Japanese Grammar

IN THE PRES S ,

B Y T HE S A M E A U T HO R

R MA NIZ ED A PA NESE REA ER U J D .

A I — NE E E P RT . JAPA S T XT .

— ENG H R N L . N II LIS T A S ATIO .

- N E A O . P RT III . T S

3 ES DE 1 M 0 . VOLUM , MY 6

LOND ON TREBNER Co .

H LI I E LY . YOKOHAMA : KEL WALS , M T D TR U B NE R ’ S C O L L E CTIO N

OF '

SIMPLIFIED GRA MMA RS

OF THE PRINCIPA L

R E N L NG A S IA TI C A ND E U O P A A U A G E S .

EDIT ED BY

H L R L RE N D O . L . D D I O ST , PH. .

xv.

J A P A NE S E .

BY BA SIL HA LL CHA B L M ER A IN. YOKOHA MA “ PRINTED A T T HE JA PA N GA Z ETT E SIMPLIFIED GRA MMA R

O F T HE

A J A PA NE SE L A N G U G E .

( M ODERN WRITTEN STY LE )

B L H L H M ERL N A SI A L C A B AI .

A UTHO R O F

THE L L OE RY OF THE (J NE E C ASSICA P T APA S ,

ETC .

LONDO N

‘TR BNE 57 5 9 DG E H L U B 00 , L U AT IL .

Y O M A : ELLY A ND A LS No . 28 M A IN STR EET . O K HA K W H , ,

PR E F A CE .

IN n in ther E s n un s di s are us Japa , as o a ter co trie , two alect ed

simul n us one for s kin o for wri in ur ta eo ly , pea g , the ther t g p

os s s ok n or o o ui di i s to whi h p e . The p e c ll q al alect that c

on su s m n s mission ri s an d o rs are rou c l , ercha t , a e , the who b ght

n dai i n s wi an s mus d ir s i to ly relat o th the Jap e e , t evote the ﬁr t

' eﬁorts ir n s s ou d uir i n . The ext tep h l be to acq e the wr tte

n u u kn w d f i r ook r la g age , witho t a o le ge O wh ch eve y b , eve y n s os - r r r i m n r no i ew paper , every p t ca d , eve y adve t se e t ; eve y t ce in i - i n r r m m n s m s r a ra lway stat o o on boa d a stea er re ai a y te y ,

n w n r r s m of eve he t anslite ated into Roman character . So e

n f r B ut on s n the differe ces a fect the vocabula y . the c ta tly

ur in dif u i s r mm r an d m a rec r g ﬁc lt e are rathe in the gra a , y be mastered in a few weeks by thos e t o whom the colloquial is

mi ia n f fa l r . The great ob stacle hitherto has been the abse ce o any book Specially devoted to the elucidation of the m odern

’ orm of i n n u Mr s n s dmir r is f the wr tte la g age . . A to a able t eat e

o rs mu wid r d us s had n s c ve a ch e ﬁel . Previo writer left Japa e e

amm ‘ os . Mr s n u i an d d r in it s gr ar a cha . A to bro ght l ght or e to

e B very part . ut most person s have n either time n or in clin a

ion n s i r r i n n is n ot wi t to i ve t gate eve y pa t . The r co cer , th

n s i but i the the Japa ese cla s cs and philological res earch , w th lan guage as commonly written n ow an d they weary o f

se arching through the pages of a learn ed work for the e very - day

m s The o of o i ar us ul . f r , wh ch alone to them e ef bject the

n i r su son s in as sim e prese t l ttle book is to p ut befo e ch per , pl

m nn s us u n m r a a er as pos ible , j t so m ch as Will e able the to ead VI PREFA CE

o m s contemporary literature an d correspondence . All f r that

or i a are obsolete or purely classical have been omitted . The et c l

di n se d wi h s a in in s an s discus sions have been spe t , ve a few t ce

n o as si r w er kn ow d of or is for ( tably the p ve ve b) , h e a le ge the y ,

i n r the on ro d t o orre r i e . a fore g e , ly a c ct p act c

w rd as t th is r a n i ie s an d w i n s s m of A o o e h t o y , fﬁ t , r tte y te

‘ n ua n e ar s of kin to n s on the Japanes e la g ge . The e t Japa e e

main n d Of ia is K or n the s ru ur r s m n the la A s ea , t ct al e e bla ce between the two t on gues reachin g down even to minutiae of

i i m The ik n e s s Of o u r i s m u in r b ut d o . l e the v cab la y ch fa te ,

i r e he r o h a n e s an d K or an are t o st ll eal . Wh t b t J pa e e be

s s d wi i n u s m us d n d on cla e th the Alta c to g e , t epe the exact

ud d rom the oin s en s e given to the word Altai c . J ge f p t

i w f s n an d n r s ru ure h ha as of v e o y tax ge e al t ct , t ey ve good a right to be in cluded in the A lt aIc group as M on gol “ M n h r i n b i or u . r s of law of o w a c T ace the att act , y h ch

ow s of su ssi s s n d to un i o mi as in the v el cce ve yllable te f r ty , o totoshi for a totos hi the r or s oin in s m , , yea bef e la t , p t the a e

dir i n ect o . If the term Altai c be held to include Korean and Japan

n n s s sum s rim im r n as in f r ese , the Japa e e a e p e po ta ce be g by a

o d s i in r r s n i of in ui i u the l e t l v g ep e e tat ve that great l g st c gro p , it s literature an tedating by m any cen turies the most an cient

rodu ion s of M n us M on o s u ks Hun ri n s p ct the a ch , g l , T r , ga a , or F in I ir n s . t s earliest extan t do cuments go back in the present shape t o the begin nin g of the eighth century Of our e ra an d its i r ur h r dl r m h , l te at e has ﬂouris ed uninte rupte y f o t at tim d wn rd h e e r o w . a an es as wri n n ow di ff rs ow e a J p e tte e , v ,

on sid r r m h n r Whi c e ably f o t e language of the eighth ce tu y . le the m e agre n ative vocabulary has been enriched by thou s ands of words an d phras es borrowed from the more ex

r ss i s m n he ol i min i p e ive Ch ne e , a y of t d nat ve ter at ons have PRE FA CE VII

us ne on se u n of i s on an d ri d fallen in to di s e . O c q e ce th l g va e c areer of the Japan ese lan guage i s the exi sten ce at the pres en t day of a n um ber of styles di stin gui she d by strongly m arked

a n side o r an d r ain orn am n a pe culiarities . Le vi g a p et y a ce t e t l

i b fe w S in o s o ars kin d of pro s e cultivate d ch e ﬂy y a h t ch l ,

a ri s f s e in omm on use vi z . there are four c te go e o tyl c ,

The emi - as si a di s in uis d b its r e n I . S Cl c l Style , t g he y p ef re ce

i r n dard for old n ative wo rds an d gr amm at cal fo m s . The s ta h tr an slation Of the New Te stam en t is in t i s style .

11 Th e em i - o o uia in o w i h the ow r ass . S C ll q l Style , t h c l e cl

r i r asi n a a Its as o o s ours n ewspape wr te s occ o lly f ll . phr e l gy av

ar e an d it s r amm ar S i h of the uli ri i s of the l g ly , g l g tly , pec a t e

l ui a di a m odern col oq l lect .

hin s or ini o - n s i is III . The C e e Style , S c Japa e e , wh ch replete

n d idi m i s un d d n i r with Chin e se words a o s . It fo e o the l te al

ran a i n f in s as si s whi w r orm r the t sl t o s o the Ch e e cl c , ch e e f e ly

- r is s i s rdin i text b ooks in e ve y s chool . Th tyle the o ary veh cle

r ar i r u of con tempo y l te at re .

E is o r . m os usi in s in IV . The p t la y Style Al t excl vely Ch e e

r s o o is s has r m m a i a uli ari i s whi ph a e l gy , th tyle g a t c l pec t e ch

are s m ark d as to n e s si e r a m n in s r h r o e ce tat t e t e t a epa ate c apte .

The s s em f wri in ha has i her o n in use in an y t O t g , t t h t t bee Jap ,

i s an e rem e om i e d on e s mi - id o ra hi an d mi xt ly c pl cat , e e g p c se

s a i oun d d on the id o r hi wri in Of the hin s yll b c , f e e g ap c t g C e e .

B ut the an ua e m a e si wri n i h R om n h ra er l g g y a ly be tte w t a c a ct s . In dee d the gen eral introduction of the Roman alphabet is

the u s ion o f the da . so i n i e d Roma i K a i q e t y A c ety e t tl the j ,

or Rom aniz ion o i has n orm d an d in ud s at S c ety , bee f e , cl e am on g its members m ost of the leaders in s cien ce an d in

o i i ur hon i s s m f r i p l t cs . A p ely p et c y te o t an sl teration h as b e en

do e d an d has m et h a e an m n n a i e s a pt , wit cc pt ce both a o g t v

and r i er T is s m o n . o s as in i i ik f e g s th y te , be g that wh ch s l ely VIII PREFA CE

su th in the o l in to persede all others , e spell g of f l ow g pages

n rm co fo s .

In on us on it i s m sin du to kn ow e d m c cl i , y plea g ty ac l ge y o i a ion s Mr H in a n e se re ar to . . . to bl g t J C all , Act g J pa Sec t y

H M i r ar u . . r M r . Ern . on k an d m o e i a t o s B Legat , To yo, p t c l ly e t

a ow H M Minis r R sid n an kok f r . . . o S t , B te e e t at B g ,

num r f u M han ks are ik wi s e du a be o valuable s gge s tion s . y t l e e to i u n n M f r m hin a a k . . N s oo w er ain L e te a t . Ta ata , I J o t g y c t

f u i u i i n f th k in a n di ﬁc lties w th regard to the p bl cat o o e boo J pa .

A SI A E A I B L CH MB RL N .

K TO YO.

F ebrua r 1 886 . y ,

E R R A T A

“ 8 n 1 8 r k n an d , li e ; afte i sert g .

52 r s ould uni n ot uka zu and uka za m , the b ace h te , y y , but

ukazam an d ka n y yu u .

6 9 in 3 rom o om for n 6 , l e f b tt ; Sectio read Section 3 .

70 in 14 beski beshi , l e ; for read . J A PA NE SE G R A M M A R .

CHAPTER I .

THE PHONETIC SY STEM .

A P A E A ND PRONU NOIA TION. SEC . 1 . L H B T

n n i R m n ui JA PA NESE , whe wr itte w th the o a alphabet , req res

i n l v and w. the same letters as Engl sh , with the exceptio of , q ,

0 n in m n n c h The letter occurs o ly the co bi atio , which is soun ded n early like English c h in church . The vowels are soun ded as in Italian ; but are always Short

n n u n i unless marked with the Sig of lo g q a t ty , when care must

n m n u be taken to pro oun ce the lo g , th s

do e do . , a degr e , a hall “ “ to m k ta m u . , to ta e , to pass thro gh “ “ m kii ki air . M , a ste , the

n n mm n c u n 6 and u The o ly lo g vowels of co o o c rre ce are .

un in n i They are fo d chieﬂy words of Chi ese or gin , where they

s n u n n and n un ao on repre e t s ch Chi ese diphtho gs asal so ds as , , an ton etc y , g , .

n n n e Whe preceded by a other vowel or by , sounds very n a k e i l k i and 0 i wo - k . we ke n e rly li e y , i e y , l e Thus , in and shio n un u e ke n - in nd shiwo are respectively pro o ced y , y , a . The vowels i and u are sometimes in audible or nearly so in m u ok o k shi te n the o ths of T y spea ers , as , havi g done ,

n un ak e imi kisha n un im ksha k pro o ced t j , pro o ced j i ; tsu i , the m n n un tski ta kw an oo , pro o ced ; , much , pronounced ta axm ; ” wata kushi I r n wata hi , , p o ounced ks . Initial u is silent, and 2 JA PA NESE GRA MMA R .

the followin g m doubled in the pronun ciation of the four words “ “ coma rs uma ki uma ruru n , ho e , tasty , to be bor ” f wme um - n un d mma mmaki mma ruru mme , pl tree , pro o ce , , , .

But d i n i and un im these eviat o s are Sl ght portant . All the

s wil un s o if on un as n above word l be der t od pr o ced writte .

i n s u as ao a u ei ii on ll no The d phtho g , s ch , , , , , ca for special

mm n r in i d t n un . co e t , as each vowel eta s s ow proper s o

n on n n oun m in En The co s a ts are pro ced approxi ately as glish , subject to the followin g remarks

i i - ru not En n . f is a t e labial f , the gl sh lab o de tal

n d n n f 9 ever has the soun i . At the begi ni g o a word it

i ve In mi d r un d rd k in i . is p ono ce ha , l e the g g the d le of a “ ” i un d n i s 72 in n in u word t has the so of E gl h 9 lo g g . Th s ” K i a n m r m s m os i i n g , the a e of a place ; hy e al t exactly w th S ger “ ” “ not i n a and oto ki k ( w th ﬁ ger The words g , of, g , li e , d also take the ng soun . “ h i oun ds n r ik G m n c h in m before s ea ly l e the er a ich , and

sh sometimes pass es almost in to .

n at the end Of a word is pronoun ced half- way between a

un n 73 true n an d the Fr en ch n asal n . No s havi g a ﬁn al are

i in mostly of Chin ese or g .

m a in m a ku i n n . u y s always a conso a t Th s the syllable y y , ” u noun one k mia in the p lse , is pro ced as syllable , li e the “ ” n i d i r u k n n E gl sh wor am able . Ca e m st be ta e ot to

n oun d in u mi ako co f it with the dissyllable s ch words as y , a capital city . z has almost the soun d of dz when preceding the vowel i t ; “ u mizu r i r d mide n s n un . th s , wate , p o o ce almost

u n n n u n un in n Do ble co so a ts m st be disti ctly so ded , as Italia , thus “ ki e n m ki e k t , havi g co e tt , a tic et . “ “ koka kokka , an ancient poem , hearth and home. PHONETIO E SYST M . 8

n nun n Generally speaking , the Japa ese pro ciatio both of vowels and of con son ants is les s broad and heavy than that

ur r n in u n n u an d s i ll in c e t most E ropea la g ages , e pec a y

n i m k i m r i ul r to E glish . Th s re ar appl es ore pa t c a ly the letters

h r h ts n u of n c s d . s s , j , , , an To e , ch as those the Chi ese , are

i n i or n o on n an d nl ent rely abse t . There is l ttle t ic acce t , o y

ri n i s to s a all a very slight rheto cal acce t ; that y , that the syllables Of a word and all the words of a sen ten ce are

n mu w r f n un u n r o . u s o pro o ced eq ally , or ea ly s St de ts t be a e importi n g into Japan ese the stron g an d con stantly recurrin g stres s by which we in Engli sh sin gle out on e syllable in every

and i rd in r s n n . word , the ch ef wo s eve y e te ce A ll Japan ese words en d either in a vowel or in the

n s n n i t r are n o om in ion on son n s co o a t . The e c b at s of c a t

n ts and dou on son n s r d m n i n d excepti g the ble c a t al ea y e t o e ,

m n i mus oun d ssh an d tc h s n din d a o g wh ch t be c te , ta g for ouble “ ” sh and dou c h as in kesshin r so etc hé k ble , , e lve z , pea . By some very careful speakers a w is pron oun ced after [gm many rd kw k n rom the hin s . us annin an fﬁ i wo s ta e f C e e Th , O c al

‘ Gwaimus h F i B ut r o n Ofﬁ . nun i i , the ore g ce the p o c at on current in Tokyo an d in most parts of the coun try is s imply

ka nnin G aimush , é , etc .

- SE C . 2 . E E C A E L TT R H NG S . “ ” 1 . N i or i i . e . m ud n is the n m i n g , dli g , a e g ve by the Japan ese t o the substitution of son an ts for The con son ants affected are

c h

change into j . sh

f o radis i c io t o the s o a e ers the surd e e rs ar In c nt t n t n n nt l tt , l tt e “ ” s ai d t o be mi s i . u e . ear Th w r . e t o a e o i e h , cl c t g e s tog t e r are “ ” e rme d sei - da ku s ei b ei h t , ng t e Chinese equivale nt for clear and “ ” , da ku for muddled . 4 JA PA NESE GRA MMA R .

b which change into .

changes g .

d t changes .

— B . F and h n n n in N. also ofte cha ge i to p , especially “ ” “ - un i i ha n ni ori i . e . Chinese compo ds . Th s s called g , half

u dli n m d g .

u din ni or i d The r le regar g the g , state broadly , is that the initial surd of an independent word chan ges into the correspon ding sonan t when the word is used as the secon d m m r m oun u e be of a co p d , th s

- huni ii u u nd m kuni and c hic. j , thro gho t the la , fro

- wam a re k wa ru i an d share . j , a practical jo e , k

- une bune o s i me . f , all s rts of ves els , f repeated “ ri u mushi an d he . a ca o s tooth , “ ” hon oku n i un hon an d ko ku. g , at ve co try , “ ” rone am to dis u ran and sum . , c ss , “ kanz wme inn d [can and tsume . , t e ,

hond a e i Icon an d a e . t , a b ll of fare , t t

e ru e i n m n an u one u n The abov l s by o ea s absol te , e pho y , and m im s the in i in u i n in so et e vary g capr ce of divid als , dec di g each case whether the change shall or shall n ot take place .

F an d h r s n i in b in 9 if , howeve , alway cha ge e ther to or to 1 the

m m r of m n in n n n 71 ﬁrst e be the co pound e ds the co so a t , thus

na m u u nd m m m and . p , the so th wi , fro ﬁ “ - sa m ben im sun and hen . , three t es ,

— 2 . s n in n m It n n m As how the precedi g exa ples , cha ges i to i before a lab al . I PEONET O SYSTEM . 5

— n ff s a 3 . The following category of cha ges a ect large n n n and n umber of compoun d words of Chi ese origi , otably “ the numerals as combined with the auxiliary numerals “ - c h i t c h ic hi c hé one . é , for ,

ha t - ah ha c hi c hd a, , eight

‘ ' - h u c h ten . jit c o , j o ,

a h i ku f nd m nfu ,

one . h wi n i ki ,

TO “ 7 P 1 0765,

“ ten .

“ hundred .

thousand . 6 JA PA NE E S GRA MMA R .

“ one .

r th ee . i e ght . ”

ten .

u n tho s a d .

On e . “ i e ght . “ ” ten .

on e .

