Non-Roma residents then Nevo Lil, No. 448 (394) – 454 (400), Year X, 14 August – collected signatures on a petition to contest the election. According 30 September 2000, pp. 30 – 31. to ERRC information, the signatures were collected by people going door-to-door and persuading Roma and non-Roma to sign

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up to the sentiment that, “we will not have a Gypsy for a mayor”. Czech citizenship until the latest amendment to Citizenship Law The Slovak Parliament subsequently annulled the election, and in in 2000. September 1999, new elections returned a non-Roma as mayor. 20 Slovak Citizenship Law No. 40/ 1993 Coll. For more see ERRC, “Snapshots around Europe”, Roma Rights. 1/2000: http://errc.org/rr_nr1_2000/snap24.html. 21 For more see http://www.government.gov.sk/uznesenia/1999/ 0210/uz_0127_1999.html and http://www.government.gov.sk/ There are also some positive examples of Roma/Gypsies being vlada/poradneorgany/RVSRNMES/sk_poradne_organy_ mayors. For example in Košice, the Luník IX municipality engages rvsrnmes.shtml. in fundraising for the local school (100 per cent Roma) and organising summer camps for children from the neighbourhood. 22 For more see http://www.nrsr.sk/English/index_en.htm. The municipality also recruited around 500 long-term unemployed Roma/Gypsies in a scheme of public beneficial work. Such 23 United Nations Press Release, CERD, 57th session, 4 August. examples are rare, however. In the majority of the cases there is no 2000. link between the municipality and the educational system other 24 Rigová, S., personal communication with the author, Bratislava, than a purely administrative one. There are no Roma/Gypsy November 2000. Silvia Rigová is a former teacher, presently advisors employed within the office of the Inspector of Schools. working for the Romani NGO Inforoma in Bratislava. 17 The further legislation on the use of minority language includes Valachová, D., personal communication with the author, Bratislava, following provisions: in 1990, the government adopted Law 2000. Cangár, J., personal communication with the author, No. 428/1990 on the Official Language that enabled the use of Bratislava, 2000. It has been argued that education is not a the minority language in villages with over 20 per cent minority Roma/Gypsy value, and that’s why the parents do not care about population. However, the Minority Law was proclaimed to be null their children’s education. This stereotypical view has changed and void and a new law on the Official Language of the Slovak recently into acknowledging historical differences in the position of Republic was adopted on 15 November 1995. This Law, which Roma/Gypsies in relations to non-Roma/Gypsies. Presently, came into effect on 1 January 1996, did not specify the use of educational experts realise that while non-Roma/Gypsies have minority language at all. The Law on the Usage of the Languages placed an emphasis on so called “high education”, Roma/Gypsy of Ethnic Minorities was adopted as a Law No. 184/1999 on communities have not rejected education per se, but due to their 10 July 1999. On 25 August 1999, the government adopted historically different position in the society have preferred a Regulation No. 221 of 1999, which provides a list of 656 villages concept of education aimed more at learning about practical skills where the minority population amounts to at least 20 per cent of such as crafts, music and Romanes. However, the eagerness of the local population. The list includes 57 villages in which over parents to send their children to school has increased in recent 20 per cent of the population are Roma/Gypsies. years due to high unemployment, large-scale poverty and the experience of many children being taken away from their parents 18 According to the statement of Prime Minister Mikuláš and placed in foster care institutions. Dzurinda, an anti-discrimination law is to be adopted by March 2001. 25 Committee on the Rights of the Child, Concluding Observation: Slovakia, CRC/C/15/Add.140, 16 October 2000. 19 Law No. 40/1993 on Acquisition and Loss of Citizenship, adopted in December 1992. In the Czech Republic, the citizenship 26 ECRI, Second Report on Slovakia, Strasbourg, 27 June 2000. of someone born before 1 January 1954 was determined by their 27 For more information on the situation of Roma/Gypsies place of birth, while citizenship of those born after that date was before the election in 1992 see http://www.iyfnet.org/ determined by reference to the nationality of their parents. Thus, document.cfm/45/section2/278. See also Romové v Ceské Republice, the children placed in the foster care institutions did not obtain

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(Roma in the Czech Republic), Socioklub, 1998. – the book November 2000. K.B. is an educational expert working for the contains a summary of each chapter in English. Slovak Government.

28 For more see Law No. 581/ 1991 Coll. on the state budget 36 J.P., personal communication with the author, November 2000. of the Slovak Republic for year 1992 and the decision of the J.P. is an educational expert working for a research institution. Ministry of Education No. 2153/92-22 from May 29, 1992; The 37 Strategy I of the Government of the Slovak Republic for the experimental projects remain in the system of education until the Solution of the Problems of the Roma National Minority and the present day and are funded by the government or by a NGO. Set of Measures for Its Implementation Stage I, 27 September A typical division of funding between the government and NGO 1999, pp. 17-18. in the case of the preparatory class is that the government pays for the salaries of the teachers, while the NGO funds the necessary 38 Magdolenová, K., “Slovak society seems not to be prepared for equipment, such as pencils, papers, books, etc. solving the Romany question” (Slovenská spoločnost, zdá sa nie je pripravená na riešenie romskej otázky), Romano Nevo Lil, No. 448 29 Claude Cahn, Nidhi Trehan, and Dimitrina Petrova, Time of the (394) – 454 (400), Year X, 14 August – 30 September 2000, Skinheads: Denial and exclusion of Roma in Slovakia, Country Reports pp. 30 – 31. Series No. 3, ERRC, January 1997, p. 69. 39 For more see Evaluation Report of the European Commission. 30 The Resolution of the Slovak Government to the Proposal of the Chapter on Minority Rights and Protection of Minorities, Activities and Measures in Order to Solve the Problems of Citizens in Need 10 November 2000. of Special Care [Uznesenie vlády SR k návrhu úloh a opatrení na rešenie problémov obcanov, ktorí potrebuju osobitnů pomoc, na 40 Evaluation Report of Strategy of the Government of the Slovak Republic, rok 1996], 30 April 1996, Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and January 2001. Family, Government of the Slovak Republic. 41 School Act Law No. 29/1984 Coll. 31 The two research projects include research on preparatory classes and the usability of art classes for Roma/Gypsy children as 42 School Act Law No. 29/1984 Coll. a tool for improving their schooling results. 43 Rigová, S., personal communication with the author, Bratislava, 32 Magdolenová, K., “Slovak society seems not to be prepared for November 2000. solving the Romany question” (Slovenská spoločnost, zdá sa nie je 44 Segregation in special remedial schools for mentally pripravená na riešenie romskej otázky), Romano Nevo Lil, No. 448 handicapped children and at basic schools goes along the same (394) – 454 (400), Year X, 14 August – 30 September 2000, lines. In both cases, Roma/Gypsy children are segregated from pp. 30 – 31. non-Roma/Gypsy children. In the case of special remedial schools 33 The so-called “Gypsy question” received particular attention in for mentally handicapped children, Roma/Gypsies who have a Czechoslovakia after the WWII in 1951 when the government higher IQ and have been misplaced in such schools are put in initiated the assimilation of Roma/Gypsies suggesting that the best classes alongside non-Roma/Gypsies, who have lower IQ and have solution was the “top-down” approach, excluding any possibility of been correctly diagnosed as mentally disabled. In basic schools, a wider discussion with Roma/Gypsy leaders. segregation has been frequently advocated by teachers due to the pressure for good schooling results. As a result the best students 34 Tomová, J., Adamová, E. and Adam, G, personal are put together in one class. communication with the author, November 2000. 45 Recommendations on the future government strategy in the 35 K.B. 2000. Personal Communication with the author. field of education include a recommendation that attendance at

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kindergarten should be compulsory for all children from the age of 55 Education of National Minorities in the Slovak Republic. 1996. five. For more see Lenczova, M., Škodová, I., Denes, A., Second draft version for the discussion in the Council of Europe. Kumanová, Z., Radicová, I. and Džambovič, R., Identification of State Pedagogical Institute. Bratislava, August 1996 (unpublished). successful Roma projects and principles aimed at the solution of the problems 56 Analyses of schooling non-success of pupils from linguistically of the Roma community in the Slovak Republic, December 2000, draft disadvantaged and neglected environment. 1998/99 (Analýza školskej version, p. 14. neúspešnosti žiakov z jazykovo znevýhodneného a zanedbaného 46 After 1991 the fees for kindergarten rose substantially and the prostredia), Institute for Information and Prognoses in Education. socio-economic position of some social groups, including 57 Valachová, D., personal communication with the author, Roma/Gypsies worsened substantially. Bratislava, November 2000. 47 Education of National Minorities in the Slovak Republic, State 58 Rigová, S., personal communication with the author, November Pedagogical Institute, Second draft version for discussion in the 2000; Ferliková, K., personal communication with the author, Council of Europe, 1996, (unpublished). November 2000. Klára Ferliková is an educational expert, working 48 Analyses of schooling non-success of pupils from linguistically in the State Pedagogical Institute in Bratislava. disadvantaged and neglected environment. 1998/99 (Analýza školskej 59 Valachová, D., Cangár, J. and. Rigová, S., personal neúspešnosti žiakov z jazykovo znevýhodneného a zanedbaného communication with the author, November 2000. prostredia), Institute for Information and Prognoses in Education. The data from 1998/99 originate from a survey ordered by the 60 Rigová, S., personal communication with the author, November Ministry of Education, conducted by the Institute for Information 2000. and Prognoses in Educational System. The methodology used for estimating the national minority membership was based on the 61 Provisional Report of Activities of the International Club for Peace statistics being kept with the consent of the parents by school Research in Slovak Republic, for the Period 16 December 1999 to March directors. Hence, the reliability of the data is satisfactory. 2000, p.7

49 Strategy of the Government of the Slovak Republic for the Solution of the 62 In practice however, the overall population size is estimated to Problems of the Roma National Minority and the Set of Measures for Its be double the official figure. The neighbourhood Luník IX was Implementation Stage I. 27 September 1999, p. 14. built with the intention of creating a positive example of co-existence between Roma/Gypsies and non-Roma/Gypsies. 50 The monthly unemployment benefit per person is at the level of In 1995, the town representatives made a decision to renovate the a minimum wage: 3400 Sk ($US 72). city centre and to move all “problematic” inhabitants (eg, rent non-payers, socially weak and Roma/Gypsies) to Luník IX. 51 Ministry of Education Decree No. 81/1997. Despite the protests of the Roma/Gypsies and non-Roma/ 52 Negerová, L., personal communication with the author, Gypsies who have been living in Luník IX since the 1980s, the 27 November 2000. Lubica Negerová is a population evidence former mayor of Košice Rudolf Schuster, currently a president of officer at the Kremnica municipality. the Slovak Republic, put this decision into practice. Within four years, the new-coming “problematic” inhabitants destroyed the 53 Roma/Gypsy trainees are local Roma/Gypsy girls, who grew up neighbourhood. The social relations between the long-time in the foster care institution in Kremnica, The NGO has Roma/Gypsy and non-Roma/Gypsy neighbours were devastated established several income-generating project initiatives. as everyone was applying for permission to be re-housed in a 54 Tomová, J., personal communication with the author, Kremnica, different neighbourhood. While nearly all non-Roma/Gypsies were 28 November 2000. re-housed outside Luník IX, notably in a new housing estate across

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town, Roma/Gypsies were not. For more see Roma Rights No. 2, 75 J.Ch., personal communication with the author, Bratislava, 2000. Rolný, I., personal communication with the author, Košice, November 2000. November 2000. Igor Rolný is an administrative worker 76 According to Anna Jurová, PhD., a historian working at the responsible for the evidence of population in Luník IX. Social Science Institute in Košice, the project of “zero classes” was 63 Rolný, I., personal communication with the author, Košice, not further implemented because of the paternalistic policy of the November 2000. former cabinet of Vladimir Meciar. For more see Magdolenová, K., “Slovak society seems not to be prepared for solving the 64 I.G. 2000., personal communication with the author, November Romany question” (Slovenská spoločnost, zdá sa nie je pripravená 2000, Košice. na riešenie romskej otázky), Romano Nevo Lil, No. 448 (394) – 454 65 Štefanicová, personal communication with the author, (400), Year X, 14 August – 30 September 2000, pp. 30 – 31. November 2000, Košice. 77 State Pedagogical Institute, Research on the assurance of the 66 Východoslovenské Noviny (Eastern Slovak Newspaper) 17 January effectiveness of “zero classes” for Romani children (Projekt Výzkumu 2001. overenia “nultých” rocníkov pre romské deti), January 2000.

67 Klempírová, personal communication with the author, Košice, 78 Valachová, D., personal communication with the author, November 2000. Bratislava, November 2000.

68 Klempírová, personal communication with the author, Košice, 79 Interviews carried out by the author, 2001. November 2000. Spádová škola – local schools – usually enrol 80 Figures for this table were kindly provided by the NGO Open children from the same area. School. 69 Klempírová, personal communication with the author, Košice, 81 Education of National Minorities in the Slovak Republic. Pilot Study. November 2000. Second draft version for discussion at the Council of Europe. State 70 Štefanová, M., personal communication with the author, Pedagogical Institute. Bratislava, 1996, p. 26. November 2000. 82 Education of National Minorities in the Slovak Republic, Pilot Study, 71 Štábová, D., Draft agenda and programme for the Conference op. cit., p. 27. on Current Irregular Roma Migration for the EU Member States, 83 Analyses of schooling non-success of pupils from linguistically Bratislava 18-19 December 2000. The question of discrimination disadvantaged and neglected environment. 1998/99 (Analýza školskej of Roma/Gypsy children in the education system was put to the neúspešnosti žiakov z jazykovo znevýhodneného a zanedbaného IOM representative at the roundtable. Daniela Štábová is head of prostredia), Institute for Information and Prognoses in Education. the IOM office in Slovakia. 84 Analyses of schooling non-success of pupils, op. cit. p. 5. 72 Štábová, D., “Draft agenda and programme” op. cit. See also the discussion on the visit of the Luník IX Basic School above. 85 Analyses of schooling non-success of pupils, op. cit. The director of the school would not specify the amount and the support given to 73 Východoslovenské noviny, 3 October 2000.The information his school by foundations. about inadequate conditions in schools was also confirmed by the candidate for a position of a State Inspector to Schools, 86 Adam, G., personal communication with the author, Košice, Mr. Štefan. November 2000.

74 For more see Východoslovenské noviny 31 October 2000. 87 Education of National Minorities in the Slovak Republic, Pilot Study, op. cit., p. 28.

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88 Analyses of schooling non-success of pupils, op. cit. 97 Klímek, P., personal communication with the author, Kremnica, November 2000. 89 Roma education, Material of the Foundation Open School, Table 3.4: Level of education of the Romani community in 98 Although this might be considered as a small sample to Slovakia, 2000. show the Slovak average proportions of Roma/Gypsies and non-Roma/Gypsies in special remedial schools for mentally 90 Amendment No. 18/ 1997 Coll. Decree of the Ministry of handicapped children, several NGOs fully support this statement. Education No. 353/ 1994 Coll. on pre-school institutions. Education experts have also expressed their agreement with the 91 Univerzita Konštantína Filozofa – Pedagogická fakulta, calculation, emphasising though that the proportion of (University of Constantine Philosopher – Pedagogical Faculty), Roma/Gypsies in these schools is likely to be higher rather than Department of Romani Culture, syllabus, p. 56. lower.

92 Kniažiková, M., personal communication with the author, 99 Štefan, M., personal communication with the author, Kremnica, January 2001. November 2000.

93 Kniažiková, M., personal communication with the author, 100 Klímek, P., personal communication with the author, February 2001. Kremnica, November 2000.

94 Interview with Eva Sobotka, 2001. 101 Klímek, P., personal communication with the author, Kremnica, November 2000. 95 J.Ch., personal communication with the author, Bratislava, November 2000. 102 Štefanová, M., personal communication with the author, November 2000. 96 The level of command of the Slovak language varies from region to region. While in western and central Slovakia the teachers 103 Klímek, P., personal communication with the author, reported no difficulties of Roma/Gypsy children speaking Slovak, Kremnica, November 2000. in eastern Slovakia Roma/Gypsy children have a very low 104 The higher figure of Roma/Gypsy children in boarding foster knowledge of Slovak. Another notable difference is that between care institutions reflects the higher number of poor Roma/Gypsy rural and urban areas. In the case of rural areas, there is a settlements in eastern Slovakia. significant difference between children who live in Roma/Gypsy settlements and Roma/Gypsy children who live in villages. For 105 Tomová, J., Klímek, P. personal communication with the example, children in Roma/Gypsy settlements live in inadequate author, November 2000. housing conditions, while those in villages are somewhat better off. 106 Government Resolution No. 221 of 1999 adopted on In cities and towns, the housing conditions are likely to be better, 25 August 1999. though frequently, children live in overcrowded flats and share a room with adults. In Košice Luník IX there are relatively good 107 Cahn, C., personal communication with the author, New housing facilities, but still overcrowded: an area of 70 square Haven, December 2001. metres could be occupied by 25 people. This is due to the fact that some Roma/Gypsy families from villages stay with their relatives 108 Daftary, F, and Gal, K., The New Slovak Language Law: internal or in town in order to look for work. This means many Roma/Gypsy external politics? ECMI Working Paper No. 8, 2000, p. 44. families sharing a flat often sleep “in shifts”. Inadequate housing 109 Information Material on the Activities of the Government of conditions prevent Roma/Gypsy children from preparing properly the Slovak Republic in the Process of the Solution of Problems of for school or finding a quiet place where they can work. the Roma National Minority in the Slovak Republic, June 2000. See

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also Adam, G., “Slovak Roma Want Language Law Implemented”, 119 Makyš, P., personal communication with the author, December RNN, 9 March 2000. 2000. Pavol Makyš is presently working for the International Organisation for Migration. 110 Daftary, F, and Gal, K., The New Slovak Language Law: internal or external politics? ECMI Working Paper No. 8, 2000, p. 46. 120 Adam, G., personal communication with the author, Košice. November 2000. 111 Cahn, C., personal communication with the author, Budapest, December 2000. 121 Evaluation Report on Strategy of the Government of Slovak Republic (Vyhodnotenie Stratégie vlády SR), 2001, p.12. For more see 112 Cangár, J., Upbringing and Education of Roma, State Pedagogical http://www.ial.sk/appl/material.ns. Institute: policy paper (2000, unpublished)

113 In 1995, the language of instruction in kindergartens was: 122 Babar, T., personal communication with the author, Košice, 2,884 Slovak, 290 Hungarian, 103 Slovak and Hungarian, December 2000. 42 Ukrainian, 1 Slovak and Ukrainian and 1 German. In 1995 the 123 SPOLU Newsletter, 2000, summer issue, p. 1. language of instruction in basic schools was: 2,166 Slovak, 276 Hungarian, 31 Slovak and Hungarian, 10 Ukrainian, 2 Slovak 124 SPOLU Newsletter, 2000, summer issue, p. 4. and Ukrainian. In 1995, the language of instruction in grammar 125 Klímek, P., Valachová, D., Ferlíková, K., Cangár J., Tomová, J., schools was: 157 Slovak, 14 Hungarian, 8 Slovak and Hungarian, personal communication with the author, Košice, November 2000. 0 Ukrainian, 1 Slovak and Ukrainian, 1 Bulgarian and 9 bilingual grammar schools. In 1995 the language of instruction in secondary 126 The NGO can be contacted through Jana Tomová, Cez detí k schools was: 335 Slovak, 5 Hungarian, 20 Slovak and Hungarian rodine (Through the Children to the Families), Dolná 48/ 19, and 1 Slovak and Ukrainian. In 1995, the language of instruction Kremnica, tel. 00421 857 673092, fax. 00421 857 6744082. in secondary training schools was: 322 Slovak, 7 Hungarian and 127 The NGO can be contacted through the municipality office at 29 Slovak and Hungarian. Source: Education of National Minorities in Luník IX the Slovak Republic, Pilot study, Second draft version for discussion in the Council of Europe, State Pedagogical Institute, August 1996, 128 Strengthening Intercultural Education in Central and Eastern pp. 24-29. Europe, International Conference, Budapest, 3-4 December 1998,

114 Interviews carried out by the author, 2001. Foundation for Human Rights and Peace Education.

115 Klempírová, personal communication with the author, Košice, 129 Young, J. A., personal communication with the author, November 2000. Ms. Klempírová is a vice-director at the basic December 2000. school in Košice – Luník IX. 130 The Romani assistant programme received an official 116 Valachová, D., personal communication with the author, registration with the Ministry for Education. Presently, there are November 2000, Bratislava. The results of the research have not about 15 Roma/Gypsies enrolled on the course for Romani been made public yet. assistants.

117 Tancoš, R., State Pedagogical Institute workshop on the issue 131 Končaková, E., personal communication with the author, of education of the Roma minority. Bratislava, November 2000. January 2001.

118 Cangár, J., personal communication with the author, Bratislava, 132 The names of the children were changed so their anonymity November 2000. The research in 1994 was conducted by a remains intact. The ages and the schools were left in their original Roma/Gypsy leader Mgr. Tibor Loran, vice-president of a Romani form. political party “Roma Intelligence for Common Living”.

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8 The United Kingdom: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales1

In Scotland, Save the Children estimated that approximately 20 per cent of Gypsy and Traveller Summary children of secondary school age attended with any degree of regularity. Context In England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and “I was doing alright ...but when they found out Wales the impact of devolution in the last few who I was they started calling me names... You years has been quite significant. The different know something bad is going to happen day after parts of the UK have separate policy and day. I used to like to go to school when that wasn’t legal contexts and this is an important happening to me but when it was I didn’t want to consideration when looking at issues of go back. You don’t have any friends.” concern to Gypsy/Travellers. For example, Young Traveller woman approaches to social justice and social exclusion/inclusion have taken different “You need an education to get on in this world.” paths in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales Traveller parent when compared to England. For more nomadic Gypsy and Traveller families in the “They say that you’ve got to send the kids to UK The Criminal Justice and Public Order school ... I don’t want my child to go anymore. Act 1994 has had a negative impact on access I don’t want her to have one of those jobs pushing to accommodation, education and other a pen in an office, what’s the good of that to my services. girl?” Traveller mother Gypsy/Traveller population As with other countries throughout Europe, the estimates of Gypsy/Traveller numbers in the UK are many and varied. A reliable NGO based figure appears to be anywhere between 100,000 and 150,000, whilst government figures are much lower. A large percentage of this NGO-estimated figure is made up of young people under the age of 18. Nomadism

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is a feature of Gypsy/Traveller life in different Language provision parts of the UK and often this is directly linked Language provision is not a major issue in the to the families’ economic activities. It is not UK. In school, Gypsy and Traveller children unusual for some groups to spend the winter can learn beside non-Gypsy/Traveller children months in housing. Many Gypsy/Traveller civil and English is the main language used in the rights groups in the UK work with larger classroom. Out of school, children from NGOs to try and bring about social and Gypsy/Traveller backgrounds may speak a form legal/political change. of Romani with their parents, grandparents and friends (eg, Anglo-Romani (English Gypsies,Travellers and education Romanichals) or Gammon (Irish Travellers)) . Gypsy/Traveller children in the UK are not receiving the formal schooling they should be. Balance of NGO and government There are many factors which combine to activity produce this outcome. Discrimination and Some of the most successful initiatives to help prejudice is common and can lead to low- Gypsy/Traveller children have been carried attendance levels as well as poor communication out by NGOs. They include summer camps, between schools and Gypsy/Traveller parents. “away-weekends”, workshops and vocational Some schools have attempted to foster a “good skills training for disadvantaged young people. practice” model to encourage and improve Government projects have been few and far Gypsy/Traveller attendance and results. Some between and funding insecure. preschool activities aimed at Gypsy/Traveller children occur both on and off sites, but these are largely run by NGOs and are found only in certain parts of the UK. Participation in further/higher education is low, but some Gypsy/Travellers have completed college and university courses.

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UK report contents Statutory and voluntary sector practice 262 An inclusive approach 263 Introduction 209 Being responsive to “difference” 266 Introducing relevant topics 271 Gypsies and Travellers in the UK: a brief An appropriate developmental system 272 background 214 Fostering a participatory atmosphere 273 Terminology 214 Numbers 217 Conclusion 276

The context, politics and right to education Recommendations 278 in the UK 220 Appendices 283 The context of education 220 Appendix 1: Main domestic legislation and official The politics of education 221 guidance relating to Gypsies and Travellers 283 The right to education 223 Appendix 2: Contacts 289 Gypsy and Traveller education 225 Acknowledgements 294 The general policy framework 225 Accommodation and access to education 237 UK: Notes on the text 294 School attendance 242 Curriculum development 246

In practice 250 The accessibility of school 252 Exclusion from school 255 Segregation at school 257 The inappropriateness of the school curriculum 259 Cases of anti-Gypsy/Traveller racism at school 260

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Introduction In introducing this UK report, it is important to stress at the very outset that the “silent” voices of “We didn’t get a lot of attention from teachers Gypsy/Traveller children and adults need to be when they found out we were Travellers – just heard louder and clearer.2 Throughout this not interested.” chapter that principle is endorsed and respected. Traveller parent in a DfEE Video The above four voices are a taste of the range of “Are we Missing Out?” 1998. experiences and perceptions – as well as the hard reality – of being a Gypsy/Traveller in the UK “I dinnae buy that idea that the teachers dinnae today. At many schools, young Gypsy and hae the time or the money ... I come intae a Traveller children are called names by other pupils class, I dinnae want to be a special case or and sometimes ignored by teachers. It is apparent anything, or put in a separate room or just sat that excuses are given for school intransigence at the back and told to get on wi’ it. I mean, and inflexibility and – in the face of this hostility how much does it cost to take 15 minutes extra and rejection – the pride that young Gypsy/ just to work wi’ the Traveller kids when they’re Travellers take in themselves, their family and new?” their culture is a notable strength. These quotes Scottish Traveller, teenager quoted in are not that unique or exceptional and other McKinney R., ‘Different Lessons’: Scottish voices are heard in the UK chapter which echo, Gypsy/Travellers and the future of education, and indeed challenge, the sentiments shown Scottish Travellers Consortium, above. 2001, p. 14. It became evident through this research that “I would never do anything to shame my many Gypsies and Travellers across the UK are family ... I want them to be proud of me, and being denied access to relevant education and I know they are.” mainstream schooling in a number of different Gypsy/Traveller, female teenager quoted ways. This denial, though not formalised in policy, in Jordan B., ‘From Interdependence, to is manifested in practice at many levels of the Dependence and Independence: home and education system in the UK. In light of major school learning for Traveller children’, political changes and devolution in the last few Childhood, 8(1):64, 2001. years, the report explores the issues around Gypsy/Traveller education in the countries of “We get a little bit picked on by the children in England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, houses. They call us rude names, but the drawing out where relevant both important education is good and I like the teachers.” differences and similarities. As will be seen, there New Traveller Child in a rural media are just as many similarities across the four company/Children’s Society, Video countries as there are differences – even though it ‘Just Like You’, 1998. is tempting to focus only on the differences.

