The Media Dichotomy of Sport Heros and Sport
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THE MEDIA DICHOTOMY OF SPORT important to the consumer: source relevance, HEROS AND SPORT CELEBRITIES: authenticity, and trustworthiness. Chalip (1997) MARKETING OF PROFESSIONAL contends that it is possible to be an unknown hero, WOMEN’S TENNIS PLAYERS but not an unknown celebrity. The primary focus of Chalip’s work is that heroism depends on celebrity, although one need not be a hero to Joshua A. Shuart, Ph.D. become a celebrity. This notion refers to the idea Assistant Professor, Management that the media creates celebrities, that these Sacred Heart University celebrities are fleeting, and that they aren’t real heroes to most people. Finally, Brooks (1998) provided a strong overview of theory and issues The modern sports hero is actually a misnomer for the related to celebrity endorsement involving athletes. sports celebrity. Critics have noted true sports heroes Brooks asked what type of celebrity athlete is most are an endangered species, whereas sports celebrities effective, under what conditions, and most are as common as Texas cockroaches. On the surface importantly, do athletes sell products? Brooks also professional sports seem to offer a natural source for stated that the answer to the question “does a heroes, but on closer examination they offer celebrated (sport) hero have more cultural meaning than a sports figures shaped, fashioned, and marketed as (sport) celebrity?” would have tremendous impact heroic. for marketers. Given the fact that our heroes -SUSAN DRUCKER change as quickly as does the programming on television (Leonard, 1980), it was crucial to reassess the true value of sport heroes and celebrities, and Introduction the tremendous impact that the media plays in There is perhaps no better example of media- creating them in our country. created frenzy over heroism and celebrity than in the world of professional women’s tennis. Two of Justifying the Research the most recognizable personalities, Venus Williams The research was shaped heavily by suggested and Anna Kournikova, are known for very future research directions by three eminent sport different reasons: Williams because of her on-court hero scholars. Burton (2001) challenged success and her rivalry with her sister Serena, researchers to better “understand how heroes are Kournikova because of her on-court failures yet created and, if not worshipped, revered.” He also curiously strong endorsement success. Survey questioned the popular “Q” score rating system research was undertaken to examine perceptions of commonly used in marketing. Burton claimed both women, to determine a) how society views that Q-scores, which focus predominantly upon them (as heroes or celebrities), and b) to determine likeability and fame, might not be truly indicative their marketing worth, with regards to consumer of celebrity athlete endorsement phenomena. intention to purchase an endorsed product. The research was conducted in three phases during Brooks (1998) was thorough in her research and 2001-2002, with a research framework being posed the question “does a hero have more cultural constructed consistent with previous studies of this meaning than a celebrity?” Brooks contended that nature. Burton (2001) establishes two real answering this question could potentially have a concerns for research based on celebrity endorsers: tremendous impact for marketers. 1) “can a celebrity endorser provide multiple Chalip (1997) examined the hero vs. celebrity meanings or cross easily between targeted groups?” debate in sport, and opined similarly to both and 2) “what drives a consumer’s celebrity Burton (2001) and Brooks (1998). A key elaborations, when a celebrity’s image is contribution of his work was proposing that future transformed by unpredictable real-life actions?” research should attempt to combine elements of Additionally, Burton questions the popular “Q” celebrity endorsement and hero worship. score rating system - commonly used in marketing - because it is focuses upon likeability and fame, Salient Quotations and ignores many of the significant values • “We are drawn to celebrities for a variety of Proceedings of the 2003 Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium GTR-NE-317 145 reasons. These can only be concretely whether sport heroes were different from sport established through empirical investigation. At celebrities. the level of theory, it might be hypothesized, inter alia, that celebrities provide us with hero- Background of the Study ic role models in an age of mass standardiza- The premier scholar in the field of hero worship is tion and predictability.” - Rojek (2001) Orrin Klapp (1949). Many other researchers have • “Perhaps the athlete did not seek fame, but added to the knowledge base over the years, but notoriety finds the athlete anyway in an era Klapp is the one person who everyone ultimately relentless television and burgeoning hero comes back to. His seminal writings included the worship.” - Ham (2001) often-repeated 5-stage process in the development • “Heroes symbolize something greater than of a societal hero: attaining wealth and fame, performing death- 1. the person begins to be recognized during defying acts, or acquiring media-promoted informal events. status. They reflect our values, our ideals, our 2. the person is formally recognized as a hero. dreams. Their qualities endure as a guide and 3. the image-building process takes place as the inspiration for all of us to be heroes. It’s time person attains a somewhat legendary status. for heroes, again.” - Sanchez (2000) 4. commemoration/celebration 5. cult-status Statement of the Problem & Purpose of the Study Klapp was quick to point out that stages 4 & 5 “Sports figures fit the mold of the typical national usually occur post-mortem, although this is not hero. From humble socio-economic class necessarily always the case. It is important to point backgrounds, they demonstrate self reliance, out, though, the importance in the sport realm of determination, courage, adventure, and honesty” this statement. Given the media’s fleeting nature, (Porter, 1983). Throughout the ages, our world and our society’s forgiving quality, it is not hard to has changed dramatically, in terms of technology, understand why much maligned athletes become societal makeup, and probably most importantly to more revered years after retirement and/or death. this study, media coverage. However, throughout As humans, we tend to soften the past in our it all, the generally accepted definition of the sport minds, glorifying good acts and forgetting or hero has remained fairly constant with what Porter minimizing the negatives. Thusly, a Babe Ruth (1983) states. One of the most impressionable (considered a womanizing alcoholic scoundrel target markets is the college-aged population, for during his playing days) can in time become one of several reasons. One, this is a group that after the most respected and loved heroes of all-time. living at home for most of their lives, is now on Further clouding the picture is the fact that, as their own for the first time; conversely, this is the Burton (2001) pointed out, depending upon the first time this group has spending power, although product and marketing strategy, someone with a not on a great scale. Much of mass mediated negative or counter-culture image, an anti-hero, marketing efforts are geared towards the 18-22 year might actually be preferred over someone with a old age group, traditionally regarding as college- cleaner image. aged students. The purpose of this study, hence, was to survey college students; most previous Leonard (1980) made an important contribution research ignores this target market (Harris, 1994). with his comparative study which examined the A preliminary examination of athletic heroes was changing state of heroes as the cultural makeup of made so that a secondary study, to determine America changed. Considering what has been said product endorser effectiveness, could be previously regarding the impact of constantly undertaken to assess athlete impact upon on sales evolving television coverage, it is interesting to look returns. As stated in the introduction, the focus of at how something fictitious, the novelized creation this study was on women’s tennis players Venus of fictional sports hero Frank Merriwell (who Williams and Anna Kournikova, although selected disappeared in print in 1915) created a real world research results of other athletes in the study will craving for admirable athletes. Successive be included for comparison purposes. The generations in Leonard’s paper all were tied to ultimate goal of the study was to determine themes of the decade that were accurately reflected 146 Proceedings of the 2003 Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium GTR-NE-317 CELEBRITY HIGH LOW HERO, HIGH CELEBRITY HIGH HERO, HIGH CELEBRITY O.J. Simpson 2.6, 8.3 Michael Jordan 8.6, 9.7 Dennis Rodman 2.6, 7.4 Tiger Woods 7.6, 9.2 Anna Kournikova 3.3, 6.8 Venus Williams 5.4, 6.6 Darryl Strawberry 2.7, 6.4 Magic Johnson 7.4, 8.6 Mike Tyson 2.6, 8.3 Muhammed Ali 7.8, 8.6 HERO LOW HIGH John Rocker 1.5, 4.9 Bonnie Blair 3.6, 3.1 Cynthia Cooper 2.9, 2.8 Jackie Robinson 6.6, 6.2 John Daly 2.1, 2.9 Hank Aaron 5.3, 5.1 Ray Lewis 2.2, 4.0 Latrell Sprewell 2.6, 4.9 LOW HERO, LOW CELEBRITY HIGH HERO, LOW CELEBRITY LOW Figure 1: Celebrity-Hero Matrix with the popular sports heroes of that age. constructs that were tested and analyzed using Vander Velden (1986) conducted research on factor analysis. ‘favorite’ and ‘admirable’ athletes, stopping short of proclaiming athletes as heroes of sport. He con- Building Upon the Literature cluded that many people indicated reluctance when None of the previous studies had effectively approached about heroes, but had no problem synthesized the knowledge of heroes with discussing their favorite or most-admired athletes. marketers’ portrayal of the endorsers, at least not in The findings of this study were consistent with the athletic setting.