— ha t - tsii ha c h lei i i i e . , ght

‘ ” i t - tsi t a a n j f , ten .

m as - s ei a im sci r nn . Si ilarly , , , ty a y

” ” - ha lt 765 ha tsu i ssui n . , kc , g “ ke s u sum r o . t , to es lve 4 — . The Japanese cann ot pron oun ce all their con son an ts

i d o i n u n i before all their vowels . Th s lea s to the foll w g e pho c

— d an d z rr d in su s a d s n ds onl laws , j , are co elate ch wi e th t ta y

r a e an d 0 on o a i 0 an d u before the th ee vowels , , ; j ly bef re , , , ;

d l r a e o u a n irr u ri i s an n o . z o y bef e , , , App re t eg la t e

u in n u i n m n s u hereby ca sed the co j gat o of a y verb , th s

A ttr ibutive

P resen . F orm. t “ ide o . , to go f rth d O i be am orr s n . j , , to c e po

F and h m o n din onl o i t are Si ilarly c rrelated , f sta g y bef re , and h nl o h r ou ow us o y before the t e f r v els , th “ he am to ss . . j , pa

h d sh n din n i and 3 S and s are correlate , sta g o ly before ,

nl r u us o y before the othe fo r vowels , th “ ashi asu n h , k , to le d . H PA RTS O F SPEEC .

d ndi n nl o a e and T ts and c h are correlate , t sta g o y bef re , , , ,

oh n a i o and i t u o ts only before a ; and o ly before , , , , th s i Ne a ive. Ca usa ve. ade A tirib. I f . g t t

ta tazu ta ta shimuru n . tac hi ta tsu, , , to sta d ,

— n d a in m n n n 5 . W is i serte before verbal ter i atio s whe

u an other vowel precedes , th s

w s h m r wara u wa rawaza wara a i u u u . wam i , , , , to la gh

— Y i e and i u 6 . d sappears before , th s

i uru m . k y , to elt

— m n and s u n e 7 . A few o osyllables dissyllable of p re ativ origin en ding in e change the e into a when used as the ﬁrst

m und u member of a co po , th s

” - ana a m k m kane and a . k g , etal wor , fro y

- arm us d te and ma kura ta ma kura , the e as a pillow, . “ * - an u ue and tsutsm i . uwa zatswmi , o ter wrapper ,

CHAPTER II .

PA RT O F SPEE THE S CH .

The words of which the Japanese lan guage is composed

in two rou s unin ﬂec ted an d n fall to great g p , the the i ﬂecte d .

uni nﬂ e c ted rds the n un i The wo are I o , which , bes des the

u s n ro r so - d in ud the n un s b ta tive p pe ly calle , cl es pro o , the

um and m n ds n n En i s d n eral , a y wor correspo di g to gl h a jectives ;

osi ion o n n f r m II the postp t , c rrespo di g o the ost part to the i En glish preposit on .

9 re a i Joa na ta e tc . are the ori i In l ty , , , nal forms which have g , bec ome sof ened In o loans te etc . ex e t in om t t , , , c p c pounds.

[ 9 ]

U NINF L E C TED W O R D S .

H ER III C APT .

THE NO UN.

- SEC 1 THE V E O CA L E . . . SUBS TA NTI E PROP RLY S L D

— 1 , u s n i i s n de lin di s in ion s of num The s b ta t ve i c able , t ct ber and n d in to b e a r d rom on an d ge er be g left g the e f the c text ,

s r ion s ein as in En i s in di a d b ind n d n ca e elat b g , gl h , c te y epe e t “ ” “ ” ords us su s an i us hi si ni s u ox w Th , the b t t ve g ﬁe b ll , , “ ” “ ” “ ” “ c ow ul s o n o s o di n , b l , xe , c w , cattle , acc r g to

ir um s n In u a shi we au n r c c ta ces . s ch a phrase as k it ge e ally “ “ i ni k In ashi ni ne w it si ni s g ﬁes to eep cattle . g ﬁes to “ d on ull if n u and rid on ri e a b o e rider is all ded to , to e

u r In ushi wo uu b lls if several pe son s are spoken of. k it “ ” ’ ni In ushi no c hi ehi ni sig ﬁes to eat beef. it sig ﬁes cows

In the extremely rare cases in which it is absolutely

n di s ns to m n i n an n m is c an i pe able e t o the sex of a i al , th be don b reﬁxin som in d nd n rd u o m e y p g e epe e t wo , s ch as , ale ” “ “ — - me m h me - ushi . us z o a s i ul . , fe ale Th a b l , a cow What we call the sin gul ar n um ber is occasion ally in dicated “ ” b use f rd i c h r hi totsu ne u ic h - o o i o o . s i nen y the the w , Th ,

n ar a ma h totsa o e i n e a . ye t , o b ll Plurality i s occasion ally in di cated by doublin g the word (the secon d half of the compoun d thus obtain ed usually takin g

ni ori s ee us the g , page th ”

habé sid s om he . , all e , everywhere , fr , side “ ” “ ” - wni uni ni . k g , various countries , from ku , country 10 JA PA NESE GRA MMA R .

Or by preﬁxing or sufﬁxing some word conveying the idea num u of ber . Th s ” ban - koku un n n n m ban , all co tries , i ter atio al fro , “m i d ” “ and ko u un . yr a , k , co try “ “ “ sho - kun n m n m sho and an n , ge tle e fro , all , k , ge tle ” man . “ ” “ eu - nen m n m 5 17 num and own , a y years ; fro , ber , , “ ” year . “ deshi - a chi s deshi i and m i d t , di ciples from , a d sciple , ,

u i a word expressive of pl ral ty . “ ” “ onna - domo m n m onna m n and tom , wo e ; fro , wo a , ,

m n n co pa io . ” “ “ shin - Ta u m shin u and i a a , s bjects , we fro , s bject , ,

n word expressive of vague ess .

But u u i n r i n i n on s ch loc t o s a e s omewhat except o al , d sti cti s of n umber not being dwelt upon at every turn by the Japanes e

are n min d as they by the Arya .

- 2 . m un d are omm n and c an o m Co po s very c o , be f r ed at

. in En s r m m f m oun will As gli h , the ﬁ st e ber o the co p d

n l n n d as i s n num rou ge eral y deﬁ es the seco , w ll be ee by the e s

m s u ou is mm asi n a two exa ple thro gh t th gra ar . Occ o lly the “ ” m m r - - s c o o n d as i n in o d an d si r . e be are rdi ate , k g , g l lve This co ~ ordin ation sometimes (in imit ation of Chin es e idi om )

s um uli orm i has n m s n sis a s es a pec ar f , wh ch bee ter ed the y the ” “ “ ” n r i h - i n s e . . c o ta n n or s o . e . of co t adictor e , g , lo g h rt , le gth ; “ “ “ loan - de n r d i m r r na n - n o m an o o . e . u , hot c l , te pe at e y , “ ” “ - th r m n o h a h r b ad i . e . e o i . x s s i d e . se i oo wo a , y , g o ,

' “ m or h of an ion a i n - na shi h re in or al c aracter act ; , t e be g ” “ ” n ot in i e the u s ion e i s n Of hin . be g , . . q e t of the x te ce a t g Two con traries thus combin ed do duty for a s in gle English “ — - s r w u z bnn no a to sa ki lit . th ab t act ord , th s , the context ( e ” - after before) of a passage . ll NOUNS .

When one member of the compound is a verb governi ng the

it m s n d if d is n in and other , co e seco the wor of Japa ese orig ,

n u nna - oroshi un ﬁrst if it is of Chi nese origi . Th s f , a la ch

- - - a mi ha sami u n a . but ki k o u n n k , hair c tti g (J p ) y , ret r i g ” zo- sen u di n u n to the capital , b il g a ship , shipb ildi g

n (Chi ese) . Hyphen s are used in Romanized Japan ese for the sake

n ss in on m un d and in rs of clear e very l g co po s , those whose ﬁ t member en ds in n while the s econ d commen ces with a vowel “ ” i as en - a n dr d um n n t or w th y , g , the aft of a oc e t , o to be “ ” nf un d d ena n mm n m an . In n co o e with g , a co o the prese t work they are used a little more freely to illustrate the sense

n m n an d derivatio of a y words .

SEC . 2 . S E A S A D JE C IVE A ND A V NOUN US D T S D ERBS .

- 1 . n s m few ru d and Japa e e has co paratively t e a jectives , in

num s us s n un s in s d u i n a great ber of case e o tea , j st as n E glish “ ” “ ” old Turke we say a g watch , a y carpet . A noun may do

u an d in viz d ty for a jective three ways , .

I. m m m un As e ber of a co po d , thus “ “ B nts u- i u is m B B j , a B ddh t te ple from utsu, uddha “ u sm and i m or B ddhi j , a te ple “ Ei - kokn - in an En l s m n r m Ei En ko a j , g i h a f o , g ; k , “ “ n an d ln r n la d j , pe so . “ ” “ tei - koku an m un an m , i perial co try , e pire from tei , “ “ ” m an d koku un r e peror , co t y . “ “ “ n - ten n r m a n and ten k , rai y weather f o , rai , s y . “ ” “ oko - mo i Eu o n i n m o e y j , r pea wr ti g ; fro y k , crosswise

d mo i n an j , a writte character .

F o d os n no II . llowe by the Postp itio , of, thus “ “ ai o n no kosai n n u g k k , foreig i terco rse lit . intercourse

of foreign countries . 12 A A NE E M A R J P S GRA M .

horimono no tsu ue li t . k , a carved table a table of

n carvi gs .

I F u m II . ollowed by the attrib tive for of one of the ten ses of

na rn u the verb , to be , th s

li - o r michi t . n s n kens na n , a steep road ; a steep es bei g i li d nodo a na ra enki n t . ni i roa ; k t , ge al weather , ge al ty “ ” n shi nsetsn naris hi hi o k n d rs n lit . bei g weather t , a i pe o ,

- r n kin dn ess havin g been pe so .

— rds f is hird ss orr s ond En is s 2 . o Wo th t cla c e p to gl h adverb , if the postposition ni (m ore rarely to) i s sub stituted for the “ “ narn us z— enso ni s nodo a ni n verb , th k , teeply k , ge ially ; ” shis en to n aturally .

3 — M n ndi n En . a y words correspo g to glish adverbs are “ ” m u in n un a bi - a bi n m for ed by red plicat g o s , as t t , ofte , fro ” M n u a bi m . u t , a ti e a y s ch red plicated words are “ “ n mato es m En i n - n o o p , si ilar to the gl sh di g do g , pell

u asa - asa or oso - oso n n us n mell , etc . Th s g g g g , represe ti g a r tli g

un obo - o bo ri of n s an l so d ; t t , desc ptive the totteri g s tep of o d

n n r m d i m s cro e . Occasio ally they are de ived fro a ject ve ste , as “ ” u o - sn o d i s iri s om su a i ill s g g , escr ptive of low p t , fr g k , at ease .

4 - n r r d as n oun s n s . All Chi ese wo ds are t eate by the Japa e e , ” i u n i n us . as s s o e . . kin o d bei g ed e ther I s b ta t ve pr per , g g l “ ” “ i s u u ke su d i si on ha ts nmei is o r j t , tr th t , ec , d c ve y , “ n ion . d i rdin to on e or o inve t , or II a ject vely , acco g ther of

n i n d - in r m ods us m o e . . i su bu s u nu the th ee eth j t e t e , g j t t , a ge e

su na ra oshi e ru d rin or III. article jit , a t e oct e “ sufﬁxin ni to e . . i su ni ul or . adverbially , by g or , g j t tr y IV “ “ ” - uﬁi xin sum e . . Ices sum as verbs , by s g , to do , g , to decide ; “ ” “ ” “ me sum d in n ki nz aw ha tsn i , to iscover ; to ve t , , to ” - nom ato es e . . kai kai u s forbid ; or V . as o p , g , s ppo ed to

n n a- a represent the voice of the ighti gale ; y y , descriptive of di n n the calm appearance of the sta t heave s . PRONOSNS . 18

H ER C APT IV .

THE PR ONO UN .

EC 1 E S A S . . P R ON L PRONOUNS .

The Japan ese words corr espon di n g to the person al pronoun s of European languages are sim ply n oun s whose origin al

i ni ﬁc ation s are in m os s s r r an d i s g t ca e pe fectly clea , wh ch are

d w os si niﬁc ati n in deed still oft en use ith th e g o s . They an swer “ to such English expression s as your humble servant

(meaning Self- depreciatory terms are naturally used

r n u rs n to rep ese t what we sho ld call the ﬁ t perso , an d

m n m n the n compli e tary ter s to represe t seco d person , thus “ " bo u n k , serva t

- ha k n ses s , the aw ward perso “ shin u , s bject “ " “ sh - sei m n un o , s all bor , yo g “ sore a shi in on g , a certa pers

ware n l m nin un n , (origi a ea g certai ) “ wa ta nshi s s n ss k , elﬁ h e

o m un in y , (ety ology certa )

etc . etc . “ Hei - ka n s s of , be eath the tep the thron e (the idea bein g that a subject does n ot dare to addr ess Y ur M s i n d bu n o ajesty . the overe g irectly , t o ly prostrates his petition at the Im perial F eet)

Kak- ka - , beneath the council cham Your Excellency. ber A E 14 J PA NES GRA MMA R .

Ki - a n u n k , be eath a gust ess “ K i mi n , pri ce

nan i n j , (believed to have origi ally meant ren own ed “ sc - a n h h , be eath the feet

etc . etc .

B — m u uﬁi N. x . So e of these are also sed as titles s ed to other

— T Hei a Hi M n un . u enno k s Em o s Th s , ajesty the peror .

n c an suﬂi x ed an Postpositio s be to the above , as to y ” n un Thus z— sore ashi no me m sore ash other o s . g , of , y g i “ " “ ” “ ” n o me . n ware no me m , I stead of , of , y, the form

a ware a in mm n u wag (for g ) is co o se . The plur al sufﬁxes are more often used with the quasi

n n un n an s n perso al pro o s tha with y other cla s of oun s .

u — sessha - domo shin - m wa re - m ware - ware wa ta ushi Th s , , (or ) , k “ ” domo m im u n u o - ra we (so et es also sed for the si g lar) , y , ; “ ” - - mi a chi so a ac hi nan i ra ou . In m u ki t , kk t , j , y so e cases pl rality “ e . . m wa a ha i r is otherwise expressed , g by the ter g , lit . ou ” m n u u u n the En co pa y , the s al eq ivale t for glish editorial ” we . The only word closely correspondi ng to our pronouns of the ”

r n m e . r u a no hi o thi d perso is la , that Pe iphrases , s ch as k t ,

n i . e om m m that perso ( . he or are s eti es e ployed , as are also the honoriﬁ c designations mentioned above as

u n n t n sono e q ivale ts for the seco d person . Very of e the word , “ m n F n c e u n which properly ea s that ( re ch ) , is sed to sig ify ” “ ” “ ” — “ ” his u sono ha ha m . , her , its , th s , his other “ onore u onore - ra ma an The word (pl ral ) , self, y be of y ” mm nl m t in person ; but it is most co o y e with the sens e of I .

u - n n un The q asi perso al pro o s are very little used, the information they might supply being left to be gathered from U PRONO NS . 1 5

the context In ninety - ni ne cases out of a hun dred in which person al pronouns would be used by the speakers of European

n u to g es .

EC . 2 . E E" IVE S R FL PRONOUNS .

n un s n i n our n un i ban The o s corre po d g to reﬂexive pro o s are y , “ ” “ ” ishin onore ono a wn wa a r m j , , self ; g , o g , prope ly y,

” ’ but s us m o en r l in ns n n al o ed re g e al y the se e of ow , o e s

own u . They are comparatively little sed .

EC E A V A N I E A IVE U . S . 3 . D MON STR TI E D NT RROG T PRONO NS

The words an swerin g to our demonstrative and interrogative pronoun s are “ - - kore is L n hie F n c elui ci celle ci c eci . , th ( ati , re ch , , ) “ - - sore is e c elui ld c elle ld c ela . , that t , , , ) “ ” “ ” “ ” it L n i lle F n he , she , , ( ati , re ch ,

celni - la c ello- la eela , , . ) “ a re t , who “ na ni , what ?

i za re i , wh ch

or in u n m o n The f ego g are the s bsta tive for s , bef re leavi g “ i ud n u s ore - ra s wh ch the st ent should ote the pl ral k , the e

------c ea se Ci c elZes ci sore Ta an d kare ra c ease la c elles ld . ( , ) , ( , )

d i m i e m to n The a ject ve for s , . . those that are e ployed deﬁ e

noun s , are “ hone L n hi e F n c e . , this ( ati , re ch ) “ sono i s e c e . , that t , ) “ ka no i lle c e , that , ) .

rm s ono sono an d e no so do u for kore no The fo k , , k al d ty ,

of is sore no and e re no of a of i are th h , th t , wh ch they “ on i n u o o uni hi s un kono ame ni c tract o s . Th s k n k , t co try t , “ ” “ " for s ak o his Sono s r u n m n s his the e f t . al o f eq e tly ea , “ ” “ ” er h ld so a al a o s n h , its . T e o forms g and g cca io ally

RELA TIVES . 17

hisu beki ko o n u k t , a thi g which sho ld be ept secret (lit . a should keep secret thin g

s n s m s r As ee by the e exa ple , the ve b or adjective of the

i us m us u In i u i m relat ve cla e t be p t the attr b t ve for . If there

s r i us s n nl r or are everal elat ve cla e , the o y the ve b adjective of

s us k s ri u orm r di n the la t cla e ta e the att b tive f , all the p ece g clauses havin g the verb or adjective in the in deﬁnite Thus

K okor ozashi tesse i wo ida i i wa s sets u wo a zamu i ubo h k , g o k , f

sa ishi wo mo on no a me ni enri s hi hiss hi wo i ssen ni iwameshi t , h

ushi shi - u- shi chi nin F or - s n ro s w os d rmin g j , ty eve he e , h e ete a

ion was as iron os d i n was n ot to d m d t , wh e evot o be a pe by

’ di f ul who for ir ord s s ak had and ﬁc ty , the l e left father mo h r i an d hi dr n an d h had so t e , w fe c l e , w o re lved to sacriﬁce ” i i in m the r l ves the atte pt .

H ida i a amu i an d shi in d ni o m ere k , z k are the eﬁ te f r s of the

s iduku a amu u an d sum w i hi wa meshi is attribu verb , z h , h le the

wa m r tive form of the ﬁrst past ten se of ki u u . Occasion ally the Japanes e equivalents of English relative “ - / us m i u u u mi shi hi o lit . saw cla es appear a b g o s . Th s t , the “ “ son m a n i i rson per , y sig fy e ther the pe who saw , or the li “ da s o oro t . rson om ou . saw i u k pe wh I (y , he , etc ) t , the ” “ s n a ma i r whenc e som hin i s e d pl ce , y be e the the place et g B u n s n or the to whic h m hin i s s n . t e t , place so et g e t a gla ce

in at the context gen erally leaves n o doubt as t o the mean g .