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Various official reports from across the four Traveller children and suggested that this was countries have identified, to varying degrees, “a matter of serious concern”.4 Such concerns Gypsy/Traveller education as an area of however, have long been highlighted in the concern and a site for intervention. The Office literature and government circles. In 1967, for for Standards in Education (OFSTED), example, the famous Plowden Report stated that HM Inspectorate of Schools and local education Gypsies and Travellers are “probably the most authorities (LEAs) in England and Wales, deprived group in the country”.5 Likewise, for example, in its 1999 report identified in the 1985 Education for All Swann Report, the “‘Gypsy/Traveller pupils as the group most at risk committee of inquiry concluded that: in the education system today.”3 Likewise, the recent influential Parekh Report on The Future of “The situation of Travellers’ children in Britain Multi-Ethnic Britain (2000) noted the “generally today throws into stark relief many of the low [educational] attainment” of Gypsy and factors which influence the education of

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children from ethnic minorities – racism and it issued a consultation document on guidance for discrimination, myths, stereotyping and monitoring ethnic minority achievement which misinformation, the inappropriateness and included questions around the inclusion of inflexibility of the education system.” Gypsy/Traveller pupils. At the time of writing, Department of Education and Science, the summary of responses had not yet been Education for All: the report of the committee published. of enquiry into the education of children from ethnic minority groups (The Swann Report), Despite the increase in awareness across the UK HMSO, London, 1985, para 26. concerning issues of “race”, ethnicity and education, the “place” of Gypsies and Travellers The involvement of OFSTED, and previously in this awareness and discussion has been HM Inspectorate, in examining the types and somewhat lacking. The attendance figures for standards of education for Gypsies and Travellers Gypsies and Travellers in mainstream schooling signals an important step forward, but it cannot are relatively low – especially at secondary level – be viewed as an answer in itself. The Commission and for those who do attend the experience is for Racial Equality (CRE), for example, published often negative. Of course, it may well be the case a report in 2000 entitled Inspecting Schools for Racial that low attendance and a negative experience of Equality (by Osler and Morrison) which criticised school are not entirely disconnected factors: one OFSTED’s 1999 “Framework for Inspection”. may influence the other (eg, an older sister’s This new inspection framework, the CRE noted, negative experiences of school influencing or could be a powerful tool for “promoting” change: contributing to the low attendance of her younger inspectors talk to pupils and parents, as well as brother or sister). Indeed the reasons for low teaching staff, to build up a quantitative and levels of attendance at school are many, varied qualitative picture of the quality of education and rooted in historical factors; many Gypsy/ provided. However, the framework does not Travellers have traditionally not participated in require schools systematically to monitor pupils’ formal schooling. Factors range from the outright achievements and work by ethnicity. Also, the refusal by some schools to admit Gypsy and CRE report noted that there was usually a lack Traveller children, through discriminatory of experience and expertise on the part of the attitudes by staff and inadequate responses to inspectors and a lack of resources available racist anti-Gypsy and Traveller bullying, to low adequately to investigate levels of racial take-up of preschool provision and higher harassment. The CRE maintains that inspection education. These factors and many more, as will should be one part of the solution in the drive be discussed in the report, contribute not only to for “race equality” in schools: self-evaluation low levels of attendance but also to relatively high and monitoring should also be encouraged. levels of illiteracy. The Department for Education and Skills (DfES) has gone some way in trying to address this. In Northern Ireland,6 the most important Between November 2000 and February 2001, development in terms of government initiatives

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involving Travellers is the Promoting School This includes Traveller-specific equality-proofing Inclusion (PSI) Working Group on Travellers in most cases. This has generated a substantial which is presently (April 2001) out for amount of new research and monitoring on the consultation.7 Although not perfect, the process situation of Travellers alongside all the other still reflects a symbolic “mainstreaming” of equality constituencies. It has been broadly Traveller issues at government level in Northern welcomed in principle but, as one Traveller Ireland. Indeed, regarding education, since commentator has noted, “there has been little devolution, the Department of Education in the noticeable difference for Travellers on the north has been more receptive to Traveller ground”.10 Nevertheless, it remains an important organisations who offer education services, in model in terms of equality-proofing for light of the failures of the formal education Travellers (and other groups, of course) in system. Having said this, being “receptive” has other parts of the UK. not led the Department of Education to provide core funding for education work to any of these In Scotland, up until recently it was the work of Traveller support groups. the Advisory Committee on Scotland’s Travelling People that influenced government thinking on Nonetheless, the PSI Report is probably the Gypsy/Travellers.11 During its nearly 30 year nearest and best example, in UK terms, to the existence (1971-1999), this committee advised Irish Government’s Task Force (1995) which was Scottish ministers on issues such as targets for itself, of course, far from flawless – it has been pitch provision and attempted to encourage local particularly disappointing in terms of implement- authorities to use a grant scheme to build sites in ation according to the December 2000 monitoring order to meet these targets. Success over the years report.8 Nevertheless, it is probably a model of has been limited, unfortunately, and there are still best practice in terms of mainstreaming Traveller not enough sites or pitches throughout Scotland issues across Government departments. The PSI to meet the needs of Gypsy/Travellers. Linked to Final Report is weak in the sense that it effectively the site/accommodation issue and pitch provision reduces young Travellers issues to issues of was the role the committee played in a policy of education, but it does encourage government to “toleration” and “non-harassment” of Gypsy/ address these issues in an integrated fashion for Travellers occupying roadside encampments in the first time. areas where pitch targets were not being met. This proved to be one of the most controversial The other point to make here is a key difference and problematic areas of the Advisory between Northern Ireland and the rest of the UK Committee’s remit.12 However, throughout its in terms of legislation and practice. This stems nine reports the Advisory Committee did from the workings of the Section 75 statutory consider and propose recommendations in areas equality duty of the Northern Ireland Act 1998.9 of Gypsy/Traveller life other than sites and This, in theory at least, obliges public bodies accommodation issues, most visibly education proactively to equality-proof all of their policies. and health.13 For example education featured

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heavily in the Eighth Term Report that the Advisory who are working hard to promote accessible and Committee published in 1998, although the impact relevant education for Gypsies and Travellers. at a practical level was limited.14 On the other hand, we can see a worrying failure on the part of the UK state, and in particular the As in Northern Ireland, it is now being suggested four national governments, in meeting their that the new Scottish Parliament and Executive are obligation to ensure the right to “education for embracing the opportunities of devolution and are all.” However, with the October 2000 presently looking to “mainstream” equality issues incorporation of the European Convention of and promote a more inclusive/ holistic form of Human Rights into domestic legislation through- social justice.15 It was against the backdrop of this out the UK, and in the light of increased new ethos that ministers decided not to appoint a recognition of institutionalised racism following successor to the Advisory Committee. The most the publication of the Macpherson Report in significant development, however, was the 1999, it would appear that a climate for change is announcement made by the Equal Opportunities slowly but surely being fostered.18 Indeed, the April Committee (EOC) of the Scottish Parliament in 2001 passing of the Race Relations (Amendment) October 2000 of “an inquiry into Travelling Act would appear to suggest that the Labour people and public sector policies”. Since then government is taking “race” equality issues very various organisations and individuals have seriously. It must be noted, however, that many submitted written evidence, including Save the politicians in the UK, including the previous Children UK and some young Gypsy/Travellers, Home Secretary Jack Straw, still think it acceptable some of whom were then invited to give oral to make highly offensive and negative comments evidence. Many of the submissions to the Inquiry in public regarding Gypsies and Travellers.19 dealt specifically with education.16 The Inquiry Report was published in June 2001 and clearly This report examines the various government recognises the difficulties faced by young initiatives relating to Gypsy and Traveller Gypsy/Travellers in trying to access mainstream education across the UK including the work of education. Bullying was also acknowledged as a Traveller Education Services in England and common experience for Gypsy/Travellers Wales, Education and Library Boards in Northern children, as was the lack of support from some Ireland and local authorities in Scotland. It then schools when incidents occur. The committee maps these against the actual practice in the four made 11 specific recommendations relating to countries, particularly within the formal school education.17 The Inquiry’s findings will be debated context. It then draws on examples of “good” in Parliament in 2001 after the summer recess. practice according to Save the Children UK criteria as identified in a number of voluntary and The overall picture that emerges from the UK statutory bodies across the UK. Children’s voices, research is a mixed one. On the one hand there taken from a variety of sources, underpin where is a strong and well-established network of possible much of the discussion.20 organisations and professionals across the UK

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Gypsies and Travellers in the UK: a who “they” and their families are. Nonetheless, brief background and with this disclaimer in place, it is important to clarify to some extent who this report is actually talking about: who are the Gypsies and Travellers Terminology of the UK? “I want my children to take pride in who they are and to know about the contributions our Gypsies and Travellers are taken in this report to people have made. Travellers should be able to keep include those groups in the UK who are a grip of their identity but also take advantage of called/known as “Gypsy” and/or “Traveller”. every opportunity going.” (Emphasis added.) This can be self-ascriptive – as with the Traveller Scottish Traveller parent quoted in parent quoted above who spoke of “our people” McKinney R., “Different Lessons”: Scottish – or it can be a term imposed by non-Gypsies to Gypsy/Travellers and the future of education, talk about those they think of as being Gypsies or Scottish Travellers Consortium, 2001. Travellers. This can be rather confusing at first but clarification will be given. Both of these “I would teach [my children] to be proud to be “internal” and “external” definitions can be a Traveller. I think it is important they stay related to other terms such as ethnicity, “race”, with their own community and live like we live. “blood”, occupation, language, culture, and/or We are happy with each other and feel more nomadic tradition. By embracing such a wide and safe like that.” holistic definition, the report covers a range of Young Traveller, Northern Ireland, quoted groups, such as Irish Travellers (Minceirs), Scottish in Donahue M. and McVeigh R., The Real Deal Travellers (Nachins), Welsh Gypsies (Kalé ), English for Travellers: what young Travellers really think Gypsies (Romanichals), Travelling Showpeople about government, politics and social exclusion, (sometimes referred to as Fairground Travellers), Save the Children UK, 2001, Circus Travellers, Boat Dwellers (Bargees) and unpublished report, p. 4. New Travellers. Importantly, the definition of Gypsies and Travellers does not exclude those The clear message from these words is that it is who are settled or those who are presently living one thing to have a strong “identity” and a proud in houses. An ethnicity or ethnic identity is not culture but these should not be “static” or at the somehow “lost” when a family settles: it continues expense of being open to new experiences. These and adapts to the new circumstances. words from Travellers also highlight one of those age-old paradoxes that occur at the beginning of Whereas some groups, families and individuals reports such as these: whilst the non-Gypsy will define themselves in general terms as Gypsies academic, teacher, voluntary worker or home (with the possible addition of Romani) others will secretary might not be sure about who is and who prefer the term Travellers. It is important to be is not a “proper Traveller” or a “real Gypsy” the aware that the terms “Gypsy” and “Traveller” can people themselves are usually quite clear about both be perceived as pejorative depending on who

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you are speaking to. Time and place are also accommodation laws that apply to them are important contexts to appreciate this question of different and the issues highlighted for Gypsies usage. For example in the early 1990s some and Travellers are not therefore always relevant. Scottish Travellers began to adopt and use the With Circus Travellers, they also have problems of term “Gypsy” in public dialogue so that they access to education due to their peripatetic life, could distinguish themselves from mainly English especially for those children who travel the full New Travellers who were moving into the country 12 months. In addition, many artistes and families (accompanied by a hostile press keen to reveal all are international and so experience exclusion on about the “Travellers”). Also, the often negative language and ethnic grounds. The nature of use and connotations of such terms by majority hostility or discrimination is therefore different society, via the media or at the level of national/ to that experienced by Gypsies and Travellers. local policy, has set a context in which certain Indeed, to be quite clear, their story is for another individuals, families and groups are reluctant to report to do justice to. be associated with the labels of Gypsy and/or Traveller. Thomas Acton, Professor of Romani It is clear then that Gypsies and Travellers do not Studies at Greenwich University, best captures this form one homogenous group. Some groups of in an anecdote from his inaugural lecture in 1998 Gypsies and Travellers are nomadic whilst others when he spoke of a Romanichal friend who used to live in static trailers and/or mobile homes or in say to police when they came to pay a visit:21 houses. Different groups can also be identified according to their traditional occupations. More “Well, yes, sir, my name is Lee, but it’s reliable, however, is to differentiate between spelled ‘L-E-I-G-H’, not ‘L-E-E’, the Gypsy groups according to their culture and where they way, sir!” traditionally live within the UK. Language is also a differentiating factor between groups. However, Well-used to being on the receiving end of the main issues surrounding language is how discrimination, Travellers have found ways of English is used and the differences of language dealing with it at one level. Nevertheless, Gypsy and communication that exist between Travellers and/or Traveller are terms still used by most and settled society. For example:22 groups in the UK to define themselves. This • English Gypsies (Romanichals) of England and report, therefore, uses the term Gypsy and South Wales – this is the largest group and its Traveller throughout. members speak a mixture of English and Romani (Anglo-Romani) This report, where feasible, draws on the • Welsh Gypsies (Kalé ) of North Wales – small experience of all the different groups mentioned population who until recently spoke inflected above. However, we do not directly address Romani and mostly live in houses the situation and experiences of Travelling • Irish Travellers (Minceir ) – a nomadic group Showpeople or Circus Travellers in any great from Ireland and who speak a variety of detail. With Showpeople this is because English and/or Gammon/Shelta

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• Scottish Travellers (Nachins) – a nomadic coppersmiths (Kalderash) whose grandparents group with many now living on established came in the 1930s and Hungarian Romanis who sites and/or in houses. Some families speak a came as refugees following the events of 1956. Cant language. More recent arrivals, in the last decade or so, from Romania and the Czech Republic/Slovakia have New Travellers form a more of “a diverse not been allowed to settle in the main, with only a collection of individuals” in the words of Fiona few families and individuals being given “leave to Earle, a New Traveller herself. She further remain”. Most of the 2,000 plus Romanis who explains how “some New Travellers have made live throughout the UK are settled in houses. positive decisions to live alternatively such as Amongst some of the groups, such as the establishing low impact lifestyles – while others coppersmiths, the Romani language is spoken in have been forced into a nomadic existence by the home. An element of “ethnic shielding” social or economic reasons.”23 In a 1994 Children’s occurs whereby Romanis may tell neighbours that Society study, reasons cited for travelling among they are another nationality, such as Greek, in New Travellers included homelessness, family or order to avoid potential discrimination. Romani relationship breakdown, leaving care, leaving asylum seekers and refugees in the UK have prison, insecure housing arrangements, leaving the their own quite unique educational needs and army, the need to escape from an abusive partner suffer particular problems of access to formal and financial difficulties. Although this report education, especially those who are not granted cites only “negative” reasons for travelling, they leave to remain. A study of the problems they do nevertheless, give some indication of the many face and practical ways of supporting them form differences that exist within the broad category of the basis of a Save the Children and Refugee “New Travellers”. Alan Dearling, another New Council publication We Used To Travel the World: Traveller, has also suggested New Travellers are Supporting Roma children and families in the UK.25 not always “unemployed refugees from the Since education for Romani asylum seekers and urban centres”; he argues that the current refugees is an issue already addressed as part of population also includes students, artists, writers, this joint Save the Children and Refugee Council photographers, builders and mechanics. They publication, they are not discussed in this report. come to the way of life through choice, seeking an existence which they perceive as having more The diverse and heterogeneous nature of freedom and/or community spirit.24 In terms of Gypsy and Traveller communities reveals the education, they also have diverse needs, which difficulties inherent in any attempt at analysing will be discussed during the report. “their” situation as a whole. In the large and growing literature on Gypsies and Travellers Other Gypsy/Traveller communities live in in the UK there is an abundance of books, Britain as well, such as Romanis from various articles and reports which simply promote over- parts of Central and Eastern Europe who generalisations and merely add to the stereotypes arrived during the 20th century. This includes that they are actually seeking to challenge.

216 Nevertheless, it is important that issues common “Compiling data on the Roma is tricky. to these groups (such as the discrimination they Researchers and international organisations face) are recognised and addressed in order that have compiled widely divergent figures, even progress can be made in educational policy and for countries where a good amount of research practice development. on Roma has been done ... why the great disparity?” Numbers Druker, J., “Present but unaccounted for”, Transitions, 4(4): 22-23, 1997. “The collection of racial or ethnic statistics is not a neutral exercise involving the simple It is a pertinent question that Druker poses and collection of objective facts. Rather, from the one that applies to the UK as much as it does to start, it involves decisions of a political nature Central and Eastern Europe, which is largely about what to record, in what terms and in where he was addressing his concerns. The answer what way, stemming from a particular to this disparity also needs to be framed in light ideological position.” of the comments by Gordon on the issues Gordon, P., “The Racialization of surrounding the collection of “racialised” Statistics”, in R. Skellington ‘Race’ in statistics. This is a point worth bearing in mind Britain Today (2nd Ed.), Sage Publications / with an increasing number of organisations Open University, London (2nd edition) introducing “ethnic monitoring” of staff/clients 1996, p. 28. and with the 2001 census in Britain presently underway.

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The process of estimating the numbers of Gypsies derive from a confusing mix of caravan, and Travellers in the UK is a problematic one. household and pitch counts. The task of accurately counting their numbers is an even more difficult undertaking. Problems are In England caravan counts are carried out twice rooted in the general difficulties associated with a year on council and private sites as well as counting ethnic minority and/or mobile unauthorised sites. The bi-annual Gypsy counts communities. The often “subjective” criteria reveal that about a third live on sites which lack associated with the definition of Gypsies and planning permission and are referred to as Travellers, coupled with inadequate representation “unauthorised”. About 70 per cent are described in formal censuses, and a reluctance on their as “settled” (ie, likely to have lived on the site for part to declare their identity (out of fear of some time and wishing to stay) and 30 per cent discrimination), have led to few, and particularly as “transit” (ie, relatively mobile). The latest poor quality, datasets being produced. available DETR figures at the time of writing Nevertheless, individuals and organisations have were for January 2001. According to these figures, made genuine attempts at reaching semi-credible there were 2,608 caravans on unauthorised sites, estimates based on a mixture of official and 6,160 caravans on council/local authority sites unofficial sources. and 4,541 caravans on private sites; that is 13,309 caravans in total.27 According to Kenrick and Clark the estimated overall number of Gypsies and Travellers living The figure used for Irish Travellers in Northern in the UK is thought to be around 120,000.26 Ireland is usually 1,400, with a very high Within that figure, English Romanichals form the proportion of this figure being children and largest group (approx. 63,000) and New Travellers young people.28 Enrolment in St. Paul’s School for constitute some 15,000 people. Friends and Travelling Children in Belfast, for example, has Families of Travellers (a UK-wide organisation) ranged from 114 to 217 over recent years.29 estimates the overall number of Gypsies and The figure of 1,400 is an estimate and exceeds Travellers in the UK to be slightly higher at the number reached by the Travellers’ Census, 150,000. Of these, they estimate that between which counted just 1,115 sites with no attempt 7,000 and 10,000 are New Travellers. Both made to calculate those living in housing.30 estimates include Gypsies and Travellers currently However, a large proportion of Travellers are living in houses. living in sedentary accommodation. For example, Derry Travellers Support Group suggests that In terms of official sources, national censuses in a majority of its client base is in sedentary the UK do not have categories for Gypsy and accommodation. The figure also excluded that Traveller groups. This is not set to change for the group of people identified as “Traveller traders” a 2001 UK census. Formal statistics on Gypsies and highly nomadic group of Traveller businesspeople Travellers in the four countries therefore mainly who travel frequently in the north but are

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identified as coming from the south of Ireland. Wales and Scotland, contains a specific Traveller The figure also excluded Romani and Romanichal category, which may produce a more accurate populations. Although there is a long-established count. This at least allows Travellers to identify Romanichal population in the north, mostly living themselves as such in the context of ethnic status. in sedentary accommodation, there has been no The Census Office Northern Ireland has been research on this population. There has been a sensitive to issues of enumerating a nomadic recent “moral panic” around Roma refugees from population, but this will not guarantee full the south of Ireland who have crossed the border enumeration of course. Their inclusion, however, and been involved in begging: the accusation was does represent a mark of respect, unlike the that these children had turned Derry city centre situation in England. into a “ghost town”. The figure also excludes the recent arrival of nomadic French Travellers in the The counting of Gypsy/Travellers in Scotland is a north. There are very few New Travellers in the relatively new development. Prior to 1998 there north of Ireland although there were, historically, had only been two official counts, one in 1969 Bargee families – no existing issues or research on and one in 1992, when it was estimated that this population exists. there were 450 households and 540 households respectively.31 The reliability of these two counts, In short, the 1,400 figure is fairly accurate, particularly in terms of the methodology used, albeit an estimate, for Irish Travellers living was questioned by a number of organisations in semi-permanently on legal or “tolerated” sites. Scotland, including Save the Children, which It excludes, however, substantial numbers of considered the numbers to be much higher. more nomadic Irish Travellers and Irish Travellers living in sedentary accommodation as well as Since 1998 bi-annual counts have been carried out Romanichals and other Traveller groups which have of Gypsies and Travellers living in caravans in at least some presence in the north of Ireland. Scotland, but these counts do not include There are two conclusions here: first, the current Showpeople, Circus Travellers, New Travellers or estimates are underestimates; second, there are no Gypsy/Travellers residing in housing for all or better alternatives in the sense of more accurate part of the year. Similarly, concerns have been figures – any estimate of the actual size of the expressed about the methodology used in the entire Traveller population in the north of bi-annual counts and the accuracy of figures. Ireland, or of the population of young Travellers Figures for July 1998, based on information as a subset of this, would be little more than a produced by the Scottish Executive Central speculative guess. Research Unit, show a total of 580 caravans/ households throughout Scotland.32 However, progress is being made in Northern Ireland. The 2001 Northern Ireland Census, The last caravan count in Wales was made in 1997 unlike the one being carried out in England, by the Department of Environment. It is not

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known when the next one will take place or The context, politics and right to even if one will actually happen again. A total of education in the UK 732 caravans were counted for the 1997 count. This figure included 217 caravans located on The context of education unauthorised sites, 502 on council sites and only 13 on private sites. The previous count in 1990 “You need an education to get on in this recorded a total of 692 caravans.33 Like the world.” counts in Scotland, a number of organisations Traveller parent in DfEE Video have questioned the counting methods. Save the “Are we Missing Out?” 1998. Children and the School of Education at Cardiff University published a report in 1998 which Historically, child welfare/education policy in identified far greater numbers of Gypsies and the UK has been something of a “swinging Travellers living in Wales. Based on a wide range pendulum”, moving between the responsibilities of sources, the report suggests that there are at and rights of parents, the rights and needs of least 1,809 Gypsy and Traveller children in children and the role of the state and other Wales.34 This is more than double the figure the service providers. Striking a balance between these Welsh Office counted in 1997. competing interests has been a difficulty for some years. Likewise, the point at which the balance is Before moving on to look specifically at Gypsies/ struck is constantly changing – moved by changes Travellers and education it is worth noting here in welfare, professional practice and key policy that the question of numbers is important to shifts. The UK has shifted backwards and “get right” for a number of reasons. In Scotland forwards through a pattern of different ideologies and Northern Ireland, for example, the numbers and models in child welfare that has impacted on collected during these counts are used by ideas about a child’s right to education since the government departments to help determine late-18th and early-19th century. “Is the child and inform issues such as pitch targets and inherently sinful or perfectible?” seemed to be the “toleration policies” that are used in relation to question at this time, which raised the further “unauthorised” sites. More broadly, as Romanis question of in what ways the education system in Central and Eastern Europe have found that, could address this supposed dichotomy. These if Gypsies and Travellers are not “counted”, then moral and ideological approaches to child they tend to “disappear” from official government welfare/education can best be summarised as policies and discourses and their needs are follows, falling into four broad paradigms:36 simply not recognised. Of course, with the issue 1 Laissez-faire and patriarchy (individual freedom, of suspect counting methodologies and freedom from coercion and state intervention, understandable Gypsy and Traveller mistrust of sanctity of the family as a private sphere) census requests, it is little wonder that debates rage regarding the question of numbers.35 2 State paternalism and child protection (the proactive state as a protector of children: a duty to

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intervene when required – eg, securing a state it is the politics of the classroom that has seen education) some of the fiercest and most vitriolic debates amongst politicians, teachers and parents. 3 Defence of the birth family and parents’ rights (state For this reason, the broader context of trends and supporting kinship and birth rights, parents developments in UK state education policy need need help from the state regarding to be briefly discussed in light of the debates on care/education) the “right” to education. Summarising greatly, 4 Children’s rights and child liberation. from the end of the WWII to about the middle of the 1970s, change in education policy was very Currently, the pendulum appears to be in this last gradual. It was a period with four main features to position: children’s rights and child liberation. it, in England and Wales at least:37 This is crucially about self-determination and 1 the decentralised nature of education recognising that the child has far greater capacities management in the hands of local education than current paternalistic and authoritarian child authorities welfare/education policies allow for. Of course, taken too far this could overestimate the capacity 2 the dominance of teachers and other education of younger children and deny protection to the professionals in defining and determining the vulnerable, but nonetheless the late 20th and early content of education 21st century has largely been about a greater 3 the gradual replacement of the division emphasis on children’s rights, especially in relation between grammar schools and secondary to education. Against the theoretical position of moderns with the extension of the advocating the rights of the child, however, is the comprehensive schooling model reality of the politics of education in the UK which can often place barriers to such a “rights 4 the persistent primacy, culturally and in orientated” model. resource terms, given to academic curricula and qualifications over more vocational education. The politics of education “Run away to sea rather than attend a Such a pattern met with criticism from both the secondary modern...” left and right of the political spectrum as the The historian A. J. P. Taylor, 1957 – quoted 1970s progressed. From the 1980s onwards some in the Channel 4 film “School Rules”, work was undertaken to try and “upgrade” first broadcast 21 September 1997. vocational education and provide more coherent systems for academic/vocational routes to follow. Despite such words of warning from Taylor, The development of government policy during most children in the UK do attend some form of the 1980s had two key dimensions: firstly, to school for some period of time. Across the whole change the content of education and make it range of areas touched by social policy in the UK, more vocational and “relevant” to the world of

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work and, secondly, to change the processes of Since 1997 the present Labour government has educational reform by taking more centralised consistently repeated its claims to be for control. It was the 1988 Education Reform Act “education, education, education”. They have that was the key to these changes actually spoken of the desire to reduce class sizes, to raise happening. the morale of the teaching profession and to link schooling in with community/voluntary efforts. A national curriculum was instituted through Likewise, Labour has continued to speak of this Act which applies to England and Wales. “raising standards”, publishing league table results This new curriculum allows for more central and targeting what it considers to be “poorly government control over what was being taught performing” schools to try and achieve this. in schools and also allowed the government to In England and Wales the debates rage on – from break the teaching profession’s monopoly over how to balance “value for money” with the kind curriculum design. The 1988 Act was also a of education parents want for their children to reaction to a national mood that increasingly grander debates on the social and economic suggested that “standards” in education were functions of education. falling in Britain (yet the evidence from this time actually suggests otherwise). These debates are also being played out in Scotland and Northern Ireland of course. The 1988 Act also allowed schools to “opt out” The education systems in these two countries, of LEA control and become grant-maintained and the politics and policy/administration systems from central government – those remaining that govern them, are quite different from those under LEA control moved to local school-level in England and Wales. Indeed, to different management. Local management of schools degrees, both Scotland and Northern Ireland have opened up several new possibilities – from been something like “testing grounds” for policy delegated school budgets and league tables to developments that have later been introduced new admissions regulations and individual in England and Wales (when found to work). school staffing policies. The market approach to In Northern Ireland, arguably, the statutory increasing so-called “parental choice” has been equality-proofing measures of the Section 75 one of the most controversial moves, along with provisions of the Northern Ireland Act of 1998 the idea that “educational standards” are merely do give a more proactive edge to the avoidance about examination results and performance of discrimination. Having said this, although the indicator rates for truancy and the like. League education structures and legal systems may be tables, say critics, are essentially measuring the different in Scotland and Northern Ireland, the social class background of children and give no debates around parental choice, consumerism, indication of “value-added” – that is the ways in diversity and markets – and the complementary which the school concerned has had an impact arguments about standards and quality assurances on the progress of individual pupils and their – are common throughout the UK.38 achievements during their schooling.

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The right to education current global trends in education provision as emphasising quantitative measures at the expense “I was the first in my family to send a child to of purpose, quality and relevance. Save the high school. So that’s change innit? They learn Children believes that all children have the right more at school than at home.” to an education that is inclusive, responsive, relevant, Traveller parent quoted in Save the Children developmentally appropriate and participatory. These are UK, Traveller Education in Wales, 2000. themes that will be returned to in some depth in the report. The broader issue of “rights” to education and the place of minorities within such a model must The UK has committed itself to upholding the be examined. At a global level, Save the Children right to “education for all” by signing up to a believes that education systems are failing to number of international frameworks (see the benefit the most vulnerable and marginalised Recommendations section below). For example, children. In particular, Save the Children identifies by signing up to the UN Convention on the

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Rights of the Child, the UK declares a take measures in the fields of education and commitment to a number of rights for children research to foster knowledge of culture, history, and young people, including that of education language and religion of national minorities” (Article 28). The Children Act (1989) in its various (Article 12). country adaptations (such as the 1995 Children (Scotland) Act) also specifies the right to Despite this recognition of the right to education education for children and young people as well at the international level, human rights law has as promoting a more general ethos of working only recently been translated into UK domestic “in partnership with parents”. Indeed, this could law. The First Protocol, Article 2 of the Human be seen as the Act’s guiding principle, even though Rights Act 1998 (brought into force throughout the actual expression is not used in the Act itself. the UK in October 2000) stipulates the right to The Act, implemented in England and Wales in education.39 1991, chose to emphasise the importance of parental responsibility and placed a duty on In practice, it remains the case that education in local authorities to support parents, including the UK is viewed in terms of it being an adult’s maximising their involvement when children are duty rather than a child’s right, whether the adult in looked after by the state. In relation to education, question be manifested in the parent, the state, the Act also attempted to strengthen the rights of local authorities or other bodies such as religious children to be involved in decisions affecting them ones. Recent government initiatives in England, and also to place much greater emphasis on the for example those aimed at tackling “truancy”, important role of the extended family – an issue focus on bringing parents to court and issuing that many Gypsy/Traveller children are already them with fines. However, in other areas of work well aware of. in the UK there is a more progressive view of children and young people. A case in point is In terms of the right to education for minorities, family law where the child and his/her view are the UK has ratified the Framework Convention central to proceedings. However, even when for the Protection of National Minorities (1998). access to education is defined in terms of a child’s This is a regional instrument adopted in the right, it is generally equated with the availability of context of the Council of Europe. As this is an schools and teachers. Thus the debate tends to inter-governmental organisation, the actual focus on “barriers to education” rather than the obligations of this framework have to be explicit denial of the right to education. Whilst it is fulfilled at the national level. Thus the right to important to recognise that some situations do education as specified in this particular framework represent physical or practical barriers, it is equally creates a positive obligation on state members important to explore the ways in which state “to undertake special measures to promote equal parties explicitly or implicitly fail to fulfil positive opportunities for access to education at all levels obligations: this is a larger, more ideological, issue for persons belonging to national minorities”. that needs to be addressed. In addition, “the Parties shall, where appropriate,

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According to the UN Special Rapporteur on the access to education and thus the demand for it”. Right to Education, Katarina Tomasevski, the While some see special funding and actions for right to education entails, besides availability of minorities as a necessary response to this, others schools, governmental human rights obligations believe that this approach serves to reinforce the to make schooling accessible, acceptable and idea that special actions are “extras” rather than adaptable, that is, both accessible and relevant. basic rights.41 Taking a rights-based approach to In its assessment of the UK, the recent report by education allows us to examine the quality of Tomasevski made it clear that advances had been provision and to raise questions about the made in the area of availability. However, it was appropriateness of the type of education which critical of the extent to which the environment in minority pupils, such as Gypsy and Traveller school was learning-friendly. It further noted that children, receive. schools overall failed to meet the criteria of acceptability and adaptability. The UN Special Rapporteur states that: Gypsy and Traveller education

“rights based strategies ought to adapt This section explores how formal education policy education to the circumstances prevailing in and practice regarding Gypsies and Travellers the countries, communities and families. has developed in the four countries of the UK. This requires resisting the temptation to It first looks at the general educational/policy export models of education suited to industrial frameworks that have developed across the UK or industrialising countries, or to assume that vis-à-vis Gypsies and Travellers. It then focuses secondary education is accessible to children on what could be regarded as the “core issues”: who complete primary school, or to found accommodation, access, attendance and education upon a vision of access to curriculum development. employment, in circumstances where the fate of most school leavers is what is alternatively The general policy framework called self-employment or the informal Tracing the history of Traveller education in the sector.”40 UK is a lengthy and problematic affair and it is Katarina Tomasevski, Report of Field Mission difficult to explore and analyse this history fully, to the UK, UN Special Rapporteur on the across the four countries, in the space restrictions Right to Education in the UK, 1999, p. 11. of this report. Some commentators, such as Mary Waterson, have attempted to chart such a history, In particular the UN Rapporteur felt that a but even her detailed and lengthy study was rights-based approach was essential with regard to concerned only with England.42 Likewise, Sandra the situation of Gypsies and Travellers in the UK Clay has recently investigated Traveller education given the “multi-layered discrimination which in one part of Wales and, as part of that affects Gypsy communities, coupled with the microstudy, has commented more broadly on inter-generational transmission of the lack of the development of Traveller education in that

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country.43 The point is that those who wish to like that. They [teachers] should listen to what read in more detail about the history of Traveller you’re saying.” education in England, Wales, Northern Ireland “Teachers should fix situations where there are and Scotland can find other academic sources to problems, and not dismiss them as untrue.” do so. For the purposes of this Save the Children (Emphasis added.) report, only a snapshot and brief overview can be Lloyd G., Stead J. and Jordan B., Travellers at realistically undertaken. School: the experience of parents, pupils and teachers, Moray House, Edinburgh, 1999, p. 17. Although “Gypsy schools” existed in some parts of rural England in the 1830s, it was only in the So, the issue of “being ignored” – or even mid-1920s that some progressive local authorities “believed” – by the state system is still on the began to provide such schools (such as Hurtwood agenda today. More on this will follow later in School, in Surrey). However, these were very the report. much the exception rather than the norm. Not until the 1960s, when government circulars and reports started to discuss frequently the In England individual LEAs, supported by central “Gypsy problem”, did the issue of Traveller government, began setting up Traveller Education education get any serious attention. The valiant Services (TESs) in the 1970s. In Wales, there is lobbying efforts of maverick MPs like Norman only one main TES based in Cardiff, although Dodds and Eric Lubbock had some success and other less well funded services operate out of the 1967 Plowden Report was significant in that it Swansea, Wrexham and Flintshire. Scotland and clearly stated that in addition facing poor living Northern Ireland operate quite different services conditions and the relentless harassment, Gypsy/ with regard to Traveller education and these will Traveller children faced a school system that be discussed in due course. ignored their needs. This claim is still being repeated today, more than 30 years later. These As no “area pool” money was centrally provided, were some of the responses that a Scottish not all local authorities in England and Wales have research team got from Gypsy/Traveller children TESs. At the time of writing, there are specialist to a question asking “What would make the teams of teachers for Gypsies and Travellers in Gypsy/Traveller experience of education a over 100 LEAs in England and Wales. Typically a ‘better’ one?” Traveller Education Team consists of various specialist support staff, such as peripatetic and school-based staff who can work on-site or in “The boys and girls not calling me names school. Although TESs have a direct input into [would help], and the teachers to believe me...” the teaching of Gypsy and Traveller students, they “Well, they can give us more work and listen to are principally there as an additional resource us more better, that’s what they should do... and the which schools can call upon to help them carry bullying – tell people it’s not nice to say things out their responsibilities. For example, TESs help

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to find school places for Gypsy and Traveller School visits are often linked to the above but children, and they work with each other to also include: provide an “alerting service”, giving advance • taking Traveller children to be registered/ notice to each other of likely Gypsy and Traveller enrolled arrivals. They may supervise the use of distance • gathering attendance figures learning materials, and can also provide general • improving attainment back-up support. TESs also support schools who • teaching support accept Gypsy and Traveller students, seeking to • provision of in-service training. provide a degree of continuity of education by liasing with TESs in areas where the children have The situation of educational provision for New been previously.44 The policy emphasis in England Travellers is generally perceived by many parties and Wales has shifted from separate provision to with an interest in Traveller education (such as mainstream access. This is also, largely, the case in individual TESs and by teachers themselves) Scotland and Northern Ireland as well, though to be rather different from that of “ethnic” or across all four countries there are still some “traditional” Gypsies and Travellers. A recent parents who feel that on-site education may be of study of the educational needs of New Traveller more benefit. In Belfast, there is a separate school children interviewed 47 adults/parents on a for Traveller children (discussed later). For TESs, total of 18 sites in south Wales and the south however, the aim is to work in partnership with the east of England.45 This study found that “home mainstream staff to enable them to meet the education” (or as it was known “education needs of Gypsy and Traveller pupils. otherwise than at school”) is being adopted on many sites and subsequently little support, if any, Some teams also have a youth and community was being received from TESs.46 In addition to development worker and classroom assistants. this, attendance at school was noted on some of In addition there are Education Welfare Officers the sites as being irregular and, in other cases, the and Home/School Liaison Officers whose job, decision not to send children to school was viewed according to the guidance, is to “ensure the as a positive choice: education system serves the needs of Traveller children as effectively as possible”. This is done “I don’t want to send my kids to school. through visits and contacts between home and I don’t want to send my kids to straight school school and by supporting the work of the because I feel we don’t live the same lifestyle. Education Welfare Service and other departments, I don’t want them to get into computer games for example in the local authority. Home visits [or] watching telly all the time... I am totally aim to encourage the family to send their children committed to home educating.” to school, giving advice and help with forms for Auckland, R., The Educational Needs of New free school meals and uniform grants, attendance Traveller Children: findings of the Travellers’ School issues, problems with bullying, exclusions and Charity research project, YAPP charitable transport difficulties amongst many other matters. foundation, 2000, p. 26.

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In other cases again, site stability was seen as a Grant for Traveller Education offered a relevant factor in deciding whether or not to send specific grant to local authorities from central children to mainstream school. Some families government, which principally funded the TES make use of services provided by non-statutory network across England and Wales. The primary organisations such as the Travellers’ School aim of this grant, according to issuing guidance, Charity for advice and support in educating their was to promote “unhindered access to, and full children. Indeed, one of the main organisations integration into, mainstream education.” This working with New Travellers – Friends, Families grant was merged in April 2000 with the grant for and Travellers – stated in its 1997 annual report other minority ethnic achievement namely, the that it often acts as a “bridge” between TESs and Ethnic Minority Achievement Grant. It then Traveller parents: became the Ethnic Minority and Traveller Achievement Grant (EMTAG), falling within the “Education enquiries have tended mainly to DfEE Standards Fund. In 1999/2000 the grant centre around problems which Traveller supported a total expenditure of £13.7 million for children have had in accessing mainstream England and Wales.48 This was allocated within a education and also problems encountered in framework of a competitive bidding process, with school. Reports of bullying tend to be local projects being planned for three-year periods commonplace and we try and act as a link at a time. The EMTAG was targeted specifically at between the Traveller family involved and the raising the achievement of ethnic minority and relevant TES where no link exists.” Gypsy/Traveller pupils – including pupils for Friends, Families and Travellers, whom English is not their first language. Some Annual Report – 1997, Glastonbury. saw the formation of the new EMTAG grant as having negative implications for Gypsies and TESs in England interviewed for this report had Travellers. Friends and Families of Travellers, for mixed experiences of working with New Traveller example, argued that the grant meant less money families. Some TESs had substantial experience of was specifically available for Gypsy and Traveller teaching New Traveller children and saw it as an education. Secondly, by being subsumed into a important aspect of their work. Others, however, broader funding category, it reinforced the did not work with New Travellers, giving the view that Gypsy/Traveller education was a reason that there had not been any such families “non-priority”.49 residing in their area. A few TESs noted that New Travellers tended to opt for “home education”, According to Schools Minister, Jacqui Smith, thus falling outside of their remit – as the LEAs received £162.5 million for 2000/01. Auckland study mentioned earlier also noted.47 However, this was to help raise the educational achievement of ethnic minority pupils more Section 210 of the Education Reform Act 1988 generally, as well as that of Gypsy and Traveller was replaced by Section 488 of the Education Act children. From April 2001, the EMTAG was (1996) (see Appendix 1). The Section 488 Specific separated back into two separate grants, creating a

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new Traveller Achievement Grant (still within the attainment information, as required by Section DfEE Standards Fund). From April 2002, this 488 funding.51 This information was required as grant will move away from competitive bidding part of the annual report which each LEA was to a formula-based grant, although this will not required to supply to the DfEE at the end of entail more funds. each grant year. For no explained reason, annual reports were not requested for 1999/2000 or DfEE contributions to TES funding have steadily for 2000/01. been reduced over recent years. From April 2000 it has been 58 per cent (originally it used to be Research commissioned by the DfEE describing 75 per cent), matched by a contribution of 42 per good practice in the provision for Gypsy/ cent by the LEAs. In addition to this grant, there Traveller pupils has recently been published and it is also a Development Fund, which, set up in looks towards “inclusive” policies and systems of 1998, aimed to support innovative approaches “good practice” to encourage participation.52 It is towards Traveller education needs. Local a key study but is not without some problems. authorities were invited to bid competitively for The research examined six schools (already grants from this fund. The areas prioritised were: identified as operating DfEE approved “good transfer to and retention at secondary level, early practice”) in detail. Each was an example of a years provision and access to new educational successful initiative in mainstream education that opportunities. The DfEE defined the last in this aimed to improve attendance and/or raise list as the provision of “work-related” learning for attainment. The main aim for the project was to all Traveller children who desire it at key stage identify the key elements/themes of successful four. The National Association of Teachers of schemes and to disseminate them in order to Travellers was critical of this competitive element promote more effective teaching and learning. to funding, however, seeing it as undermining continued and sustained funding for the education The research does have some positive messages of Gypsy and Traveller children.50 that can be shared. For example, it demonstrates that attendance, access to the curriculum and the The collection and analysis of data of ethnic achievement levels of Gypsy/Traveller children minority pupil performance is another area of can be successfully addressed by schools and policy development that has implications for TESs with some key factors in place. The report Gypsy/Traveller education. Such “ethnic argues that support provided by the TESs to monitoring” analysis is becoming recognised schools with Gypsy/Traveller pupils is critical to as a key management tool by an increasing the development of best practice. TESs can number of schools as they look to improve their provide Traveller communities with information league table performance. The 1999 OFSTED about schools, secure school places for children Report noted that all the primary schools by supporting admission procedures and help to surveyed with Gypsy/Traveller pupils had devise induction schemes for new children. They supplied their LEA with national curriculum can also promote and facilitate regular attendance

229 by setting up transport arrangements, helping with Gypsy/Traveller children and their educational the provision of uniforms and support during the needs, in order to establish an inclusive ethos in immediate period after admission. They can also the school (a point raised by Smith, 1997 as assist parents in their dealings with schools and well53). Crucially, the report argues that, where help ensure that there is continuity in the the commitment of senior managers and school educational experience. The TESs also provide governors to an inclusive ethos and equal essential support for schools by providing opportunities is matched by high teacher appropriate curriculum materials and training for expectations and the inclusion of Traveller issues teachers. in the curriculum, Traveller children can share in the Government’s drive to raise standards for all. All of this is, of course, the ideal and rarely does The most important finding, according to the it all fit together so well. One of the reports authors, is that the way schools handle the initial main weaknesses was that it did not look more induction process can greatly impact on future closely at the range of possible reasons for the attendance and achievement of Gypsy and underachievement of Gypsy/Traveller pupils. Traveller children in the school classroom. This would have had the benefit of putting the focus on institutional racism and its longer-term The recent “Sure Start” programmes introduced influence. initially in England, Wales and Scotland and then later Northern Ireland, aim at improving the Nonetheless, schools can have an important health and education status of 0-3 year olds by role to play in promoting access and raising activities targeted at the children and families.54 achievement for Gypsy/Traveller pupils. Sure Start has implications for Gypsy/Traveller Effective and monitored “race” equality and education in that it does not exclude them per se, equal opportunities policies are generally seen indeed there are a few local programmes in all as important and should specifically mention four countries that have at least Gypsy/Traveller

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elements to them. In West Midlands, for example, background. In 1997, with the new Labour all Sure Start projects include Gypsy/Travellers. Government elected with a landslide majority, However, in Northern Ireland, according to the the group was maintained and chaired by Estelle Save the Children Northern Ireland office, the Morris. It was decided at this point to have current operation of Sure Start does not allow someone from Traveller education represented on Gypsies and Travellers to benefit in any the group. Subsequent changes in ministers and meaningful way. This is rather ironic as Sure Start chairpersons, however, led to the group being is being positioned as the government’s key disbanded in 1999. The Race Education and mechanism for tackling child poverty and social Employment Forum was set up in its place. exclusion. Lobbying by Save the Children in It continued to have a Gypsy/Traveller Northern Ireland, however, did secure an representative as part of the group, but there agreement from the Department of Health, Social is no longer any representative from Traveller Services and Public Safety that it would “equality education.55 impact assess” its Sure Start guidelines with a view to benefiting Traveller parents and children. In response to the Macpherson report, the Lobbying by Save the Children UK and other Commission for Racial Equality produced organisations in England has also elicited a Learning for All: Standards for Race Equality in Schools. “guarantee” by the Department of Health and It gives recommendations concerning the Sure Start officials that it will review its guidelines. promotion of effective “race relations” in schools. The launch of this report in Wales involved The Race Relations Act 1976 (see Appendix 1), training for Traveller teachers and instruction on and the recent Race Relations (Amendment) Act new human rights legislation. 2001, have helped increase the focus on monitoring discrimination in service provision In Northern Ireland the Department of with respect to Gypsy and Traveller education. Education issued guidelines on Travellers and For example, OFSTED, with support from the education in 1993. At the time of writing these Home Office, has been undertaking the guidelines are being reviewed. Although the systematic collection and analysis of minority guidelines were criticised at the time for not performance data. Likewise, the setting up of ascribing individuals to action, there have been the Advisory Group on Raising Ethnic Minority some significant developments such as the Pupil Achievement by the former Conservative creation of the Forum for the Education of Government has also helped to bring issues of Travellers’ Children Northern Ireland. This is a performance, achievement and barriers to a statutory body with a remit to: successful education into the spotlight. The • share information and good practice between Advisory Group covered England, Wales and Boards Scotland. At that time there was a Gypsy/ • provide in-service training courses for teachers Traveller representative on the group, but no one • develop culturally-appropriate teaching and person specifically from a Traveller education learning resources for schools

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• establish a network of useful contacts with Subsequently, integration at secondary level has groups and organisations involved in really not worked in Belfast, not least because the supporting Gypsies and Travellers. process was not resourced adequately or properly planned. Traveller education management in Northern Ireland essentially involves three separate Another significant shift has been the policy of institutional actors: the Department of Education “Targeting Social Need”, and specifically Northern Ireland, the local Education and Library “Promoting Social Inclusion”, as both these Boards (of which there are five) and the Council policy initiatives have identified Travellers for Catholic Maintained Schools. This creates (amongst others) as one of the most marginalised difficulties in terms of identifying responsibility groups in the north of Ireland. It has established for the failure to provide adequate education government working groups, which have drawn provision for Travellers. In Belfast, at primary up recommendations for more effective service level, many Travellers are educated in segregated provision. In terms of overall progress made education in St. Mary’s (formerly St Paul’s) School there has been a change in attitudes on the part for Travelling Children, although some Traveller of educational professionals. According to children are also in integrated primary provision. a Gypsy and Traveller organisation, it is Across the rest of the north, Travellers are, increasingly the case that dialogue is centred in principle, integrated at both primary and more on acknowledging the barriers to an secondary levels. In practice, attendance at inclusive education and finding ways to secondary level is minimal across the north. challenge them.56 Until 1998 young Travellers, notionally at least, remained at St Paul’s primary school until they It should be noted that the Caravan Sites Act of were 16 (in fact most left St Paul’s following 1968, which led to the creation of local authority confirmation at 13): sites, applied only to England and Wales. This is due to Scotland’s and Northern Ireland’s separate “You leave school at the age of 11 or 12 or at legal systems and to the fact that in many areas, the time of your first confirmation, whichever separate legislation applies to both countries. comes first. Then you are expected to act like a Regarding Scotland, in place of the clearer man... You would be mocked by the others statutory framework that existed under the 1968 [young Travellers] for wearing a school bag Act, the Scottish Office, in 1971, established an after the age of 14. It makes it very hard to go Advisory Committee on Scotland’s Travelling on at the schooling. It is very discouraging.” People which has been renewed at intervals for Donahue M. and McVeigh R., The Real Deal three-year periods. The membership of the for Travellers: what young Travellers really think committee included some limited representation about government, politics and social exclusion, of Travellers. The ninth of its regular reports, Save the Children UK, 2001, covering the period 1998-99, has recently been unpublished report.

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completed and published. The Scottish Executive secondary education and community education. suggests that the work of the Advisory The Advisory Committee’s Seventh Term Report Committee is now complete.57 noted that it is:

In its ninth term report, the Advisory Committee “disturbing to find that much of what was attempted to pull together the history of positive guidance to the education authorities fragmented approaches to Gypsy/Traveller of the time recurs as issues of concern to this education in Scotland. It is important to note that Committee nearly a decade on. Given the the status of this report is not clear, however, increasing recognition of the particular since it was published ten months after the demise educational difficulties which the Traveller of the Advisory Committee and, in light of the community faces and the growing body of EOC inquiry, its standing is at best ambiguous. expertise and experience in Scotland and Unlike the situation in England and Wales, there elsewhere... it now seems timeous [sic] to has not been a centrally co-ordinated approach extend central guidance in this field.” to a Traveller Education Service in Scotland. Scottish Office, The Seventh Term Report: Having said this, the Scottish Traveller Education 1992-94, Scottish Office/HMSO, Programme, based at the University of Edinburgh, 1995, p. 29. Edinburgh, did at one point attempt to offer a centrally co-ordinated role, but this consisted of Despite this apparent commitment, the Advisory only a half-time post, with a remit for the whole Committee’s remit expired at the end of 1999. of Scotland. The post proved, unsurprisingly, to However, as discussed earlier, the Scottish be impossible to carry out. Progressive initiatives Parliament’s EOC recently published its Inquiry have generally been from an individual school findings and there are several specific or perhaps the education department of an recommendations on education issues. innovative local authority which has a number of Travellers in its area. The EOC report has been broadly welcomed by Save the Children UK and Gypsy/Traveller In Scotland, there have been very few organisations in Scotland. They argue that it governmental guidance publications on Gypsies represents the first serious attempt to detail the and Travellers since the 1950s. The most issues affecting Gypsy/Travellers in Scotland. significant is a guidance letter issued by the The discrimination they face is clearly Scottish Education Department in April 1989. acknowledged and cannot be ignored, and the This offered guidelines on how to support report sends a clear message to public agencies Gypsies and Travellers in respect of education. and others that discriminatory policies and It was largely based on the English experience practices towards Gypsy/Travellers will no and outlined topics such as the integration of longer be acceptable. schooling, teaching support, teacher/liaison,

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The EOC report highlighted the difficulties The EOC Report appears to recognise the need experienced in accessing education services and in for designated funding and recommends that particular noted that preschool and special existing funding arrangements should be reviewed education services were not well provided for to support school and preschool by providing Gypsy/Travellers. Other major areas of concern additional resources. In addition: included: the need for transport to encourage school attendance; the need for more flexible “consideration should be given by local services as an alternative to school (particularly at authorities to ring-fencing or top slicing secondary level); a lack of cultural awareness of resources for specific initiatives and Gypsy/Travellers’ lifestyles in school policies, interventions for education provision for materials and teacher training; the monitoring of Gypsy Travellers, for alternatives to school and anti-bullying strategies and the specific inclusion to encourage and support school attendance”. of Gypsy/Travellers as an ethnic group. EOC Report, recommendation 24.

There has never been a special grant for Gypsy Other recent developments in Scotland, as with and Traveller education in Scotland; funding is Northern Ireland, do show some grounds for instead allocated within the overall framework optimism and a potential for access to the of funding provided for local authorities. As a decision making process. This has possibly been consequence, there are fewer than ten whole-time one of the benefits of the devolution process. equivalent staff employed in education In addition to the aforementioned Scottish departments in five of the 29 authorities who Parliament’s Equal Opportunities Committee work directly with Travellers.58 The Institute of Inquiry, a Race Equality Advisory Forum has also Education in its 1996 report Inclusive Education been set up to make recommendations to improve commends this approach of there being no “race relations”. It has an Education Sub-Group specific grant for Gypsies and Travellers. It sees it and Gypsies and Travellers have been mentioned as signifying an acceptance of diversity in that no in its meetings. A Stephen Lawrence Action Plan distinction is drawn between “normal” and Steering Group has also been set up. However, “other” provision.59 Others argue, however, that it despite lobbying by both Save the Children and can also result in the ignoring of or a lack of the Scottish Gypsy Traveller Association, this sensitivity towards the needs of Gypsies and currently has no Gypsy/Traveller representation Travellers – “difference” has to be acknowledged. on it. The Social Inclusion Unit in Scotland also Indeed, this thorny issue of integration/ potentially offers a route to discuss Gypsy/ segregation is one that constantly features in Traveller education needs in the corridors of UK policy discussions regarding Gypsies and power in Edinburgh.60 Travellers – the provision of education is not alone in this respect. Many Gypsy/Travellers have high expectations following the publication of the EOC report.

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The report clearly recognises the distinct ethnic the overall policy level. For example an Equality identity of Gypsy/Travellers and the urgent need Unit has been established in the Office of the for their inclusion in all anti-racist strategies. The First Minister/Deputy First Minister (OFMDM). existence of institutional discrimination within More recently, a Race Equality Branch has been some public sectors has been highlighted along established within the Equality Unit and in the with the pressing need for additional resources Department of Education, the existing Equality and clear strategies in relation to education for Unit has recently been upgraded to an Equality young Gypsy/Travellers. Members of the EOC Division. visited a number of sites throughout Scotland and spoke directly to residents. In addition, As discussed above, like England, TESs have representatives from the Gypsy/Traveller developed in Wales although much more slowly community, and a range of agencies working with and in much smaller numbers. There are four them, presented written and oral evidence to the TESs overall, in Cardiff, Wrexham, Swansea and EOC. Together they were able to provide Flintshire. However, there are a total of eight testimonies on a number of rights violations, “projects” operating at the moment. The transfer including that of the denied right to a relevant of powers to the National Assembly for Wales education (some of the Gypsy/Travellers impacts directly on the development of education attending this hearing have been quoted in this policy, which now falls within the remit of the report). The evidence presented by a small group Assembly. The creation of a minister with of young Gypsy/Travellers was described by one responsibility for children, who is currently Jane MSP as: Hutt, Minister for Health and Social Services, represents an important area of development. “Perhaps the most illuminating evidence The further commitment to introduce a Children’s session that we had was with the young people. Commissioner is also significant – at the time of They were so bright and articulate and they writing the post has recently been advertised. put their case so well that it left us all asking Although neither of the remits refer specifically to how we can effectively have deprived this Gypsies and Travellers, the posts will certainly generation of Gypsy/Traveller children of have indirect implications for issues concerning the right to an education. We must ensure that them. that does not continue from generation to generation. I commend their evidence to the In Wales there is no unit dedicated to social ministers as a worthwhile read.” exclusion as such. There is however a National Official Report Scottish Parliament Equal Assembly minister responsible for social Opportunities Committee, 5 June 2001 inclusion, who currently is Edwina Hart, Minister for Finance and Communities. Like Scotland, In Northern Ireland new government structures Wales has chosen to focus on inclusion rather permit Gypsy/Traveller issues to be considered at than exclusion. Again, as in Scotland, the minister

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may be able to have some say in new directions in person” and to “offer a range of guidance and Gypsy/Traveller education, if lobbied successfully support for 13-19 year olds, to help make the by the various bodies interested in Welsh Traveller transition to adult life a smooth one”.61 The focus education. is largely on the interface between education and work and the service offers information, Most recently, the government has introduced a advice and guidance to young people so that new £420m youth support service in England, their educational and vocational choices are which it has called “Connexions”. This new “informed” and their opportunities “maximised”. service was first outlined in the Learning to Succeed White Paper in 1999. The aim of the service is The means of actually doing this are still relatively to offer “the best start in life for every young unclear, however. Pilots were held in 13 locations

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which started in October 2000 and the service Accommodation and access to education has only just gone “live” (April 2001) in 12 parts “The CJA [Criminal Justice and Public Order of England. What is envisaged for Connexions, Act, 1994] demonstrated a clear will to and what was tested out during the pilots, is that force people off the road into settled young people should be able to access a personal accommodation denying the right to a nomadic adviser who will work on the young person’s habit of life... For the families with no legal behalf to access special support and development place to be the options are few and bleak. opportunities across the range of education, Trying to get a school based education with training and work-related schemes. In many ways, any kind of continuity for children in these the adviser could be regarded as a kind of circumstances is difficult indeed. For some, “enhanced” careers officer. who experience a series of swift evictions right across the country there is scant chance for The potential for young Gypsies and Travellers school access at all.” to access this new support service is still unclear. Cathy Kiddle, Traveller Children: A voice It is also worth asking to what extent existing for themselves, Jessica Kingsley, TESs might be able to work in tandem with the London, 1999, pp. 59-60. Connexions service to benefit the Gypsy/ Traveller community. Although there is some Access to formal schooling can be significantly evidence of reference being made to Traveller improved if a family has a secure place to stay. issues, Gypsy and Traveller groups were not The security and stability of such a site brings formally consulted in the run-up to the with it confidence and can increase self-esteem implementation of the service. A variety of among Gypsy and Traveller communities. consultations were held by the Home Office and In addition, the provision of legal sites can help DfEE to seek out the views of the different foster better relations with the surrounding settled “stakeholders” who would be involved with community in that they see a regularly inhabited Connexions. One such consultation was with authorised site not being regularly visited by “Black and Minority Ethnic Voluntary police and authorities.63 However, it is important Organisations.” Gypsy/Traveller groups however to be aware that families hold many different were not invited or represented at any of the views about accommodation. Not all families three regional meetings.62 This appears to have want to be on an authorised site, and even when been yet another example of the “invisibility” of there is a “safe” place they continue to experience Gypsies and Travellers in government thinking many difficulties. The degree of accessibility to and initiatives. It also remains to be seen whether mainstream schooling therefore is not only a or not this new service will be offered outside of question of site provision. Nevertheless, it is England: pilots and “live” areas have so far only important to recognise the strong interconnection covered this part of the UK. between seemingly separate areas of policy and law relating to Gypsies and Travellers. It is clear

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that a law that allows the eviction of Gypsy and occurring. The CJPOA introduced new powers Traveller communities from sites impacts to remove and criminalise unauthorised sites. dramatically on the degree to which they can put The duty previously placed on local authorities into practice their right to formal education. to provide sites was removed.66 The resulting Though important, due to space restrictions this increase in planning requests for private sites discussion will be brief and largely contemporary. that have largely been rejected, coupled with the A fuller discussion of Gypsy and Traveller withdrawal of maintenance of and provision of accommodation issues can be found in a number local authority sites, has led to an increase in of books on the topic.64 unauthorised or roadside camps. The subsequent suppression of “illegal” camping has in turn had The 1968 Caravan Sites Act placed a statutory direct implications for the access of Gypsies and duty on all local authorities in England and Wales Travellers to education. Eviction and the constant to provide sites and stopping places for Gypsies “moving on” undermines the potential for regular and Travellers. Though, at the time, some thought attendance at any one school. Whereas the former this Act might either be the “death-knell” or the compels movement, the latter requires a fixed “saviour” of the “Gypsy way of life” it ultimately abode.67 proved to be too much of a financial and political liability for a Conservative Government The 1996 OFSTED Report, for example, noted anxious to cut public spending in the early 1990s. that “for many Gypsy and New Travellers, the As indicated, opinions on the success on the situation [of education] has been exacerbated 1968 Act vary across a very wide spectrum. by involuntary movement in consequence of Nonetheless, when the Criminal Justice and Public evictions from unauthorised land.”68 Some Order Bill was being prepared in 1992/93, many attempts have been made at highlighting the organisations such as The Gypsy Council saw negative impacts of eviction. For example, a high the repeal of the 1968 Caravan Sites Act as a court ruling in 1995 by Justice Sedley made it clear malicious and dangerous attack on Britain’s Gypsy that “local authorities must consider welfare issues and Traveller population. The attack was viewed when deciding whether to proceed with eviction by Gypsy leaders, such as Charles Smith, as a whatever the powers being used.”69 Attempts have form of “ethnic cleansing” by legislation rather been made to try and resolve this tension in other than by guns and bombs. areas too. The Department of the Environment Circular 1/94 Gypsy Sites and Planning, for example, With the Labour Party abstaining, and despite the suggests that sites be located outside existing best efforts of the House of Lords to buy more settlements but within “reasonable” distance of time for the 1968 Act, the Criminal Justice and local services and facilities. In particular it advises Public Order Act (CJPOA) was given Royal that: Assent in November 1994.65 With the passing of this Act, a major shift in policy towards site “Where an authority decides to proceed with provision for Gypsies and Travellers was an eviction, and any families concerned move

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elsewhere in the same area, alternative In Scotland no such statutory duty on local educational arrangements must be made in authorities has ever existed. When the Advisory accordance with the requirements of the law Committee, as discussed earlier, was first appropriate to the children’s ages, abilities and established, grant aid for the establishment of aptitudes.” Gypsy/Traveller sites was offered at a level of Department of the Environment, 75 per cent for building costs under the terms of Circular 1/94: Gypsy Sites and Planning, the Countryside (Scotland) Act 1967. Following a DoE, London, 1994. slow take up of such grants, a 100 per cent grant was introduced in 1980 and this operated until This led to significant legal judgements and the 1996. The 100 per cent grant was then extended development of the “common humanity” for a further two years; in December 1998 it came principle: in other words, before processing to an end for good. It does not appear likely, eviction orders local authorities and the at the time of writing, that this grant will be police would need to run a series of “needs re-introduced. assessments” to ensure that they were issuing the eviction order for the “common good” and not The provision of local authority sites has steadily causing undue “harm” to the families concerned. increased over the last two decades in Scotland The interruption of learning is one such check and there are now 32 sites available throughout that would fall under this principle. However, the year and three that open on a seasonal basis practice reveals that on the whole scant attention (Banff, Innerleithen and Newtonmore). Despite is paid to educational issues by local authorities 20 years of a 100 per cent grant there are still and police when considering eviction.70 Research large areas of Scotland without any council has also shown that where stopping places are provision (ie, Borders, north Highlands, south not provided, a high proportion of Gypsy and Aberdeenshire). Furthermore the location of Traveller children are not able to attend school or existing sites has been heavily criticised by receive education of any kind. Lyn Webster, for Gypsy/Travellers as they are usually built in example, in her 1995 study, found that out of a undesirable locations (eg, next to electricity group of Travellers who experienced multiple pylons, railway lines or refuse dumps). Sites are evictions from a number of sites in a short space also criticised by Gypsy/Travellers as having of time only 15 per cent of the children were too many cumbersome rules and regulations.72 able to access school places.71 Further research The 1997 Douglas Report illustrates the discretion based on the Webster study, undertaken by the that site managers have in letting pitches and this Children’s Society, similarly concluded that the can be open to a level of influence that would majority of children suffer as a result of eviction be unacceptable in the allocation of council proceedings. The research found that due to housing.73 eviction, children were either forced to leave a school or prevented from being allowed to Likewise, an important issue related to pitch register in the first place. provision on local authority sites in Scotland

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is rent. In 1995 the Scottish Office commissioned similar kind of toleration policy to that followed a “provider” survey of all local authorities with in Scotland, critics have spoken of it being akin to Gypsy/Traveller sites. The Douglas Consultancy a form of “racialised internal immigration policy” report found that the average pitch rent for a site rather than a “toleration policy”.74 Similarly, the in Scotland was £36.42 (ranging from £18.13 to Scottish policy has no legal status, is not £54.60). When compared with the average council monitored in any way and is often, according to house rent of £31.87 (ranging from £23.20 to some anecdotal evidence from Gypsy/Travellers £42.00) it seems that Gypsy/Travellers in themselves, ignored without fear of penalty. The Scotland are paying a high price for this particular ninth term report of the Advisory Committee mode of accommodation. recommended that the toleration policy cease at the end of February 2001, thus leaving many Following the reorganisation of local government families in a very vulnerable position. in 1996, the Advisory Committee reviewed the earlier pitch target figures and concluded that Private sites in Scotland are included in the the target should increase from 939 to 941. national pitch target set by the Scottish Executive. More recently, the target has come down to 927. Some organisations working with Travellers in The situation as of February 1997 showed that Scotland have noted the difficulty that Travellers 543 pitches had been provided by local have in gaining access to such sites. For this authorities, implying a shortfall of some reason, Save the Children undertook a project in 384 pitches. However, it should be noted that June and September 1997 to investigate the pitch targets in Scotland, as in England and situation.75 The Save the Children Traveller Wales, have remained virtually unchanged for Section in Scotland conducted a small research nearly two decades and have not increased to study which aimed to establish whether or not reflect household growth during this period. private and council caravan sites in Scotland were With the population structure such that 50 per discriminating against Scottish Travellers and cent are estimated to be under the age of 15 years Gypsies in renting pitches. A total of 43 caravan (as detailed in many EU reports by J-P Liégeois), sites were visited, eight of which were owned by the need for extra new accommodation is all the local authorities, the remaining 35 being privately more vital. Those local authorities that have owned. The research covered a large area of insufficient pitches to meet demand in their area Scotland, from the Borders to the Highlands. are encouraged to operate a “toleration policy” The findings of the study were very clear: for to illegally parked caravans. This policy does not example, 63 per cent of requests for apply in situations where 12 or more caravans are accommodation from Travellers were refused and camped in one place, a higher figure than that set 50 per cent of caravan parks owned by local by the CJPOA 1994. However, there are some authorities refused entry to Travellers despite issues which cause concern regarding the pitches being available. Indeed, some sites had toleration policy. In Ireland, which operates a signs displayed to this effect:

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“SORRY – NO TRAVELLING PEOPLE OR • an independent review of local authority COMMERCIAL VEHICLES. policies towards Travellers should be carried NO TRADERS” out The Save the Children research report lists eight • a “common humanity” criterion should apply main recommendations which include one that in any decision making process regarding the Scottish Office urgently revises its data on Travellers non-local authority caravan parks and another that • the government should affirm the legitimacy of the Commission for Racial Equality investigates a nomadic way of life vis-à-vis social inclusion the matter further. policies • Travellers should be included in future The CJPOA 1994, unlike the Caravan Sites Act amendments to Race Relations legislation 1968, applied in Scotland as well as England and and a commitment to ending anti-Traveller Wales. This legislation was largely a result of discrimination in Scotland should be made. the very public conflict in England between landowners, local authorities, the police and New It is yet to be seen whether the new Scottish Travellers. The pressure is now on Gypsies and Parliament will take up this challenge. other Travellers in Scotland to stop travelling, since to park a caravan, for even the shortest of In terms of future developments regarding periods, on once traditional roadside sites can be a accommodation/education issues across the UK, criminal (not civil) offence. Travellers risk having it is anticipated that the Human Rights Act, 1998, their caravan, ie, their home, impounded, as well which has now entered into force across the UK, as a fine or a prison sentence. Such pressures as and in particular Article 8, will have major positive this, and various other pieces of civil and criminal repercussions for cases involving the eviction 77 legislation in Scotland, have made things much of Gypsy and Traveller families. Article 8 more difficult for Scottish Gypsy/Traveller focuses on the need to protect and respect the families to access public services such as local right to “privacy, family and home life and schools, libraries and health services. A recent correspondence”. According to Rachel Morris: joint study by Dundee University and Save the Children investigated the social and legal effects “Police raids on entire Gypsy sites rather than of families being “moved on” so regularly.76 individual homes, where officers outnumber It found that Travellers in Scotland who were the residents 3 to 1 and no arrests are made, living on roadside encampments were seen as a could possible be challenged ... As could “problem” by representatives of the councils and constant evictions within a local authority area police forces who were sent to deal with them. where no ‘toleration’ is given or site provision The report suggested that: made.” Morris, R., The Human Rights Act, 1998, Traveller Law Research Unit, Cardiff, 2000.