F or in s an sa omoi shi wa e ann m n r son whi t ce , k , c ot ea the ea ch

hou so as s u h o a i n f words would n o t ght , c a coll c t o o have “ sen s c an nl i h r n or e . It o y be nterpreted to sign ify t e e aso f

' whic h m r shutta ts u s eshi to c an ou so . i i ln I (he , th ght S la ly ,

n m h im whe A n b o n t e n . s ar d s s ly ea t e I , (he , etc ) t te ee y the

F or an e x planatio n and illustration s of the s e v e ry import ant e h i ms e ha I d i f ha n a er se . VI an be i o c . t c c l t c p . g nn ng p VIII , 18 J P G A A NESE RA MMA R .

e m abov exa ples , the prepositions which often accompany an English relative pron oun are n ot expressed in Japan ese ﬁ " Note too that the English passive in such contexts is almost

n n i variably replaced by a Japa ese active locution . Not infrequently the words tokoro no (more rarely no alone)

in s r d n i u and n un mishi are e te betwee the attr b tive the o , as “ okoro no hi o ins d o mi shi hi o n t t tea of the sh rter t , the ma I

sude ni n am u no noc hi for s ud e ni nureru noc hi saw , , after ” r n d n um u i n add n in it had al eady bee o e . These circ loc t o s oth g

s n s i u f in to the e e . The r se origin ated in the imitation o Ch ese

idi om . om im s r no im s n S et e , howeve , legit ately repre e ts the “ En is r i hus z— on hana shi no en en ious gl h elat ve , t h k , the var “ m t rs m n i n d u lit m - m of a te e t o e by yo ( . the atter atter “ on ur o o no bihin min the h o able g zoy , the char g

r s n u ul p e e t you have sent m e (lit . the bea tif articles of the august

H ER C APT V .

H ERA T E NUM L .

EC 1 THE CA I A M E . S . . RD N L NU B RS

num one n and There are two sets of erals , of ative the other

f in r n n n ow for o Ch ese o igi . The ative set is obsolete except the rs ten num o ws ﬁ t bers , which are as f llo

1 hi totsu 2 uta tsu 3 . nzi tsn . 4 . o s u. . . . f . y t

i ts utsu ni uts u. . nana tsu. 8 . a s u. 5 . . 6 . 7 y t

9 . hokono tsu. 1 0. to.

5 om are suc h E ish ex re ssio s as di i - room s i i i C p ngl p n n ng , gn fy ng “ ” “ a room i n whi c h e o e di e sha i - b rush si i i a p pl n v ng , gn fy ng, ” brush wi h which ou he ourse f to sha e etc . t y lp y l v , E NU M RA LS . 1 9

ma i u n nd n d These numerals y e ther be sed as i depe e t wor s ,

su s n i s . n us d n nd n or compoun ded with b ta t ve Whe e i depe e tly ,

m a n ui n o o r r they y either sta d q te alo e , or f ll w or (ve y ra ely)

r u n nd in an ri u ion p ecede a s bsta tive , or sta att b tive relat to

m n s si n no us the substantive by ea s of the po tpo tio . Th “ uta ts a ha o uta tsu uta tsu no ha o f u ri , there are two k f , or f h , “ two boxes .

m n u n When co pounded, they i variably precede the s bsta tive .

r nin d tsu In this case the ﬁ st e rop the syllable , which is

r uf and n to m to prope ly a s ﬁx , lo g beco es short . Thus “ “ ” u a - tsu i m n to - tsu i n m n f t k , two o ths k , te o ths . The set of numerals borrowed ﬁrom the Chinese is

- 1 . ic hi i sa 20. m u (or t ) . g .

- - 2 . ni 21 ni it i c h . . j i .

3 . sun . 22

4 . shi .

o 5 . g .

6 . rok u r u (or ik ) .

7 . etc . etc . “ - 8 . hac hi . 100. h ahu i a hu n g , or p p y (lit . o e

9 . kn u (or hy ) .

- 10. i t . 2 ni h a hu . f 00. y

1 1 u- ic hi . j . etc . etc . “ - - 1 2 . u nt . sen is sen ne g , or (lit . o thou

u - sa 1 8 . j n .

- 1 4 . iZ shi . ma n ban i c hi - ma n j , or , or (lit . n etc . , etc . o e

num nn u nd n n These erals ca ot be sed i epe de tly , but must

n un m n always precede a o , for i g a sort of compound with the “ “ - - - . us ic hi nin one n i t ten i chi te n n latter Th , perso (for ) , o e

n . n m poi t As see by these exa ples , the noun s with which the Chinese numerals combine are almost always of Chinese A 20 J PA NE SE GRA MMA R .

m ri in . m r n s an d n s nu s nn o g Si ila ly , Japa e e Chi e e eral ca ot be “ h i r us d o e . S i our s ow e o t en r a d b o e t geth r , f , h ev f epl ce y g , “ ” n i n w rd as in u - O - ni n the at ve Japa ese o , j y , fourteen persons ; ” - - ni iZ ok a 24th da of the m on . j g h , the y th

E C 2 . A " I IA U E A L . S . U L RY N M R S

Auxi liary numeral is the n ame given to a certain class of n oun s with which the Chin ese n um erals con stan tly c om

i En is n a o u s in u r i b ne . They have gl h a l g e s ch exp ess on s as “ ” “ un r head o m n anes of ss but a h d ed of cattle , s a y p gla are mu m n i u us one - s un ch ore exte s vely sed . Th war ve sel is g ” “ ha n is - so on e soldier is heishi i c hi - mei (or ic hi - nin) ; one

en is ude i - on s r u n isso no unhan ic hi - nin no p f p p (les f eq e tly g , heishi n m m n u , The followi g are the ost i porta t a xiliary numerals

c ho for u n n u musk , vario s thi gs with ha dles , s ch as tools , ets , and ini i hish as j .

it f , for letters .

uhu ro s and hiﬂs . f , for sc lls , sip of tea , w of tobacco

ha i u u s an d s s u . , for c pf l gla f ls

hi f r m i u ki , o ost l ving creat res except human beings and

s s f r in u n i i s and ums m n bird ; al o o certa q a t t e of cloth , s of o ey .

hon for n n s u as i k r s an d n . , cyli drical thi g , s ch st c s , t ee , fa s

a or o for in s n r no u num r h h , th g ge e ally , that have a xiliary e al

r m specially approp iated to the .

ui di n s . km , for b l g

ma n s n . i , ﬂat thi g ge erally

mei hum n n s . , a bei g

nin um n n . , h a bei gs

a u um . s ts , vol es

so, ships .

as, documents. rd wa , bi s . U E A 2 N M R LS . 1

N B — r u oni n . F o u . the e ph c cha ges which these a xiliary

num ra s und r o in m osi ion wi num s o r e l e g co p t th the eral pr pe ,

Wa uffers o o n i ul r n s ee pages 5 an d 6 . s the f ll wi g rreg a cha ges

sam- ba Top -p a jip - p a hyap -p a sem- ba By the Japan ese themselves the n ames of weights and “ r u as in un in ud in m measu es , s ch k , a po d are cl ed the sa e ” r us : i h- hin on e un h a k- hin un catego y . Th , po d ; g , a h dred

un ds po . F ormerly there existed many n ative Japan ese auxiliary

num hi r us in m n n n erals , w ch we e ed co bi atio with the ative

onl numerals proper . The y words of this class that have remain ed in common use are :

som e n , for sets of thi gs

u i - k n s s j , rope li e thi g ; “ ” “ - omai n e . . dozo mu omai t , godow s ( g t , six mud go “ and s n hi ari the isolated expres io s t , one person “ “ ” utari r on s and otta ri u f , two pe s g , fo r person s , which

- - - n i chi nin ni nin and o nin . u s u u r ofte replace , , y Th s if futa i , ” m n two sea e .

n u num uff The ative a xiliary erals s er no euphonic changes .

SEC . 3 . I A E ET ORD N L NUMB RS , C .

Japanese has n o separate form s for what we term the

din s . S om m s rdin a n um s d du f r or al eti e the ca l ber o ty o them , “ hu z— M e i u- ku - nen nin n s M i . e t ij j , the etee th year of eiji , . A D . “ ” 6 . o h r im o dai s 1 88 At t e t es the w rd , serie , is preﬁxed ,

bamme suﬁi x ed to i n num da - h or , the card al bers , as i ic i or ” hi ba mme . O u ic , the ﬁrst bserve s ch locutions as

can - do , thrice .

san - do me , the third time

can - t ho me , third street . “ san -nin mas n , portio s for three . A P 22 J A NESE GRA MMA R .

- - ird sa m bu no i chi one . , th

a m - b r er n s u th ee p ce t .

a r i n can w i th rty per ce t . mi ts u “ zuts u m 222123; , three at a ti e

etc .

and m si ilarly with the other numerals .

ER CHAPT VI .

THE PO P ITI N ST O S O .

EC 1 THE I E I I S . . S MPL POSTPOS T ON .

Japanese postpositions correspond for the most part to

i i But m ds i S uld Engli sh prepos t on s . so e wor wh ch we h o call

nd n un n and o for En s adverbs a co j ctio s , thers which gli h has

n n u d in i n sumx d no equivale ts are i cl de th s category , Whe e

d i s si i n s u u to a verb or a ject ve , po tpo t o req ire s ch verb or

d in one u i m n a jective to be of the attrib t ve for s , a ge eral rule which is subject to exceptions mentioned in the course of the present chapter .

n k n m and m un Postpositio s are of two i ds , si ple co po d .

m n m The chief si ple postpositio s , with their ost us ual

niﬁc ation s sig , are “ ” a : Oishi a uhush u G , I of, or the possessive case g f g ,

’ “ ” a me ui for ak . II. Oishi s revenge ; t , the s e of

a - a Ga is also used, especi lly in low cl ss writings whose phrase I I I 28 S MPLE POSTPOS T ONS .

m u n ology approxi ates to that of the c olloq ial, as a sig of what we should call the n omin ative case : S ugi ura Shi ga shoha i u'o ” “ W n u o s u Mr u iu di s ri u iz s . III. j g , . S g ra t b ted the pr e he

nd of us sufﬁx ed to the attributive form of a verb at the e a cla e , ” h ra s r n d d b et it as an adversative force gene lly be t e ere y y , “ ” “ " but r i r t o ow n us . , o st ll p eﬁxed o the f ll i g cla e (See

n o is r d b o d w rs to a in su on . , which p eferre y g o rite g ch c texts )

K a an n rro i i n r orr s on i n to our , i te gat ve part cle , ge e ally c e p d g

n n o ion b ut s m im s n an r s sion of poi t of i terr gat , o et e o ly to exp e “ un in : A ru ka Is r ? Na ni ha om in certa ty , the e , S eth g or ” o S ono sd - dan no ma toma ri shi to a ni e ond o ther ; h t , k “ A n m n in as it would s m n rri d agree e t hav g , ee , bee a ve at ,

are n ow - n r d a usua o s on d they Whe epeate , h lly c rre p s “ to i r F w d we en d of e ther o . ollo e by at the a

n n a s m r r r u i n : Shi a nomi se te ce , h expre ses a e ely heto ical q est o k “ “ a wa — W n Is n e ur i n t onl . h o so i . . f s s o , it ly , O co e it y so he

uff it sion i rund ka m n s i s ixed as occa ally s to a ge , co bi e w th

the run di rmin te d ss us ge al te ation to signify oubtle beca e , “ r n un us — Sei u mo koko ni mi ru p obably o acco t of. Th f

to oro mi e a hon its anre ra nnai ni a ru otohu ori h t h , j u no h i g t

‘ shima ri - kis ohu wo ni o erareta ri o nm n too dou k , The g ver e t , bt

s s n n vi w n u has dr n u le havi g certai e s o the s bject , aw p

u ion s m a n in of i o um n our reg lat , as y be see the ﬁc al c l of to

’ d s i ay ssue . “ ” “ “ K a ra r m s n ore a m n orw . , f o , i ce h h , he cef ard

K oso i h m h i i orr s on din an , a h g ly e p at c part cle , c e p g to un usu s ron m h sis in En is or an in rsion ally t g e p a gl h , to ve which puts at the beginn in g of the English s enten ce the

ord t o w i i n In w h ch the writer desires to draw atten t o . clas s ical Japan ese each of the in di cative ten ses of verbs and

d i s ha i m e Mr s on s s or in ed b . a ject ve a pec al f , call y A t the “ u n n r n ﬁn perfect , which is sed i stead of the co clusive o i de ite

PL P P 25 SIM E OST OSITIONS .

“ means to arrive at a place one is going to M o likewise

s serves to form the hypothetical con cessive m ood of verb . “ mo repeated signifies both M ukashi mo “ i ma mo i i n an d m r im o n n d n . , B th a c e t o e t es ” ” M atte r an d hu wo mo e 37 . s . , the eby , t See tt , page “ ” “ Na a ra sufli x ed to n un s si ni s us as it i s i ou g , o , g fie j t , w th t ” “ n tel uel us : M end o na a ra e dious as i s cha ge , q , th g , T it , ” ou r M r n it ow r s w s in th gh a bo e . o e o fte foll s ve b (al ay the

in d ni n ot in a ri u i orm an d en h as s n s eﬁ te , the tt b t ve f ) , th the e e “ ” - w i durin us uki na ar a w i oin . of h le , g , th y g , h le g g “ ” “ ” “ Ni in in o to Ni h as re a n um of , , t , a g t ber

di om i us s of w o o in are the m os n o i at c e , hich the f ll w g t te

— I in En i i a d su of worthy . What gl sh s c lle the bject

n n i wa ai e a s e te ce s oft en m ark ed by ni followed by or t .

is i s e r ssion an hon oriﬁc in w i i s n Th g ve the xp e t ge , h ch ge eral

m asiz d b u in er in the o n ia o m it ly e ph e y p tt g the v b p te t l f r , bein g con sidered m ore polite to s ay that such an d such a

in i s a ble to ha en i n a rson n un t o ass r th g pp pe , tha bl tly e t that

rs n di d it hu : m K a i unk wa sannuru mi a the pe o . T s g yo ui kh

’ “ ki k o sera reta i i the Min i s r of M arin e re urn d to ok o on y , te t e T y

3rd in s n i as si r ni o s onds . W the ta t II . th a p ve ve b , c rre p

t o b d n o in as it d s th rson b w om ion is y , e t g o e e pe y h the act ” r orm d : Z o u n i obi a a sa ruru To ar d b hi pe f e k y h , be sc e y t eves .

Wi h au i r d n r n i . s e ni s so who s III t a c at ve v b , e ote the pe

aus ed t o er orm the a ion hus : Ii n ni ho o wo i ses himuru c p f ct , t t g , ” m a r i T T us the ommi e to de i r u on . e o o ca e c tte l be ate p a tte ,

a a h mmi t de i era u n . leave m tter to t e co ttee o l b te po IV .

F o wi n the a ri u i e orm of a r at the en d of a aus llo g tt b t v f ve b cl e , ui serves to in dicate a con trast or differen ce between two “ ” on s u i i n a W er u n r n o s or s s . o o o c ec t ve act t te h e p ,

r e d t o o o n aus i s the m os i ra En is p eﬁx the f ll wi g cl e , t l te l gl h

n rin Su o no ta ss wo sh e sa u ases ni nil- nan re de g , thus tr n ha it g r hi , 26 A A E E J P N S GRA MMA R .

ic hi - o no shihabane wo hiki - a eta ri u be j g , They ca sed search to m d b om n di rs r u n odi s f two m en a e y c pete t ve , whe e po the b e o an d n e w m n r B u r r u n ui in u o o a were recove ed . t m o e f eq e tly s ch

n s mus r nd r d but er in rd an co text t be e e e by , th e be g ha ly y

iff r n we n it and wo simi ar d hus : Z en i tsu d e e ce bet e l ly place , t j o obi o ui ts u u na rishi i ono hi noni i wa nra i ma re na r g y h j hO n , h hi u ko enki ni ts o da r an d th da t , B th the y befo e e y after were rainy ; but on this day only was the weather ﬁn er than

lm an h d f n Ni s uﬂi x ed os we a o a d so . a t y have late , V “ ” “ ” Ni n oun s m im m n an d sid s and . . to s o et es ea s be e , VI sometimes follows a word which a ccordi ng to En glish

d s s uld in th u i as : Hi o ni a n i ea ho be e acc sat ve case , t , To ” m rs n uffix ed to in de n i m of eet a pe o . VII . S the fi te for the “ ” “ ” r ni i n in : Tori ni u u o ve b , s g ifies order to to y k , To g t o fetch . ” “ Ni e m im de m n s s o u d n o . t ( o et e c rr pte i t ) I by ea s of, by ,

- i K ore ni e s hi ru beshi m a kn o n . w th t , It y be hereby w “ ” “ ” in a Osa a ni e aka . t : Os . II , k t , at

B — Th i i i e us not on un i N . e os os on n m . p tp t t t be c fo ded w th ni e in d n o m na m i n t , the eﬁ ite f r of the verb , which s g iﬁes “ bein g .

No of or os s i s u : Tok o n o umt n , the p ess ve ca e , th s y g ,

" “ inh a i an s of k bo u no on i o r i m um the b t t To yo ; k z j y , y h ble ” “ o inion kuni n o osa mum no ko na n difﬁ ul of p ; n , the c ty ” “ o rn in the oun r ki sha no ts u o sum the as sin g ve g c t y ; k , p g ” “ ” f the rain rain in In e m s ike the o ss . t , the t pa g xa ple l

as the word o ow d b no a m os om e s to orr s on d l t , f ll e y l t c c e p t o our n om in ative or accus ative rather t han t o our gen i

i ase an d the n oun t o whi h it i s sufﬁx ed m us o t en t ve c , c t f

in n i hus be turn ed in to the subj e ct of a clause E gl sh . T “ Wa a ha no s une ni t a n to s um to oro na ri is g i t h h , It a ” i n n r otsu en dem o no i a thing wh ch we co sta tly egret . T z p k t m I E I 2 S MPL POSTPOSIT ONS. 7

d mi m uddenl m li t . u n , A telegra s y ca e ( S d e ly there was

the om in of Hi o no onore wo h o suru wo i hu c g a t y k , ” T he r r a k u n Whi w in n o a othe s t l abo t o eself. le al ays reta i g “ ra e of it s ro e r m e anin of of no is us d in two o a t c p p g , e ther n o wo h idi om a i m ann r — I n two n oun in te rt y t c e s . Betwee s ” o si ion : Issa ku u- ni - ni c hi no ni c hi obi da app t j y , The y before h ” i i i s erd un da t e w . . E e n u ye t ay S y t elfth II th r l e of, or

ufﬁx ed to o r os osi ion s it in u n n s , the the p tp t , be g a r le that o e of them except no an d ga c an show the relation between two

u in n i n of a r u n n oun s witho t the terve t o ve b . Th s a Japa ese s a : K ono ura ui ike mi r i s n d a t k f ys , The e a po the bac o this .

u if e r omi d K ono um no i ke B ut he m st , the v b be tte , say , The

o k f i i r K a n - n no o s . m : i pon d a t (lit . f) the bac th S ila ly

iis o s in - a or o i s Ei - Ro no ha n ei ky hujo, A re t g pl ce f the fﬁc al k , ” be ween En n d an Ru i In n The relation s t gla d ss a . the followi g in stan ces no is suﬂi x ed to the other p ostp osition s z— Hokhin yori “ ” em r m m ki n a i o to c hih u to no ka n no d p o, a teleg a fro Pe g ; t y y “ ” ion s n sun an d the r . m hei , the relat betwee the ea th Si ilarly “ ” when to m the sense of that or of in verted commas is

n t r but b n un no m followed, o by a ve b , y a o , us t be in serted

i us z— H a ku- bun ih—ken ni shikuzu to no a en after t . Th y k kug a ri is o d n n to f n , There a g l e sayi g the e fect that heari g a

un im s is not so d as n on h dred t e goo seei g ce . (See also

n un 18 and m un i i n relative pro o s , page , co po d postpos t o s , page

et se 35 q) . “ To . on un n n d mm , I that (the c j ctio ) , or i verte co as , or

' d in ni i — “ to o o . us z A a shi to omo f ll we by the ﬁ t ve Th u, I

in k r are n on . To c an n ik En th that the e e ( ever , l e the glish “ ' ’ d mi d in u o s on s . I ommasa no ihits w r that , be o tte ch c text ) j a “ na ri to ii - tsuta u is r di ion l s id , It t a t al y a to be an autograph of

Yorimas a lit nd ‘ ( . [they] ha down the saying it is an

aut r Ichi - da i ai to shiruseru ha ta og aph of t , A ﬂag 28 JA A E E A P N S GR MMA R.

’ with the inscription First Regiment In the semi - Chin e s e

to is o n oun d at the en d f a n n style , fte f o se te ce in the s en se of “ ” “ it i aid s s hou . s om su er a i n that , he t ght , etc , e ch v b s , onzou or hi hu in un d rs ood a r i om e im , be g e t fte t . S t es on e of the

“ ' “ ” r orm s in a ku as iwuku s id omoera u ve bal f , , a h , thought , i s placed at the comm en cem en t of the s en ten ce which en ds

to u wi th . Th s the ab ove example might be abbreviated to

Yori masa - h no i i s a nai i to . F or the s ak f m i j t e o e phas s , t o is o sion l o lo d m a i ar i o cca al y f l we by the e ph t c p t cle s .

To in his its s s n s i s usu r e d d n ot b an , t ﬁr t e e , ally p ec e , y

ri u i but on usi r or ad i a att b t ve , by a c cl ve ve b ject ve , s seen in

o m na r i n ot naru . r son is as i the ab ve exa ple ( , ) The ea that , t simply correspon ds to in verted commas placed after a clause or n n om in i s it do s n ot in an over se te ce c plete t elf, e y way g n

di n ord . ord is as it n r l us the prece g w If that w , ge e a ly m t be ,

r r d i in on usi o m o m r m in s a ve b o a ject ve the c cl ve f r , that f r e a

r n f to B ut un affected by the p ese ce o . the fact that the postposition s gen erally are preceded by an attributive verb or

d i in u n d m m r of to in u w s a ject ve , has ﬂ e ce the gra a s ch i e that many writers sub stitute the attributive for the con clusive form

is a n s s i in a when to follows . Th h ppe e pec ally the c s e of

a s ri u i min ion shi n the ﬁrst p st , who e att b t ve ter at co stantly

n u i i r to u — be t replaces the co cl s ve h befo e . Th s K o ni ocha hu “ seshi for shiki to in is s id h i d ( ) , It a t at they have arr ve at ” u r inin m f its o f . o so w o o t Kobe . II Th gh eta g e hat f rce hat , “ ” “ o m us o n otherwis r n d d e . . to in t t fte be e e ere ( g by , to ,

r o r dro d in En li sh hus : A ware na r o alt gethe ppe g , t u

H l in a i i ul i ' a ni a to na reri e o . i uru to as i s , fe l t p t f pl ght O “ hi toshihu A s soon as we i h d m or lit . o t r i , al g te ( e t ge he w th ” i in M usume to ni - nin Two oun in m d u r al ght g , c t g y a ghte . “ ” an d In s n s it k L n ue n III . . this e e is , li e the ati q , ge erally

n repeated after each of the words e umerated . I E P I I 2 S MPL OSTPOS T ONS . 9

“ To e m un d of to an d te m n n t , a co po , that , , the ter i atio of

it i r l i ni in run d so s s . the ge , that l te al y g ﬁe g that It is “ us d as an ui a n of to ii e s in to omoi te e eq v le t t , ay g that , “ ” ” inkin a to oi s skin and im th g th t ; t t , a g whether , of S ilar

run di r s s . us : F urusa o ni a eran o e waka re ge al ph a e Th t k t t , “ ” n o i n He d di u s a in was oin m , ba e a e , y g that he g g ho e .

r r u n o e o ows r in on di n m Ve y f eq e tly t t f ll a ve b the c tio al ood . It an d the con di tion al termin ation eba then together signi fy “ ” “ u s id ou i . beca se a (th ght , bel eved , etc ) to be , on the stren gth of (s om ethin g s aid don e or thus :

Hi to to shi te mi zuha ra i - sho hu-jit wo hyu sum wa ha ta hi koto

zu K eno ko o wo na soba o e a ete hohor u- behi n ara ni ara . t t t , i zu, “ It is n ot a di fﬁ cult thin g for a human bein g to provide

in d an d H i o oo . e mu him self w th cl th g , f , shelter st not dare

r n his d n to be proud on the st e gth of oi g so . “ ” “ Wa ri in . n oun i nif in in , o g ally I a s g y g th g ; that which , “ ” i s n ow u as H he , she , or they who , chieﬂy sed . an emphatic or s eparative particle correspon di n g t o the French

a r n d to Gr k men and de uan o . q t , , whe repeate , the ee With ” d so is on n d are its mos regar to , far as c cer e , t explicit

n B u it r En gli sh equivale ts . t s fo ce is gen erally sufﬁciently in dicated in an En gli sh tran slation by an emphasis on the

i it i s suﬂi x ed an d in f word to wh ch , by the plac g o that word

inni n f s n n E m at or n ear the beg g o the e te ce . xa ples of I Te ni ” in d in hi - ta us oru wa The o s s n d . K o a e eru z , th g he h l ha t h wa , “ “ He n sw r d lit . in n s r d a e e , ( the th g he a we e ,

ishi wa u i m an suk ba Ex m s of II . N F hi T u na ri a ple j , , To

w s s n ds F usi am a to n or M oun s uk the e t ta y , the th t T uba .

ken wa bets u ni o hodo i ta sa u K ano ji g z , Con cerni ng this ” nd n o s i in o m i n ono h o matter I s e pec al f r at o . K g men ui wa

shuhusho seimei wo ha iri shita ta mu- beshi On n g , this side othing

must be written but the name and address . Saran to t urn A A E E A 30 J P N S GR MMA R .

- - o ki wa n ou to d r . S ono in in wa nen nen ka n t , Whe ab t epa t j ni oi te e re no sada ni u The n um r i s d e a ar h , be ﬁxe ch ye ” “ i li as f r h n um r ar in b u ori s t . o e y the a th t e ( t at be , y ly

of i s e it A s shown in the s e m the ﬁc al , [th y] ﬁx la t xa ple ,

it is often con ven ient to ren der the n oun followed by wa as a n omin ative in English ; but it i s n ever a n omin a

- in h an n tive properly s o calle d t e J ap es e co struction . It is simply a word isolated an d gen erally placed at the head of the

f r k f m is ru n om n a i s or u claus e o the s a e o e phas . T e i t ve s bjects

r in n mos n n s n su s are ra e Japa ese , t se te ce bei g bjectle s .

n ar (See Sy tax , p .

W0 i n of i in Euro n n u s n m . I . A S g what s pea la g age a ed

u i s : K ami a o shinzuru To i in the acc sat ve ca e , bel eve [ ]

G od . K a ze no na u wo ma su To w i in a m g t , a a t the gett g c l of d ” i “ w i i h ” n . e . t o t ind n e o s . the wi , a t t ll w g e dow II . When Suffixed to the attributive form of a verb or adjective at

en d of us wo has an d rs i or w i the a cla e , a ve at ve f ce , h ch is gen erally best ren dered by yet or but Seiyo- zuhuri no mihomi na vi shi wo hondo a ra ta mete Ni hon - u uri to sa dani er , z h aru, “ It had been in tended to build [the palace] in European

but it has n w n d id d t r style , o bee ec e o e ect a Japanes e build

i n th d a in g in stead . Occas o ally e a vers tive force is soften ed to a mere intim ation of di ssimilarity between two successive ” or ion s an d n wo m us r n d d and s states act , the t be e ere by o ,

n B ut is s de is m r n n di d or a d . th ha o e ofte i cate by

u ni . n rio w i rs o o n us f the se of I fe r r te , f ll wi g the age o the

ui use r a or no ui for we in s s in ud colloq al , eithe g all the ca e cl ed

onn e ion n the two i us f wo i un der II . The c ct betwee ch ef es o s foun d in the fact that this postpo sition was origin ally n othing

n an in r ion s r in as it w r to n rru more tha te ject e v g , e e , i te pt the

and u n on o i sentence , draw partic lar atte ti to the w rd to wh ch

’ m n it was suﬁixed. For the sa e reaso , it is not attached to I E I I S MPL POSTPOS T ONS .

e n un r n to Eu o n mm very o which , acco di g r pea ideas of gra ar, “ i s in us i as hus : M eshi kuu o ki n the acc at ve c e , t t , Whe ” in i r suru r wh n akin a m a . o eat g ce , e t g e l Bef re the ve b , “ “ to do it i s en ra a sen hus : H on - a ku suru , g e lly b t , t y , To ” m ake n i n r n a n d r m a ss d r s a o to a s . a t a l t , t l te U e I y be cla e som ar n n m a ous us e s of wo b w i s ud n e app e tly a o l , y h ch the t e t is n d h ar 1 u ras s as o re r e . fte g atly pe plexe . T ey S ch ph e

' ‘ Tenno Hei a u o ha ime - ta tema ts m i F rom His m ri h j , I pe al ” M e d H r the i r r n d rin wou d aj sty own wards . e e l te al e e g l be “ respectfully placing His M ajesty the Emperor at the ” e inn in n s ru i n w i e ou d l us . b g g , a co t ct o h ch w sh l ca l acc ative

2 . Such phras es as Wa bo ku wo ri nd i i to amoeba Think ing that peace would be Here the liter al “ ren derin g of the Japan es e con struction i s thinkin g [of]

‘ ’ it wi ad an u Wa bo u i s or peace , ll be v tageo s . k theref e r an us i hou r n d r d in En is b n omi eally acc at ve , t gh e e e gl h y a i n . Th at ve 3 . e use of wo after what correspon ds to the s u of an En is s i e r hus M ina mi ni mi um bject gl h pa s v ve b . T g “ shima wo Oshima to i n is n d V i e t s ou is , The la i s bl o the th l d im I ca le Osh a . n all such s en ten ces the Japan es e c on s ru ion is r a an i on e r s n am si n i in t ct e lly act ve , the p e e t ex ple g fy g

i era o e the i n d in to s ou h l t lly , [Pe pl ] call sla ly g the t

shi O ma . (Se e als o the rem arks on the n atur e of the Japan es e

as si r ha 4 W0 at the en d of p ve ve b , C p . VIII , Sect . . a s n n In u h u u e te ce . s c cas es there i s an in versio n o f the s al

ons ru ion the r in a d at the e innin of c t ct , ve b be g pl ce b g g the

aus in s ad of at the en d for the s ak of e m hasi s and in cl e te , e p imi a ion of hin e s idi m hus : K ou o u u no shokuns hi t t C e o . T y p h wa d a i - shi d o o o ky g ha mei a ra n ko to wo (for Yoya hu no . . . . h t n o how We rus ha n m n i l h n t add ir ) , t t t t ge tle e w l aste o the ” n am h r u l i i e s t o t e is f u ri s . 5 l t o s bs c be . S ch e l pt cal

r s K a m isei wo meizera reta i i . ph a es as p , lit [They] have

IM E S I I S S PL PO TPOS T ON . 33 conclusive in stead of by the attributive form of the verb or

i s in as of r s n n s of ad ec adject ve , e pecially the c e the p e e t te e j tives of r s n n s of r a ru to on usi , the p e e t te e the ve b , be (c cl ve mi and of r s n n s of n i oi of r s ) , the p e e t te e the egat ve v ce ve b

d i en ra is n s i w n an adject ves in g e l . Th happe ch eﬂy he the

u s ion sk is r ori on e as in m rom q e t a ed a het cal , the exa ple f

N na razu the ew Testam ent on the previous page (con ol . for

. na ra aru n r d s n n attrib z ) . The ﬁ al ve b or a jective of a e te ce

on n in a is o o t n ut n n usi n r r c tai g y als f e p i the co cl ve , co t a y to the general rule whereby interrogative words govern the ﬁn al

r d i in i u i m i n verb o a ject ve the attr b t ve for . The except o is mo r n n as ur m usi in re appa e t tha real , it occ s al ost excl vely

s r a i s n ot ro r n rro but on e case whe e y p pe ly i te gative , has of

n her m n n s i n un d di n s II. a d III. w e the ea i g g ve above er hea g ,

be a ra u for . beka ra an example wi ll be foun d (con ol . h z attrib

zaru In T on us is w us d . ) . V the C cl ive al ays e “ “ ” “ Ye to ss n o d som m Tok o , , le ofte t war s , eti es at y “ “ e kuru m to ok o Yokoha ma e toc ha ku sum y , to co e T y y , to ” r i Y k m a r ve at o oha a . “ ” “ ” “ “ Yori om in n B ei o u ori m , fr , s ce , tha h k y , fro

m ri Sa u i ts u ori n s rd . Tsuki hana ori A e ca . k g y , s i ce ye te ay y

utsukus hi i wa na ki nari i s n o hin m or u i u k , There t g e bea t f l ” ” n m n an d r Yor i m n n tha the oo the ﬂowe s . always ea s si ce

n it i s ufﬁx d run d n t n use whe s e to a ge . The Japa ese of e “ ” ori in ns f r m En is i i om us in y the se e o f o where gl h d es , ” on or b r d o r osi ion s us Gozen at , , y , o r ps all p ep t , th

’ hac hi - i m kai m n i h k n i o . F noo g y j , lit ro fore e g t O cloc ope

“ ’ a i e . To n k id in pl ce , . Ope at 8 o cloc the ea be g that the

’ place will be open from 8 o clock till some other hour n ot

m n i n - - o era r ta u an d o . U n un N sk musko ri tass e ri e t ed o o y , S ch “ u h li m t s ch a t in g has been notiﬁed by ( t . fro the Depar

i u u a n ment of A r c lt re nd Commerce . Preceded by a e ative g g , A 84 JA PA NESE GRA MM R .

” “ ” ori s u y sometimes mean unless , except by , witho t

mshi i a ara aru ori wa esshi te a iko kehk o no iseki K k ru ni z y , k t y

to m tomur wo zar - be i ta reri du d to su i u e u ki ni , They are re ce ch

i u im oss for an a state that t would be q ite p ible , except expert , to recogn ize in them the remain s of very an cient cave ” d i W n us u d ori is mos s s n n well ngs . he th se , y al t alway tre gthe ed

d i n w by the a di t o of a .

Z 0 an m i n n s n oso but , e phatic part cle less i te e tha k , best rendered in English by either of the mean s mention ed un der d i koso 23 . In i n s n or , page class cal Japa e e , the ﬁ al verb a ject ve

of any clause or s enten ce in which s o occurs is p ut in the attri

bu i rm E m s is t ve in stead of in the con clusive fo . xa ple of th c on struction are occasion ally m et with in the m odern written

us : K ore s o i su ni onni chi Y ro a ni oi o a umon style , th j t k o pp t g h no oi ni shi m o seru uen na ru for on usi nwi i s p y ( the c cl ve ) , It this which is really the caus e of the great progress of

i n in Eur the n da sc e ce ope at prese t y .

E C 2 THE C I I S . S . . OMPOUND POSTPO T ON

I — M n f i i n an m in in d . o s os o s c o o t a y the po tp t be c b ed , r er o ” i ul ariz or m siz the s n s as ma de ni un i for part c e e pha e e e , , t l , ” ma de i or i mo en h n W0 an i . s a , t ll y , ev t a ch n ged into woba an d i s us d to deno ar i u m a i usa i , e te a p t c larly e ph t c acc t ve , “ us : Wa re mo sho a i hinu wo ba mi ui ina tou - ma i In i th g j , s lk ” i too n r m s m i n In su c w ll I eve array y elf all y l fe lo g . ch om bin ation s as no n a no ni to wa an i sis m u b e u , , , ell p st s pplied ,

us Yo ki hi o a a nin wo ta s uhur u no o o n a esshi te th t g t [h t ] , k wa a ame u'o ha ha r ite suru ho o ni n a a ra za s'u na ri lit g t t , . A s

’ for of ood m n s in o ers it is r in n ot the act a g a help g th , ce ta ly

in do s ul in hi s own in r t i h s . e . W n a th g he e calc at g te e , e a

ood m an he s o h rs he n e r d f g lp t e , ve oes s o out o regard to his

own in r s . Te nto i n mono n a W is n te e t [ ] , hat called heave ,

m n m n What is ea t by the ter heave , COMPOUND POSTPOSITIONS .