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Having said this, the most recent cases to go to have some positive outcomes. For example, Strasbourg have been problematic. On 4 March it demonstrates that Europe is increasingly 1998 the European Commission of Human acknowledging that minority groups need some Rights considered a number of cases regarding degree of legal protection of their security, Gypsies who owned their land (Chapman v UK). identity and lifestyle. Although a finding has not The Commission declared as admissible the gone against the UK as yet, this seems to be only applications of Mr and Mrs Coster of Maidstone, a matter of time.80 It could be interpreted as a Mr and Mrs Beard and three others (Chapman, success, in that the UK Government believed that Lee and Smith). In each case there was a lack of they might lose and thus settled the case out of alternative sites in the area they lived. The results court, paying the family £60,000 by way of of these appeals to the Court were announced on compensation. 18 January 2001. In this latest case, the European Court of Human Rights held, by ten votes to The provision of lawful stopping places for seven, that there had been no violation of Article Gypsy and Traveller communities free from 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights, intrusion and possible eviction, which may in all five cases. Further, the Court held become more of a reality if only in the long term, unanimously that there had been no violation of signals potential improved access to mainstream Article 14 (prohibition of discrimination), in all schooling. cases and, again unanimously, that there had been no violation of Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 (right School attendance to peaceful enjoyment of possessions) in the cases “I could not find any actual example of the of Chapman, Coster, Jane Smith and Lee. Education Department attempting to stimulate The Court also ruled unanimously that there had interest in school nor of any enforcement by been no violation of Article 6 (access to court), Attendance officers.” (Chapman and Jane Smith) and that there had Save the Children link officer quoted in been no violation of Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 Save the Children, The Right to Roam, (right to education), (Coster, Lee and Jane Edinburgh, 1996, p. 18. Smith).78 “The degree of regular attendance at school This was felt to be a very disappointing outcome does seem to increase on more stable sites – in many respects by the five families involved. among those who favour or approve of school, It was noted by one observer, Hector McNeil, but it must be recognised that a number of that of the seven judges from the EU, four families choose home education not just for dissented the decision, ie, a majority of EU judges practical reasons associated with their lifestyle, did not agree with the decision that was finally but also for ideological reasons.” taken. However, the weight of their opinion was Auckland, R., The Educational Needs of New countered by the other non-EU judges in the Traveller Children, Travellers School Charity/ Court.79 In another sense, this latest case did YAPP charitable foundation, 2000, p. 20.

242 “Without a place to stop obviously school culture is respected it is self-evident that attendance is impossible.” attendance will continue to improve.” Cathy Kiddle, Traveller Children: A voice Clay, S., ‘Opening our eyes: some for themselves, Jessica Kingsley, observations on the attendance of London, 1999, p. 56. primary aged Traveller pupils registered at schools in a country area of South The earlier section which examined the relation- Wales’, in Acton, T. and Mundy G. (eds), ship between accommodation and education is Romani Culture and Gypsy Identity, raised again when looking at attendance rates and University of Hertfordshire Press, some of the problems that arise when trying to Hatfield, 1997, p. 77. implement policies designed to improve Gypsy/ Traveller attendance at school. In her study of During the last three decades there has school attendance patterns in Wales, Sandra Clay undoubtedly been, with varying degrees of was quite clear in what the problem – and the success in different parts of the UK, improved solution – was: rates of attendance at schools for Gypsy and Traveller children. Most LEAs in England and “Policies promoting assimilation and coercion Wales collect data on the number of Gypsy/ have come to be seen as inappropriate... Traveller children and their attendance at school. progress has been made only with the Most of these data are collected and reported to co-operative partnership of Traveller families the DfEE on an annual basis (up until 1999), as a and schools. Where Traveller identity and requirement in relation to the regulations and

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conditions of a grant paid under Section 488 of An example of a successful project is one based the 1996 Education Act. The most recent in Wrexham which was funded through the evidence collated by the DfEE (1997/98) records Socrates Comenius Action II programme. 28,000 school-aged Traveller children identified This project will be discussed further in the by TESs.81 The same report suggests a further report when looking at examples of good 8,500 children in the 0-5 year age range. Since practice. At the same time, however, it has been 1990, with the introduction of the New Specific noted by other organisations and projects that: Grant (Section 488) and the requirement to complete an annual report for the DfEE by all “Secondary education has not been considered LEAs in receipt of grant, the number of the norm for many Traveller families... identified Gypsy and Traveller children has traditionally, many Travellers consider that maintained a year-on-year increase. Between education within the family is much more 1996/97 and 1997/98, the increase reported by important and relevant at this age (13+). Some the DfEE was 7 per cent. The factors behind this families will resist transfer from primary school annual increase are unclear. One possible completely or may condone absence from influence is thought to relate to the normal secondary school increasingly as the child gets demographic increase predicted for communities older.” with an above average percentage of people Devon, Plymouth and Torbay TES/ below 15 years of age. Another possible influence Education Welfare Service, Traveller is the “willingness of disclosure” effect in which Children in Education, undated. Gypsy and Traveller families may be more willing to disclose their “presence” because of the Similarly, in Scotland, Save the Children estimated growing level of trust between the community that approximately 20 per cent of Gypsy and and the local TESs.82 Traveller children of secondary school age attended with any degree of regularity.85 More However, an earlier report from 1996 gave a recent research from Scotland has also highlighted different picture.83 The OFSTED report estimated the fact that Gypsy/Traveller children’s exclusion that the total size of the nomadic communities in from school may be even higher than these England at this time was in the region of 90,000 figures suggest in the more remote parts of that (with some 50,000 school-aged children). Gypsy country.86 This is likely to be the case in the and Traveller numbers were thought to account remoter parts of England, Wales and Northern for 70,000 of this total. Estelle Morris, while a Ireland as well. minister at the DfEE, estimated the total number to be nearer to 150,000.84 Whilst it is important to acknowledge the positive work carried out by statutory and voluntary Some progress has also been made in improving organisations, including the National Association attendance and achievement among Gypsy and of Teachers of Travellers, the official response to Traveller children of secondary school age. Gypsy/Traveller education, as illustrated above,

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tends to focus on enrolment and attendance rates School Attendance and Disadvantaged Pupils rather than the quality of education received while Team, DfEE: attending. This is illustrated, for example, in the targets set for England by DfEE in March 1999 “The legislation allows for there to be a (to be achieved by 2002):87 limited number of exceptions to the 30 limit... • 100 per cent of four year old Traveller Paragraph 10(b) for example permits an children, whose parents want one, to have a exception to the limit, where a pupil moves nursery place into the area outside the normal admission • 25 per cent of 11 year old Travellers in school round and there is no other school which to reach national expectations at level four in would provide suitable education within literacy by 2002 – up from 10 per cent reasonable distance of his home... Traveller • a 40 per cent increase in the number of children are most likely to fall within this Traveller children successfully enrolled in category.” secondary schools Anderson, G., Re: Infant Class Size: enrolment • all key stage four Travellers who want access of Traveller Children, Memo sent to all to a work-related curriculum, to do so (this is teachers/support staff, 24 August 2000. recognition of the different priorities required for Gypsies and Travellers) This impetus for increasing availability and access • a 30 per cent increase in the number of of educational opportunities to Gypsy and Travellers participating in further education. Traveller children is somewhat undermined by the increasing reliance on league tables for measuring One attempt at incorporating the different needs the effectiveness of schools. Debates around of Gypsy and Traveller communities, was the league tables focus on the pressure they impose special provision of dual registration introduced on schools to accept only “successful” students. for Gypsy and Travellers in England in January Attendance tables also influence league tables. 1998. Parents are able to inform the main school This has implications for students who are that their child will be away for a certain period, perceived as having low literacy levels or as being but that they intend to return. Regulation 9(1)(b) irregular attendees, such as Gypsies and Travellers. (registration at another school) and 9(1)(g) Although many do have low literacy levels, many (absence in excess of four weeks) no longer also attend and do well at school: the danger require the pupil to be removed from the base comes when ethnic stereotypes and preconceived school’s register. Also legislation (expected to be ideas determine school intake policies. What also passed in September 2001) aimed at limiting happens, of course, when schools do not perhaps infant class sizes to no more than 30 pupils will respond as encouragingly as they should to not always have to apply if a child wishes to new Traveller pupils is that Traveller parents register with a class already at its limit outside of feel justified in withdrawing them. So-called normal admission times. According to guidance “self-exclusion” can be another factor when provided by George Anderson, the head of the examining Gypsy/Traveller non-attendance at

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both primary and secondary level schooling.88 If schooling is to be relevant to all citizens of the Concern has been expressed both at the ground UK, including Gypsies and Travellers, then we level and at high policy levels on this issue also have to look seriously and critically at the of Traveller families being denied access to issue of quality. schooling for their children and the outcomes of self-exclusion when negative experiences are felt. Curriculum development Likewise, the UN Special Rapporteur’s UK Report states that: “We’d be in school for about six months to a year and move off somewhere else. In those “Output-related ranking (ie, performance and six months they never teached us nothing efficiency targets) inevitably favours selecting anyway, honestly.” learners by their likelihood to perform well and Traveller parent quoted in by orientating the contents and methods of Save the Children UK, Traveller Education teaching to enhance their success in tests.” in Wales, 2000. Katarina Tomasevski, Report of Field Mission to the UK, UN Special Rapporteur on the Right “When they’re 15 or 16 they think it’s stupid to Education in the UK, 1999, p. 11. [still going to school] but it’s not, because at least you get something at the end of it. I went As is the case for all parents across the UK, on work experience from school to a hair Gypsy and Traveller parents whose children do salon” not attend school are at risk of enforcement Young Traveller, female, quoted in actions and/or legal prosecution. This is normally DfEE Video “Are we Missing Out?” 1998. seen as a last resort when all other forms of support have been tried. Although many see this “By now councils and governments have got a “last resort” as a highly negative approach for lot of information about Travellers (there are encouraging attendance, it has been observed by books and videos and research reports) so why some organisations as effective in some instances. don’t we use this? Why not add details about For example, in their joint report Traveller Children Travellers into the school curriculum so that and Educational Need, Save the Children in Wales everybody learns.” and the School of Education, University of Young Gypsy/Traveller quoted by Wales, noted that prosecutions in Cardiff for Fiona Dunbar, Presentation to non-registration and non-attendance have led Joint Committee on Children and to improvements in attendance rates without Families – Highland Council, 2000. affecting the rapport between Gypsy/Travellers and the TES.89 What becomes apparent when Gypsy/Traveller parents and children are actually allowed to speak However, the question of access to education is out, and are actually heard, is the fact that the not just about rates of attendance and enrolment. present school system is not meeting their needs,

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especially at the secondary level. Most parents are general statement on inclusion for the national happy with primary schools. However, school is curriculum in England states that teachers should often perceived as being irrelevant, at least above take specific action to respond to pupils’ diverse a certain age, and is regarded as not telling them needs by: “using materials which reflect social and anything that they either need to know or want cultural diversity and provide positive images of to know. At this juncture it is important then to race...”.92 The report of the Stephen Lawrence examine the processes behind the development Inquiry (Recommendation 67) more specifically of the curriculum and what inputs are being made stresses that: “consideration [should] be given to into this by Gypsies and Travellers of all ages. the amendment of the National Curriculum It seems, to date, that little effective input is being aimed at valuing cultural diversity and preventing made for a variety of reasons. It should be noted racism, in order better to reflect the needs of a that not all these reasons are to do with so-called diverse society”.93 “cultural” factors of Travellers themselves. It can be much more to do with the rigid and inflexible However, other general education initiatives in structures of the education system and the England, such as Education Development Plans, organisation of the consultation process. do not generally take into consideration the needs of Gypsies/Travellers. This was in spite of In 1996, OFSTED’s report focused on the criteria attempts by some branch officials to ask LEAs of overall access, attendance and attainment to include Gypsies/Travellers. Other initiatives of Gypsy and Traveller pupils. It also noted that on the whole do not deal with Gypsies and considerable progress in the development of Travellers include Early Years Development Plans, positive attitudes and trusting relationships Lifelong Learning Plans, the Literacy Strategy, between schools and the different Traveller the Numeracy Strategy, the Equal Opportunities communities.90 Achievement in this case was Strategy and the Care and Education Plan. There linked to the extent to which the curriculum are of course some exceptions, but these remain respected and reflected Gypsy/Traveller history, few and far between. Ultimately, these initiatives culture and language. The 1999 OFSTED report are all examples of what Rachel Morris has also placed an emphasis on curriculum termed the “invisibility” of Gypsies and Travellers development. However, it noted that while many in official discourses and policy discussion.94 of the secondary schools have policy statements about the need for the curriculum to be what it In Scotland, a recent document has proposed terms “sensitive”, there is only one school with changes, which have the potential to encourage Gypsies and Travellers that systematically audits local authorities to make: its curriculum.91 “overt inclusion of Travellers and their Attempts have been made in recent years to particular educational needs in their action ensure curriculum development in the general plans and objectives-setting exercises... area of “minority” education. For example, the local authorities should develop plans and

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implement actions to ensure that Traveller Schools and the Education Training Inspectorate pupils enjoy their right to a place in school and at the behest of the Minister. The proposal is that due account is taken of their personality, for 12 Traveller males, aged 14-16, and provides talents and abilities in achieving their full a mix of numeracy/literacy/IT, personal potential.” development, “citizenship” and vocational Advisory Committee on Scotland’s Travelling training and placement. People, Ninth Term Report – 1998-1999, Scottish Executive, Edinburgh, 2000, p. 43. The Department of Education is also currently carrying out consultation on its proposals for a The Standards in Scottish Schools Education Bill unified “Common Funding Formula for Grant- was published in 2000 and proposes changes Aided Schools” (to replace the seven separate which may help Travellers in the state education formulae that exist across the North). One of the system.95 Explicit statements reinforce the issues raised is whether the main component of message that each child has the right to a school capitation funding per pupil (or an element of it) place and that local authorities must provide for should “follow the child” if s/he moves school all children. This is not exactly revolutionary, of mid-academic year rather than staying with the course, but Travellers may benefit from provisions school s/he was attending when the annual school which require local authorities to make “special census is taken in October. This is recognised as arrangements for the pupil to receive education having particular relevance to nomadic Traveller elsewhere than at an educational establishment”. children, and the willingness of “new” schools to This could mean, for example, on-site provision admit them. The consultation also seeks views on or supported distance learning. whether/how this capitation funding could be used to support EOTAS projects. The Department of Education in Northern Ireland is currently carrying out a review of Despite such seemingly progressive developments “education otherwise than at school” (EOTAS) in Northern Ireland, a lack of consideration with a view to greater support or community- vis-à-vis the school curriculum has been noted based initiatives.96 Alongside this, the Minister for in other parts of the UK. For example, whilst a Education paid a visit to Traveller sites earlier this circular from the Welsh Office in 1990 was year and asked Travellers (working for Belfast offering a progressive approach to Traveller Travellers Education and Development Group) inputs to the policy-making process, little has what would make a difference. They suggested actually resulted from this stance: the development of a Traveller EOTAS model. The Minister invited them to submit a proposal “It is important in designing policy to have a and, while there is as yet no guarantee of funding, firm knowledge of the make-up of the they have held positive follow-up meetings with nomadic communities which may include officials from the Belfast Education and Library groups of Gypsies and Travellers, fairground Board, the Council for Catholic Maintained [sic] or show people [sic], circuses [sic],

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New (Age) Travellers and, in a small number What this illustrates is a rather basic and of cases, bargee [sic] families. LEAs will need fundamental problem. Whilst it is quite easy, to be aware of pre-school needs of the though no doubt expensive, to produce families concerned, the number and needs of documents, guidance notes and consultation school-aged children and the educational plans about equality measures and curriculum requirements of the youth and adult development in “minority issues”, it is quite community.” another to introduce them, monitor them and make them Welsh Office, Meeting the Educational work. It is akin to having an equal opportunities Needs of Travellers and Displaced Persons, policy which is three volumes deep but still having Circular 52/90, Cardiff, 1990. deep-rooted practices and attitudes that only serve

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to perpetuate prejudice/discrimination and We see differing views here of what role reinforce “bad” practice. Recent research from education can play in the lives of Gypsies and all parts of the UK visibly illustrates the harmful Travellers. A parent feels that after obtaining the effects of Gypsies and Travellers not being “basics”, school offers very little that cannot be heard and facing disadvantage, racism and social picked up in the business of life. The other view, exclusion in the school setting.97 Potentially, from a young Traveller woman at university, a model for developing a school curriculum equates her continuing higher education with sensitive and responsive to Gypsy/Traveller needs increased independence. She also feels it could allow for a more positive experience of important to stress that the two are not mutually school life for Gypsy and Traveller children and exclusive: you can be an educated Traveller who thus encourage regular attendance by making has attended school and university. To be clear, in that attendance worth their while: a challenging, this section we are looking at the school experience exciting and relevant curriculum could be the of education for Gypsies and Travellers. answer. Education, in the broader context that the Traveller parent speaks of above, is another matter entirely. In practice To explore the experience of schooling for young “The most important thing for us is reading ... Gypsies and Travellers we draw on the quite we educate ourselves, but a little bit of reading different ways in which they perceive formal and writing helps us in our work as well ... education and its worth. Intergenerational conflict school is very important in that way ... when is certainly one important factor to consider. I went to school, after I learnt to read and Where each generation brings with it different write they couldn’t teach anything else to me.” educational needs, wants and priorities this can Traveller parent quoted in Cathy Kiddle, 1999, cause a degree of tension between (extended) Traveller Children: A voice for themselves, family members, such as grandparents, parents London: Jessica Kingsley, p. 62. and children, thus impacting on how many Gypsy/Traveller children perceive and gain access “Education has not cancelled out my Traveller to formal education.98 identity. It gives you more of a chance to be independent in life. Whatever happens in the The views of Gypsies and Travellers on formal future, you know you can survive. It is possible education can be different from those of the to have an education and be a Traveller.” majority/settled population – and more Hester Hedges, Romanichal law student, specifically of some educationalists. This is not quoted in the Cambridge Evening News, to pathologise Gypsy and Traveller culture but 8 April 1999. merely to acknowledge “difference” (in the same way, for example, as gender is being recognised as a “difference” when it comes to the school

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Table 8.1 Perceptions of the Gypsy/Traveller experience of formal education

Educationalists’ perspective Gypsy/Travellers’ perspective

Low take up and access Low take up and access • Low take up of preschool provision • Inappropriateness of the education system • Low attendance at school, particularly at for Travellers’ educational needs, particularly at secondary level secondary level • Refusal of schools to admit Gypsy Travellers – mid-term and at beginning of school year • Hostile and unfamiliar environment, particularly at secondary school

“Behavioural” problems “Behavioural” problems • Low attendance at school, particularly at • Racist bullying/name calling secondary level • Segregation of Gypsies and Travellers from other • Number of Travellers excluded children in schools

Low achievement Low achievement • Inability to retain pupils at key thresholds, such as • Teachers’ insensitivity and lack of knowledge 8 years plus and 11 years plus about Traveller culture • Cycle of lack of education (intergenerational • Inappropriateness of the education system for transmission) Travellers’ educational needs, particularly at • Low achievement levels secondary level • Low literacy rates

experience and the different performance rates expressed a number of concerns regarding of boys and girls). Table 8.1, though dealing in admission and access to schools for Gypsies and generalisations that we should treat with caution, Travellers, continued racist bullying in schools and draws on some of the likely and potential the disproportionate number of ethnic minority contrasts that can occur, even if they do not members who continue to be excluded from always translate into practice. If nothing else, it schools.100 highlights the need to place the experiences of Gypsy and Traveller children as central to any In light of such observations made at this level policy initiative or curriculum development.99 and in order to reveal the ways in which school systems throughout the UK fail Gypsy and CERD’s Concluding Observations Report on the Traveller children, the following sections UK, August 2000, noted some positive explore the issues of accessibility, exclusion, developments in terms of formal education, such segregation, inappropriateness of curriculum, as recent legislative measures in the areas of and anti-Gypsy/ Traveller racism from both peers “race” and human rights and the use of ethnic and teachers. monitoring to ascertain numbers according to ethnic group in various settings. However, it also

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The accessibility of school there are many Gypsies and Travellers who do want their children to be educated in school or “We need education if we are to have at least to have a meaningful choice between self-determination. For, in a society which has different types of home and school learning.101 historically denied us education, the first reason given for not recognising our needs is One Traveller parent interviewed by a regional that we are ignorant. Illiteracy should not be newspaper in 1999 had this to say on the matter, confused with ignorance.” acknowledging that “times were changing”: Lee, N., “Introduction”, in The Education of Gypsy/Traveller Children in the UK, “Lots of people who are Travellers say it’s working document for Carcassone Conference, wrong to send the kids to school. They are Mimeo, 1989, p. 7. afraid they will lose their culture. But I knew the travelling way of life was changing and “There have been people on the site for kids would need an education for the future.” 150 years but Travellers are still not allowed Julie Green, quoted in the Cambridge into some of the schools, including the school Evening News, 8 April 1999. nearest where they live, so parents have to take a taxi into the centre of Perth to send The National Association of Gypsy Women their children to school.” argues that education for Gypsies and Travellers is C.Mc, Scottish Traveller, Equal Opportunities more essential than ever, in light of advances Committee, Scottish Parliament, May 2000. made in information technology. They believe that if this generation of Gypsies and Travellers For many Gypsy and Traveller parents, the idea of miss out on learning in this area, it will further sending their children to mainstream schooling is widen the educational gap between themselves not an attractive one – despite most recognising and the majority society.102 the wisdom of Lee’s words and valuing education. On the other hand, as one Scottish For New Travellers the situation is different in Gypsy/Traveller has noted, problems can start that parents are usually more numerate and immediately when attempting to get children into literate and may have had a higher level of schools: they may simply refuse to take Gypsy/ education (for example, attending university). Traveller children on at all. In the place of However, some New Traveller parents tend to “mainstream” schooling, alternative learning view state education as inappropriate to the needs systems have developed that place the family and of their children whom they see as “growing up Gypsy/Traveller culture at the centre. There is in a world of crisis”.103 Many younger New much evidence of resistance on the part of Travellers therefore are home educated, making Gypsies and Travellers to attending school for use of the “education otherwise” option.104 myriad reasons, such as the perceived loss of However, children of secondary age are more culture and the fear of persecution. However, likely than their Gypsy and Traveller counterparts

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to attend schools, often because the importance accessing a school education. It is also argued of “paper qualifications” is recognised. However, by some researchers and policy makers that according to Margaret Thompson, from Save the nomadism can also be “used” as an excuse Children England, it is increasingly the case that to allow Gypsies and Travellers to exclude some second and third generation New Travellers themselves from attending school. The argument are illiterate and do not “value education” as a is that, when you place nomadism alongside other whole, in the same way as “traditional” Gypsy and aspects of Traveller culture, this will lead to Travellers.105 Clearly it is a complex issue with inevitable barriers between Gypsy and Traveller many different perspectives. children obtaining a school education.107 This is not always so. The 1996 OFSTED report on the education of Travelling children stated that “access to the Certainly, with unplanned moves due to constant curriculum for secondary age pupils remains a evictions, families without a secure pitch on a matter of grave concern. There are possibly as local authority or private site will have difficulty in many as 10,000 children [in England] at this phase accessing regular schooling for their children. who are not even registered with a school”.106 Faced with such circumstances, school attendance It seems clear that schools, as institutions, need to can be a low priority. Lack of school provision adapt to varying educational needs as well as styles near to stopping places, transport difficulties and and types of learner. For example Gypsy and strict uniform requirements only add to the Traveller families who are highly mobile are reasons that deter some parents from sending often defined as “interrupted learners”, “casual their children to school. Indeed, the voluntary admissions” or “late starters” (ie, children over organisation Friends, Families and Travellers has the usual intake age when starting school for recorded numerous enquiries which involve the the first time). In addition to this a common inability to secure school places due to a lack of assumption is that their home environment can be adequate site provision. restrictive in terms of family support or physical space. However, this is not always the case and In Northern Ireland, recent research has generalisations and stereotypes can hinder commented on these issues further. Connolly and effective teaching support in the school Keenan’s research, published in 2000, found that environment. the majority of Traveller children do not continue to attend school after primary education.108 When discussing issues of access we again have to One reason for this identified by the research was look at the connection between accommodation disillusionment arising from what some Travellers and education. It is often assumed that nomadism perceived to be the “low expectations” that can undermine regular school attendance and teachers had about them and thus the poor level educational progress. In essence, this translates as of education they received. Another reason cultural difference being regarded as one of the identified was fear of secondary schools, main barriers towards Gypsies and Travellers especially the possibility that teachers and fellow

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pupils from the majority “settled” community of the importance of a basic level of education might pick on them. An additional factor and of qualifications in order to find work. that tends to influence the high levels of non-attendance, the researchers found, is the Common to all Gypsies and Travellers who do influence of “Traveller culture itself ” and the live on stable sites, is the question of where lack of value that some give to education beyond schooling should take place: on-site provision or learning the basics of reading and writing. mainstream schooling. This is one aspect of a For some, this perspective reflected the fact that wider debate about what legitimate choices and they did not see the relevance of education to options can give children a meaningful education developing and practising a future trade within and the necessary skills. This part of the debate is the Traveller economy. linked to issues of “education otherwise” and has centred on whether provision should be separate, For others this view of education would appear that is, on-site, or integrated in mainstream to reflect their experience of isolation and schools. The current philosophy is that the placing discrimination and the consequent belief that of Gypsies and Travellers in mainstream classes is there is little point gaining educational the most appropriate method. On-site provision is qualifications if one is then unlikely to be offered therefore considered a short-term option to work. However, it was stressed that this tendency enable the child to gain skills, which she or he will to devalue education was not a common one. need later on in school. It has been described as a Among the Traveller adults and children “stepping stone” into school where trust and a interviewed for the study, the majority expressed respectful relationship can be built up between the a strong desire to learn more and many talked local school and Gypsy/Traveller children and about their need to gain qualifications. parents.109 This debate is ongoing and there are a number of criticisms about on-site provision. Indeed, it was found by Connolly and Keenan For example, one criticism of on-site provision that the high levels of illiteracy and lack of formal has been the lack of opportunity for mainstream qualifications gained by Travellers do not reflect a teachers to be involved.110 general lack of concern for education among this group. The majority of those interviewed For Gypsies and Travellers in rural or remote expressed regret at not having the opportunities parts of the UK, and those on temporary/ to learn and/or not making the most of the unauthorised sites, access to school is even opportunities that existed; they also stressed a more problematic. Indeed, for many families on desire to further their education. Many of the roadside sites the more immediate issues are young adults interviewed had joined various avoiding the police and eviction rather than literacy and other educational programmes. accessing education. One of the key motivating factors underlying this desire to learn appeared to be a recognition

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Exclusion from school There is also informal exclusion, which can take the form of self-exclusion, parental exclusion or “They expelled us and had the police and long-term non-attendance. It is this form that welfare on us... Because we went to school and Jordan talks of above. we hadnae been to school for a year and they just throwed us out... I don’t know what’s The 1996 OFSTED report notes that a going to happen... They telt us theirselves they disproportionate number of Gypsy and Traveller don’t like us because we are Travelling people; pupils, particularly at the secondary phase, are everybody’s just the same” formally excluded from school. This is despite Traveller female, secondary school age, quoted the general assessment by OFSTED that the in Lloyd G., Stead J. and Jordan B., Travellers at behaviour of Gypsy and Traveller pupils is School: the experience of parents, pupils and teachers, “good”.111 According to this report, these Moray House, Edinburgh, 1999, p. 5. exclusions are reported to result usually from “disruptive outbursts” arising out of “frustration” “... commonly throughout Europe, Gypsy engendered by under-achievement or racial abuse Travellers are also known to prevent their from other pupils. In many of these cases the children continuing at school, even when they schools often mismanage both the negative enjoy it and express a wish to do so, thus behaviour of the non-Traveller pupils and the giving rise to the hypothesis that families may Travellers’ responses. The report therefore be operating a form of self-exclusion, using recommends that the whole staff, teaching and name-calling and bullying as an excuse to non-teaching, should participate in appropriate preserve ethnic purity and boundaries: any awareness raising in-service training before Gypsy close contact with non-Travellers offers a and Traveller pupils arrive, to enable the school to threat to the exclusiveness of the group.” respond positively and appropriately to their Jordan, B. “Exclusion of Travellers from needs. State Schools”, Educational Research, 43(1), 2001. It has to be acknowledged that racist bullying is a major factor in exclusion from school. It is not, of As indicated in the above quotes, one from course, the only reason, but it is a major reason a young Traveller woman and one from a given by Traveller parents and children for non-Gypsy university academic, school exclusion withdrawing or not attending school. There are a can take many different forms. In the case of the number of other reasons that are given for latter however, we have to be careful about the exclusion; some parents prefer their children to validity of such a hypothesis, in light of the have on-site teaching so that they can “keep an lack of any substantial empirical basis. Formal eye” on what they are doing and being taught. exclusion is administered by the school and can Likewise, other forms of independent home be either for a short fixed term or permanent. tuition, such as that offered by NGOs and

255 community projects, are attractive to some parents “The hidden assets in non-literacy or alternative because of their flexibility and being able to adapt skills pass unnoticed outside the Gypsy to the specific needs and circumstances of their community.”112 Or, as one Traveller father put it: children. The actual successes and failures of such “If they spend too much time at school on the alternative options vary greatly across the country book learning they fall behind in their learning the – some of them will be explored in the next family business”.113 section of the report dealing with examples of good practice. So, there are families which see a positive in withdrawing from non-Gypsy school-based Parents and older brothers and sisters can, and do, education provision. It is an act of resistance in a have a strong influence in transmitting the symbolic way, and an act of good business sense “worth” of a school education. As mentioned in an economic way. However, as “times change”, earlier, if negative experiences or non-attendance as noted above, it seems likely that more is the norm within the family and extended family mainstream education is being accessed by Gypsy then it will be more likely that younger children and Traveller children. The issue comes to a head will be “protected” and not attend or attend when a school education is seen by Gypsies and infrequently. This is also true for families which Travellers as a route to an independent life whilst have been able to adjust and adapt to run a at the same time there should be respect for family business where literacy or numeracy cultural difference within the school setting. have not been essential to its success. As the This is the square that needs to be circled anthropologist Judith Okely has accurately noted: regarding access.

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Segregation at school “There were six small Travelling children going to primary school. They were going to the “My parents believed you should be respectful school for about six months before Christmas. of people in power but I learnt nothing in They came home one day and told me that school. Travellers were segregated. I left school they had to bring some stuff for the Christmas at 13.” party. So all the mums gave the children some A member of a Gypsy/Traveller family in crisps, drinks and fruit for the party. We didn’t Scotland quoted in McKinney R., “Different find out till they came home that they had the Lessons”: Scottish Gypsy/Travellers and the future of settled children in one room and the Traveller education, Scottish Travellers Consortium, children in another room. It was a terrible 2001, p. 31. thing to happen to our children and the children themselves were very disappointed “Most parents do not want their children that there were only six of them in that party.” educated on the site, because that still sets Kathleen Joyce, quoted in Laing E., (ed.), them apart. That is like building a big fence Moving Stories: Traveller Women Write, London: around the people – hide them, give them a Traveller Education Team, 1992, p. 95. school. We want to live as people with the same rights and opportunities as everybody There is also examples of “segregation” in else.” Northern Ireland, but at the level of secondary C.Mc, Scottish Traveller, Equal Opportunities schooling. Attendance at secondary level is very Committee, Scottish Parliament, May 2000. poor among Travellers across the North of Ireland. Anecdotally this has been explained, at Segregation can take place formally and least in part, in terms of racism and bullying. informally in a number of different ways. Connolly and Keenan also provide new evidence Children can be segregated within a classroom, on this.114 Mann-Kler’s research in 1997 also raised for example they can be made to sit in a different questions about the experience of education by part of the room away from their classmates. young Travellers.115 As pointed out by Save the More formally, arrangements can be made to Children and the Children’s Law Centre in their instruct children in separate classrooms, but joint publication, Getting it Right? The State of within the same school, such as so-called “special Children’s Rights in Northern Ireland at the end of the classes”. Finally, entire schools can be established, 20th Century, given that segregation on the basis of designed to cater for one particular group, that “race” constitutes direct discrimination, the remains segregated from mainstream schools government can be seen to be facilitating racism (such as in Belfast, discussed below). Although we by maintaining a “Traveller-only” school in are increasingly hearing of this process in various Belfast.116 The Council for Catholic Maintained countries in central and eastern Europe, it does Schools, which manages the school, is emphatic also occur in the UK. The incident below that St. Paul’s was not created as a Traveller- happened at a primary school in Buckinghamshire specific school, but that it became so over a at Christmas time:

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period of years as parents of settled children subsequently been internally endorsed.117 This chose not to send their children there, or states: “The Council will strive towards altering withdrew them. The quality of building in both the de facto segregated status of St. Paul’s School St Paul’s and St Mary’s schools is itself evidence over a period of five to seven years but only if the of differential treatment. The 1998 Department conditions are appropriate” (original emphasis). of Education (Northern Ireland) report on the Among these “conditions” the paper says: “The school noted that: “there are continuing serious Council would expect that: ... (ii) No primary deficiencies in the accommodation which have an school would be enrolling a proportion of adverse effect on the quality of the teaching and Traveller children which might create another learning”. However marked improvements have segregated school or be detrimental to an since been made and in June 2000, St Paul’s inclusive ethos.” (sic)118 relocated onto other premises at St. Mary’s. Likewise in Scotland, there have been similar In terms of inspections of the school, in October reports of a segregated experience both within 1998, a positive assessment of the school was and outside the classroom at school. For example made. The school was seen as promoting the it was reported to the Equal Opportunity “personal and social development of the Committee hearings in May 2000 that a school children” and “the exemplary behaviour of the in Larkhall, which has four Travellers attending, children”. There was less evidence of educational put the Gypsy/Traveller children in a room on achievement or progress measured in terms of their own and gave them a separate part of the outcomes. In April 2001, a brief report on the playground at breaktimes and lunchtimes.119 school, however, stated “a significantly improved This type of experience does nothing to enhance environment for learning” and “encouraging the attraction of school to Gypsy and Traveller signs of improvement in the children’s parents. achievements in the end-key-stage tests in English and mathematics”. In Wales, research findings into the educational needs of Gypsies and Travellers have also noted Most observers in the north agree, however, that some of the Gypsy/Traveller children that the existence of such a segregated school included in the study were often seen as is iniquitous in principle and there is broad “disrupting” normal classroom life by being agreement on the need to integrate primary “too loud” and were segregated from other pupils. school provision for Travellers and settled Many children reported being given a book or children. Indeed, one of the recommendations some other work and told “to get on with it” of the PSI report on Travellers calls for “a clear in the corner whilst the rest of the pupils were strategy and action plan to phase out St. Mary’s ... taught separately.120 This is a common sentiment over a five-year period”. In early 2000, the and is echoed throughout various parts of Council for Catholic Maintained Schools the UK. produced a “position paper” which has

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The inappropriateness of the school curriculum penetrate mainstream schools. There is a tendency in some schools to see the TES as responsible “I probably only learned 10 per cent of what for Gypsy and Traveller pupils and as the I know at school. I learned from my parents “go-between” with the parents. This often means and from reading.” that schools fail to confront the issue directly on A member of a Gypsy/Traveller family in their own terms. This reluctance on the part of Scotland quoted in McKinney R., “Different schools to accept full responsibility for Gypsy Lessons”: Scottish Gypsy/Travellers and the and Traveller children has been noted by future of education, Scottish Travellers DfEE/OFSTED as militating against the Consortium, 2001, p. 31. development of co-ordinated action with TESs and other bodies in improving attendance and The minimal uptake of places by Gypsy and raising levels of attainment.121 Traveller young people at the secondary level of schooling is an issue that concerns many Another parent, from a New Traveller educationalists with an interest in the matter. background, had this to say on the issue of the The low figures are at least some reflection of subjects taught at school being no match for how schools are perceived as being inappropriate what could be taught on a site: to their needs and interests as a minority group. “I think that they [our kids] are learning loads There are numerous reasons for the low take-up of stuff that kids who are going to school of secondary education. For example, one aren’t actually learning and that they’re going to representative of the Scottish Gypsy Traveller need to survive, to keep themselves going...” Association had this to say: Quoted in Auckland, R., The Educational Needs of New Traveller Children: findings of the “the system disengages Traveller children who Travellers’ School Charity, YAPP charitable are written off by schools before they even foundation, 2000, p. 25. discover their potential. If you don’t learn to read and write you’re punished ... you’re taught These comments take us back to the point that things in certain ways.” the school curriculum, whether in England, Wales, Telephone interview with the Scottish Northern Ireland or Scotland, has to be made to Gypsy Traveller Association, 21 July 2000, appear relevant to those Gypsy and Traveller by Nicky Torode. parents who are being asked to “hand their children over” to a formal non-Gypsy education The failure of schools to be adaptable and flexible system. If it fails to respond to their needs, then in this way represents an important issue and is the more attractive option is for on-site or home one that relates not only to Gypsy/Traveller education. pupils, but to many pupils. Although there are examples of TESs in England and Wales working on differentiated education, such initiatives rarely

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Cases of anti-Gypsy/Traveller racism at school by Gypsies and Travellers would appear to be considerably fewer than those reported by other “It was sometimes difficult, it was really bad. groups, although exact data on this are hard to Sometimes I’ve felt I dinnae want to come to trace. school but I had to... In the classroom they wouldn’t sit beside you. They said they’d get One incident in an East London school, for something off you... They called us ‘Gypsies, example, involving an Afro-Caribbean pupil and a smelly Gypsies’.” Gypsy/Traveller pupil where racist remarks were Adult female Irish Traveller quoted exchanged between the two, ended with the latter in Lloyd G., Stead J. and Jordan B., being excluded and the former remaining on the Travellers at School: the experience of parents, school roll.123 Where racist bullying is accepted pupils and teachers, Moray House, towards some groups and not others, such as in Edinburgh, 1999, p. 5. this case, it serves to highlight the way in which “The secondary school I went to was a Gypsies and Travellers are seen as being somehow nightmare, and our education was just about not “deserving” of the same recognition as other survival. We did not have the time to read and minority groups. However, it is not only racism write because we were being spat upon, bullied from fellow pupils that young Gypsies and and generally abused by the pupils and the Travellers have to endure: adults are sometimes majority of teachers.” guilty as well. M. K., adult male Scottish Traveller, Scottish Gypsy Traveller Association, Given that practice at school is often a product of to the Equal Opportunities Committee, indifference on the part of wider society towards Scottish Parliament, May 2000. racism against Gypsies and Travellers, there is much evidence that Gypsy and Traveller pupils Although many schools throughout the UK have are discriminated against by teachers as well as written policies for combating racial harassment peers. For England, the 1996 OFSTED report and promoting good “race relations”, few noted that Gypsy and Traveller children have monitor their implementation or effectiveness.122 historically been hindered in their access to The racist element to bullying can often be schools by the attitudes of some headteachers, dismissed as “peer teasing” or “name-calling”. governors and others in the non-Gypsy/Traveller The failure to investigate racist incidents is settled society. Such racism traditionally results in widespread, but has particular ramifications for the refusal to admit Gypsy and Traveller children Gypsies and Travellers. The way racist incidents or in delay or in the imposition of difficult or are treated within the school directly affects the discriminatory conditions.124 Numerous interviews willingness of victims to come forward. This and testimony support the view that Gypsies and certainly seems to be the case with Gypsies and Travellers are in many cases actively denied access Travellers; the number of racist incidents reported to schooling.

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In one London borough, which commissioned a One young Traveller woman has told of the study into the needs of the Traveller community, impact of bullying and constant intimidation: it was found that Gypsy and Traveller parents were experiencing difficulty in registering children “I was doing alright ... but when they found once it became known they were from Gypsy/ out who I was they started calling me names Traveller families. Research carried out for Save and when I wanted to borrow a pen they the Children in Wales confirms this reluctance to wouldn’t let me borrow anything and they admit Traveller children: “Those on unauthorised wouldn’t want to sit beside me as well... sites report difficulties with obtaining education Whenever that happens you lose all your provision for their children since many local concentration on your work, on everything, authorities refuse to acknowledge their because you lose confidence. You know presence.”125 something bad is going to happen day after day. I used to like to go to school when that The DfEE/OFSTED 1999 report noted that wasn’t happening to me but when it was I teacher expectations of Gypsy/Traveller children didn’t want to go back. You don’t have any when in school are generally unreasonably low.126 friends.” The report stated that although many of the Quoted in Elizabeth Laing (ed.) 1992, schools “recognise and celebrate” ethnic diversity, Moving Stories: Traveller Women Write, Traveller there is considerable hesitancy with regard to Education Team, London, 1992, p. 98-99. Gypsies and Travellers. From various testimonies, such as the one above, Racist name calling and bullying is a problem there is a general theme of young Gypsy and often experienced by Gypsy and Traveller children Traveller pupils being ignored, not being believed once in school, which often goes unchallenged. and being subjected to harassment and abuse on For example, in England it was noted back in account of their “difference”: that is, of being 1985 in the Swann Report that: “the degree of Travellers. Likewise, there is a deficiency or “gap” hostility towards Gypsies and Traveller children in the structures and mechanisms which should if they do enter school is quite remarkable even be encouraging children to challenge or report when set alongside the racism encountered by the racism they are facing at school. This is children from other ethnic minority groups.”127 all the more worrying in light of the supposed More recent research reveals similar levels of “tightening up” of the systems following the racism. A study carried out in England and Wales, critical findings of the Macpherson Report. for example, revealed how teachers and schools Indeed, Save the Children in Scotland have felt it included in the study did not feel confident in necessary to say that: “[our] experience indicates a dealing with racial incidents and issues.128 lack of perceived awareness or commitment on the part of some schools to take racist issues and prejudices seriously.”129 If the problem is

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ignored or not taken seriously then this can only own prejudices; their family loyalty and their serve to give further good reasons to Gypsy and respect for their parents and extended family Traveller parents not to send children to school, are an example to their non-Traveller peers; a place where their children are not treated they provide cultural diversity in an otherwise with respect: homogenous community... our Travellers have been integrated into the school without “There’s only one [Traveller] boy in the school compromise to their identity; as a result the and that’s my son and he’s been ‘called’ ever school has gained.” since he went... When S [daughter] tells the Headteacher quoted in DfEE/OFSTED, teacher she doesn’t seem to be believed... and Raising the Attainment of Minority Ethnic this is the reason why S says to me ‘I’m not Pupils – schools and LEAs Responses, going back to that school anymore’... How do HMSO, London, 1999. you expect to keep them at school? You’re not going to let your child getting rowed every day of The focus of educational development, when the week.” viewed from the needs and preferences of the Traveller mother quoted in Lloyd G., service provider, can often be at the expense of Stead J. and Jordan B., Travellers at School: an understanding of the impact it has on the the experience of parents, pupils and teachers, users: children and young people. The process of Moray House, Edinburgh, 1999, p. 4. incorporating the voices of users, including those of Gypsy and Traveller communities, into the planning and design of education provision is Statutory and voluntary sector increasingly seen as important for improving not practice only levels of access but also the purpose and quality of education itself. This far-reaching “The Committee notes that significant process helps policy design/consultation progress has been made to meet the mechanisms to go beyond the principle of simply educational needs of the travellers having an “open door” policy. The UN Special communities and gypsies [sic].” Rapporteur on the Right to Education, for UN Committee on Social, Economic and example, expressed concern with the formulation Cultural Rights, Comments on the UK’s Report, whereby Gypsy and Traveller children are Concluding Observations, E/C.12/1/Add.19, “entitled to have access to schools in the same 1997, para 6. way as other children”. Merely granting “access” to schooling, she argues, does not accommodate “It is very evident that the school benefits for the children’s lifestyle or put their perspective from the presence of our Travellers. For as a central concern. Indeed, it also brings into example, their morality and cleanliness have question the wider enjoyment of their freedom of caused many non-Travellers to question their movement and residence.130

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There are, however, many examples of innovative In selecting and highlighting the examples cited in projects and schemes that aim to represent the this section of the report, two main criteria have interests of Gypsies and Travellers in terms of been used: both promoting their access to schooling and 1 positive evaluation by users (that is, Gypsy and wider learning and improving the quality of Traveller communities and where possible education. Some of these projects have been Gypsy and Traveller children and young funded from European sources and projects people) whilst others have been funded within the UK. Examples of both types can be found across 2 the potential for wider replication (that is, their the UK in the statutory and voluntary sectors. potential to be a “tried and tested” method of A number of these have been selected for this working towards inclusion which can be report and are grouped according to Save the adopted by a number of bodies). Children UK’s principles of “good” practice in education:131 An inclusive approach • inclusive The principle of inclusion is that all children have • responsive access to a relevant education. Fundamental to • relevant inclusion is the recognition and promotion of • developmentally appropriate cultural diversity. An inclusive ethos based on • participatory. cultural diversity is identified and praised in the

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1996 OFSTED report which offers a useful required to develop a “race relations” strategy, starting point: which amongst other issues, deals with racist bullying. Various initiatives have been developed “Where the presence of Travelling children is in response to this. For example, racist incidents openly acknowledged and where accurate and can be recorded in a number of non-intimidating positive images of the different nomadic ways, such as through an incidents book or a communities are featured in both the resources confidential “drop-box”. Childline have tended of the school and curriculum, then the to promote the “telling a friend” method and response is lively and there is a genuine offering training for young people to be able to openness in learning...Travelling children respond to reports of racist incidents. One appear to achieve higher standards in schools strategy adopted by schools in Wolverhampton is which place great emphasis on equality of a playground mapping exercise during which opportunity and by encouraging the acceptance pupils are able to identify “unsafe areas” and of cultural and ethnic diversity, establish an design ways of improving them. ethos which fosters self-esteem and pride within an individual and group identity.” Another example of a strategy aimed at OFSTED, 1996, The Education of encouraging an inclusive school policy is the Travelling Children, HMR/12/96/NS, attempt by some schools and TESs to prepare 1996, p. 18. primary school pupils, including Gypsies and Travellers, for their move to secondary schools. Examples This has particular significance for Gypsy and The education systems of the UK, being largely Traveller pupils in that it is at this stage in the exam/achievement orientated, tend to stress school cycle that the largest dropout rates occur. written and academic skills over oral and This has many consequences, as has recently been vocational skills. For some groups this can be an noted in Northern Ireland: inappropriate, culturally insensitive model and environment in which to learn. As noted by “Most Travellers have a negative contact with Peterborough Traveller Education Services, the the formal education system. Many young common view of education is assimilative in that Travellers have little experience of the people are made to fit into systems as opposed to education system at all – particularly secondary systems fitting people.132 level education. Traveller education takes place within Traveller society... Most formal [education Other than the promotion and acknowledging of and] training has failed to address the legacy of diversity in the classroom, schools are legally the limitations of statutory education for required to adopt and implement an equal Travellers. It neither compensates for the opportunities policy. Since the Macpherson failures of primary and secondary education Report was published in 1999, schools are now for Travellers nor engages with the specific and

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positive aspects of the Traveller economy or The Devon TES has offered some initial wider aspects of Traveller culture.” guidelines for responding to and respecting Donahue M. and McVeigh R., The Real Deal Gypsy and Traveller culture in the classroom. for Travellers: what young Travellers really think They cover a number of issues, not all of which about government, politics and social exclusion, Save are necessarily exclusive to Gypsies and Travellers, the Children UK, 2001, unpublished report. but have resonance for addressing cultural diversity in general.133 However, as a response to high dropout rates from primary to secondary level education, some Another strategy that has proved successful has TESs in England and Wales have organised been allowing brothers and sisters and close one-day visits for Year six pupils to secondary relations to go into the class, despite different schools (for example the Cambridgeshire Team ages, which helps the child to settle in initially. for Traveller Education). On a similar basis, the It is possible that children who have rarely been in West Midlands Consortium Education Service for school before will be unused to a room the size of Travelling Children has developed a “shadowing” a classroom, and may find this difficult. Children arrangement for primary pupils in which they from some families may be unfamiliar with books partner up with a secondary pupil in order to and not know how to handle them. If parents are familiarise themselves with secondary schooling. illiterate they will probably not have had stories Another strategy that has been developed is a read to them. On the other hand they will teacher exchange between primary and secondary probably have listened to a great deal of adult during the last half term. In addition to this, conversation and their spoken language and participating schools arrange all-year-round comprehension will have been influenced by this. learning links and visits. It was noted in the 1996 OFSTED report that Supportive strategies have also been developed for some children may be unwilling at first to change Gypsy and Traveller pupils once in secondary for physical education in a mixed class, and older school. For example, some TESs have set up children may seek to avoid showers. Gypsies and “buddying”/“my new school” projects in Travellers have strictly defined gender roles and secondary schools. These involve the pairing up strong views about the discussion of sex in of a younger Gypsy/Traveller with an older peer school. The school’s policy on sex education where, ideally the older buddy is a Gypsy/ should therefore be discussed with parents: Traveller. Another example, is where Gypsy/ Travellers are recruited as “escorts” to accompany “Some Traveller children find it hard adjusting younger Gypsy/Traveller children to school on to an indoor environment. The children may specially provided transport. This has been be very reluctant about changing for PE or developed in a number of areas across England, about removing earrings. School trips and such as the West Midlands. swimming may be declined owing to fears

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parents may harbour about the care and safety communities. Nomadism is often seen as an of their children when out of school.” “obstacle” to the education of Gypsy and OFSTED, The Education of Travelling Children, Traveller children in the UK. The following two HMR/12/96/NS, 1996, p. 18. quotes from teaching staff were picked up by recent fieldwork in Scotland: Religion is important to many Gypsies and Travellers; they attach great importance to taking “You want them to succeed, but they’ve moved communion and to gathering together for around so much, and they’re absent a lot so baptism, weddings and funeral. Such occasions they miss out. Every time they come back it’s are valued by families and provide opportunities like starting again” where news is exchanged and the family network Primary headteacher. maintained. School attendance will be a low priority at such times: “They suddenly appear: you alter all your “I learn a lot from the Bible and from going forward plans to include them in groups and tae Church. You learn how to treat people and then they don’t come back. It’s so frustrating!” about how to live a good life. We go on these Senior teacher, primary school quoted in missions every year to England. I like going Jordan B., “From Interdependence, to down there to get together with other Dependence and Independence: home and Travellers from all over the country” school learning for Traveller children”, Scottish Traveller quoted in McKinney, R., Childhood, 8(1):67, 2001. “Different Lessons”: Scottish Gypsy/Travellers and the future of education, Scottish Travellers The emphasis on providing UK Gypsy and Consortium, 2001, p. 31. Traveller children with access to a relevant education therefore must rest on an under- Although guidelines such as those produced by standing of, and a respect for, nomadic culture in Devon TES may be important in helping to order to find ways of adapting to it. However, it shape good practice, it is important to avoid should also be remembered that nomadism may over-emphasising “problematic” differences at not be the primary reason why a school education the expense of an understanding of the role is being rejected by Gypsies and Travellers. played by schools, that is, the individual school’s In her recent dissertation, which was a fierce inability or unwillingness to recognise and respect critique of Judith Okely’s book The Traveller Gypsies cultural diversity. (1983), Jane Lee, an English Romanichal herself, has said: Being responsive to “difference” Education systems should be flexible enough “I believe that Gypsies reject education not to be able to respond to the different life because they are constantly moving around but conditions of children and the needs of different because they are constantly faced with attitudes

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which deny them their culture whilst in the “tracking” via a computer database may be education system.” regarded by some Gypsy/Traveller parents is a Lee, J. G., The Traveller Gypsies Reconsidered, matter of some concern. BSc Degree Dissertation, University of Durham Stockton Campus, The West Midlands Consortium Education 2000, p. 25. Service for Travelling Children suggest that when families return to their winter quarters it is useful Examples to have a certificate or other reward system to In 1992, the Department of Education acknowledge the independent study done through introduced the “Green Card” scheme. It provides “school-based distance learning”. Again, this a parent-held card to facilitate swift transfer would act as an “incentive” to promote further of educational records between schools. study using distance learning methods when the The question of whether to extend the scheme summer fair season comes round again. Again, to include parent-held educational records to school-based distance learning is another area avoid continual reassessment is currently being where information and communications discussed. A system known as the “Blue Folder” technology can be employed: in some parts of is already in existence for Fairground Travellers the country Fairground students who are taking and is one of a number of Parent Held Pupil GCSEs while touring are using mobile phones, Education Record Books in operation. The “Blue e-mail and the internet to keep in contact with Folder” record book travels with the child and can their secondary specialist advisory teachers. be maintained by summer support teachers and returned to the base school at the end of the An alternative approach to that developed by the travelling season. From current evidence this West Midlands Consortium Education Service for scheme appears to have been relatively successful, Travelling Children, which is not specific to although there have been reports of some Gypsies and Travellers is that promoted by problems with “missing folders” and incomplete “Education Otherwise”. This is an independent records. Likewise, it is seen as being a “minimum organisation, formed in 1977, offering advice, aid” rather than something which replaces school guidance and support primarily to people who entirely. In Northern Ireland, it has also been have decided to educate their children at home. suggested that some form of electronic system, The name of the organisation comes from section using new information and communications 36 of the 1944 Education Act which states that: technology, will help support this and similar schemes.134 In England and Wales, the DfEE is “Parents are obliged to ensure that their child currently proposing a “Unique Pupil Number” receives efficient full-time education suitable system for all children which will monitor the to the child’s age, aptitude, or any special progress of individual children through a central educational needs he or she may have, while of database. How this formal registering and compulsory school age... either by regular

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attendance at school or otherwise.” (Emphasis However, the main organisation itself argues that: added.) As quoted in Kenrick, D. and Clark, C., “An increasing number of parents and children Moving On: The Gypsies and Travellers of Britain, want an alternative to school. Our reasons are University of Hertfordshire Press, many, and we often differ widely in our views, Hatfield, 1999, p. 127. but as parents we share the desire to take back direct responsibility for the education of our Some authorities offer “education otherwise” as children rather than to delegate it to schools.” an alternative if parents choose not to send their “Education Otherwise”, taken from its children to secondary school. Other authorities website: http://www.education- have used “education otherwise” as a type of otherwise.org/eo/intro.htm bridging option to keep lines of communication open until the children reach the age of 14 when The Travellers’ School Charity is another they can opt for a college course.135 Although not voluntary organisation, this time working largely – specific to Gypsies and Travellers, many Gypsy/ but not exclusively – with New Travellers, that has Traveller organisations see this general approach developed culture-friendly educational resources as having implications for Gypsy/Traveller for families who wish to teach their children at education. Friends, Families and Travellers, home. The material is targeted for use from for example, in its submission to the National preschool to key stage three. It also runs the Union of Teachers recommended that, given “Skool Bus Project” which, using a mobile the problems which beset the educational classroom, provides education on-site and at establishment in meeting Gypsy/Traveller festivals. At one point this did involve an actual children’s needs, extra resources need to be given bus, but Travellers’ School Charity now uses a to help parents “educate otherwise”. It is worth large mobile “dome” for classes. The aim is to noting that Save the Children in Scotland has also leave parents with materials and children with the been involved in preparing a booklet on rights enthusiasm to continue their progress after the for parents and children regarding home Travellers’ School Charity teachers have moved on education, thus illustrating that the mainstream to another part of the country.136 Although the voluntary sector is also taking “education bus is no longer in existence it is still a model for otherwise” seriously. However, the option of providing on-site education. As discussed earlier home education has been an area of some in this report, with a decline in education “concern and controversy” according to Sandra provision on unauthorised sites, most notably for Clay. For example, it has been pointed out that New Travellers, it is a type of education provision monitoring provision when families are highly that is growing in popularity.137 mobile is difficult, as is sometimes making families aware exactly what responsibilities they For travelling pupils school-based distance are taking on when “educating otherwise”. learning is also a suitable method for continuing

268 education. Many statutory and voluntary schools The National Association of Teachers of have developed materials for this type of learning. Travellers and the European Federation for the For example, one multimedia distance learning Education of the Children of Occupational project run by the European Federation for the Travellers are designing and piloting the Education of the Children of Occupational “A6 project”. This consists of parent-held Travellers in which Devon Consortium educational records for Gypsy and Traveller Traveller Education Service is a partner is the children whose stay in any one school is likely to “Flex project.” This pioneered the use of lesson be less than four weeks. This has mainly been materials which can be sent by satellite to children applied in England so far. who have special satellite equipment and laptops. Although, due to reasons of cost, this has Artemis is a non-profit making organisation been a small pilot project and is due to be which has been involved in developing evaluated in August 2001, it was the forerunner to educational materials, including multimedia “TRAPEZE”, a two-way satellite communication designs. Its strategy is to negotiate part-time system that set up a “virtual class” of children timetables if this is considered the best way of and enabled communication between tutors and keeping a pupil in contact with formal education. parents. At the time of writing, plans were in Evidence has shown these to be successful. place to establish one national model for school- For example, on a social level, Artemis has found based distance learning, taking into account such that keeping in touch with classmates is important initiatives as well as those on the part of the for Gypsy and Traveller children and has helped Standards Fund, DfEE and CRE for example.138 motivate them in continuing with schooling.