- r is r s of om un d os osi ion orm II . The e a la ge cla s c po p tp t s f

d r m n uns b reﬁxin no ss o n o and n e f o o y p g (le fte g ) , ge erally

n ni us suﬁi xi g . Th “ li in d f no ha e ui hin d t . S o o g , be ( the ha w ” ” no awari ni n s of in urn for as m n h , i tead , ret , co pe sa

i ” i n f r n r nd o o o . t o , the the ha “ k f no ame ni the s o b . t , for a e , y “ ” no we ui o lit . on to of on be , ab ve ( the p , ” ” id in r i s n . es , after , elat o to ” ” r d sid a ue ni an s . y , ove above , be e

a i in d the r k U ma no wa no e u o s . Examples I h g ( ) , Beh c ”

ni keraruru To k k ors . Z an i h usoku tame , be ic ed by a h e g y

f n no r s or r s . I a a ue ni On to o o e no , Afte a h t e t y g , the p ” “ ” i E m or and mor . r s another , ver e e After ve b , the ch ef member of these compoun d postposition s is s ometimes used

u no ui : Ei ch ui tsutoru ame In alone , witho t either or , as t , ” order to hand it down for ever .

is ss m un os osi ion o m ui III . There a cla of co po d p tp t s f r ed by

wo and in un or a verb , the verb generally appear g as a ger d

in n n m m r n t osi or else the i deﬁ ite form . The ost i po ta t p os p tions of this class are ” “ ” “ in i ui oite on . is om oun os o n , , , at Th c p d p tp s tio often serves to denote what we should call the subject of the

n n on . ui Ni oi o wa m m i ni in se te ce (c f ) . t so eti es s g ﬁes the

” ’ n us h na e u o o ore wo h da se a eve t of, if, th S i S if ni it h s o ku z r u “ i ai e wa In n f i s nm n n u t , the eve t o the Ch ne e gover e t ot

n n n in o n m n s u n t on s n . co se ti g , If the Ch ese g ver e t ho ld o c e t (In this sentence the ﬁrst ni oi te s erves to m ark the word

i o s n ds to En s nomin i w i n wh ch c rre po the gli h at ve , h le the seco d mean s Ni c ite wo ya at the of a sentence has a very

s on m o n iwan a tr g excla at ry force . It is ge erally preceded by y

at the nn n th n e begi i g of e se tenc or clause, and should be A A E SE GRA A R 36 J P N MM .

n n um s n b mu m re dered , accordi g to circ ta ces , y how ch ore “ h mu u : J i i wa a ta r u mo o a su or ow ch less . Th s j k na k t ga husha no hombun ni a razu ; iwa n ya jiji wo ohona u ni ci te wa “ ya " Even to di scourse on passin g events i s n ot the proper occupation of a s cholar ; how much less i s it for him to direct passin g events " ” “ ” “ ” “ ni okeru in n in on m , , positio , relati s with , co pared

” “ ’ : Ei no 1ndo ni a eru a ota u Lik En nd with k g g h , e gla s

n n positio in I dia . “ ” “ ” “ ui shi e i n n Gai ko ku t , be g , as , i the capacity of “ i u d in m n n i n ni shi e n . s so s s g t , As a foreig er It al e a y co text where it must be tran slated by an adverb or adverbial phras e “ “ a wa n shi e un zan i ni shi e S i i i t , fort ately j t , After a little i ” wh le . “ ” “ ” ni tsuhi n win no n , with refere ce to o g to : gi i “ tsuki n m , With refere ce to the atter of “ ” “ ni ori o n u of m ns y wi g to , beca se , by ea of, ’ “ ni otte I n Hei ni ari di n y accordi g to y , Accor g to prece ” ” n u u K ore ui otte n un f i de t , as s al . y , O acco t o th s .

to hi e Sharei to shi e A s k n u s o . t , as t , a t e of gratit de “ “ ” “ ” “ wa ma e . n u tt , (lit havi g held thro gh , by , with , ” “ ” “ m n n u Te am wa matte by ea s of, owi g to beca se g i ,

. S a int/nan no henran o orishi wo matte in by letter k , Ow g ” u n di u n r m im wa to the occ rre ce of st rba ces last yea . S o et es matte sinks into bein g a mere Sign of what we should term the

us i as : Inoue Ha hn wa matte Takuhu Z enken acc at ve case , “ D aishi to nashi Appointin g Coun t In oue as Special

n n M atte wi ou wo n r si n s Envoy Ple ipote tiary . th t ge e ally g iﬁe “ ” d and u But o wo matt e an d ma e m a an thereby , th s . b th tt y

n in n n u ome e often be eglected tra slati g , tho gh s trace of th ir

n n n n r in ori inalJ a anese us proper mea i g ge erally li ge s the g p , th

unda n u‘ o he ma tte o a u' a ha a s u e rais o s G md , h hh g , W e tro p to I I COMPOUND POSTPOS T ONS . 37

n d Chin o a u wo ma [thereby] protect our n ative la . y j h tte

i t wo ts u i u i n oun and a mida ri ui ta o g S cceed g , y g feeble s

r Ha ha r r in ri n of Ou n s ors . na da We a e , to the g eat he ta ce A ce t “ “ ” “ " ma e Ima ma e n ow o n t o r s n . tt , very tt , , d w the p e e t ” ma e suru ro r m n s to use but it c an o n W0 tt , p pe ly ea , fte be

r a in : Wa a ha i no mir u ahora wa matte s uru n dropped in t an sl t g g t i , ” “ “ i f i lit s n L ookin g at it from our po nt o v ew ( . U i g the s eein g “ place of our company W0 matte nari mean s it is becaus e ” f W0 shi e u r s to no o . t , with a ca sative ve b , serve de te the person

m i n u : Chin 0 who is caused t o perfor the act o . Th s w shite

mi - aru mic hi wa ushinawashimuru nomi na raz a shi ta a tte hi t , g Tessa

wa ushina washimur u nai i is i s not on t m no tenka , Th ly o ake

ru to ur du as o r i n but m k U s unt e O ty S ve e g , to a e U s lose the ” ur n r i Empire han ded down by O a cesto s . Occas on ally the n oun correspon din g to the Engli sh nomin ative is m arked by the

' wo shi e : M oshi h ai r ihu un - u no ari sama wo addition of t y shite,

o oto u ukanzen naru ho o na humba k a ku n g h f t , Ifthe state of c om ” unic ations sea and n not so m r as m by la d were i pe fect they are .

wa a s ron m on n r n sw rin to En y , a t g excla ati , ea ly a e g the gli sh “ “ ” colloquial why I (not why ? Shintai wa B uri sson shi ima da Nai ha hu wo sashiki sezaru ma e ni oi te s ud e ni wagi wa

ha tsu en shi F uts utei hare ni o i e kowa no a g , j t g gaku wo hattai

shita ru wa ya " Why " the Chin es e government had already

m o ur s and F n ade vert e of peace , the re ch governm en t had sign ed a prelimin ary treaty of frien dship before Monsieur Bri sson formed his cabin et " (Do n ot confoun d this wo ya

m r usu ni ai e a o a with the o e al t y ) . Note also the following c ompoun d postposition s ” a mo e ma mi not y , wh ther y ( ght) “ a mo shiru- bekarazu nn y , We ca ot tell whether it may not result in

ya n o in this combination ya has its original interrogative A E A A 38 J PA NE S GR MM R .

n and n o u di n se se , serves to Show that the whole cla se prece g it is the object of the followi n g verb : Nani ga yue ui furuwa

a rishi a wo in ii suru ni lit . On n s i n i z y j ky , i ve t gati g [th s i ” f did n u n i e . thing because o what it n ot exerc se i ﬂ e ce ? . ” n f u On en quirin g into the reason s of its wa t o s ccess .

B — n ul n s n N. . o The ge eral r e , acc rdi g to which po tpositio s must be preceded by the attributive form of the verb or adjec

mi i n in i u i n tive , ad ts of a few except o s spec al loc t o s , besides

n d r to o un ha ui . u a ri no ma ma those oticed ab ve e , , , etc Th s “ ” aru mama us u na shi ni for na (for ) , j t as it is , tel q el ( hi

ni u and u idi ) , witho t ; s ch oms as furi mo sede or furi wa “ sede not n n huwas hihu wa on ezu kn n , rai i g ; z z , [I] ow ot ” e n d n i o m d m0 and wa xactly , where the i eﬁ te f r prece es . INF L E CTED W O R D S .

CHAPTER VII.

THE A ECTIVE JD .

SEC 1 I A A D ECTIvE F . . . PR M RY J ORMS

n n n s not k inﬂec The i ﬂectio s of Japa e e adjectives do , li e the

on En s d i s s r dis in ui s s ti s of gli h a ject ve , e ve to t g h the degree of

m r n N i h r d a in Fr n in di num so . s co pa i e t e o they , e ch , cate ber

nd r . has n d in on n un num or ge e As bee state the chapter o s , ber and gender are considerations to which the Japan es e gram

m at i l d of c a system pays little or n o hee . The object the in ﬂection s of Japan es e adjectives (an d verb s) is primarily : to show whether the force of the adjective (or verb) i s attributive

r di a i ind ni r n usi an d n dl to m rk or p e c t ve , eﬁ te o co cl ve seco y a

di s in ion f n s an d m d d i on in t ct s o te e oo . All a ject ves c ta the “ “ r to m i i us U mi uha shi is ve b be i pl c tly . Th f , the sea [ ] d eep .

In its im n s d i ou m s ple state , a Japa e e a ject ve has f r for s ,

vi z . :

em i i n I . The St wh ch s used only in compoun ds a d occa sion all in m a ion s as ha a - i ard - wood hasa y excla t , t g , h na o ki n rr w - n i d r o - su ur u to t o o . e s en oo g , a l g , . l e ; y g , be

’ goo df

H . The Inde ni e A dverbi a l F arm i is o in d b ﬁ t or , wh ch bta e y ddin u h h to t e s m . is us d in two i s in m nn s viz a g te It e d t ct a er , . “ ” 1 . u as : B a a u un t me u k To q alify a verb y h h , To co q ic ly.

C A D JE TIVES . 41

the clause hito aru mo hiha i na shi to ﬁnd the adjective (verb)

n n to na u a m n u correspo di g h . The of the seco d cla se has

ss d to be pa e over .

. Conc lus i ve F arm n n shi III The , which is obtai ed by addi g s m i end to the te . It s used only as a p redi c atjy e at the of a

n n as in f a k sh in rs m n se te ce , the cas e o s ana i the ﬁ t exa ple give

in r din r r as in o owin m : the p ece g pa agraph , o the f ll g exa ple

- Oman ni c hi ( ha hi a sa hu na i i no ha o ma sa ni shinsa hu hoc ho , j t “ su - behi mono su una s hi to sezu On n s n h , reﬂectio it is ee that

n r an d n ot the in terval s in ce the restoratio is Sho t , that a little remain s t o be origin ated or reorganized in the intern al

dmin i r i In is m r inﬂ ion s of a st at on . ( th exa ple all th ee ect the — h N d ar s n a sa hu behi suhuna s i . o a jective e ee , , , te too that

h n n r mm s ki n suhuna s i is at the en d of a se te ce g a atically pea g ,

to sez d n t n sid r in n o rds u lit . o o the wo , co e that , be g a ther short s enten ce s ervi n g to in troduce the ﬁrst after the mann er

u i n of a q otat o . )

— d i m n d in shi t do n t N B . s s os s o . Tho e a ject ve wh e te e s or g

add n o h r shi orm the n usi the on e shi in a t e to f co cl ve , be g

— i mezurash d t o suf . us mez uras hihu n us i hel ﬁce Th , co cl ve ,

' “ s r n a ru - ma ihu on usi a ru - ma i ould n ot t a ge g , c cl ve j , sh

is i n i s s om im s di sr rd b i n or n be . Th except o et e ega ed y g a t

rs an d su un mm i orm s as ashishi for a shi write ; ch gra at cal f ( ) ,

b ad are r r o si n l m et i h . , the efo e cca o al y w t

' . The A ttri butii e F arm w i i s o n d n IV , h ch btai e by addi g hi

to the m i u d in r di in m nn r iz s s s s s . 1 T te . It e th ee t ct a e , v . o

u li n o un as Ya roshihi ho ood m hod A r u- ma i i q a fy a , , A g et j k ho o h - - - in ha ou h n ot to lit . an ou h n ot t o b e t , A t g t t g t be ( g t

” i t hin 2 W n the d i i s o o we d b a os t osi t g ) . he a ject ve f ll y p p

ion us : Ha no o rashi hi ni ari o o . s hiha a a aroshii t , th y y (c ll q t g y ” - ha ra Owi n to the n of m hod . S a n its u na hi ) , g excelle ce the et

” ‘ v F or e e io s se e ha e r xc pt n c pt VI . 42 A E J PA NES GRA MMA R .

“ “ wo osu N n mu th y , o e st be allowed to get lost (lit . [ e

authorities] require the absen ce of losing U n - nu nasu “ ” be i a to a H h h t u e sk d u d s an d so . , a e whether he sho ld o o

i n i d ri i f d i It w ll be ot ce that the att but ve form o the a ject ve ,

n u us d s an d i din to Eu o n whe th s e , cease to be a ject ve accor g r pea

an d orr s ond r an En i s s ra sub stan ideas , c e p s rathe to gl h ab t ct “ ” The or to an d i r d d the r t o . tive , a ject ve p ece e by ve b be

r s u s n i s in sa s o omm on in o o u are abst act b ta t ve , c the c ll q ial , almost always replaced in the written lan guage by the attribu “ d i r sa mu f r am a m a s us d 3 . o s i o o . tive a ject ve f , h , the c l At

en d of aus or s n n w n on e of r di n the a cl e e te ce , he the p ece g words of the cl aus e or s en ten ce i s an in terrogative or the

m i r i a us : Na n i no s umi urus a ru to i n to e phat c pa t cle z , th g t y , a i te a ume to i n to sh a re a asu i ? e h r i it si r to h y , h y h Wh t e s ea e

s a sin s or i n or to s a Ris u an d w k y , Thy be f g ve thee ; y e p al

is use is r e m et i in m od rn ooks in Th ar ly w th e b , except the

mi - s si se cla cal style .

N B - ri in a r . . O was o m o in d b ddi n g lly there a ﬁfth f , bta e y a g

ere f r as a re hu ha a ere be ere t m . s h o h o s h h . ( ) the te T y , See un d r a din hosa 23 e he g , page . The paradigm of the prim ary form s of adjectives is as follows

STEM. C O NCLU SIVE A TT RIBU TIVE

F O RM . F O RM .

ha ya s hi haya ki gotos hi yafaki

bes hi beki

n a shi n a ki 0 0 0 0 0 0

y or os hi yor as hi ku y or os hi y oros hi hi

magi magi ku I E 4 A DJECT V S . 3

N B — in i n n no u o m . . There are wr tte Japa ese s ch f r s as the

ha a i aroshii ha o etc . ir ui n are coll oquial g , y , y , The eq vale ts

ha as hi r ha a i orashi or orashihi ha a hu etc . di n y o y k , y y , y , , accor g to

circumstan ces .

2 E E A ND IN THE A JEC IVE EC . . S . T NS MOOD D T

in n ur of n s d Be g of the at e a verb , the Japa e e a jective is

in d t in di n s an d m od on u an d ﬂecte o cate te e o . The c cl sive attributive form s explain ed above m ay be termed its present

n w i in d n i o m of n o n s in i u te se , h le the eﬁ te f r is te e part c lar , s erving as it does to suspen d the meanin g until the end of the

n n d se te ce be reache . The m em ory will be assisted by n otin g that most of the ten ses of the affirmative voice and all the ten ses of the n egative are formed by agglutin atin g the vari ous in ﬂection s “ r am in d ni orm ha a hu of the ve b , to be , to the eﬁ te f ( y ) ,

u of r in dr o d an d o a the vowel the latte be g ppe , the v wel of the form er being in s ome ten ses chan ged in to a ; further

mo be u be i beshi su ormin o n i re that h , h , , the fﬁx f g the p te t al

mo s an d ul r n u u od , is it elf a jective reg a ly co j gated thro gh

most of the ten ses .

SEC . 3 . C A IS O F A JE C I E S OMP R ON D T V .

om i son in a an s is m o n im i n i C par J p e e re ofte plic t tha expl cit .

us n in to the re i i of F usi am n Th , whe referr g lat ve he ght y a a d

A sam a am a a n s wi n ot sa F usi am i y , a J pa e e ll y y a s the

i r but sim F usi am a is i F u i n a ta hashi h ghe , ply y h gh ( j ) ,

viz . in m arison wi o r m oun in m n i n d n d , co p th the the ta e t o e . I eed

even in English the s o - called positive is often a comparative b m i ion for w n we for in s n y i pl cat ; he say , ta ce , that Such ” and su son i s old m n i d ch a per , we ea that he s ol er than mos t

. m s n m a m d i other people Co pari o y , however , be a e expl cit “ ” in n u n the n ori n Japa ese by si g postpositio y , tha (properly

A E E A 46 JA P N S GR MMA R .

m us — F u i wa A sa ma am a as hi A sa ma fro Th j y t k , or

ori wa F u i wa a kashi lit . as for Fu n s m it is y ( ) j t , ji , tha A a a , ” i i F u I am a i i e . S s a n id d m h gh ; . y h gh s co s ere fro the ” n i f A am a am a in — A a ma wa sta dpo nt o s y . Aga s

or hodo ta ha ha ra zu as for s m a is n ot i as ( ) , A a , it h gh h d i f m i on sid r d rom t e s n o n o F u i . e . s s c e e f ta p t ji , A a a

F i am a or m r m oun n s less high than us y . If three o e tai

w r ok n of we s ou d h in En is is m e e sp e , h l have w at gl h ter ed

i m inin m r i n s om s . the supe lat ve , the Japa e e di re a g the a e Here is an other example — Tenha no waza wai hare yai i Oi

ru wa nashi r i s n o r mis or un n na , The e greate f t e tha ” “ ’ m i n - is lit . r un n th ( wo ld s isfort es , th s tha , great bei g thing is - n ot

s m im li d s d ori When n ot i ply p e , or expre se by y , the comparative an d superlative m ay be in di cated by p reﬁx in g to

i i m su ord as na o s ll m o i ta tt e the pos t ve so e ch w , ti re “ ” “ ” r m oi n i r a s uhaburu r . ext e ely ; , g e tly , ve y The superlative is also sometimes in di cated by sufﬁxing the word “ sem - ban ous n d m ri ds us : K i nada , a th a y a ; th hu se mban , ” In expressibly sorry .

E s s of a u i is ik om r i xce q al ty , l e the c pa at ve an d superlative ,

n d n o d b the d i in its sim m o . ge erally e te y a ject ve ple f r Thus ,

’ This i s too high will be in Japanese s imply This is high

K are wa ta ha shi vi z . b im i a ion i h r an it u ( ) , , y pl c t , h g e th o ght to

re ssion m a r n der d m or i i be . The exp y be e e e expl c t by sufﬁxin g

r t the d i s m a a a - s r su u u o s h u uru lit . the ve b g , a ject ve te , t g , to ” “ d a ma i i s in h i . wo e s si m a go pa t e ght The r , exc ve y also be

us d r d sim e d i us : A ma ri a a sh e , p eﬁxe to the pl a ject ve , th t k i ,

i ut i i r r Altogether too h gh b th s s a e .

B — R m m r s n um rs of d N. . e e be that va t be the wor s we are obliged to ren der in English by adjectives are in reality n on 1 1 nouns , as explai ed page . 47

H ER C APT VIII .

THE VER B .

E 1 I C E A K . S C . . NTRODU TORY R M R S

The functions of the Japan es e verb differ in some importan t

s s r m os r s of Eur o n n u re pect f o th e of the ve b pea la g ages .

Di in i n rs n an d num r are u r o i n t i st ct o s of pe o be tte ly f re g o t .

On the o an d m n of en s s two orm s —an ther h , a y the t e have f ,

i u i an d on usi — w i h r is n r in d ni attr b t ve a c cl ve , h le t e e a ge e al eﬁ te " form which does duty for all the t en ses ﬁ THE VE RB A ND A DJE CTIVE THUS CLOSELY RE SE MBLE EA CH OTHE R ; A ND IT IS

I S SI E To E S A THE A A THE VE E S MPO BL UND R T ND GR MM R OF RB , UNL S THE CONSIDERA TIONS A DVA NCE D IN THE CHA PTE R ON A DJE CTIVE S

HA VE BEE N THOROUGHLY M A S TE RED .