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The use of audiocassettes and postcards has been The Irish Travellers Project (as part of the Brent identified as some of the ways in which Gypsy Irish Advisory Service) in London, has run and Traveller pupils can maintain links with literacy and numeracy classes for women for teachers and classmates. which they note an increasing demand.140

The National Playbus Association is an Concerning work with other agencies the organisation whose aim is to support mobile Cambridgeshire Team for Traveller Education projects in improving the quality of life for has supported multi-agency initiatives at three children and families who have poor access to secondary schools involving youth projects and community facilities and resources. It has worked community groups. Inter-agency liaison work with Gypsies and Travellers, mainly in England, involves health services, site wardens, social in educational and recreational work. For example services, housing and benefits agencies. The key the Playbus has been an advice and information role of effective inter-agency work cannot be point, a youth centre, an after school club, an underestimated in allowing for a responsive adult education centre, an arts centre and a approach to Traveller education needs. Indeed, Traveller museum.139 many inter-agency initiatives have also focused on parental involvement in the education of Gypsy Many other innovative schemes have developed and Traveller children in order to encourage which are very cost-effective and relatively easy to parents to send their children to school and to establish. For example, some TESs and voluntary motivate the children to learn. Wrexham TES, for organisations throughout the UK have developed example, runs a Mother and Toddler Group homework clubs, after-school initiatives and through the Sure Start Programme. This provides “read to succeed” programmes so that Gypsy and a crèche for the children and courses for the Traveller children are offered time and space mothers, for example on child development, within which they can do their homework at their first aid and cookery. own pace. To encourage greater responsiveness and flexibility, a number of projects have also When a more flexible approach to the often rigid focused on training teachers and ensuring the education system is allowed to develop, Gypsy greater involvement of Gypsy and Traveller and Traveller children can enjoy the experiences children in the decision-making process. This and push themselves forwards in their learning. again highlights the issue that resources and With more nomadic families, this can be a facilities need to be directed to teachers and challenge to those schools and voluntary support staff as well as to Gypsy and Traveller organisations who work with such children. children. However, projects can, and do, succeed in meeting their needs and involving them in responsive and suitable forms of education.

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Introducing relevant topics currently being taught. According to parents, curricula are generally not seen as appropriate “So we may well ask why offer education to for Gypsy and Traveller children in terms of Gypsies at all? It might be ‘equal’ to do so, developing relevant and necessary skills for being but are there any benefits to the education of a “good Traveller”. This is also voiced by a Gypsies? After all, education prepares an number of organisations. The organisation individual for their life as an employee, but what Friends, Families and Travellers, for example, is the use of teaching children the skills they will never recommended that policies on Gypsy/Traveller use as adults? Although the majority of Gypsies education should recognise alternative strategies would agree with the education authorities that and methods of approach since conventional it is beneficial for a basic level of education to strategies have made such slow progress and be acquired, I believe they consider that there achieved limited success to date.141 is a ‘price’ to be paid (assimilation) and so opt out [at secondary level].” (Emphasis added.) Some Traveller Education teams have been Lee, J. G., The Traveller Gypsies Reconsidered, identified as responding well to a differentiated BSc Degree Dissertation, University of style of learning. An example is the “Education Durham Stockton Campus, 2000, p. 23. on the Hoof ” project that has been co-ordinated by the TES for Cheshire, Halton, Warrington and As with all children, schools and the education Stockport. This scheme has been running since system should offer Gypsy and Traveller pupils 1993 and has not only promoted the role of TESs various opportunities to learn things that will help but has also run adult basic skills sessions at them develop and acquire relevant skills. These Appleby Fair. Likewise, under schemes such as skills should not only improve their current “New Start” and “New Futures”, some male situation, but also aid their development in the Travellers have enrolled in colleges in England, future and in other contexts and environments. Wales and Scotland that run courses leading to There should be equal focus and attention given NVQs and SVQs (National and Scottish to academic and vocational skills and teachers Vocational Qualifications respectively) in skills should not assume “low expectations”. In order such as brick-laying, paving and roofing and to meet this challenge of “being relevant”, construction standards and safety. Some female education systems should give a voice to Gypsy Travellers have opted for courses that are linked and Traveller children – and to adults – in the in with hairdressing, teaching and computers.142 community at large. As with Traveller society more generally, Traveller approaches to education are extremely gendered: Examples Gypsy and Traveller boys and girls learn very The issue of low attendance rates among Gypsy different things in very different ways. and Travellers beyond the age of 14 in the UK can be partly attributed to the curricula that are

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Friends and Families of Travellers has carried out An appropriate developmental system146 a “Woodland Skills Training for Travellers” As we have seen throughout this report, education Project whereby Gypsies and Travellers are in a broader sense is much more than just pushing involved in coppice development. This is seen as children through a linear school system; it is to particularly beneficial in that it gives work to do with all aspects of learning amongst different Gypsy and Traveller families, keeps woodland in age groups in a variety of different contexts. economic production and improves relationships It involves a host of different actors including between settled people and Gypsies/Travellers.143 parents and children from the Gypsy/Traveller They are hoping to extend this scheme. community, LEAs and other statutory and Questionnaires revealed that nearly all completed non-statutory agencies that provide services to the training and that a significant proportion of Gypsies and Travellers. Education involves the participants went on to employment, self- numerous activities outside of school hours – employment and/or further training: such as preschool provision, after-school activities • 94 per cent completed training and youth work. More broadly it encompasses • 34 per cent went directly into employment by issues to do with social relations, including those another or self-employment with family and friends. The educational process • 10 per cent went on to further training. therefore should be based on a holistic “whole person” understanding of children’s feelings and These figures are particularly significant in the needs, and the identification of what approaches light of the fact that nearly a third of those who will help them learn and develop the confidence completed the questionnaires had no previous to continue learning and develop independently. vocational qualifications.144 Examples A strategy aimed at tackling disaffection among The use of active learning techniques and creating Gypsy and Traveller pupils through developing an atmosphere that is child-friendly is important alternative curricula is carried out in secondary in promoting an appropriate developmental schools by the Wrexham Traveller Education system. In terms of being flexible in the style of Team. “Disaffected” Gypsy and Traveller education, the Buckinghamshire TES cites an individuals are allowed a half-day relief to attend innovative example of a school assisting a Youth Access courses provided by the Youth Traveller with poor written skills in obtaining his Service. Subjects include mechanics and National Vocational Qualification in Farming. hairdressing. The TES assists pupils who do not They allowed him to talk through his assignments attend school or who have been excluded in with his mother as she acted as scribe. His final pursuing a more sustained alternative education piece of work was done by video camera, with the through the Youth Access at the local further student describing in “voice over” the procedure, education college.145 problems and solutions of shoeing a horse.

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A “Traveller Crew” Drop-In Youth Group has In Scotland, various schemes have developed. been set up by the Cambridgeshire Team for In Aberdeen, for example, a Young Learners Traveller Education. Youth work sessions so far Project has established a Gypsy/Traveller girls’ have dealt with issues such as bullying as well as group, which has a varied programme of recreational activities including jewellery making, photography, cooking and computers. A parallel swimming and barbecues. Such community work group for boys was also established. Save the is aimed at encouraging participation, acquiring Children in Scotland ran a programme aimed at new skills, raising individuals’ self-esteem and promoting health education among young confidence and building relationships. Gypsy/Traveller women in the Highlands with funding from the Highland Health Board. The London Gypsy and Traveller Unit runs a Although this finished in 2000, funding has Traveller girls’ group and a young women’s group recently been secured for work in issues related which have the aim of increasing skills, building to this. confidence and self-esteem through a variety of activities such as cooking, sport and discussion A peer research project among young Gypsies and work. They also run a Traveller boys’ and young Travellers was recently carried out by Save the men’s group. In addition they run an on-site play Children in Scotland for the EOC inquiry into the bus for the under fives. The unit notes that some way Gypsy/Travellers are treated by public bodies. of the children who attended the under fives Fourteen young Gypsy/Travellers administered project in the early 80s are now themselves 135 questionnaires across Scotland in 18 local parents who bring their children to the play bus. authorities. The survey dealt with a number of These parents form the core of Gypsies and issues including what “education” means to young Travellers in that area who are prepared to speak Gypsies and Travellers. It found that most out on issues affecting their community. respondents learnt most from their parents and only a small minority identified school as being The West Midlands Consortium Education the main source of learning.147 Service for Travelling Children cited a case in which one Gypsy/Traveller student worked Fostering a participatory atmosphere closely with her parents and elder brother as part Fostering a participatory atmosphere means of a condensed vocational training course actively encouraging the participation of all arranged during their non-touring winter season. “stakeholders” in all stages of the educational The experience of working alongside parents and process. Gypsies and Travellers, for example, older relatives can be seen as an extension of the need to be involved in the planning, design and family-based traditional teaching of skills implementation of any educational projects that associated with some Gypsy and Traveller affect their community. “Participation” does not communities. This could be a good model to mean token representation of children on school develop for use in other parts of the UK. management boards or councils, but the energetic

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and systematic creation of opportunities for them improve regular attendance of Gypsy and to learn, through guided practice, to think Traveller children. Although this programme independently, to articulate their feelings and to ceased to exist in 1997/98 it set a precedent of fulfil their responsibilities as “active citizens”. partnership working and the various agencies still work closely together. It has since widened its Examples partnership to include a number of health In some respects, good progress is being made in authorities across the Midlands. this area. OFSTED, for example, carried out a county council review of service provision to Ealing TES has recently employed four Gypsies and Travellers. This involved wide-scale Gypsy/Traveller classroom assistants on a consultation with the Traveller community whose part-time basis. Anecdotal evidence similarly input was invaluable for the planning of future suggests that the presence of a Gypsy/Traveller initiatives. Likewise, Leeds TES has involved in the classroom has had enormous impact Gypsies and Travellers in the In-Service on the Gypsy and Traveller pupils in terms of Educational Training (INSET) sessions for school motivation, support and achievement. staff whereby Gypsies/Travellers run sessions on Cambridgeshire TES has also recently recruited different aspects of Gypsy /Traveller culture. learning support assistants from the Gypsy and The course is designed and run by Gypsies and Traveller community. Initial evaluation of the Travellers themselves. In addition they have project suggests a positive impact on the children. employed a Gypsy/Traveller as Curriculum and In a similar way, for those children who have Parental Support Assistant. This has been very actually dropped out of school, BIAS, the Irish successful as they created role models for younger Travellers Project based in London, has been pupils and helped to promote understanding both recruiting mentors from the Traveller community within their own community and within the to offer career advice to pupils who are unsure 148 settled community. what to do next.

The Partnership Project was a joint project by The umbrella voluntary organisation, STEP statutory and voluntary agencies including West (Southern Travellers Early Years Project) in Midlands Consortium Education Service for Northern Ireland has been the main initiator of Travelling Children, Save the Children and preschool provision in the Southern counties. Walsall Health Authority. One of its activities As part of this the Newry Travellers Early Years was the recruitment of Gypsies and Travellers as Action Group will run a “Training for Travellers” classroom assistants, such as in nurseries. In such project which trains Gypsy and Traveller women cases, assistants were encouraged and supported to become involved in the running of preschool to formalise child skills by participating in provision. Similarly there is a playgroup and a Nursery Nurse training. Results for such initiatives Carer/Toddler Committee, which is made up of have shown that the presence of such assistants Gypsies and Travellers.

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Save the Children in Scotland has worked with anti-racist training for Gypsies and Travellers and Scottish Gypsies and Travellers in organising training for others about the Gypsy/Traveller and delivering “awareness raising training” in situation. multi- and single-agency settings, for example with police, teachers, health visitors, Women’s Aid Another example of participation among and social workers. Materials have been developed Gypsies and Travellers is with Save the Children’s by Gypsies and Travellers themselves and are Saying Power Scheme. This is a UK-wide project adapted according to the audience. An essential funded through the Millennium Commission, part of this kind of training is that Gypsies and Comic Relief and Save the Children. Young Travellers are paid as sessional staff for both people between the ages of 16 and 20 who have the preparation and training. Throughout, a experienced disadvantage can apply to become a community development approach has been used Millennium Award Holder. They are then funded and the focus has now expanded to more general to work on a project of their choice for one year anti-racist training. There is a dual purpose to this: under the supervision of Save the Children UK

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and a host organisation. Save the Children in education system still views many Gypsy and Wales, Northern Ireland, England and Scotland Traveller children as second-class pupils due to a have each recently recruited a Gypsy/Traveller as wide range of factors that have been explored in a Millennium Award Holder. The award holder in this UK report. England is looking at how a lack of access to secondary education and constant discrimination This report has drawn on a range of experiences has had an impact on young Gypsies and and practices across the four countries of Travellers in particular with regard to England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales employment. and draws out important similarities and differences within the UK. Distinct legal and policy frameworks exist in the four countries and Conclusion this has influenced the discussion in the report. This is especially true when comparing England “They say that you’ve got to send the kids to and Wales with Northern Ireland and Scotland. school... I don’t want my child to go anymore. In Northern Ireland, for example, Travellers have I don’t want her to have one of those jobs arguably been more central to anti-racist drives in pushing a pen in an office, what’s the good of various areas of public life: this is evidenced by that to my girl?” the fact that they were named as a specific group Traveller mother quoted in in the Race Relations Order of 1997 and the Okely, J., The Traveller-Gypsies, Cambridge recent PSI Working Group Report. However, University Press, 1983, p. 161. what this UK report continually demonstrates is that in spite of these different legal and policy Times have moved on since this Traveller mother frameworks, the actual disadvantaged experiences of spoke of her rejection of the non-Gypsy school school and education systems by Gypsy and system for her daughter. She did not see the Traveller children and young people are very mainstream education system as being able to similar. One way of accounting for these meet her needs as a young Traveller woman. similarities is due to the fact that the high level Nearly 20 years on, the economy and labour of anti-Gypsy and Traveller discrimination and market in the UK have undergone significant prejudice does not recognise national borders. changes. These changes have meant that shifts Also, the hostility and negative experiences that have occurred in the way some Gypsy and many Gypsies and Travellers face on a day-to-day Traveller parents and children view mainstream basis permeate not just the education system but education. It is seen by some parents, at primary all areas of life. The interaction between majority level in particular, as being useful for acquiring and minority populations across the UK, as the certain skills that will enable their children to Macpherson Report has highlighted, is blighted “earn a living” and be a “good Traveller” in later by institutionalised racism and a climate of life. However, even though access has been discrimination. improved in more recent years, the mainstream

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This report has attempted to set out the argument in other cases it was more to do with the for the “right” to education in the UK context segregated nature of the classroom experience. and has illustrated the general policy context of The experiences of Gypsy and Traveller children Gypsy and Traveller education. It was noted that at schools are many and varied and attention was the education systems across the UK, as with given to illustrating some of the few positive other European countries, are highly politicised experiences as well as the largely negative ones. and curricula are subject to an intense amount of lobbying which sees the “swinging pendulum” In light of all this discussion comes the key rock back and forth across the shades of the question: “What is to be done?” political spectrum. This has had an impact on the nature, direction and, importantly, funding of By attempting to identify “good” practice across Traveller education schemes and projects the four countries, it is hoped that some ideas for throughout the four countries. It was also noted a positive way forward can be highlighted. Indeed, that in the UK there is a clear, and also the practices discussed in this report show similar problematic, relationship between site provision levels of commitment across the UK on the part and accommodation. It was shown that in some of a number of different statutory and voluntary cases a stable, secure place to station one’s caravan organisations. It was illustrated that examples might make all the difference when it comes to of good practice could be found in terms of regular school attendance. Nomadism is a distinct educational practice that is inclusive, responsive, feature of UK Gypsy and Traveller life and it was relevant, developmentally appropriate and argued in the report that education structures and participatory. Some areas were found to be more practices need to take account of this fact and developed than others and overall there is still respond flexibly and with imagination to the much work to be done in terms of directly needs of more mobile Traveller families. influencing mainstream schools to meet the complex, but not unmanageable, needs of Gypsy Great detail has been given to the experience of and Traveller children. schooling for young Gypsies and Travellers in the UK. This focused not only on the racism, bullying Ultimately, the organisations highlighted here have and abuse that children regularly endure from aimed to fulfil and respond to the educational fellow pupils and staff, but also on other aspects needs of Gypsies and Travellers as identified by of their experiences. For example, the actual the families and communities themselves. The accessibility of schools in the first instance was most effective way forward for organisations with seen as a barrier to some pupils attending. an interest in Traveller education has been when Likewise, different forms of exclusion from they actively learn from previous approaches school were highlighted, some revolving around through a system of monitoring and reviewing “self-exclusion”. In some cases it was the content practices that involve the active participation of of the school curriculum that was not conducive Gypsy and Traveller communities. When this is to regular attendance of Traveller pupils whilst done in an enlightened and responsible way some

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progress has invariably been made in opening up • the Protocol instituting a Conciliation and improved educational opportunities to young Good Offices Commission to be responsible Gypsy/Traveller boys and girls – both in school for seeking the settlement of any dispute and out of school: which may arise between State Parties to the Convention against Discrimination in “Many teenage children still take time off Education (ratified 10 December 1962, school to learn their parent’s trades. But entered into force 10 March 1963) secondary school attendance is better from • the European Convention on Human Rights Thistlebrook [Gypsy caravan site, Greenwich] and Fundamental Freedoms (ratified than from most Gypsy sites, because the site is 3 November 1952, entered into force so well established. The schools have taken steps to 3 September 1953) respect the Gypsy way of life and make sure they meet • the First Protocol to the European Convention Gypsy pupils’ needs.” (Emphasis added.) on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Acton T. and Gallant, D., (entered into force 3 November 1952) Romanichal Gypsies, Wayland Press, • the Framework Convention for the Protection Hove, 1997, p. 8. of National Minorities (ratified 15 January 1998, entered into force 1 May 1998).

149 Recommendations Save the Children recommends that:

Given that the UK has ratified: In consultation with Gypsy/Traveller • the International Covenant on Civil and communities and expert advice the Political Rights (ratified 20 May 1976, entered Northern Ireland Assembly, the Scottish into force 20 August 1976) Parliament/Executive, the Welsh Assembly • the International Covenant on Economic, and the Government of the UK Social and Cultural Rights (ratified 20 May • Implement legislation to recognise the right to 1976, entered into force 20 August 1976) a nomadic lifestyle. • the International Convention on the • Create a legally enforceable code of practice Elimination of Racial Discrimination (ratified in relation to roadside camps which respects 7 March 1969, entered into force 6 April 1969) human rights and does not hinder or • the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child undermine in any way the delivery and take-up (ratified 16 December 1991, entered into force of educational entitlements and the fulfilment 15 January 1992) of duties under child protection. • the UNESCO Convention against • At a senior political level recognise prejudice Discrimination in Education (ratified towards Gypsy/Travellers and make a specific 14 December 1960, entered into force commitment to challenge discrimination at 14 March 1961) all levels.

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• Review legislation regulating the attendance of particularly for those Gypsy/Traveller children Gypsy/Traveller pupils. This should recognise aged 14 and above who would benefit. This the impact of accommodation difficulties on should draw from “education otherwise” and access to schooling, the 200 session rule and Youth Service models, and contain elements of distance learning. personal development and vocational training • Review existing legislation and arrangements alongside other elements of the curriculum. with regard to home education. The views of Gypsy/Traveller children and • Review existing legislation and arrangements parents should be widely sought in developing relating to distance learning and procedures for such a model. ensuring the continuity of education including • Develop appropriate skills training initiatives the transfer of educational records. for young Gypsy/Travellers. • Ensure that all local authorities adopt policies • Support and encourage awareness raising in relation to the education of Gypsy/Traveller training for all school staff and educational children, which should then be published and personnel. monitored by appropriate institutions including • Ensure that all teacher training includes OFSTED. specific reference to Gypsies and Travellers as • Develop appropriate consultative mechanisms part of general minority training and that to ensure the ongoing involvement of teachers are properly trained and procedures in Gypsy/Travellers in the monitoring of existing place for supporting a full induction into and the development of any new policies school for interrupted learners, including including those regarding education, such as Gypsy/Travellers. Connexions and Sure Start. • Utilise the opportunity offered by curriculum • Develop clear strategies, with associated developments, particularly with regard to the resources, to address the educational and development of citizenship, in order to health needs of Gypsy/Travellers. consider the relationship between settled • Strengthen monitoring of equal opportunities and Gypsy/Traveller communities, racial provision and extend funding to support equal discrimination against Gypsies/Travellers and opportunities services. their participation and representation within • Establish effective means for monitoring society. Also ensure curriculum development attendance, exclusions and achievements of all that is inclusive of their language, history and children, and specifically Gypsies/Travellers. culture. • Support schools at all levels, including • Adopt the European Commission Burden of preschools, in adopting best practice in relation Proof directive, which provides for a partial to building close links between school and shifting of the burden of proof to the family. respondent in sex discrimination cases. This • Ensure that a more flexible post-primary should also be applied to race discrimination curriculum is made more widely available, cases.

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In consultation with Gypsy/Traveller • Phase out the St. Mary’s School (Gypsy/ communities and expert advice the Northern Traveller only) in West Belfast over five years, Ireland Assembly and the Department of in consultation with children and parents, and Education in Northern Ireland alongside a committed initiative to develop an • Set up a targeted initiative to increase the inclusive intercultural and anti-racist ethos uptake of preschool provision among within other primary schools in the area, using Gypsy/Traveller children. This should best practice models outlined in the DfEE include ensuring that integrated preschool report Working Towards Inclusive Education: environments are understanding and reflective Aspects of good practice for gypsy traveller children, of Gypsy/Traveller culture. The initiative 2000. should also introduce core funding, staff • In conjunction with Education and Library training and in-service support for staff in Boards and the Department for Learning and voluntary-run, on-site preschool provision. Employment, as well as with Traveller support At least on a pilot basis, in recognition of the organisations, facilitate the development of a specific early disadvantage of Traveller family/community based learning culture children, the initiative should aim to provide among Gypsy/Travellers, using approaches two years’ preschooling prior to normal such as Sure Start, family literacy schemes and primary level entry. homework/after school clubs. Educational • In conjunction with Education and Library initiatives should be linked, where possible, Boards and the Council for Catholic with developing related employment Maintained Schools, establish comprehensive opportunities for Gypsy/Travellers, for pupil transfer records for children moving example as classroom assistants and youth between different schools in the North of workers. Ireland to ensure that educational attainment • Collect systematic data on applications for levels are adequately recorded. admission to schools, school attendance, • Establish a pilot programme for educational suspensions and exclusions and educational strategies and support materials for children of achievement (including attainment at all key nomadic Traveller families. This should include stages). Such data should be collected in a distance learning using information and form capable of systematic measurement of communications technology, and outreach progress in relation to targets and priorities teaching support. set by the Department of Education in • As part of the proposed mandatory Northern Ireland. requirement on all schools to have anti-bullying • Place considerable emphasis on primary/ policies and strategies in place, include a post-primary transition for Gypsy/Traveller specific requirement in relation to anti-racism. children, including the development of strong Racist incidents of bullying should be recorded relationships between schools and families. and monitored. This approach should adopt a “whole school”

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ethos led by the school management and justice system, anti-discrimination and the Board of Governors, and should not be protection of Human Rights. It should issue delegated solely to a nominated Gypsy/ this national policy with associated legislative Traveller liaison teacher. proposals/actions and subsequent circulars and codes of practice. In consultation with Gypsy/Traveller communities and expert advice the Scottish In consultation with Gypsy/Traveller Executive/Parliament communities and expert advice the Welsh • Creates a statutory framework for existing site Assembly provision and any new site provision. • Reviews and evaluates Section 488 expenditure • Develops a national public education with a view to recognising the achievements of programme, similar to the Zero Tolerance the Traveller Education Service, removing the Campaign, to challenge racism towards structural and planning difficulties caused by Gypsy/Travellers and increase awareness. annual funding cycles, comparing levels of • Develops an independent working party to education expenditure in comparison within monitor progress towards any agreed other sectors of the community and bringing strategy/programme of work. Traveller education expenditure into line.150 • Expands the legal aid scheme to cover those • Reviews the national curriculum in terms of seeking to take action in discrimination cases. the relevance, quality and access to education as experienced by Gypsy/Traveller children in In consultation with Gypsy/Traveller Wales. communities and expert advice the • Establishes pilot projects based on mediation Government of the UK (in relation to models in contrasting locations in Wales to England) explore and address the issues of distrust and • Strengthens the role of TESs and integrates discrimination that surround children TES policies into the whole LEA policy, exercising their right to education in Wales. eg, establishes a Traveller Education Policy Participation in models of informal education within the Education Development Plan. could be considered as building capacity and • Reinforces within the CJPOA the element relationships between schools, LEAs and requiring “must consider welfare issues” as per Gypsy/Travellers. the Macpherson Report, Recommendation 37. • Reviews the role of play and preschool • Ensures that the national policy includes education in the life of Gypsy/Traveller strategies on site provision and children and develops proposals in this area in accommodation, education, health, police/ conjunction with preschool and play bodies. community relations, consumer rights, This should take into account that the role of nomadic status, resident/tenant rights, cultural play as an early pedagogic process is well promotion/protection, access to the criminal established in Wales amongst the settled

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population, even within the most marginalised and disadvantaged communities. Preschool provision, after-school and holiday schemes are likewise well developed except amongst Traveller groups. • Assesses the impact that Assembly-funded programmes such as Sure Start and other social inclusion Assembly initiatives have on Gypsy/Traveller children.

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Appendices Other relevant legislation England, Scotland and Wales Appendix 1: Main domestic legislation Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 and official guidance relating to See the section of this report on Gypsies and Travellers “Accommodation and access to education” for details on this Act. Specific to Gypsy/Travellers “Race” legislation England Caravan Sites Act 1968 England, Scotland and Wales The Act required all local authorities in England The Work of the Commission for Racial Equality and Wales to provide sites for all Gypsies and The Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) is a Travellers who “resided in or resorted to” their publicly funded, non-governmental body set up area. However, due to an opt-out clause called under the Race Relations Act 1976 (see below) to “designation” the proposed network of local tackle racial discrimination and promote racial authority sites never appeared.151 equality in the UK. The CRE works in both the public and private sectors to encourage fair Section 80 of the Criminal Justice and Public treatment and to promote equal opportunities for Order Act 1994 repealed this Act. everyone, regardless of their “race”, colour, nationality, or national or ethnic origin. Planning Acts: DoE Circular 1/94 “Gypsy Sites and • It provides information and advice to people Planning”, January 1994 who think they have suffered racial This sets out guidance on the planning aspects of discrimination or harassment. Gypsy caravan sites and underpins current • It works with public bodies, businesses and government policy. The key aim of this circular is organisations from all sectors to promote to ensure that all local planning authorities assess policies and practices that will help to ensure the need for Gypsy and Traveller accommodation equal treatment for all. in their area, and wherever possible identify in • It runs campaigns to raise awareness of “race” their plans locations suitable for sites – whether issues, and encourage organisations and local authority or private sites. The guidance is individuals to play their part in creating a just very much plan-led reflecting the provisions of society. the Planning and Compensation Act 1991. It • It makes sure that all new laws take full suggests that sites be located outside existing account of the Race Relations Act and the settlements, but within “reasonable” distance of protection it gives against discrimination. local services and facilities. (taken and adapted from: http://www.cre.gov.uk/ about/aboutcre.html)

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The Race Relations Act 1976 the Act. At a preliminary hearing at Central This applies to England, Wales and Scotland London County Court in July 2000, Judge (not Northern Ireland – see below). It outlaws Goldstein, however, rejected their argument, discrimination in education, amongst other areas. saying Irish Travellers should be covered by the Following an appeal in the High Court in 1989 Act in the same way as other ethnic groups. (case CRE v Dutton) Gypsies were recognised as The judge said that Irish Travellers had a shared an ethnic group entitled to protection under the history going back to at least the mid-19th Act. As stated in a report by the Churches century:154 Commission for Racial Justice, however, the term “Gypsy” under law is open to interpretation, and “Modern Irish Travellers are guided by the those who are unable or unwilling to prove that culture and traditions which have been handed they are “ethnic” Gypsies are excluded from such down by generations. They do not go around provision. It importantly draws a distinction reading history, they practise it.” (Emphasis added.) between so-called “traditional” Gypsies and Travellers and New Travellers.152 The Act His judgement means that the Travellers could therefore places the onus on individuals to carry on with their claim of discrimination demonstrate they fulfil the criteria. For Travellers, against Punch Retail. The case (as of April 2001) the process of recognition under the Act has is ongoing as the company has appealed. been slower. It was not until very recently, on Four of the Travellers were in court to hear the 29 August 2000, that a judgement was passed by judgement. Patrick O’Leary, Michael, Margaret a London court declaring that Irish Travellers and Kathleen Kiely said in a statement:155 residing in the UK are to be considered an ethnic group under the Act.153 “This is a great moment for us. For the first time in our lives we feel we can proudly and This ruling is significant. The CRE has reported publicly tell everyone we are Irish Travellers. that the judgement on the Travellers, who had We have suffered much when it comes to been denied the protection given to other ethnic discrimination and prejudice. We are confident minorities, was a victory for a group that routinely that we are now in a better position to deal suffered discrimination. Eight Travellers, originally with that. We hope this success will encourage from Ireland, were claiming discrimination against other Irish Travellers to use the law whenever five pubs in the Harrow and Enfield areas of they are discriminated against.” London which, they claimed, had refused to serve them. They brought the case after secretly If they are eventually successful in their recording what happened when they asked to be discrimination claim, they will receive served in the pubs in April 1998. Lawyers for compensation of about £1,000 each. In his ruling, Punch Retail, the owner of three of the pubs, Judge Goldstein said excluding Irish Travellers argued that Irish Travellers were not covered by from the protection afforded by the Act would

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leave three anomalies. The Court of Appeal, in The Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2001 1989, had already decided in the case of CRE v This came into effect in April 2001 and brings all Dutton that “Romany Gypsies” were covered by public authorities under the “race relation” the Act and the two groups shared characteristics. provisions, including the police. It is a response to It would also, he said, go against the provisions the findings in the 1999 Macpherson Report on against discrimination provided by the European institutionalised racism. It reinforces the Convention on Human Rights, which is now accountability of administrators for their incorporated into UK law with the Human Rights decisions, including in respect of discrimination. Act 1998 (specifically, Article 8). They already had However, some of the suggestions put forward by protection in Ulster under the Northern Ireland the CRE for inclusion within the Act were Race Relations Order, 1997. dropped by the present Labour government as being “unworkable”. In the light of the subsequent need to define who is and who is not a Gypsy or Traveller, various Northern Ireland attempts have been made to draw up basic Race Relations (NI) Order 1997 criteria. The Mandla v Lee and others (1983) This Order makes it illegal to discriminate against House of Lords judgement laid down the anyone on the grounds of race. It is broadly following criteria by which it was claimed, one can equivalent to the Race Relations Act 1976. be defined as an ethnic group: The Act recognises Irish Travellers as a distinct • a long shared history, of which the group is racial group: a “Community of people commonly conscious as distinguishing it from other so-called who are identified (both by themselves groups, and the memory of which it keeps and others) as people with a shared history, alive culture and traditions including, historically, a • a cultural tradition of its own, including family nomadic way of life, on the island of Ireland.” and social customs and manners, often but not necessarily associated with religious observance However the Traveller Movement (NI) has noted • either a common geographical origin or the following shortcomings: descent from a small number of common • the Order does not apply to government ancestors bodies such as the police, prison services or • a common language, not necessarily peculiar to courts the group • the Order places an inordinately high burden • a common literature peculiar to the group of proof on those alleging discrimination • a common religion different from that of • the Order is centred on the individual and does neighbouring groups or from the general not adequately protect groups. community surrounding it • being a minority or being an oppressed or a dominant group within a larger community.