To recapitulate brieﬂy what has there been set forth

in d ni rm n ds en d of m m I . The efi te fo sta at the each e ber of a set of clauses exceptin g the fin al member ; an d the ten s e or m ood by which it should be ren dered c an only be kn own w n the r or d i of n us r d he ve b a ject ve that fi al cla e is eache .

hus — Na s u hi ari ha ru uhu umm r om s an d s rin T t t , y , S e c e p g

Her the in d ni rm i ta i m goes . e efi te fo h i ust be ren dered by the r s n us the n a r u u is in the s n p e e t , beca e fi l ve b y h pre e t . The in definite form of verbs is likewise us e d to form compoun ds

i t Many g ramm arian s g ive the n am e of roo t t o the indefinite form of the e rb A s how e e r t he la e r i s b ut one of s e e ra i fle io s v . , v , tt v l n ct n , he or and rac ic e are ali ke o use d b s uc h a m i s ome r It i s t y p t c nf y n . “ ” c o nve nie nt t o us e the w o rd s te m t o d e s ig n ate that p art of the e rb o r ad e c i e whic h suf e rs no a e ra io and t o w hic h all the v ( j t v ) f lt t n , e rmi a io s are suffi x e d Some im e s his s e m oi ide s wi h t he t n t n . t t t c nc t ” re a r M r o o o as s a m the s e m of sa muru t o ro w c oo . o e e , g l t , t , l “ ft n it i s a e he ed orm as sa mas the s e m of sa mas u t o make l ngt n f I , t , CO OL

VERBS .

homeru i reru su iru r n , , or g . These are replaced , acco di g to ums n circ ta ces , by

ham u, homuru,

i r u n u i ruru i u i . , Co cl sive , Attr b t ve su u su uru g , g , m m When there are two Verb s derived fr om the s a e ste ,

u as i ru to o in an d i rur u o o ui i reru ut s ch , g (C ll q al ) , to p

in one n in on u ion an d , belo g g t o the ﬁrst c j gat , the other

s n d n usi m of r s n n s to the eco , the co cl ve for the p e e t te e is

r d n i in u i ru at en d of s en therefo e i e t cal both . Th s , the a “ ” “ ” n ma si ni i s in u s in or n te ce , y g fy e ther goe or p t , acc di g

i um n In s of ri u i o m to c rc sta ces . the ca e the att b t ve f r there

n o m u as it i s i ru s in in s n u is a big ity , , goe , the ﬁr t co j ga ”

n an d i ruru u s in in s n . tio , , p t , the eco d Note als o from the above example of hi ta rer u an d from the

m s i n n 1 6 and 1 s n exa ple g ve o pages 7 , how the exi te ce of the attributive form of verbs (an d adjectives) supplies the absenc e

r n un of relative p o o s .

ul n u n ar u in n um The reg ar co j gatio s e fo r ber .

SE C . 2 C J A I VE S . ON UG T ON OF RB .

in ion ar dd d m w i is s All the ﬂect s e a e to the ste , h ch it elf

n r m f i n i in w . in n s o i va iable S o e o the ﬂect o s co s t of a s gle v el ,

os ori in m n n i s s u u i u u u e B wh e g al ea i g ob c re , as y h , y h , y h . ut by far the greater number are obtain ed by agglutinatin g

r m n s of old u i r r an d in m a f ag e t a xil a y ve bs , so e few c ses

s si ion s an d d i t o in m s po tpo t a ject ves , the s gle vowel for ,

us uhi hi uhishi uhu - beshi u eba i f r i th y , y , y , y h . It s o th s reason that gramm arian s have given to the simple vowel form s an d to on e or two others the n ame of B ases The paradi gm s

of r a orm s in mmon n us e as o s the ve b l f co writte are f llow . Note that mo m ay be omitted from the termin ation s of the

a u n m u uhedo u e o O v rio s co cessive for s , th s y , for y h d m . S VERB .

FIRST REGULAR “ o Y k Y o S e u . uhu T . m , g ( t ) nde i e orm for all I ﬁn t F uki Te n e y s s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 } o lusi e uku I ou he s he it C nc v y [ , y , , Pre se nt , A ribu i e uku w e o u he o . tt t v y , y , t y g l i k w e ]na e o us e u e ri e c . C nc v y [L t ] nt , v Pe rfect A rib u i e uke ru o e or had o e . tt t v y g n , g n i v uk k w ha e o c us e i i I e tc . e C n l y , nt , v “St Pa“ [ ] i o e A ribu e ukis hi o e or had . tt t v y g n , g n E us i ukit arl we ha e o c e 1 e tc . C n l v , y [ , ] nt v V Second Pd S t I A ribu i e ukit aru o e or had o e . tt t v y g n , g n T o usi e ukitariki I e t w e ha e c c . C n l v y , ] nt , v A Thlrd Pd St [ rib u i ki h d o e A tt t ve y u taris l g on e or ha g n . I e w e ha e tc . [ , ] nt , v Conclusive y ukinu our h Pd “ o e or had o e F t g n , g n A ttributive y ukinuru wa a y . ukan uki n lusw y y h ro Co c e I e tc . s a , ] ll p u ure nan or uk u [ F t A rib u i e , y b o tt t v b a ly g . n aran as si e or whe , nc , n Pres ent Co nditi on al yukeb a g o . as Si e or whe I nc , n [ , , di i a w e ha e Pas o o e t c . t C n t n l ] nt , v y ukIt are b a g o ne or had g one . y uke b a ki h i na e o . Pre se ot e a u b a if I t c . nt Hyp t c l y [ , ] g y uku n arab a ki r had u t a ab a if I e tc . y , P as t Hy p othe ti cal n ki s hi ar o e y n ab a g n . Opt ative y ukab aya oh that I could g o " k u e d o m o hou h I e tc . ‘ y t g [ , ] Pre se nt A c t ual Con c e s sive y uku to ie dom o } d o ac t ually g o . Pre s e o he ic a Con uku m o nt Hyp t t l y if I e tc o e e . . v n [ , ] g c es s iv e yukite m o y ukis hikad o m o t ukit are d om o hou h I e c . y t g , ukitari t o ie w e ha e o e y nt , v g n ,

Past Conc e s s iv c d o m o or had g o ne . y uki s hi to ie d o m o y ukishi m o k 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 u e 0 0 0 o " 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 y 0 0 0 0 0 0 g b ha i ene [ y ] v ng g , b oi [ y] g ng . S VERB .

N CONJ UGATIO .

ic e Affirmativ e Vo .

ku- b eku Inde ﬁnit e F orm yu wi shall I etc . [ , ] ll, , ld m a - hou v e uku b e shi w ould s , y , C onclusi . y , P re se o u d nt - mi h c an c ku b e ki , A ttrib utive y u g t , , l mus or ou h t o o . t , g t g

uk u- b ekariki y s hou d e t c . I e t c . , , Co n c lus ive . [ , ] l y uku b e kari e o e . A ributi e hav g n tt v s hi c uku b ekc re as si c e I e t . ] y , n , [ i a o di o ‘ o C n t n l s hou d e tc . . b a l , , g s hou d ku b eku if I e tc . , yu [ , ] l o he i a H t t c l o . yp m b a e tc . ( ) , g

uku- b e ke re e y u h I e tc . d o m o thoug , q i tua o c e ss i e - o . Ac l C n v uku b e shi t o sho u d e t c . l y l , , g b O ie d o m o

e if I e tc . o he i a o e s e v n [ , ] Hyp t t c l C nc uku- b eku m o y o shou d e tc . g . s ive l , ,

ki - aku Indeﬁni te Form y u t e uki - as hi o c lus . y t C n v w a t o o . I e t c . Pre s e n i [ , ] nt g t - ki A tt ri buti ve y uki t a

- w a e d t o uki t ak ariki e t c . C onc lusive . y [L ] nt Pas - t o . A tt rIb utIv e y uki t ak ari shi g uki ake re as si c e or w he I y t , n , n [ o di io a C n t n l e w a t o o . b a t c . ] nt g

- w a uki ak u m if I e tc . y t ( ) [ , ] nt t o he i a Hyp t t c l o b a g . yuki t akere

hou h I e tc . wan d om o t g [ , ] Co nce ss ive y uki tashi t o t o g o . ie d om o

- hav uki ke ri I e tc . w e C on c lus ive y [ , ] nt ,

uki - ke ru o e or had o e . A tt rib utive y Ig n , g n as s i c e or w he 1 n , n [ , w e hav ki e tc . Co nditio nal yu nt ,

o e or had o e . g n , g n n hou h I e tc . we t g [ , ] uki ke redo y ha e o e or ha on essive v g n , C c mo o e g n , VERBS .

FIRST REGULAR “ ” Y k m Yuk u u To o . S e . , g ( t )

nkazu I ou he she it [ , y , , , , Conclusive P rese ukaz aru w e ou he do nt , y , t y] , A ttributive ka u n t 0 n n o . I did no o e tc . t [ , ] g , Conclusive u azar k y i ha e not o e as v g n , Attributive yuﬁlw armﬁI had not o e g n . yukazaran or C onclusive yukaji I e sha not o. t . [ , c ] ll g yukazaran or A ttrib utive yukaji ukazare ba as s i e or when y , nc , Pre se nt C ondition al ukaneb a I e tc d o not o . y [ , . ] g ukazarishi as si c e or whe n y , n , kab a I e t did not o c . [ , ] g , Past Conditional ukazari ha e not o e o r y shi ni v g n , e y otte ad not g on .

Presen o he ic a ukazu m b a if I e tc d o not o . t Hyp t t l ( ) . [ , ] g uk az ar se b a y i u e had not if [I tc . ] P ast Hypothe tical y uk azari shi g ono n arab a y uk azare dom o

ukane d om o hou h I e tc . do y t g [ ’ ] Pre se nt A c tual Conc e s siv e ukazu t o ie do n y ot g o . m o

Pre se o he i a e e if I e c do c Con t . nt Hyp t t l v n [ , ] yukazaru m o oesi e n o o c v t g . ukazarishika

d om o

k azari hi h u h I e tc did u s t o o . y t g [ , ] ie d o m o not o ha e not g , v Past C once ss ive ukazarishi o e or had not y g n , n ar d om o e e g on . yukazarishi m o

yukazare yuku n akare

m e ra i e uk u- na o not d o not o I p t v y g , g yuku koto na kaIe

y ukazu uk az u ni b not ha i o e y 0 0 0 y] v ng g n , Gemnd [ y uk azu Shite [by] not going . yukade E 3 V RBS . 5

NJ CO UGATION.

e a i e Vo ic e N g t v .

Inde ﬁnite F orm yuku- bekarazu I et wil sha l c . [ , ] l, l , Co nc lusive yuku- b ekara w o n] I shou d m a , l , y , Pre sent zu ' mi h c an c o uld g t , , , A ttribut v e y uku- b e kara m s or ou h no t u t, g t za ru 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

t o o . , g Con c lusive yuku- bekara zariki I e tc shou d not [ , . ] l ,

rib i uku- bekara e c ha e o e u e t . . Att t v y , v g n z arishi

uk u- b kar as or s i e I e tc y e a nc [ . ] z r b a ho u d no t e o a e s tc . l , , g .

uku - hekara if Sho uld no t y ,

. z u In b a o e tc . e ( ) . , g u uku- bekara q y i l z are d omo b ou h h th g [Ie tc . ] s ould O Actual Conce ss ive y uku- b e kara t t o no e c . , g . zu t o ie d omo ,

k - o he ic al o c es u u he kara e e if I etc . Hy p t t C n y v n [ , ] i zaru m o ho d not o s e s u e tc . . v l , , g Inde ﬁni te F o rm y uk u- m ajiku l i uku- m a i Co nc us ve . y j Pre se nt IA ttrib utive yuku

lus i uku- m a ika Con c ve . y j riki

A ttributive yuku - m ajika rishi

o di io a uku - m ujike . C n t n l y e u re b a q i o he ic a uku- m a ika l Hyp t t l y j b m b a O ( ) Conce ss ive yuk u- m ajike re domo

I did no o e tc . t [ , ] g , Co nc lus iv e y uk az ari - ke ri ha v e no t o e or g n , A ttrib utive y ukazari - ke ru had no t o e g n . as si c e or w he , n , n ukazari ke I e tc did no t o y [ , . ] g , Co nditio nal re ba 0 ha e no t o e or 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 v g n , had not o g ne . ho u h 1 et c did t g [ , . ] ukazari ke n ot o ha e no t y g , v Conc e ss ive re d a m o o e or had no g n , t o e g n . 5 V S 4 ERB .

SECOND REGULAR “ ” Homuru o rais T e S e m ham . , p . ( t ) Indefinite F orm for a ll Te n se s 1 hom u I ou he she it we [ , y , , , , , 32213153358 ho m u ru ou he rai s e y , t y] p . ‘ ho m oki I e tc rais ed [ , . ] p , Fi rs t Altitttfe ho me s hi ha e or had rais e d v p . 1 1 7 home ta ri t raise d e c . [ L ] p , Se c o nd P ast 3 315255. ho m e ta ru ha h d r i d 33 5 ve or a p a se . r ik lc l l s l ho m e t a i I e tc . raise d , p , Third P as t gilriyjutye ho me t aris hi ha o r had rais e d ve p . i i h m n u I t raised e o e e c . [ , ] p , F ourth Pas t fitriliiiiiv e ho m e nuru ha v r had rais e d f e o p . ho me ho m e n , h r l s v 1 e tc . s a o , ] ll p u ure nan 0r ho m u [ F t , fizfijjujife b ab raise z ly p . r u n uran a si e 07 whe s nc , n P re se nt Co ndition al hom ure b a : I e c . rai e { t p s . [ , ] as s i e 07‘ whe , nc , n ho me shikaba r is e d P as o di io a e tc . a t C n t n l I, p av e or had p raisedi homeb a hom e nab a if I r is Pre se o he i a e tc . a e c . nt Hyp t t l [ , ] p lIo q ru n ara b a

hom e t arab a if t h d e c . a I, Pas t Hy o the tic al hom e s hi n ara p rai se d p . b a Optative hom e b ay a oh that I could p raise ho mure d om o hou h I e tc d o t g [ , . ] Pre s e nt A ctual Co nc e ssi ve homu t o ie d o a ua rai ct lly p se . In o

Pre se o he i a Con hom uru Ino e e if I e c tc . nt Hyp t t l v n [ , ] c e s siv e hom e te m o rais e p . home shikad o

home tare d om o hou h t e c . t g I, Pas o c e ssi e ho m e tari t o ie raise d ha e rais t C n v p , v p d om o e d or had raise d , p . ho m e s hi t o ie

d o m o ( ho me s hi hom e y o p raise [by having raised homete p b raisi {[ y p ng . VERBS .

N CONJ UGATIO .

i oi e Afﬁrmat ve V c .

Indeﬁnite homu- b eku I t will ha e c . S [ , ] , ll

ho - b e hi w ou d a o c lusi e m u s Shou d m . C n v l , l , y i h Pre s e m c an c ou d , nt g t , , l A rib u i e b o i - b eki m us or o u h tt t v n n t , g t t raIse p . Co n c lusive homu- b ekariki I e h d tc . s ou e tc . [ , ] l A tt rib utive hom u b ek a , ha e raise d v p . rishi

hom u - b e ke re as or si c e I e tc , n [ , : b a s hou d t rai s i e c . e l , , p hom u b e ku if I e tc s hou d [ , . ] l m b a r i e tc . a se ( ) , p . homu b e ke re dom o hou h I e tc t g , . Actual C once ssive hom u b e shi shou d t raise e c . . l , , p t o ie dom o h n homu b eku e e if I e t o e i a Co c . Hyp t t c l v n [ , i m o shou d raise L c e ss v e } etc . . l , , p

Inde ﬁnite hom e - taku o usi e hom e - as hi I e t wan c c . C n l v t [ , ] t t Pre se nt A rib u i e home - aki raise tt t v t p . C onclus ive home - t akariki I e wa e d Pas tc . t [ , ] nt t A ttributive home - t akari raI hi p se . E s as si e or who V , nc , I home - t akere di i a t w a T Con t on l L e c . nt t b e [ ] A i ra se . . p R e home aku if I e t want t c . E u t [ , ] q Hypothe tical i m b a raise l ( ) p . b home akere O t d omo hou h I n etc . wa t g [ , ] Concessive hom e - ashi t o o rai se t t p . ie dom o

I t raise d e c . , p Conclusive home - ke n ha e raise d o r b e v p , A ttributive li ame - ke ru rais e d p . 1 I as si c e or w he I n , n [ E , - . di i is e d ha o o a home ke reb a e t c . ra v C n t n l ] p , V e I u had r i d or a se . T q p i l hou h I e tc A t g , . L b home - ke re do O on e ssi e raised av e or b e L C c v p , mo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I raised p .

S VERB . 5 7

NJ I N CO UGAT O .

i oi e Negat ve V c .

Indeﬁnite F orm homu- bekarazu I et wi sha c . [ , ] ll, ll Co nclusive homu- b e kara w ou d shou d m a l , l , y Prese nt zu m i h c an c ould g t , , A ttributive homu- b e kara m us or ou h not t , g t z aru t o raise , p . Conclusive homu- b ekara iki I shou d not z ar e t c . [ , ] l ,

- ribu i e ho mu b e kara e t ha raise d . c . e Att t v , v p z arishi

- o di io a homu b ekara as or si e I etc . C n t n l nc , [ , ] i z ar sho u d n t e ra se . e b a o tc . l , , p

o he i a ho mu - b ekara if I e tc shou d not Hyp t t c l [ , . ] l , z u m b a i se e t c . ra . ( ) , p

hom u- b e kara z are do mo though should Actual Conce ssive h m - b kar t raise o u e a not e c . . , , p z t o ie d m u o o .

e e if: I e tc . v n [ , ] Hyp othetical Co nces homu- b ekara h n s ou d etc . ot ‘ l , , s ive Z flI ll m o rai se p .

Indeﬁnite F orm homu- m ajlku Con c lusive homu - m aji Pre se nt A ttrib utive hom u - m ajiki Conc lusive hom u - In ajika riki

A ttributive homu - m ajik a rishi

C ondition al homu- m ajike re b a

Hypothe tical homu- majiku (m) b a Conce ssive homu - majike rod om o

home zari - ke ri I e t did n r i c . ot a se [ , ] p , home zari ke have n ot prais e d or , had not raise d p . as s i c e or w he , n , n , o di i al hom e zari ke I t d id o e c . not C n t n [ , ] re b a raise ha e not p , v or had n rai d ot p se . ho u h I e tc d id t g [ , . ] Conce ssive hom e zari ke not rais e ha e not p , v redomo or had not raise d p . 58 V B ER S .

THIRD REGULAR

Su uru To ass . g , p Indeﬁnite F orm f or all Te n se s I ou he she i t [ , y , , , , Pre se nt h as s w e ou e . i , y , t y] p d h I e t c . ass e a e i rs [ , ] p , v F t d or had p as se . d h I e tc . as se a e [ , ] p , v Se c o nd Past or had p ass e d . d ha e I e tc . as se [ , ] p , v Third Pas t s e d or had p as . t c as se d ha e I e . [ , ] p , v Fourth Pas t d aw a or had p as se y .

hal ro I e tc . s [ , ] l p F ut ure s bably pas .

as si c e or whe n , n Prese nt Condition al I e tc . ass . [ , ] p as s i c e or whe , n , n sugishikaba Pas o di io a I e tc ass ha e t C n t n l ’ [ ’ ] p v sugi tare b a h as e d ar ad p s . sugib a Pre se o he i a in as c s u ab a if I e tc . s . nt Hyp t t l g [ , ] p sug uru n araba i a r if I had as s s u t ab a e tc . g [ , ] p Pas t Hyp othe tic al u hi nar e d s gi s ab a j . Op t ative s ug ib ay a oh that I c ould p as s I s ugu re d o m o h u h I e t d o o c . t g [ , ] Pre se nt A c tual Co nc e s s ive Sti t o Ie d o g as s act ually p . rns Pre se nt Hyp othe tic al Con sug uru m o if I t ass e e e c . . v n [ , ] p c e ss iv e sugite mo sugis hikad o m o

s u i are d m g t o o . h s ~ ou h I e t c . as t g [ , ] p sug itari t o ie Pas o ess i e e d ha e o r had t C nc v d m , v o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ass d p e . s ug is hi t o l o

s ug is hi m o

sug iy o pass " by having passed su ito , g o o o o o o o o o a S Eby p S n . VE B 59 R S .

CONJ U GA TION

A rm a i e i S e m S a . o e ( t g ) fﬁ t v V c .

Inde ﬁnite F o rm sug u- be ku I e tc wi sha [ , . ] ll, ll,

o c lus i e su u- b e shi w o u d sho u d m a C n v g l , l , y , Pre se mi h c an ou d nt , , g t , c l

A rib u i v e su u- be ki m us or ou h t o tt t g t , g t s pas . Con c lus ive su u- b e kariki g h d e t I e tc . s ou c . [ , ] l , A ttributive s ug u b e kari as e d have p s . shi j - St u b e ke re as or si c e I e tc . , n [ , ] g} Co ndition al ag s ho u d e t c . ass . l , , p Z Sl l b Gku if I e tc shou d g [ , . ] l , Hypothe ti cal rn b a “ e tc . as s . g n z ; , p sug u b eke re d om o hou h I e tc t g [ , . ] A ctual Conc e ssw e - h d a s su u b e shi t o s ou e tc s . g l , . , p ie d om o

o he i a Con e e if I e tc . Hyp t t c l v n [ , ] sugu- b eku m o e s i v e h d ass . c s s ou e tc . l , , p

Inde ﬁnite Form

l i wa t o o c us e I e tc . C n v , ] nt P’ e se nt [ A ri u s tt b tive p as . o u i I w a e d t o s e e tc . C ncl v [ , ] nt Pas t i s A ttribut ve p as . as s i c e o r whe , n , n di i I w a t o o o a e tc . C n t n l [ , ] nt as p s . g I w a t o if e tc . [ , ] nt 3 4 Hypothe tical as s 13 p . Q h e t wa ho u I c . t g [ , ] nt Conce ssive s t o pas .

o lusi e su i - ke I e t asse d ha c . e C nc v g [ , ] p , v A rib u i e s u i - ke ru or had as s e d tt t v g p . as si e or whe , nc , n

o di io a su i - ke re b a e t as se d C n t n l g c . I, p , ha e r had as se d v o p . h h I ass ou e tc . t g [ , ] p s ugi he re do Con08 ssive e ha e or had ass mo , v p e g 60 VE S RB .

THIRD REGULAR

’ o ass Suguru T p .

o usi e su izu I ou he she it C ncl v g [ , y , , , , su i zaru w e ou he d o g , y , t y] Attributive s u inu n ass {g ot p . did n I e t c . ot ass [ , ] p , C on c lusi ve s ugizariki have not or had not A ttributive s ug izarl shl assed p . o c usi e sugizaran or C n l v I e tc shal not [ , . ] l s ugiji s pas . Attributive sug izaran or

s u i zare ba as si e or when g , nc , Present Conditional in b a d o no t ass s u e I etc . . g [ , ] p s u iz ari shika as si e or whe n g , nc , did no I e tc . t [ , ] , Past Condltl onal s u izarishi ni ha e not or had g v , n as se d y otte ot p . d if I e tc . o not [ , ] Prese o he i al s u izu m ba nt Hyp t t c g ( ) a s } p s . s u izarise b a g if I e tc had not [ , . ] Past Hypothetical s ugizarishi na s d pas e . rab a

sugizare d om o hou h I e tc d o t g [ , . ] Pre se nt Actual Conc e ssw e iz ie d o n as s sug u t o ot p . m o

r if I d P e s e o h i e e e tc . o nt Hyp t e t c al Con v n [ , ] sugizaru m o e ssi no as s c v e t p . sugizarishika d om o

u izarl s hi t o hou h I e tc did s g t g [ , . ] Pas on e ssi e ie d om o not ha e not or had t C c v , v , u izaris hi na not asse d s g p . re dom o s ugizarishi m o sugizare sug uru n akare

m e ra i su uru- na ass not d o not ass " I p t ve g p , p s ug uru koto n akare s ug izu s ugizu ni [by ] not havi ng p as s Gerund s u izu shi e e d b not as sin . g t , [ y] p g u ide S g n o u n -o VE S 6 1 RB .

CONJ UGATION.

Ne a i e oi e ( Ste m S ug) . g t v V c

Indeﬁnite Fo rm sugu- b ekarazu r ‘ I t wil shal e c . [ , ] l, l C o nclusi v e s ug u b e kara w ou d shou d m a l l , l , y Pre se nt z u might c an c ould A ttrib utive s ug u b e k ara m us or ou h not t , g t z aru

t o ass . , p sug u b e kara h uld not z ariki I e t c . s o [ , ] , u b k r ha e asse d su e a a e tc . . g , v p zarishi

as or si e I e tc . , nc [ , ] sugu - be kara o di io a shou d not e tc . C n t n l l , , zare b a s s p a .

- b ekara I e t shou d s u u if c . g [ , ] l Hypothe tical zu m b a not e tc . as s . ( ) , , p s ug u ’ be kara ‘ I e t hou h c . t g [ , ] z are d om o i n ua o e ss e hou d ot e tc . Act l C nc v s l , , Sug u - b e kara ass . z u t o ie d o mo p

h i o e s u u b k r i I o e c a s e a a e f e tc . Hyp t t l C nc g e v n , s ive z aru m o i

rm s u u- m ik d i e o . a u e ( In e ﬁn t F g j v i o c lusi e su u- m a i t C n v g J a Pre s e nt A ribu i e s u u - m a iki c tt t v g j i d Co nc lus ive sug u m ajika n I Pas t ri ki A ttrib utive s ug u m ajika ris hi s ug u m ajike o di io a . C n t n l e re ba u q sugu m ajiku i H p othe tical l y 11 1 ha b ( ) O s ug u m ajike C once s sive re d om o

I t did not as s e c . [ , ] p , sugizari - ke ri have not o r had not Sug izari - ke ru asse d p . as s i c e or w he , n , n

S l izari - k r I did no t as s e e e tc . g [ , ] p , Condition al éa have n ot o r had not as e d p s .

° h I did o u h e tc . t g [ , ] sug] z ari - ke re Conc ess1ve n ot as s ha e not p , v d o mo . or h d no t as ed a p s . VERBS .

FOU RTH REGULAR

i M ru To see .

Indeﬁnite F orm f or all Te n ses

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I o u he she it Pre se [ , y , , , , nt h ou e see . y , t y] w I . a ha 0 e t c s e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 [ , ] , v Fi rs t s had e e e or s e . n , n I e t c s a w ha e [ , . ] , v Se c o nd Past se e or had se e n , n . I saw ha e tc . e [ , ] , v Third Pas t had s ee o r se e . n , n I e t s a w ha c . e O O O O O O O O O [ , ] , v Fourth Past s e e or had s e e n , n . I e tc s ha ro [ , . ] ll p F uture b abl se e y .

as si e or whe , nc , n Pre se nt C onditi on al mireb a I e t c . see [ , ] . as si c e or whe , n , n mishikaba Pas o di i I e t s aw ha e o a c . t C n t n l [ , , v m itare b a s e or ]1 ad se e e n n . mib a h i f I Prese o mi b a i e tc s ee . e c a a . nt Hyp t t l n [ , ] m iru

mit arab a as o h i had s e e P a if I e t . e c c . t Hyp t t l [ , ] n mi s hi n arab a Opt ative mib ay a oh that I could se e mi re d om o hou h I t d o e c . t g [ , ] Pre se nt Ac tual Co nc e ss ive miru t o ie do a ua se e c t lly . m o

Pre s e o he ic alCo n mi ru m o nt Hyp t t i e e f I etc . see v n [ , ] . c e s siv e m ite m o mis hikad omo mitare d om o mi ari ie do hou h I e s aw to tc . t t g [ , ] , Pas o es si e m o ha e s e e or had t C nc v v n , mi hi o ie d o s t s ee n . m o

mis hi m o

se " 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e

[b y] having seen . b see i [ y] ng . VE B 63 R S .

CONJ ON UGATI .

m M i A fﬁ rma i ve o i S e . c e ( t ) t V .

Indefinite F o rm mi ( ru) - be ku I e tc w ill sha [ , . ] , ll

o c lusi v e mi ru - be shi w ou d should m a C n ( ) l , , y P re se t mi h c an c ould n g t , , A rib u i ve mi ru mus or ou h t o tt t ( ) t, g t

se e . Conc lusive mi( ru) b eka h d tc . I e tc . s ou e [ , ] l , , A ribu i mi r - b k h se e tt t ve ( u) e a ave n . rishi

o di io a mi ru b eke as or ' sinc e I e tc C n t n l ( ) , [ , . ]

re b a sho u d e t c . see . l , ,

h i - I hou d o e a mi ru b eku if e tc . s Hyp t t c l ( ) [ , ] l , m b a e . s e tc e . ( ) , m i ( ru) b e ke

re domo or hou h I e tc . t g , A ctual Concessive hi h ld see . mi ru b e s s ou e tc . ( ) , , t o ie d om o

o he ic a Con mi ru b e ku e e if I e tc . Hyp t t l ( ) v n ,

c e s siv e D 1 0 sho u d et c . se e . l , ,

Inde ﬁnite F orm mi - taku Con c lusive mi - tashi Pre se I tc wa t o se e . e . nt [ , ] nt A tt ributive m i - taki

o c lus i e m i - arik i I t w a e d t o e c . C n v t [ , ] nt Pas t A ribu i e mi - t arishi s e e tt t v . as s i c e or w he , n , n Condition al mi I w a t o se e . [ e tc . ] nt i f I t wa t o e c . [ , ] nt Hyp othe tical mi - tak u( m) b a see .

mi- t ake re d o m o h w a ou h I etc . t g [ , ] nt Conce ssive m i - ashi t o ie t o se e t . d om o

o s i mi - ke ri I s aw ha e c u e e tc . C n l v [ , ] , v

- k d e A rib u i e mi e ru se e or ha s e . tt t v n , n

as si c e or w he , n , n

‘ ha o di io a mi kereb a I e tc . s aw e C n t n l o o o [ , ] , v had se e se e or . n , n h I e tc s aw hou . t g [ , ] ,

o essi mi - keredomo ha e se e or had C nc ve v n ,

se e n .

VERBS . 65

CONJ UGA TION.

iv i e m M i Ne a e o e . ( St . ) g t V c

Indeﬁnite F orm mi( ru) - b ekarazu I lll h etc . W s a [ , ] , ll, C onc l usive mi( ru) - b eka w ould shou d m a I , l , y , Pre s e nt razu m i h c a n o u d t g t , , c l , ribu i e mi ru - b e ka Att t v ( ) “ m us 07 ou h not razat a l t , g t t o se e J , . C onclusive mi( ru) - b eka raz ariki t h u d n t I e c . s o o [ , ] l , A rib u i e mi ru - be ka h tt t v e t c . a e s ee . ( ) , v n razari shi

o di io a mi ru - b eka i C n t n l as or s c e I e tc . ( ) , n , [ , ] ra z are b a h u d not s o e t c . s e e i l , , .

o he ic a mi ru - b e k a Hy t t l if I e tc . should p ( ) [ , ] n t s e ot e c . e } . , mi ( ru) - b e ha raz are d om o hou h I t e c . t g , A ua o e ssi e mi ru b e ka s hou d n o ct l C nc v ( ) l t e tc . , , razu t o ie d o se e . m e

o he ic a mi ru b eka e e if I tc Hyp t t l ( ) v n e . , c e s siv e r a za ru m o shou d e tc . no s ee l t . , , Ind e ﬁnite F o rm mi ( ru) - m ajiku ] Co n c lus ive m i ( ru) - m aji Pre se nt A ttri butive m i ( ru) - m ajiki Co nc lus ive m i ( ru) m aji k ariki A ttributive mi ( ru) m aji k a ris hi 60 a) o di io a m i ru m a " C n t n l ( ) p 2 T 5 ke re b a g g Hyp othe tic al m i( ru) m aji ai ku( m ) b a g g E o Conc e ss iv e mi ru m a i L ( ) j (53 8 h ke re d o m o

I e did n tc . ot se e - [ , ] , Conc lus ive m izari ke n ha e not s e e or - v n A ttrib uti ve m izari ke ru , had not s e e n . as s i c e or whe , n , n I did n o s e e e tc . t [ , ] , Co ndition al miz ari - ke reb a have n o t s e e n or , had n se e ot n . h u h I e did o tc . mizari ke re t g [ , ] C oncessive n o t s e e ha e not domo , v

or had not seen. 66 JA PA E E N S GRA MMA R .

SEC 3 E A K S THE A A I S . . R M R ON P R D GM .

. 1 st zud and 8rd on u ions n ud n I The , , , c j gat i cl e verbs of a y “ num s s as orosu to ki l st n u i ber of yllable , k , ll , co j gat on ; “ “ a m ta mum to r i 2md on u a ion horobum , ect fy , c j g t ; , to

ri s d n u i n 4th n 3r o o . u i n pe h , c j gat The co j gat o consists of the followin g ten dis syllabic verb s only

him dr i to n sun . , y the h ” im , t o w1nn ow. ” him n z , to s ee e . “ im t o s oo w an d , h t ith a bow arrow .

i m t u or m o s . , f e cast etal im d to w . , ell ” “ ” “ ” “ t w ar ut n o o n . e , to p , to have o mim “ ” t o ook to see . , l ,

’

mm to r s m . , e e ble m i ni to o . , b l “ ” “ N B — K a er m m k k n id r . . i i to oo to s , l bac , co e , follows mim r m hi i i m un d d K o oromum ui f o w ch t s co po e . k (collo q al “ kokoromim t o s ou so d ri d rom mim ) , te t , th gh al e ve f ,

r n u a i n follows the 3 d co j g t o .

an s r s a n o n n ro r se - d II . Jap e e ve b h ve i ﬁ itive p pe ly calle . “ r n n an d su r s sion s as u u ko o the The p es e t te s e ch exp e y k t ,

” " f in u i shi o o of in on act o go g ; y k k t , the act hav g g e ,

u its a n s pply b se ce .

III us e of the in d n i e o m s i s in d on . The eﬁ t f r expla e

4 In h n e a i e i run d u i s page 7 . t e g t v vo ce the ge s ppl e the abs en ce of an in deﬁ n ite form .

Th n m en ta dis in ion w n the in di a i IV . e fu da l t ct bet ee c t ve an d the oblique m oo ds i s that each ten se of the in di cative con tains a con clusive form which i s us ed to termin ate

n n s an d n ri u i m is us ik an se te ce , a att b t ve for which ed l e E V RBS . 67 adj e ctive preﬁxed t o n oun s (see page whereas n o oblique

m o d c an en d a s n n or r d t o n un . o e te ce , be p eﬁxe a o

In a o i u m oods are r s ur an d sim e f ct the bl q e ve b p e pl , whereas the ten ses of the in di cative m ood are of the n ature

i run d ike i u m d i r f rti s . o s o pa c ple The ge , l the bl q e oo s , ve bal only ; an d the n ame of past participle applied to it by some

mm ari i mi n m r gra an s s a s o e .

a n s use r n n m or omm on V . The J pa e e the p ese t te se e c ly

N t nl d m i f r n ra than we do . o o y o they e ploy t o ge e l asser

i n s but h r u n d n o it s n s un s th t o , t ey f eq e tly e te by pa t eve t , le s e fact of such events bein g past i s the m ost n oteworthy thing

u m F u ur n s ar a s o m m n di abo t the . t e eve t e l so eti es i cated by

s n n s no u n the pre e t te e , if there is do bt as to the certai ty of

n their occurre ce .

>i< . The rs s is ri in an d ru ten se VI ﬁ t pa t the o g al t e past ,

n as it d im an d n in m s o s s o o . o expres i g , e , pa t t e th g re The ther

s s w n n s d are oun d t o om ounds o m d pa t , he a aly e , f be c p f r e by

m n s of u i i r s r of w os ro r i niﬁ a ea a x l a y verb , a t ace h e p pe s g c “ ta i i f r a a a i u vi s . us uki i s ri li i n s o ki t . t o st ll r ve Th y y t , is

Yuki tariki is sam as u i ta ri w havin g the e y k , ith the

f n s dd d ar sign o the ﬁrst past te e a e . B oth these e gen erally

r n d d b En is r but som im s best e ere y the gl h pe fect , et e by the ’ “ s n us : Chic hi m ni ta ri He is ik his r pre e t , th , l e fathe .

‘3‘ Ign orant w rite rs are apt t o use the attributive f o r the co nclus ive i hl nd orm of his e se e . . ltk s at the e of a se e e whe r f t t n , g y nt nc , e rr rammar re uire s uhihi c o e ct g q y . 1' D o n ot c o nfound it w ith the c olloq uial f re que nt ative forms h a i tt r i ki a r i o r w i h a r i ta m a re ba e t n ra n a r i s u s a c . c o t c i t , c t t t , , t , , fﬁ x e d o ou s h io s of to a r i to a m to a re ba e tc . s u t . T e m o s t n , , , , “n n t lite ral re nde ring of the s e la tte r f orm s is the ve rb t o b e b ut they is h ran a io hus : i are ofte n b e st om itte d fro m an Engl t sl t n . T G ka i “ " n mo no Tho se w ho m a o s i u e li t. b e the as se mb ta ra , y c n t t t ( ) l , “ y r i n h r hic hi c hic hi a ra zu to i n 100 The m emb e s t e u u e . C to mo i . e . f t t ,

o ta r zumba um - baha rd an Ev e if a a her d oe s not ac t i matte k a , n f t n " a her ma ner his hi d mus not ail t o ac t in a ﬁ ia anne a f t ly n , c l t f l l m r. 6 JA A E SE RA 8 P N G MMA R .