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Education Legislation registered pupil as regularly as the nature of England that trade or business permits, where the child Education Act 1944 has attained the age of six years, he has made This introduced universal access to primary at least 200 attendances (ie, 200 sessions or education for all, free of charge. Making half-days) during the preceding twelve education compulsory meant that parents had a months.” duty to ensure that their children received education. “It shall be the duty of the parent of The intention was to prevent unreasonable every child of compulsory school age to cause prosecution of Gypsy/Traveller children’s parents him to receive efficient full-time education for failure to meet educational requirements.156 suitable to his age, ability and aptitude.” Section 488 amended part B of Circular 10/90 Education Act 1980 offering a specific grant to local authorities from DES Circular 11/81 paragraph 5 (an amendment central government, which mostly funds the TES. to the Education Act 1980) extends the duty In 1999/2000 the grant supported a total to all children residing in their area, whether expenditure of £13 million. This is allocated permanently or temporarily. “The duty thus within a framework of a competitive bidding embraces Traveller children, including Gypsies.” process with local projects being planned for three year periods at a time.157 Education Reform Act 1988 Section 210 introduced a specific grant for the The notion of “education otherwise” is provided education of Travellers and Displaced Persons. for. “Every child shall receive an education This was followed by Circulars 10/90 and 11/92 suitable to any special educational needs he may both of which encouraged LEAs to be active in have, either by regular attendance at school or making viable provision for the education of otherwise.” As more and more Traveller families Gypsies and Traveller children. are opting for, or possibly are forced into, home education, there need to be changes into what is Education Act 1993 acceptable as home provision and rules on The special position of Travellers was recognised inspection and monitoring. in the Education Act 1993. Northern Ireland Education Reform (NI) Order 1989 Education Act 1996 This gave rise to the development of Local Traveller parents are protected from conviction if Management of Schools in 1991. There is also a the parent can demonstrate that: Department of Education (Northern Ireland) “he is engaged in a trade or business of such a Circular No. 1993/37 entitled: “Policy and nature as requires him to travel from place to Guidelines for the Education of Children from place; the child has attended at a school as a Traveller Families”.

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Scotland Health and Social Services and the Office of Law The Education (Scotland) Act 1980 Reform, follows the introduction of the Children Partly amended by the Education (Scotland) Act Act 1989 in England and Wales and broadly 1981 and School Boards (Scotland) Act 1988, this replicates it. Act details parents’ choice and choice of school. There is no special grant aid available for Scotland Gypsy/Traveller education under this Act. Children (Scotland) Act 1995 This places obligations on local authorities, Currently there is a new legislation going through eg, social workers. Reflecting the principles of the Parliament on standards in Scotland’s Schools UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, this (Standards in Scottish Schools Education Bill – Act recognises the diversity of children and published during 2000). families in Scotland by placing a new duty that in working with children local authorities should Scottish Office of Education and Industry Department’s “have regard, as far as practicable, to the child’s Parent’s Charter 1995 religious persuasion, racial origin and cultural and Authorised leave of absence was recognised in linguistic background”. The guidance booklet this Parent’s Charter.158 Valuing Diversity makes specific mention of Traveller families. Wales Welsh Office Circular 52/90 (equivalent to the DES Human rights legislation Circular 11/81) England, Scotland and Wales Human Rights Act 1998 Children’s rights legislation The Human Rights Act came into force in England and Wales Britain on 2 October 2000 and incorporates the Children Act 1989 European Convention on Human Rights in The Children Act brings together all previous British law. legislation regarding children. The Act places duties on local authority departments to work The Government of Wales Act 1998 section 107 in partnership with parents, inter-dependently and Schedule 8 provides that the Welsh Assembly and inter-agency, to ensure maximum was effectively bound by the Human Rights Act information. provisions from 1 July 1999.

Northern Ireland The Convention rights and freedoms, which will Children Order (NI) 1996 be protected under the Act, include: The Children (NI) Order became law on 15 March 1995 and its main provisions came into Article 2 the right to life and the prohibition of operation on 4 November 1996. The Order, arbitrary deprivation of life which is jointly promoted by the Department of Article 6 the right to a fair trial

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Article 8 the right to respect for private and Northern Ireland family life, home and correspondence The Northern Ireland Act 1998 Article 10 freedom of expression, including the This Act established a Human Rights right to receive and impart information Commission and a unified Equality Commission. and ideas without interference The Equality Commission has drawn up a Article 11 freedom of assembly and association, statutory duty for all public authorities, including including the right to form and join the Department of Education and the Education trade unions and Library Boards, “to have due regard to the Article 14 the prohibition of discrimination on need to promote equality of opportunity” among any ground such as sex, race, colour, different racial groups. Also in operation since language, religion, opinion, national or 1996 are the Policy Appraisal and Fair Treatment social origin, association with a guidelines. Their purpose is to simply offer national minority, property, birth or guidance, not to enforce the law. other status. In essence, the Act was the legislative encoding of The UK Government makes a reservation to the the “Good Friday Agreement”. Section 75 puts provision of the right to education (First Protocol equality proofing onto a statutory basis and means article 2). This was added by the UK largely on that Travellers in Northern Ireland, as a specific grounds of cost: group, have to be addressed within statutory equality schemes. “The State shall respect the right of parents to ensure that their children’s education conforms to their religious and philosophical convictions, to specify that this principle is restricted by its compatibility of efficient instruction and training and the avoidance of unreasonable public expenditure.”

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Appendix 2: Contacts Advisory Service for the Education of Travellers, Room 125, Cricket Road Centre, Cricket Road, International Oxford OX4 3DW. European Federation for the Education of the Children of Occupational Travellers, Grenstraat, Artemis, 8 East Cliff, Preston, Lancashire, 6 Rue del la Limite, B-1210 Brussels. PR1 3JE. Tel: 32/2/2274060 Fax: 32/2/2274069. Tel/Fax: 01772 263826. http://www.efecot.net/ http://www.jokak.demon.co.uk/ artemis/homepage.html European Roma Rights Centre, H1386 Budapest 62, PO Box 906/93, Hungary. Belfast Travellers’ Education and Development Tel: 36/1/4132200 Fax: 36/1/4132201 Group, 13A Glen Road, Belfast BT11 8BA. http://www.errc.org/index.shtml Tel: 02890 203337 Fax: 02890 809191 http://www.btedg.com/ Gypsy Research Centre, Prof. Jean-Pierre Liégeois, Université René Descartes, 45 rue des BIAS Brent Irish Travellers Project, Saints-Pères, 75270- Paris Cedex 06, France. 332 Rayners Lane, Pinner, Middlesex, HA5 5ED. Fax: 33(0)142862065 British Romani Union, The Reservation, Hever Minority Rights Group, 379 Brixton Road, Road, Edenbridge, Kent TH8 5DJ. London SW9 7DE. Tel: 44 020 79789498 Fax: 44 0 2077386265 Cardiff Gypsy Sites Group, 136a Clifton Street, http://www.minorityrights.org/ Cardiff, CF24 1LY.

Save the Children UK, 17 Grove Lane, London, Commission for Racial Equality (England), SE5 8RD. Elliot House, 10-12 Allington Street, London, Tel: 44 020 77035400 Fax: 44 020 7703 2278 SW1E 5EH. http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/ Tel: 0207 828 7022 Fax: 0207 630 7605 http://www.cre.gov.uk/ UK and Ireland Advisory Council for the Education of Romany Commission for Racial Equality (Scotland), and other Travellers (ACERT), Moot House, Hanover House, 45-51 Hanover Street, The Stow, Harlow, Essex CM20 3AG. Edinburgh, EH2 2PJ. Tel: 01279 418666. Tel: 0131 240 2600 Fax: 0131 240 2601

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Commission for Racial Equality (Wales), Capital Friends and Families of Travellers, Tower, 14th Floor, Greyfrairs Road, Cardiff, Community Base, 113 Queen’s Road, Brighton, CF1 3AG. East Sussex BN1 3XG. Tel: 02920 388977 Fax: 02920 399680 Tel: 01273 234 777 Fax: 01273 234 778 http://home.clara.net/hsg/agitator/data/f/ Department for Education and Employment, fft00049.html Sanctuary Buildings, Great Smith Street, London, SW1P 3BT. Gypsy Council for Education, Culture, Welfare Tel: 0870 000 2288 Fax: 01928 794248 and Civil Rights, 8 Hall Road, Aveley, Romford, http://www.dfee.gov.uk Essex, RM15 4HD. Tel/Fax: 01708 868986 Department of Education, Rathgael House, 43 Balloo Road, Bangor, Co. Down, BT19 7PR. Home Office Race Equality Unit. Tel: 028 9127 9279; Fax: 028 9127 9100. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/dob/reu.htm

Education Otherwise, PO Box 7420, London, Irish Traveller Movement, 4-5 Eustace Street, N9 9SG. Dublin 2, Ireland. Tel: 0870 7300074. Tel: 353 1 679 6577 Fax: 353 1 679 6578 http://www.education-otherwise.org/ http://www.itmtrav.com/

Equality Commission for Northern Ireland, London Gypsy Traveller Unit, 6 Westgate Street, Andras House, 60 Great Victoria St, Belfast Hackney, London, E8 3RN. BT2 7BB. Tel: 028 9050 0600 Fax: 028 9031 5993. National Association of Teachers of Travellers http://www.equalityni.org (NATT), c/o West Midlands Consortium Education Service for Travelling Children, Equality Unit, Office of the First The Graiseley Centre, Pool Street, Minister/Deputy First Minister, Block A, Wolverhampton, West Midlands, WV2 4NE. Castle Buildings, Stormont, Belfast, BT4 3SR. Tel: 01902 714 646

Forum for the Education of Traveller Children, National Gypsy Council, Greenhills, Caravan Site, Western Education and Library Board, Greengate St, Oldham, Manchester OL4 1DG. 1 Hospital Road, Omagh, Co. Tyrone National Playbus Association, 93 Whitby Road, Brislington, Bristol, Avon, BS4 3QF. Tel: 0117 977 5375 Fax: 0117 972 1838.

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Pavee Point, 46 North Great Charles Street, Southern Travellers Early Years Partnership, Dublin 1, Ireland. Moylinn House, 21 Legahory Centre, Craigavon, Tel: 353 1 8780255 Fax: 353 1 8742626. Co. Armagh, BT65 5BE http://www.iol.ie/~pavee/index.htm Tel/Fax. 028 3834 9012

Save The Children, Main England Office, Traveller and Gypsy Community Development 17 Grove Lane, London, SE5 8RD. Project, Community Central Halls, Tel: 020 7703 5400 Fax: 020 7703 2278. 304 Maryhill Road, Glasgow, G20 7YE http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/index.html Tel. 0141 576 5333

Save the Children, Northern Ireland, Popper Traveller Education and Information Project House, 15, Richmond Park, Belfast BT10 0HB. (North East) c/o Aberdeen Foyer, Marywell Tel: 028 90431123 Fax: 028 9043 1314. Centre, Marywell Street, Aberdeen, AB11 6JF. Tel: 01224 212924 Fax: 01224 211383 Save the Children, Scotland, Edinburgh Office, Haymarket House, 8 Clifton Terrace, Traveller Law Research Unit, Cardiff Law School, Edinburgh, EH12 5DR. PO Box 427, Cardiff, CF1 1XD. Tel: 0131 527 8207 Fax: 0131 337 1151. Tel: 44 1222 874580 Fax: 44 1222 874097 http://www.cf.ac.uk/claws/tlru/ Save the Children, Wales, Phoenix House, 8 Cathedral Road, Cardiff, CF11 9LJ. Traveller Movement (NI), 30 University Street, Tel: 029 2039 6838 Fax: 029 2022 7797. Belfast, BT7 1FZ. Tel/Fax: 028 9020 2727 Scottish Gypsy Travellers Association, 31 Gutherie St, Edinburgh, EH1 1JG. Travellers School Charity, PO Box 36, Tel. 0131 650 6314/226 7344 Grantham NG31 6EW. (This is now merged with the Scottish Travellers Tel: 44 0845 2818571. Consortium) http://www.bouckley.fsnet.co.uk/ travellers-school/tscindex.htm Scottish Travellers Education Project, Moray House, Institute of Education, University of Edinburgh, Holyrood, Edinburgh, EH8 8AQ. Tel: 0131 555 6371 Fax: 0131 555 6511 http://www.mhie.ac.uk/~step/index.html

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A Selection of TESs in England and Wales159 East Sussex Traveller Education Team, County For a full and regularly updated list see Directory of Hall, St. Anne’s Crescent, Lewes, BN7 1SG. Traveller Education Services at the following web site. Tel: 01273 482 671 Full contact details can be obtained from this website as well: http://www.becta.org.uk/ Essex Traveller Education Service, inclusion/sen/resources/travellers/directory.html c/o Alec Hunter School, Stubbs Lane, Braintree, Essex CM7 3NT. Avon Consortium Traveller Education Service Tel: 01376 340 360 (Bath and North East Somerset, Bristol, North Somerset, South Gloucestershire), Charborough Flintshire, Flintshire County Council, County Road, Filton, Bristol BS12 7RA. Hall, Mold, CH7 6ND. Tel: 0117 969 0534 Greenwich Traveller Education Service, Bradford Traveller Education Service, c/o Lorne c/o Boxgrove School, Boxgrove Road, First School, Wakefield Road, Bradford, BD4 7PS. London, SE2 9JP. Tel: 01274 370 143 Tel: 020 8310 9209

Cambridgeshire Team for Traveller Education, Kent Traveller Education Support Service, CPCD, Foster Road, Cambridge CB2 2NL. Kent CC Education and Libraries, Invicta House, Tel: 01223 508 700 Maidstone, ME14 1XX Tel: 01622 571 411 (ext. 4059) Cardiff Education Team, Greenway School, Llanstephan Road, Cardiff CF3 8JB. Leeds Traveller Education Service, West Park Centre, Spen Lane, Leeds LS16 5BE. Cheshire Traveller Education Service, Tel: 0113 274 8050 The Professional Centre, Woodford Lodge, Winsford, Cheshire CW7 4EH. Norfolk Traveller Education Service, Turner Tel: 01606 557 328 Road, Norwich NR2 4HB. Tel: 01603 766 133 Devon Consortium Traveller Education Service, Redworth House, Ashburton Road, Totnes, Southwark (STEP), Cator Street, London, TQ9 5JZ. SE15 6AAV. Tel: 01392 386 811 Tel: 020 7525 2859

Ealing Traveller Education Service, The Annexe, Featherstone Primary School, Featherstone Road, Southall, UB2 5AG. Tel: 020 8813 9715

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West Midlands Consortium Education Service for Travelling Children, The Graiseley Centre, Pool Street, Wolverhampton, West Midlands, WV2 4NE. Tel: 01902 714 646

Wiltshire and Swindon Traveller Education Service, (North and West), Broadcloth Lane, Trowbridge, BA14 7HE. Tel: 01225 353 435

Wrexham Traveller Education Team, Roxborough House, Hill Street, Wrexham, LL11 1SN.

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Acknowledgements 5 Department of Education and Science, Children and their Primary Schools, The Plowden Report, HMSO, London, 1967.

Colin Clark would like to thank Nicky Torode and 6 We acknowledge some of the difficulties that may arise from Robbie McVeigh for all their efforts and hard comparing Northern Ireland with England, Scotland and Wales as work in helping me to bring this report together. opposed to the rest of Ireland. However the unit of analysis in I also thank Kath Pinnock, Michelle Lloyd, David international forums is the UK, of which Northern Ireland is a Simpson, Margaret Thompson and Richard part. Where there are positive developments in Northern Ireland, Powell at Save the Children UK for their support however limited, it is therefore important to note them in order to and help in producing this UK Report. encourage good practice in England, Scotland and Wales. 7 OFMDM, Consultation on the Final Report of the PSI Working Group on Travellers, OFMDM, Belfast, 2000. Available at UK: Notes on the text http://www.newtsnni.gov.uk/consultation/index.htm.

1 Colin Clark is the main consultant and author of the final draft 8 Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform, First Progress of the UK Report (April 2001). Nicky Torode was the researcher Report of the Committee to Monitor and Co-ordinate the Implementation of and author of the original draft of this report and conducted the Recommendations of the Task Force on the Travelling Community, The interviews where noted. Robbie McVeigh contributed materials on Stationery Office, Dublin, 2000. Northern Ireland which were edited and integrated into the final 9 McCann, G. (ed.), The Equality Duty, West Belfast Economic report by Colin Clark. Forum, Belfast, 2001. 2 This is a point made very clear in the November 2000 report by 10 Donahue, M., ‘Equality for Travellers’, in McCann (ed.), The Save The Children (Scotland) entitled Having our Say. As the Equality Duty, op. cit., p. 117. report’s authors argue on page 1: “In our experience young people as a group are rarely asked for their opinions. Gypsy/Travellers are 11 A useful summary of the Advisory Committee and its role in no exception.” Interestingly, this peer research report which Scotland can be found in Kenrick, D. and Clark, C. Moving On: The actively involved 14 young Gypsy/Travellers as researchers also Gypsies and Travellers of Britain, University of Hertfordshire Press, highlighted the diversity existing within Gypsy/Traveller Hatfield, 1999, Chapter 3. communities when it comes to attitudes to education. One young 12 Save the Children (Scotland), in particular, has made a number person interviewed said that the best thing about being a Gypsy/ of criticisms of the way the Advisory Committee operated the Traveller was “no school” whilst another reported that “lack of “toleration” policy. See, most recently, Save the Children (Scotland) education” was the worst thing. This is something to bear in mind and Dundee University Law School, Moving Targets, Save the when generalisations are being made about the “Gypsy/Traveller Children (Scotland), Edinburgh, 1999. view” of education. 13 For a summary of the key recommendations the Advisory 3 DfEE/OFSTED, Raising the Attainment of Minority Ethnic Pupils, Committee made during its period of activity refer Advisory HMSO, London, 1999, para 8. Committee on Scotland’s Travelling People, Ninth Term Report 4 Parekh, B. et al., The Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain: The Report of the 1998-1999, Scottish Executive, Edinburgh, 2000, Appendix C, Commission on the future of multi-ethnic Britain, Profile Books, London, pp. 64–77. 2000, p. 146.

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14 Advisory Committee on Scotland’s Travelling People, The Eighth changes, are important, they can only be covered in a very limited Term Report 1995-1997, Scottish Office Development Department, way within the scope of this report. For a more in-depth Edinburgh, 1998. discussion on some of these issues see: Clark, C., “Not just lucky white heather and clothes pegs: putting European Gypsy and 15 See, for example, the Scottish Executive “blueprint” for social Traveller economic niches in context”, in Fenton, S. and Bradley, justice in Scotland: Scottish Executive, Social Justice: a Scotland where H. (eds.), Economy and Culture: rethinking ethnicity and class, Palgrave, everyone matters, Edinburgh, 1999. The annual Social Justice report London, 2001 (forthcoming). for 2000 is also worth examining to see what the Scottish Executive views as its most pressing tasks in the months ahead: 21 Acton, T., Authenticity, expertise, scholarship and politics: conflicting Scottish Executive, Social Justice Annual Report Scotland 2000, goals in Romani Studies, University of Greenwich. 11 June 1998, p. 9. Edinburgh, 2000. 22 See Kenrick, D. and Clark, C. Moving On: The Gypsies and 16 For example Save the Children UK’s written submission and Travellers of Britain, University of Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, submissions made by Dr Elizabeth Jordan and Diana Dodd. Save 1999. Chapter 1 gives a brief profile of the groups discussed here. the Children UK – Scotland Programme, Response to the Equal Each country (apart from Northern Ireland) has its own individual Opportunities Committee Inquiry into Travelling People and Public Sector chapter (and New Travellers are discussed at length, by Clark, as Policies, November 2000; Scottish Parliament Equal Opportunities well). Committee, Meeting No. 6, Tuesday 13 March 2001 (Morning). 23 Fiona Earle, New Traveller, quoted in Working with Travellers by 17 Scottish Parliament Equal Opportunities Committee 1st Report the National Playbus Association. 2001, Inquiry into Gypsy Travellers and Public Sector Services. 24 See Kenrick, D. and Clark, C. Moving On: The Gypsies and 18 The Act in question here is the Human Rights Act, 1998, which Travellers of Britain, University of Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, incorporated the European Convention of Human Rights into UK 1999, Chapter 6. law (implemented in October 2000). The Macpherson Report was 25 For information on the situation of Roma refugees in UK with carried out in light of the racist murder of Black London teenager, reference to education provision please see the forthcoming Stephen Lawrence, and police failures in carrying out the original publication We Used To Travel the World: Supporting Roma children and investigation into his murder. See: http://www.official- families in the UK published by Save the Children UK in association documents.co.uk/document/cm42/4262/4262.htm/ with the Refugee Council. The report was due to be published in 19 “Many of these so-called Travellers think it is perfectly OK summer/autumn 2001. The report is based on a seminar organised for them to cause mayhem in an area, to go burgling, thieving, by Save the Children UK and the Refugee Council entitled breaking into vehicles, causing all kinds of other trouble including “Working with Roma children from eastern Europe” which took defecating in the doorways of firms and so on, and, getting away place on 28 June 2000. with it, then their behaviour degenerates”, Jack Straw, Home 26 Kenrick, D. and Clark, C. Moving On: The Gypsies and Travellers of Secretary, in an interview with Annie Oathen on Radio West Britain, University of Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, 1999. Midlands, 22 July 1999. 27 DETR, Gypsy Caravan Count – January 2001 (England), DETR, 20 There are limitations to this report in that it is specifically about London. Donald Kenrick in his initial analysis of these figures the right to education and the problems/issues faced by Gypsy/ believes them still to be too low, even though they indicate a slight Traveller families when attempting to access that right. Whilst the increase from the previous year. For the numbers of caravans on wider contextual issues, such as social, economic and community

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council sites, he suggests that there is the need for careful analysis 37 Taylor-Gooby P., “The new educational settlement: national here, as much of the increase from last year will be due to families curriculum and local management”, in Taylor-Gooby P. and acquiring a second caravan rather than an increase in the number Lawson R. (eds.) Markets and Managers, Open University Press, of families. Finally, in terms of the numbers of caravans on private Buckingham, 1993. See pages 102–116 in particular. sites, he notes that the increase is less than it was for the previous 38 For an extended discussion of the differences in the education year, signalling a decrease in the number of planning permissions systems of Northern Ireland and Scotland, as compared to those being issued. Donald Kenrick, Gypsy Caravan Count – January 2001 of England and Wales, see the following two important books: (England) – some comments, personal communication by e-mail, 26 Murray, D., Smith, A. and Birthistle, U., Education in Ireland, Irish April 2001. Peace Institute, Limerick, 1997, and the recent collection by 28 OFMDM, Consultation on the Final Report of the PSI Working Patterson, L., Kirk G. and Glaister R. (eds), Education and the Scottish Group on Travellers, Belfast, 2000. Available on Parliament, Dunedin Academic Press, 2001. The best overview of http://www.newtsnni.gov.uk/consultation/index.htm. the education system in the UK is Benn, C. and Chitty C., Thirty Years On: is comprehensive education alive or well or struggling to survive? 29 Department of Education, Northern Ireland, St Paul’s School for Penguin, London, 1997. Travelling Children, Belfast: Basic information sheet, Department of Education (Northern Ireland), Belfast, December 1998. Available 39 Morris, R., The Human Rights Act (HRA) 1998, Traveller Law at: http://www.deni.gov.uk/keyinfo/inspectiondec98/ Research Unit, Cardiff Law School, 2000. bis_paul.pdf. 40 Also see: http://www.first-ask.de/summerhill2000/news-21-12- 30 Department of the Environment, Northern Ireland Travellers UN.html for a report on her visit to Summerhill School, Leiston, Census – 1993, Department of the Environment / Advisory Suffolk. Committee on Travellers, Belfast, 1993. 41 Institute of Education, Inclusive Education for Secondary Age 31 Gentleman, H. and Swift, S, Scotland’s Travelling People – problems Travellers, Moray House, Edinburgh, 1996, p. 6. and solutions, Scottish Development Department, HMSO, 42 Waterson, M., “I want more than green leaves for my children: Edinburgh, 1971; Gentleman, H. Counting Travellers in Scotland – the some developments in Gypsy/Traveller education, 1970-1996”, in 1992 Picture, Scottish Office Central Research Unit, Edinburgh, Acton, T. and Mundy, G. (eds), Romani Culture and Gypsy Identity, 1993. University of Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, 1997. 32 Scottish Office Central Research Unit, Travelling People in Scotland: 43 Clay, S., Traveller Children’s Schooling, University of Wales, Cardiff, Report on seasonal count – July 1998, Edinburgh, 1993. unpublished PhD thesis, 1999. 33 Welsh Office, Gypsy Count Survey, Cardiff, 1997. 44 See: http://www.becta.org.uk/inclusion/sen/resources/ 34 School of Education, Cardiff University and Save the Children travellers/directory.html (provided by Brian Foster, Cross- Wales, Traveller Children and Educational Need, October 1998. Boroughs Co-ordinator for Traveller Education, Camden Language and Support Service). 35 For a fuller discussion of this important issue see Druker, J., “Present but unaccounted for”, Transitions, 4(4): 22-23, 1997; and 45 Auckland, R. The Educational Needs of New Traveller Children: also Clark .C. “Counting backwards: the Roma ‘numbers game’ in findings of the Travellers’ School Charity research project, YAPP charitable central and eastern Europe”, Radical Statistics, 69: 35-46, 1998. foundation, 2000.

36 Fox Harding L, Perspectives in Child Care Policy, Longman, 46 Once parents opt for “home education”, they become totally Harlow, 1991. responsible for that education. The role of the state is via

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inspection, to make an assessment as to whether the education development of preschool children – particularly those who are provided by the parent is “suitable to the age, aptitude and ability disadvantaged – to ensure that they are ready to flourish when they of the child”. TESs have no legal or professional responsibility in get to school.” this context. 55 Information provided by Cathy Kiddle in a letter to Save the 47 Interviews conducted with a number of TESs in England, Children, 15 October 2000. August 2000, by Nicky Torode. 56 Telephone interview with Southern Travellers Early Years 48 The Standards Fund does not operate in Wales. Existing Project, Northern Ireland, 18 July 2000 (by Nicky Torode). projects will continue to be funded via Section 488 (still at 75%) 57 The Scottish Executive, The Ninth Term Report 1998-99, The until March 2001, after which the National Assembly will decide Scottish Office/HMSO, Edinburgh, 2000. on future policy. This is still being looked at (April 2001). 58 Save the Children Fund (Scotland), Moving Targets. Save the 49 Susan Alexander from Friends and Families of Travellers in a Children (Scotland), Edinburgh, 2000. letter to Save the Children dated 25 October 2000. Likewise, the National Association of Teachers of Travellers (NATT) pointed 59 STEP/Institute of Education, Inclusive Education for Secondary Age out that not all travelling/mobile communities are necessarily Travellers, Moray House, Edinburgh, 1996, p. 4. “ethnic”: some are occupational (fairground/circus communities). NATT argued that bringing lots of different groups under the one 60 The webpage for the Social Inclusion Unit in Scotland can be “ethnic” funding umbrella served to add to the confusion and found at: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/socialjustice/ complexity of the situation rather than easing it. NATT, in The strategy for social inclusion report from 1999 is available at: Travellers Times, Traveller Law Research Unit, Cardiff Law School, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library/documents-w7/sist-00.htm

January 2000, p. 4. 61 As it states on the homepage of the service: 50 National Association of Teachers of Travellers, Social and School http://www.connexions.gov.uk.

Exclusion and Truancy, quoted in R. Morris and L. Clements, (eds.), 62 Iqbal, K., A Report of Three Regional Seminars: Consultations with Gaining Ground: Law reform for Gypsies and Travellers, University of Black and Minority Ethnic Voluntary Organisations About the New Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, 2000, p. 72. Connexions Service, Home Office/DfEE, London, 2000. (Available 51 DfEE/OFSTED, Raising the Attainment of Minority Ethnic Pupils, at: http://www.connexions.gov.uk/ethnic_minority/ HMSO, London, 1999, para. 50, p. 14. bme_cosult_report.htm.)

52 DfEE, Working towards Inclusive Education: aspects of good practice for 63 Interview with Southwark Travellers Education Project, 6 July Gypsy Travellers pupils, Institute of Education, University of 2000 (by Nicky Torode).

London, November 2000. 64 Such as: Adams, B. et al., Gypsies and Government Policy in England, 53 Smith, T., “Recognising difference: the Romani ‘Gypsy’ child Heinemann, London, 1975; Hawes D. and Perez B, The Gypsy and socialisation and education process”, British Journal of the Sociology of the State, The Policy Press, Bristol, 2nd edition, 1996; Kenrick, D. Education, 189 (2): 243-256. 1997. and Clark, C. Moving On: The Gypsies and Travellers of Britain, University of Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, 1999. 54 See the “Sure Start” webpage for further details: http://www.surestart.gov.uk/home.cfm. Its “Mission Statement” 65 A consultation process was conducted prior to the CJPOA with reads as follows: “The aim of Sure Start is to work with parents key individuals and public bodies. Of over 1,000 individuals and and children to promote the physical, intellectual and social public bodies consulted, nearly all were against the Act. This

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included the police and the Church of England. Michael Howard, 74 The Department of Environment in the North of Ireland, in the Home Secretary simply took no notice of these results. its report New Policy on Accommodation for Travellers announced that it is to be renamed the ‘Co-operation Policy’. 66 It is important to note that “local authorities retain their discretionary powers to provide sites if they wish to do so”. This 75 Save the Children (Scotland), Failing The Test, Save the Children, has resulted, however, in an inconsistent provision of sites across Edinburgh, 1998. England and Wales. DETR, Managing Unauthorised Camping – A 76 Save the Children (Scotland)/Dundee University Law School, Good Practice Guide, London, 1998. Moving Targets, Save the Children, Edinburgh, 2000. 67 Katarina Tomasevski took note of the contradiction in policies 77 Clements, L., The Human Rights Act 1998, paper presented at in her report, UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education in 3rd Conference on Traveller Law Reform, London, 20 September UK, Report of a field Mission to UK, 1999. 2000. 68 OFSTED, The Education of Travelling Children, HMR/12/96/NS, 78 The European Court of Human Rights, Press Release Issued by the 1996, p. 20. Registrar: results of recent cases, Strasbourg, 2001. 69 R v Lincolnshire County Council ex p Atkinson; R v Wealdon 79 McNeil, H., e-mail posted to the electronic ‘Patrin’ mailing list, District Council ex p Wales and Stratford 1995. Cited in The Times, 18 January 2001. 22 September 1995. For further key legal rulings see the edited collection by Morris, R. and Clements, L., Gaining Ground: Law 80 For a fuller discussion, see the April 2001 issue of Travellers’ Reform for Gypsies and Travellers, University of Hertfordshire Press, Times, Traveller Law Research Unit, Cardiff Law School, p. 1. Hatfield, 1999. 81 DfEE, Traveller Education – Annual Report 1997-1998, London, 70 Friends, Families and Travellers submission to the National June 1999. Union of Teachers, 1998. 82 Bhopal, K. et al., Working Towards Inclusive Education: aspects of good 71 Webster, L., The Impact of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act practice for Gypsy Traveller children, DfEE/HMSO, London, Research on the Lives of Travellers and their Children, A Report for The Report No. 238, 2000. Children’s Society, June 1995, p. 12. 83 OFSTED, The Education of Travelling Children, HMR/12/96/NS, 72 For example, it has often been claimed by some families that 1996. there is an unnecessary amount of detail required from an individual when completing an application form for a pitch on a 84 Times Higher Educational Supplement, 26 September 1997. site when compared with the information required of someone 85 Save the Children (Scotland), The Right to Roam, Save the who is applying for a council house (eg, National Insurance Children, Edinburgh, 1996, p. 17. number, car or van registration number, etc.). This criticism has also applied in England and Wales. Also, many Travellers point to 86 McKinney R., ‘Different Lessons’: Scottish Gypsy/Travellers and the the fact that most sites are too uniform and restrictive in their future of education, Scottish Travellers Consortium, Edinburgh, 2001. design, giving no consideration for workspace or play areas for 87 DfEE/OFSTED, Raising the Attainment of Minority Ethnic Pupils, children. Other questions have arisen concerning the keeping of HMSO, London, 1999. pets and restrictions on visitors. 88 Jordan, B., “The Exclusionary Comprehensive School System: 73 Douglas, A., Local Authority Sites for Travellers, The Scottish the experience of Showground families in Scotland”, International Office Central Research Unit, Edinburgh, 1997. Journal of Educational Research, 33:253-263, 2000.

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89 School of Education, Cardiff University and Save the Children 102 Telephone interview, 5. July 2000 (by Nicky Torode). Wales, Traveller Children and Educational Need, October 1998, p. 30. 103 Dearling, A., Almost... Everything You Wanted to Know About 90 OFSTED, The Education of Travelling Children, HMR/12/96/NS, Travellers’ School Charity, Enabler Publications/Travellers School 1996, pp. 7 and 31. Charity, Lyme Regis, 1997, p. 8.

91 DfEE/OFSTED, Raising the Attainment of Minority Ethnic Pupils, 104 For more details see: http://www.education-otherwise.org/ HMSO, London, 1999, para. 50, p. 14. 105 Margaret Thompson – based on conversations with a new 92 See: http://www.dfee.gov.uk/a-z/CURRICULUM.html for Traveller colleague and on her role as JRF Advisory Group further details. member to the New Traveller research project currently being carried out by Lyn Webster, 2000. 93 See: http://www.official-documents.co.uk/document/ cm42/4262/4262.htm for further details. 106 OFSTED, The Education of Travelling Children, HMR/12/96/NS, 1996, p. 8. 94 Morris, R., ‘The Invisibility of Gypsies and other Travellers’, Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law, 21(4): 397-404, 1999. 107 This issue is discussed in some depth in the following recent report from Scotland: McKinney, R., Different Lessons: Scottish 95 Scottish Parliament Corporate Body, Standards in Scottish Schools Gypsy/Travellers and the future of education, Scottish Traveller Education Bill, HMSO, Edinburgh, 2000. Consortium, Edinburgh, 2001, p. 11. 96 This is also an important issue for England and Wales, although 108 See: Connolly, P. and Keenan, M., Racial Attitudes and Prejudice as yet it has not had any official recognition or an official response. in Northern Ireland, NISRA, Belfast, 2000 and Connolly, P. and 97 DfEE/OFSTED, Raising the Attainment of Minority Ethnic Pupils, Keenan, M., Opportunities for All: Minority ethnic people’s experiences of HMSO, London, 1999; Lloyd, G., Stead, J. and Jordan, E., Travellers education, training and employment in Northern Ireland, NISRA, Belfast, at School: The experience of Parent’s, Pupils and Teachers, STEP, 2000. Edinburgh, 1999. 109 As in the case of the local authority site at Collin, near 98 The potential conflict of wider family expectations with the Dumfries. Discussed in: McKinney, R., Different Lessons: Scottish needs and wants of the child vis-à-vis education raises many Gypsy/Travellers and the future of education, Scottish Traveller questions and needs to be the subject of a separate report. Consortium, Edinburgh, 2001, p. 22.

99 Institute of Education, Travellers Perspectives, Moray House, 110 STEP, Inclusive Education for Secondary Age Travellers, Moray Edinburgh, 1999. The STEP website is also a useful resource for House, Edinburgh, 1996, p. 8. exploring these issues: http://www.education.ed.ac.uk/step/ 111 OFSTED, The Education of Travelling Children, index.html. HMR/12/96/NS, 1996, p. 8. 100 CERD, Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination 112 Okely, J., “Non-Territorial Culture as the Rationale for the of Racial Discrimination: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Assimilation of Gypsy Children”, Childhood, 4 (1): 63-80. 1997. Ireland. CERD/C/CRP.3/Add.9 (Concluding Observations and Comments), 18 August 2000. 113 Jordan, E., “From Interdependence, to Dependence and Independence: home and school learning for Traveller children”, 101 Jordan, E., “From Interdependence, to Dependence and Childhood, 8 (1), 2001, p 62. Independence: home and school learning for Traveller children”, Childhood, 8 (1): 57-74, 2001.

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114 Connolly, P. and Keenan, M., Racial Attitudes and Prejudice in 126 DfEE/OFSTED, Raising the Attainment of Minority Ethnic Northern Ireland, NISRA, Belfast, 2000 and Connolly, P. and Pupils, HMSO, London, 1999, para 63. Keenan, M., Opportunities for All: Minority ethnic people’s experiences of 127 Department of Education and Science, Education for All (the education, training and employment in Northern Ireland, NISRA, Belfast, Swann Report), HMSO, London, 1985. (See Chapter 16, “The 2000. Educational Needs of Traveller Children”). 115 Mann-Kler, D., Out of the Shadows: An Action Research Report into 128 Kenrick, D., “The Education of Romanies and other Families, Racism and Exclusion in Northern Ireland, Barnardo’s/Save Travellers in England and Wales”, Roma Rights, summer 1998. the Children, Belfast, 1997. 129 Lloyd, M. and Morran, R., Response to the Stephen Lawrence 116 Save the Children and the Children’s Law Centre, Getting it Enquiry: An action plan for Scotland, 1999, p. 9. Right? The State of Children’s Rights in Northern Ireland at the end of the 20th Century, Save the Children, Belfast, 2000. 130 Tomasevski, K., UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education in UK, Report of Field Mission to UK, 1999, p. 16. 117 Council for Catholic Maintained Schools, Primary Education for Traveller children in Belfast, (ECC/P/7/62/00), 2000. 131 Molteno, M., Implementing the Education Strategy 2000-2003, Save the Children internal report, 2000. 118 The suggestion of an “acceptable quota” and the fact that this paper, which clearly contains elements of policy, has not been 132 Telephone interview with Peterborough TES, 12 July 2000 (by screened for equality impact assessment as required by Section 75 Nicky Torode). of the Northern Ireland Act have been drawn to the attention of the Equality Commission for Northern Ireland. 133 Devon County Council, The Work of the Traveller Education Service, reprint 1996, pp. 13-14. See also how different curriculum 119 CMc, Testimony at the Equal Opportunities Committee of the subjects can have an impact on Gypsy/Traveller culture – as Scottish Parliament, May 2000. suggested in Naylor, S. and Wild-Smith, K., Broadening Horizons: education and Travelling children, Essex: Essex County Council, 1997. 120 School of Education, Cardiff University and Save the Children Wales, Traveller Children and Educational Need, October 1998, p. 10. 134 See recommendation 16 of the PSI Working Group Report: http://www.newtsnni.gov.uk/consultation/index.htm. It states 121 DfEE/OFSTED, Raising the Attainment of Minority Ethnic “The Department of Education should establish a pilot Pupils, HMSO, London, 1999, para 760. programme aimed at investigating and developing educational 122 Morris R. and Clements L. (eds), Gaining Ground: Law reform for strategies and support materials for children of nomadic Traveller Gypsies and Travellers, University of Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, families. This should include detailed investigation of distance 1999, p. 17. learning using information and communications technology, ‘smartcards’ and outreach teaching support.” This was just one of 123 Kenrick, D. and Clark, C. Moving On: The Gypsies and Travellers of 14 recommendations in the report that were directly concerned Britain, University of Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, 1999, p. 174. with Traveller Education (recommendations 14-27). 124 OFSTED, The Education of Travelling Children, 135 Wrexham Traveller Education Service, Gateway to Success; HMR/12/96/NS, 1996, p. 10. Secondary school attendance by Traveller children, 1998, p. 21. 125 School of Education, Cardiff University and Save the 136 Festival Eye, Skool Bus, summer 1989. Children Wales, Traveller Children and Educational Need, October 1998, p. 10. 137 Telephone interview 5 July 2000 (by Nicky Torode).

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138 Information provided by Pat Holmes, West Midlands Department as the means of allocating specific grant support for Consortium Education Service for Travelling Children, June 2001. the education of Travellers and displaced persons. In the financial year 2001/02 existing commitments are being supported up to 139 The National Playbus Association, Working with Travellers: A £300,000 with a further £100,000 being made available for new or practical guide for play, youth and community groups, undated, p. 21. expanded projects. This funding is on an annual bidding cycle. 140 MacNamara, Y., BIAS Irish Travellers’ Project, undated, p. 8. 151 For further details see: Kenrick, D. and Clark, C. Moving On: 141 Friends, Families and Travellers, Submission to National Union of The Gypsies and Travellers of Britain, University of Hertfordshire Teachers, 1998. Press, Hatfield, 1999, Chapter 5.

142 See, for example, McKinney, R., Different Lessons: Scottish 152 Churches Commission for Racial Justice, Gypsies, Travellers and Gypsy/Travellers and the future of education, Scottish Traveller the Church, June 1998, p. 23. Consortium, Edinburgh, 2001, pp. 21-25. Such courses are being 153 Allison, R., “Travellers win race ruling”, The Guardian, run in a variety of colleges throughout Scotland, including 30 August 2000. Glasgow, Kirkcaldy and Edinburgh and Lothians. 154 The Independent, 30 August 2000. 143 Churches Commission for Racial Justice, Gypsies, Travellers and the Church, June 1998, p. 23. 155 The Independent, 30 August 2000.

144 Alexander, S. and Gardner, M., Woodland Skills Training Project 156 Brian Barry contributes an interesting point to this issue. for Travellers, Final Report 1998-1999, Friends, Families and On the subject of British law allowing Gypsy/Traveller children to Travellers, Brighton, April 2000. attend school for only half as many days as other children are required to, he controversially argues that this was “an ill-conceived 145 Wrexham Traveller Education Service, Gateway to Success; example of deference to minority cultures”. He acknowledges that Secondary School Attendance by Traveller Children, 1998, p. 21. “children belonging to cultural minorities should be able to enjoy 146 Information on projects in this section and the next is based their own culture”, but goes on to ask “But must this culture be on fieldwork conducted by Nicky Torode. frozen in time forever? That convention [the Convention on the Rights of the Child] and other UN documents also contain ‘the 147 Save the Children, Having Our Say – A Peer Research Project with unequivocally expressed right of all children to education’, and Young Gypsy/Travellers in Scotland, 2000. I would argue that parents should not be able to deny them such a 148 Telephone interview, 19 July 2000 (by Nicky Torode). right.” Barry, B., “The Muddles of Multiculturalism”, New Left Review, 8 March/April 2001, p. 71. (I am grateful to John Vail for 149 An exhaustive list of recommendations for education reform bringing this article to my attention.) vis-à-vis Gypsies and Travellers is given in Morris, R. and Clements, L. (eds), Gaining Ground: Law reform for Gypsies and 157 Kenrick, D. and Clark, C. Moving On: The Gypsies and Travellers of Travellers, University of Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, 1999, see Britain, University of Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, 1999, pp. 20–22. These reforms cover England, Wales and Scotland and pp. 171–172. are regarded by Save the Children as both progressive and 158 Parent’s Charter: Information for Parents, Authorised and workable and form the basis for many of the recommendations Unauthorised Absence Circular No 1/95. made in this report. 159 These have been selected based on those who have 150 Section 488 of the 1996 Education Act has been retained by contributed to this report and/or who have resources listed in the National Assembly for Wales Training and Education this report.

301 Selected references and resources

General Finland

Crowe, David. A History of the Gypsies of Eastern Alvaro Gil-Robles (Commissioner of Human Europe and Russia. New York: St. Martin’s Press, Rights), Recent Government Measures, Finland, 1994. Ministry of Social Affairs and Health in co-operation with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Guy, Will (ed.) Between Past and Future: the Roma of 2001. Central and Eastern Europe, University of Hertfordshire Press, 2001. CERD, Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Finland, Liégeois, J-P School Provision for Ethnic Minorities: 4 April 1999. CERD/C/304/Add.6. The Gypsy paradigm, Centre de recherche tsiganes, University of Hertfordshire Press, Interface CERD, Concluding Observations of the Committee on Collection, 1998. the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Finland, 9 August 2000. CERD/c/57/CRP.3/Add.3. Liégeois, J-P. and Gheorghe, N., Roma/Gypsies: A European minority, Minority Rights Group EFA Finland Report http://www/unesco.org/ International, London, 1995. education/efa.

Jokela, J., A Child Must be Held Like a Glass Dish: The Czech Republic Romani parents estimate goals of upbringing, Graduate Thesis in Pedogogics, University of Jyväskylä, Dobal, V, Report on the Situation of the Romani 1992. Community in the Czech Republic, website: http://www.cts.cuni.cz/~dobal/report/ Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, Finland’s index.html, 1998. Romani People, Brochures 1999: 14 eng. Helsinki 2000. ERRC, A Special Remedy: Roma and schools for the mentally handicapped in the Czech Republic. Country National Board of Education, Education Unit for Report Series No. 8. June 1999. Romanes Population, Report on the Education for Romanies in Finland, 1999. Government of the Czech Republic, Report of the Inter-Ministerial Commission for Romani Community Sloane, W., “Gypsies Still on the Fringe in Affairs, December 2000. Finland”, Patrin Web Journal, 1995, available from: http://www.grocities.com/Paris/5121/ Government of the Czech Republic, Report on finland.htm Human Rights Education in the Czech Republic, 2001.

302 SELECTED REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

Suonoja, K. and Lindberg, V., Strategies of the Policy General Secretariat for Adult Education (GSAE), on Roma, Reports 2000: 8 eng Ministry of Social Education of Gypsies: Development of teaching material, Affairs and Health, Helsinki, 2000. Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs, Athens, 1997.

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ERRC, Time of the Skinheads: Denial and exclusion Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic, National of Roma in Slovakia, January 1997. structure of Slovak Republic with attention put on the http://www.errc.org situation of Hungarian national minority, Bratislava, 1994. European Centre for Integration of Youth, a local NGO, can be contacted through the municipality Through Children to Families, NGO, can be office at Lunik IX. contacted through Jana Tomová, Cez detí k rodine (Through the Children to the Families), Horvathova, E. Cigani na Slovensku. Bratislava,1964 Dolná 48/ 19, Kremnica, tel. 00421 857 673092, fax. 00421 857 6744082. Lenczova, M., Škodová, I., Denes, A., Kumanová, Z., Radicová, I. and Džambovič, R., Identification of Analyses of schooling non-success of pupils from successful Roma projects and principles aimed at the linguistically disadvantaged and neglected environment. solution of the problems of the Roma community in the 1998/99 (Analýza školskej neúspešnosti žiakov z Slovak Republic, December 2000, draft version. jazykovo znevýhodneného a zanedbaného prostredia), Institute for Information and Liégeois, J-P., Roma, Gypsies, Travellers, Council of Prognoses in Education. Europe, 1995. Strategy of the Government of the Slovak Republic for the Magdolenová, K., “Slovak society seems not to solution of the problems of the Roma national minority be prepared for solving the Romany question” and the set of measures for its implementation Stage I. (Slovenská spoločnost, zdá sa nie je pripravená 27 September 199. na riešenie romskej otázky), Romano Nevo Lil, No. 448 (394) – 454 (400), Year X, 14 August – 30 September 2000. UK

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Advisory Committee on Scotland’s Travelling Clark, C., “Not just lucky white heather and People, Ninth Term Report 1998-1999, Scottish clothes pegs: putting European Gypsy and Executive, Edinburgh, 2000, Appendix C. Traveller economic niches in context”, in Fenton, S. and Bradley, H. (eds.), Economy and Culture: Advisory Committee on Scotland’s Travelling rethinking ethnicity and class, Palgrave, London, 2001 People, The Eighth Term Report 1995-1997, Scottish (forthcoming). Office Development Department, Edinburgh, 1998. Clay, S., Traveller Children’s Schooling, University of Wales, Cardiff, unpublished PhD thesis, 1999. Alexander, S. and Gardner, M., Woodland Skills Training Project for Travellers, Final Report 1998-1999, Community Groups, undated. Friends, Families and Travellers, Brighton, April 2000. Connolly, P. and Keenan, M., Opportunities for All: Minority ethnic people’s experiences of education, training Auckland, R. The Educational Needs of New Traveller and employment in Northern Ireland, NISRA, Belfast, Children: findings of the Travellers’ School Charity 2000. research project, YAPP charitable foundation, 2000. Connolly, P. and Keenan, M., Racial Attitudes and Benn, C. and Chitty C., Thirty Years On: is Prejudice in Northern Ireland, NISRA, Belfast, 2000. comprehensive education alive or well or struggling to survive? Penguin, London, 1997. Council for Catholic Maintained Schools, Primary Education for Traveller children in Belfast, Bhopal, K. et al., Working Towards Inclusive (ECC/P/7/62/00), 2000. Education: aspects of good practice for Gypsy Traveller children, DfEE/HMSO, London, Research Report Dearling, A., Almost... Everything You Wanted No. 238, 2000. to Know About Travellers’ School Charity, Enabler Publications/Travellers School Charity, Lyme CERD, Concluding Observations of the Committee on Regis, 1997. the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Department of Education and Science, Children CERD/C/CRP.3/Add.9 (Concluding and their Primary Schools, The Plowden Report, HMSO, Observations and Comments), 18 August 2000. London, 1967.

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Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform, Fox Harding L, Perspectives in Child Care Policy, First Progress Report of the Committee to Monitor and Longman, Harlow, 1991. Co-ordinate the Implementation of the Recommendations of the Task Force on the Travelling Community, The Friends, Families and Travellers, Submission to Stationery Office, Dublin, 2000. National Union of Teachers, 1998.

Department of the Environment, Northern Ireland Gentleman, H. and Swift, S, Scotland’s Travelling Travellers Census – 1993, Department of the People – problems and solutions, Scottish Environment / Advisory Committee on Development Department, HMSO, Edinburgh, Travellers, Belfast, 1993. 1971.

DETR, Managing Unauthorised Camping – A Good Gentleman, H. Counting Travellers in Scotland – the Practice Guide, London, 1998. 1992 Picture, Scottish Office Central Research Unit, Edinburgh, 1993. Devon County Council, The Work of the Traveller Education Service, reprint 1996. Hawes D. and Perez B, The Gypsy and the State, The Policy Press, Bristol, 2nd edition, 1996. DfEE, Traveller Education – Annual Report 1997- 1998, London, June 1999. Institute of Education, Inclusive Education for Secondary Age Travellers, Moray House, Edinburgh, DfEE, Working towards Inclusive Education: aspects of 1996. good practice for Gypsy Travellers pupils, Institute of Education, University of London, November Institute of Education, Travellers Perspectives, Moray 2000. House, Edinburgh, 1999.

DfEE/OFSTED, Raising the Attainment of Minority Iqbal, K., A Report of Three Regional Seminars: Ethnic Pupils, HMSO, London, 1999. Consultations with black and minority ethnic voluntary organisations about the new Connexions service, Home Donahue, M., “Equality for Travellers”, in Office/DfEE, London, 2000. (Available at: McCann (ed.), The Equality Duty, West Belfast http://www.connexions.gov.uk/ethnic_minority/ Economic Forum, Belfast, 2001. bme_cosult_report.htm.)

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Jordan, E., “From Interdependence, to Morris R. and Clements L. (eds), Gaining Ground: Dependence and Independence: home and school Law reform for Gypsies and Travellers, University of learning for Traveller children”, Childhood, 8(1), Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, 1999. 2001. Morris, R., The Human Rights Act (HRA) 1998, Kenrick, D. and Clark, C. Moving On: The Gypsies Traveller Law Research Unit, Cardiff Law School, and Travellers of Britain, University of 2000. Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, 1999. Morris, R., ‘The Invisibility of Gypsies and other Kenrick, D., “The Education of Romanies and Travellers’, Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law, other Travellers in England and Wales”, Roma 21(4): 397-404, 1999. Rights, summer 1998. Murray, D., Smith, A. and Birthistle, U., Education Lloyd, M. and Morran, R., Response to the Stephen in Ireland, Irish Peace Institute, Limerick, 1997. Lawrence Enquiry: An action plan for Scotland, 1999. Naylor, S. and Wild-Smith, K., Broadening Horizons: Macpherson Report http://www.official- education and Travelling children, Essex: Essex County documents.co.uk/document/cm42/4262/ Council, 1997. 4262.htm/ OFMDM, Consultation on the Final Report of the PSI Mann-Kler, D., Out of the Shadows: An action research Working Group on Travellers, OFMDM, Belfast, report into families, racism and exclusion in Northern 2000. Available at http://www.newtsnni.gov.uk/ Ireland, Barnardo’s/Save the Children, Belfast, consultation/index.htm. 1997. OFSTED, The Education of Travelling Children, McCann, G. (ed.), The Equality Duty, West Belfast HMR/12/96/NS, 1996. Economic Forum, Belfast, 2001. Okely, J., “Non-Territorial Culture as the McKinney R., ‘Different Lessons’: Scottish Rationale for the Assimilation of Gypsy Gypsy/Travellers and the future of education, Scottish Children”, Childhood, 4(1): 63-80. 1997. Travellers Consortium, Edinburgh, 2001. Parekh, B. et al., The Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain: Molteno, M., Implementing the Education Strategy The report of the Commission on the future of multi- 2000-2003, Save the Children internal report, ethnic Britain, Profile Books, London, 2000. 2000. Patterson, L., Kirk G. and Glaister R. (eds), Education and the Scottish Parliament, Dunedin Academic Press, 2001.

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Save the Children (Scotland), Failing The Test, Save Scottish Parliament Equal Opportunities the Children, Edinburgh, 1998. Committee 1st Report 2001, Inquiry into Gypsy Travellers and Public Sector Services. Save the Children (Scotland), The Right to Roam, Save the Children, Edinburgh, 1996. Smith, T., “Recognising difference: the Romani ‘Gypsy’ child socialisation and education process”, Save the Children and the Children’s Law Centre, British Journal of the Sociology of Education, 189(2): Getting it Right? The State of Children’s Rights in 243-256. 1997. Northern Ireland at the end of the 20th Century, Save the Children, Belfast, 2000. Social Inclusion Unit in Scotland webpage: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/socialjustice/ Save the Children UK – Scotland Programme, Response to the Equal Opportunities Committee Inquiry Stead, J. and Jordan, E., Travellers at School: The into Travelling People and Public Sector Policies, experience of Parent’s, Pupils and Teachers, STEP, November 2000. Edinburgh, 1999.

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311 Acknowledgements

We wish to acknowledge the donors for this to Martin Kovats, Elena Marushiakova and project without whom this work would not have Vesselin Popov who have been involved in various been possible, namely the Swiss and US State aspects of the report and have offered continued Departments under the auspices of the Stability and invaluable support from its beginning in 1999. Pact for South Eastern-Europe Quick Start Package, Save the Children UK, UNICEF and Save the Children UK would especially like to KulturKontakt. thank the many individuals and organisations who have contributed in a number of ways to this The following country reports were funded report from both within and outside of Save the under the auspices of the Stability Pact for Children UK. These include (in no particular South-Eastern Europe: Albania, Bosnia and order): Angus Bancroft, Michelle Lloyd, Richard Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Federal Republic Morran, Margaret Thompson, David Simpson, of Yugoslavia (Serbia, Montenegro and Kosovo), Richard Powell, David Norman, Patti Strong, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Angela Pudar, Olivera Damjanovic, Rasa Romania. KulturKontakt also provided co-finance Sekulovic, Ardian Gojani, Madeleine Tearse, Judy for the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Serbia Lister, Poppy Szaybo, Martin Emerson, Piero report. Save the Children UK funded the Colacicchi and Miralena Mamina. following country reports: Czech Republic, Finland, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Slovakia and the We would also like to thank all those who read United Kingdom. Finally, the Slovakia country and commented on early drafts of Denied a Future? report was co-financed by SCF-UK and the including John Beauclerk, Professor Françoise UNICEF Regional Office for the CEE/CIS and Hampson, Professor Katarina Tomasevski, and Baltic States. Sigmund Karlstrom. We are also grateful to all those who read the final report, which, together Save the Children would like to thank the project with some of the above, included Chris team, which has been responsible for this project. Cuninghame, Marion Molteno, Michelle Stratford, The team consisted of Maria Andruszkiewicz, Frances Ellery, Robert Mangham and Ravi Kath Pinnock, Federica Donati, Patricia Coelho Wickremasinghe. and Olga Nakajo-Widder. Special thanks is owed

312 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Contributors to the Denied a Future? Greece reports Author: Olga Nakajo-Widder Contributors: Save the Children – Greece

Editor Kath Pinnock Hungary Author: Martin Kovats Roma/Gypsy and Traveller Education: An overview of the issues Italy Martin Kovats Author: Federica Donati

Photography Poppy Szaybo Slovakia Author: Eva Sobotka [Images: Italy, Hungary: Andrew Williams]

UK Author: Colin Clark Country reports:Western, Central Contributors: Robbie McVeigh and and Eastern Europe Nicky Torode.

Czech Republic Author: David Chirico Updated by: Eva Sobotka Contributors: Angus Bancroft

Finland Co-authors: Federica Donati and Kath Pinnock

313 DENIED A FUTURE? VOLUME 2

Biographies of authors Federica Donati was Human Rights Advisor for (in alphabetical order) Save the Children UK and a leading member of the Denied a Future? project team. She is now Maria Andruszkiewicz is Programme Assistant Programme Officer for UNICEF in Development Officer for Save the Children’s New Delhi, India. UK/Europe region and is a leading member of the Denied a Future? project team. Before joining Dr Martin Kovats completed a PhD on ‘The Save the Children she worked in Central and Development of Roma Politics in Hungary’ Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union in at the University of Portsmouth. He is now an the field of consumers’ rights and NGO and Honorary Research fellow at the Centre for Small and Medium-sized Enterprise (SME) Russian and East European Studies, University of development. Birmingham. He has published on Roma and minority issues in academic journals in both the David Chirico, previously a British Academy UK and Hungary. Research Fellow at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies, University of London, Olga Nakajo-Widder previously worked in is now training to be a lawyer. Geneva with a NGO specialising in minority and indigenous rights. She has recently taken up the Dr Colin Clark is a lecturer in sociology and post of Advocacy and Development Officer at a social policy at the University of Newcastle upon social justice NGO in Bristol, while continuing to Tyne. He is author, along with Dr Donald Kenrick work as a consultant to Save the Children UK. of Moving On: the Gypsies and Travellers of Britain (University of Hertfordshire Press, 1999) and has Dr Kath Pinnock is UK/Europe Policy and published widely in the general area of Romani/ Research Officer for Save the Children UK. Ethnic and Racial studies. As well as being a leading member of the project team for Denied a Future? she does work around Martin Demirovski is an independent Romani participatory research methods. Her PhD consultant who works for different Romani and explored the role of Roma/Gypsies in the non-Romani international NGOs as well as non-governmental sector in Bulgaria 1989-1997 inter-governmental organisations. He is currently and she has published articles on the doing work for the European Roma Rights non-governmental sector and Roma/Gypsy Centre-Budapest, the OSCE-ODIHR Contact organisations in Eastern Europe as well as on Point for Roma and Sinti Issues and the Council EU policy and welfare issues. of Europe. One of the main priorities in his work is reporting and writing articles about Romani issues.

314 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Eva Sobotka has an extensive background in human rights and refugee issues and expertise in conflict management and mediation. She is also the editor of Roma News Weekly for the online journal Central European Review.

Poppy Szaybo is a professional photographer and runs photographic projects with Gypsy/Traveller and refugee children across Europe including the UK. She is also a cultural projects advisor for organisations such as London Arts and the British Council. Currently, she is curating an exhibition of Romani art for the University of Hertfordshire and is also working on a number of projects as part of Denied a Future? for Save the Children UK.

315