Inn an d i num the rmin a ion s of the our s are m , te t f th pa t , the “ ” s s r s n of an old v erb si n if in t o o awa elve the p e e t g y g g y . The use of the fourth pas t therefore in di cates that the a ction

n i h d n n i h hus su i of the verb i s completely ﬁ s e a d do e w t . T g “ ” i ha d a wa onl r s f th num mean s t s pas se y . The y ve b o e

ur n u ion i oss ss ou h s are im fo th co j gat wh ch p e the f rt pa t h , “ ” “ “ ” r nim to oi an d a i m to s m e . to wea ; , b l , re e bl Some verb s form the four th past by mean s of the termin a

i n s mi num o rs m n s tau sam as wi t o , ; the by ea of , t , ll be

h ar di m few r s ke i e seen by referen ce t o t e p a g s . A ve b ta e th r

min ion s in differ n us homenum or homets um set of ter at e tly , th ,

r i s d — D o n ot on oun d me on usi [I] have p a e c f , the c cl ve

m n i n f our s nu ri u i ter i at o o the f th pa t , with the att b t ve

i n f n i r n n e in termin at o o the egat ve p ese t . The o be g c on

i an d r ri u i c an n er o u elus ve the othe att b t ve , they ev cc py the

n In r n u i same place in the sente ce . the ﬁ st co j gat on the tw u di s in uish b r din w w i o are f rther t g ed y the p ece g vo el , h ch

i i in ou an d a, in n i us : u in u s the f rth past the egat ve , th y k , “ ” “ d Th r n u ka n u o n ot o . e i we t away ; y , g pe fect , wh ch exi sts only in verb s of the ﬁrst conjugation an d in the “ ” rr ul sum to do s s an d m i eg ar verb , , replace the pa t , so e

im s r s n w n ion m n on is a s i n t e the p e e t , he the act e ti ed pec ﬁc o e .

s o - d u ur in di s n ot s o m u u uri VII . The calle f t e cate , ch f t ty , as un r in an d m a r o us d in s kin n ce ta ty , y the ef re be e pea g eve

‘ f r s n or s n s if are ou u us : i r- ha o p e e t pa t eve t they d btf l , th J h “ n - n en ma e no ko o na m n m us n m i k t , It t have bee so e e ghteen

r a or nin eteen yea s go .

n di ion an d o i i are c n VIII . The co t al hyp thet cal , wh ch o

oun d r in the m odern o o uia dia of k f ed togethe c ll q l lect To yo,

di s in uis d in ri n n u us are sharply t g he the w tte la g age . Th the

n n s a ra chi suko a ka naraba o mi e Si t - beshi co ditio al phra e K y , y t ki h k ” means A s he is robust , he will do for t e wor ; whereas E V RB S . 69

o i K a m da su o a ka na ra ba ml e i S i c- besh the hyp thet cal h y , yo t k i “ ” m an I he i s r s wi do for rk s o u wo . e f b t , he ll the The hyp othetical m ood i s s om etim es em phasized by the use of “ h rd h wshi if r an a d inn in f t e wo , pe ch ce , pl ce at the beg g o “ the clause The con dition al followed by na ri mean s it i s

au hus : A wa r e mi a m mono wa sa i wa i na ri : sono bec se . T

‘ - o u a a wa remi we u bekereba, na ri ss d are m r i hi t , Ble e the e c ful ” in m r i t it i s us s o a . for (l . beca e) they hall bt e cy

The on ssi m ood is som im s em siz e d IX . c ce ve et e pha by the ” f word a oi n hou the b e inmn f use o the t t , eve t gh , at g g o

O sion a the on ss i word to i edomo ar the clause . cca lly c ce ve s e ” en s of n if n in us B ummei o used in the s e eve , eve , th k ku

' “ to i edo mo ima da sono a i we ma nuk mum a ta wa z u E , g , ven in

iz d oun i o ann o s its r civil e c tr es , [pe ple] c t e cape avages .

o n i an d o i i orm m X . The p te t al pr h bit ve f s co m only replace

- fu ur an d im r i . us : uku beshi the t e the pe at ve Th y , I will

’ 7 o r r n ukan ; uku- bekam zu or uku- ma i u g , athe tha y y , y g , yo ” mus n ot o r n ukaza re o n t t g , rathe tha y , g o .

d sid r i orm s ar u XI . The e e at ve f e s ed in two slightly

- diff r n w s . us w i uki a u m e e t ay Th , h le y t k ean s I wan t t o ” o on ide na sareta ku m n s wan ou t g , ea I t y o go . When

sufﬁx ed to an h on oriﬁc r rmin a i ve b , the te t on ta ku always

rs to wri r w i i s e r refe the te , h le the verb t lf efers to the person

r W n ufﬁ x ed dd s s d . s t o um r a e e he a h ble ve b , the entire

om oun d e rs to w i r In c p r fe the r te . other cases a glan ce at the c ontext gen erally shows whether ta ku should be referred to su or to the h the bject object . T us : G o m i rth kore “ a ri ta ku ma chi - ta tema ts mi - sor am o, I waitin g respectfully , ” i in for ur au a “ s o us ro i . e . o w h g y g t pp ach , I h pe you will

om . Se e s o r i c e al Chapte IX , Sect on ii . 3

ill i n s XII . The at ve te es have been so designated because their distinctive termination heat was originally the perfect of A 70 JA PA NESE GR MMA R .

m u h rd a mi - er i um o . o s k the irregular verb h , to c e S c a w ” therefore literally sign iﬁes I have c om e having s een

e vi ews do c oi r an d orr s on ds a to the o o ui a (j ) , c e p ex ctly c ll q l m te ma shi ta orm in kei i m a r i c on i ki . The f s y p act cally be sidered t ui a n s of the rs s s on di ion o be eq v le t ﬁ t pa t , pa t c t al , d i an past con ces sive respect vely .

I sid s m or usua r a orm s i n in XII . Be e the e l ve b l f g ve the

r di m s r m a om im s m et wi : pa a g , the e y s et e be th

r orm s in a ku w i are us d to in o u Archaic ve bal f , h ch e tr d ce

u i n us : iwuku s s som im s er q otat o s . Th [he] ay ( et e bett ” n d d n m i em ku s id o r om tu re ere by a ely , [he] a , b th f , “ ” “ ” to s a omo era ku ou rom omou nk . y ; , [ I ] th ght , f , to thi

A ku n di s s n em ku I i cate the pre e t , the ,

Potential form s such as a rinu oka mfuu- beshi derived

i i in do n rom ou s i s n ot s use . ot f a f rth pa t , wh ch t elf They

differ in m n in rom ordi n r o n i s ri m - beshi ea g f the a y p te t al , “ “ ” mus chum - beshi m us n um rous t be , t be e , etc .

F u u s orm d b ddi n m u t o u n t re f e y a g the attrib tive pres e t , as ” a m m u s mim m n a e s se . , hall be h ll A sort of periphrastic future den otin g in tention or bein g on

oin of o min an on orm d b suﬁixin the p t perf r g acti , f e y g the

t m u u r o s u t o . u u a n to words , o the f t re p per Th s : y k s um , “ ” “ ” “ to m k to o to on o n of o n a e g , be the p i t g i g , to be “ ” u son to sum u d um o o to o to o . S us ab t to g , be ab t , th

us m a in d rou m os of its en s s as u au to ed , y be ﬂecte th gh t t e , y k “ “ seshi was ou to do uka n to shi e in a u t d , ab t , y t , be g bo t o o ,

s on i s ri r i u i etc . Occa i ally th pe ph ast c f ture s corrupted into

one d and is n asi mis k n for n a i e u wor , the e ly ta e a eg t v , th s

uka uzu or uka zu f r u a n to sum i m r y y ( o y k ) . St ll o e corrupt

m s m u azu and u a um u nl for of the sa e are y k y k z . They occ r o y

m - u in the se i colloq ial style .

F ms n n mu a a ts or i dicati g si lt neity , by me ns of utsu sufﬁxed I E U LA VE RR G R RBS . 71

n n m ukitsuts u n mits ts to the i deﬁ ite for , as y , while goi g u u, “ i ook n wh le l i g .

F r u n i s in mi us ua imi wa ra i mi N w r n eq e tat ve , th k , o c yi g , ” n ow u in la gh g .

F orm s in ara n d ri d rom s n d s an d n t e ve f the eco pa t , early

o s ondi n t En i u ur s u u itam n c rre p g o the gl sh f t e pa t , th s y k ,

i r w ll p obably have gon e .

u m un d r i n a u un na redomo for u u mo S ch co po exp ess o s s y k , y k , i i the hypothet cal con ces s ve .

u n n i s si n s as u a am - beshi for S ch egative pote t al expre o y k z ,

uku - be a m u Yu a a m - beshi n m r t n y k z . k z lea s o e o the se s e of

m a n ot n h r n f n ia y go tha to t e othe s e ses o the pote t l . “ Su r ssi n s as u a umbu a m - be a m u nn but ch exp e o y k z k z , ca ot ”

mus o us d to on s n s n ssi . t g , e c vey the e e of ece ty

E 4 . IR E A E . S C . R GUL R V RBS

r n i i r au d in r num s of I . Appa e t irregular t es a e c s e la ge ber verb s by the in ability of the Japan es e t o pron oun ce c ertairi

on son an s e ore r ain ow s an d b u hon i n s c t b f ce t v el , y the e p c cha ge “ r su in r m hi in a i it us om s m tut to e lt g f o t s b l y . Th fr the te ,

s an d we ha a s u a c hi in s ad of tutu a i . F or is t , ve t t , t , te , t t a l t

of e s im or an e u honi an s see a 6 . th e p t t p c ch ge , p ge “ u r f th 2n d n u i n as ota um II . S ch ve b s o e co j gat o k y , to ” “ ” n swer o toro um to d a m os on r his at a ; y , ec y , tly c t act t tributive r s n in o o m otor m an d on usi p e e t t k to , o , the c cl ve

' re s n in o o o r o o . p e t t k to, t

r m n d in 3 . e s of the l st on u ion w o s s s III V b c j gat h e te e , “ ” “ ” s u h as no kosu to e e ts uka wa s u to se n d are s om e c , l av ; , , tim es conj ugated in certain ten ses as if they were c om “ un d f i l ar r s um d us om o s o rre u e to o . p the g v b , Th we c e

ros s su h orm s as uo oses hi f r uo oshi shi ac c f k o k .

o ui n i n s su a e mi e in IV . Coll q al co tract o , ch as tt for t , be g

IR E U LA VE R G R RBS .

and n ul u m and n i ﬂected reg arly thro gh all the oods te ses , m u : i ta rer i ita ri i i ta ri t i . . th s k , k k , k , etc , etc “ ” Nam t o n n orm an d run ni e r s n , be , i deﬁ ite f ge d t ; p e e t

m No r n s . O r con clusive na ri (instead of na ) . pe fect te e the wi se conj ugated regularly accordin g to l st conj ugation

om m na r D o n ot on un d irr u r r num to fr ste . c fo the eg la ve b , “ ” num t om i a r i s r ul ar r be , with , o bec e , wh ch l tte a eg ve b

a i n are asi distin ushed as of the l st conj ug t o . They e ly g , “ num to be i s n ever preceded by on e or other of the post “ i i n ui an d to m m to om is w s pos t o s , whereas , bec e , al ay

s o r d d u p ece e , th s “ “ o os ou o n m o lit . r s Hanjo nam t fu, a pr per s t w re a p o ” “ i own i ros . is s . pers town , . a t wh ch p pers (This the

ri u i rm of num to att b t ve fo ,

Ha n o ui nam o u o n i i s om n os r y t f , a t w wh ch bec i g pr pe ” i u i orm of num to om us . r o (Att b t ve f , bec e “ To u ha n o no mi o n is ros rous . on usi f j , the t w p pe (C cl ve f “ orm o na m to . f , be “ To u ha n ui m m o n i s omin r s u . f jo , the t w bec g p o pero s ” (Con clusive form of num t o becom e ) “ h um hu in on ra ion shi ku a m S i to s . k , be t Be g a c t ct of , “ d a m ike - un din shi a m to i n u ik . s o it s co j gate l e The l g k ,

o d i s r u r r l st on u ion . sc l , a eg la ve b of the c j gat “ i sh num f r sh nu Shinum to di e r s n ri u i o i . , , p e e t att b t ve ( ) Otherwi se conj ugate d regularly accordin g to l st conj ugation

r m m shin is n ot mu h us d n s ui a en f o ste . It c e , the Chi e e eq v l t sh r rr d i s um being p efe e .

S ore see h r . , C apte X

Sum to do on u d ordin to the 3rd on u a ion , , c j gate acc g c j g t , except in the foll owing ten ses Afﬁrm ative con clusive perfe ct sari ; attributive perfect som con clusive ﬁ rst past s eshi future sen past condi tional seshikuba or shi tarebu ; present 74 E A A JA PA NES GR MM R .

hypothetical seba or sena ba ; optative sebaya past con cessive

seshi o Ne i ka do mo sesh to i e o o i r i se . i d m . m , , etc pe at ve y gat ve all the ten ses down to ﬁrst form of imperative have 6 instead

of i u e im r i s u- na s s so a senu . ur , th zu, z m , , etc ; fo th pe at ve

— - In m an o m s a 3 for i as s eza ri keri . illative f r s al o h ve , , etc y

’ compoun ds sum is nigori e d (see page that i s t o say that

s n in o an d sh in o rou ou w o is cha ged t z , t j th gh t the h le “ n u ion us : ron m to dis uss in ni ron i co j gat , th zu , c deﬁ te j

n usi s n ron ron eri and ron eru . co cl ve pre e t zu ; perfect z z , etc “ ” D n ot on o un d irr ul r r s um to do suru o c f the eg a ve b , , with , ”

to rub w is u ar r f th l n u on . , hich a reg l ve b o e st co j gati

U ru t o ollo ui em Its so irr u ari is , get (c q al ) . le eg l ty that

has in r n e as n o s m the s m n it ( appea a ce at l t) te , real te bei g

in i f s r w i ha ni sh d . on s s s o the gle lette y , h ch s va e It c t the m ere termin ation s of the paradigm of the 2n d conj ugation

i n on a s 5 4 t o 5 us : in de ni e orm a r s n g ve p ge 7 , th ﬁ t f ; p e e t

n s u an d m m us n ot on oun d d i h um u . t te e , etc It be c f e w t , ” to s w i is u ar er of the rs on u a ion . ell , h ch a reg l v b ﬁ t c j g t

“ " U r oru ri in de n i orm a rea or urei attribu y , to g eve , ﬁ te f ; tive pres ent uryom c on clusive presen t uryo ; poten tial ten s es

ur - be h r i i n u a e d r ul r as r a ku e tc . O wi s t s y , t e e c o j g t eg a ly a ve b

f 2 n ro o the nd co j ugation from the stem u .

SEC . 5 A S S IVE A ND E IA VE S . P POT NT L RB .

The Japan es e language has n o special conj ugation for the

s si i s o - ll e d s si r e on t o the pa ve vo ce . All ca pa ve ve b s b l g

s on d i on u ion an d are in e d a ordi n t o the ec act ve c j gat , ﬂ cte cc g

r di m i n n a 4 he ar e d ri e d r om t he pa a g g ve o p ges 5 to 5 7 . T y e v f corre spon din g active verbs accordin g to the followin g rule

n u a i n add mu m in the 2n d In ve rb s of the l s t co j g t o ,

on u a ion e ra rum in the 3rd i ra m m an d in 4th ra m m c j g t , , the

o s m in l st on u io t the te . Thus the c j gat n PA E VE 5 s e RBS . 7

“ “ t c ut to more lit . to o be ( , ” u get) c t . “ t wai ma ta m ru t o e t wai d for . o t , g te

' t u wa ra u a m m to u d . o la gh , get la ghe at

In 2n d 3rd an d 4th on u a ion s the , , c j g t “ “ hom t r is ho mera m m to ra s d . um , o p a e , get p i e “ “ rani t ha e um mim m m to et a d . u um , o t , g h te “ ” ni im t see ni i ra m m to n . , o , get see

n i n u ms ki raro m ma tamru (The correspo d g colloq ial for are , ,

' u a ra warem , The following pas sives (or potentials) in common use are formed irregularly : m om m m m um to o . k , fro k , c e " ' scra m m or sa i uru sum to do . , ( ) , “ shi nam m , shinum , t o di e .

h u ormed i r u r r m h ir s m s c on T o gh f r eg la ly f o t e te , they are

u a ed ul ar ik all o ssi s an d o n i s j g t reg ly , l e ther pa ve p te t al , as

r s f 2nd on u i n ve b o the c j gat o . A glan ce at the origin of the Japan es e passive will furn ish i the student with a key to all the di fﬁculties connected w th it .

ro r s k n the s o - d ssi is n ot ss P pe ly pea i g , calle pa ve a pa ive at all ,

n i in di ui u rm a ta m m for but sim a s s . o s u ply act ve g e S ch a f ,

i n s n was ori in uc hi a r i um as i r as ossi ta ce , g ally , l te ally p ble “ “ ” “ to in a i i . . to a b e atin or to get be g be t ng , e get g , get

n Hen its in the 2n d i on u i n beate . ce place act ve c j gat o “ ” on wi the r um to an d n al g th ve b , get ; he ce the fact that

in ran si i r s c an s si orm s as Oi te o ui shi na t t ve ve b have pa ve f , k “ rum ori a na shi i u a na shi r is n o in dd an y k k , The e th g sa er th

’ ” t o a e on e hi d di w n n i ld n idi h v s c l e he o e s o . (The Japa es e om

ii“ F o r s uch e upho nic c hang e s as the omis sio n of the 8 in ma ta mm and h i n r i f the w i n r se a e t e se o o wa a wa m m e 7. t n , p g A A E E A M A R 76 J P N S GR M .

“ ’ m d e n i d H n see s at ﬁrst sight to be to he i d by o e s ch l . e ce t oo the frequent use of the postposition wo with thes e so

al u Shin - F utsu i en ui ta ma shii a o c led pas sive verb s . Th s : j k uba warete i w o n ion in a sor d b the , The r h le atte t be g b be y ” “ - m i i n m r i ra Ha in ot F ran co Chin es e co pl cat o , o e l te lly v g g ” d In i s an d simi r ir r . the whole spirit ab so be , etc th all la

r ar us d w a i s su con texts where passive ve bs e e , h t the bject of the true En gli sh pas sive is the object of the J apan es e

u si - s si n en m a or m a n ot n o r q a pa ve . The se t ce y , y , have a the

i ha n ot u r ss d . G n r as r t s s bject exp e e e e ally , he e , , few Japan ese s en ten ces of any s ort havin g subj e cts properly so d an d n s . 6 so calle . (See Sy tax . ect al page The word by in En gli sh pas sive phrases i s expressed in

n s ui us : Inu ui a shi a o ui - tsukam m To Japa e e by , th k , be

’ i n in do m o n b tte the leg by a g , re literally , To get o e s leg

bitten by a dog . To the origin of the passive verb in an active form c an likewi se be traced the altern ative use of the pas sive as a ”

i k f r n n mira m m lit . to s in o n o s . p te t al . Ta e i ta ce , get a ee g

s orm n u sus i of two s d s of m n n Thi f is at rally cept ble ha e ea i g , “ i r i in m m e a e to s o o on s i . s . wh ch e ther I get a ee g fr s e el e , “ “ ” “ t s n or to s in n o o s i . . t get ee II get a ee g e elf, s o be ” mi s m . i i e m m s si f able to see S larly w th , the pa ve o the “ ” “ rr u a m t d i r su o o . i n in ri in a i eg l r ve b , S g fy g o g lly to get ” “ a doin ma m n i g , it y ea e ther to have som ethin g don e to ” on e or t o d , be able to o . F rom its use as a potential the use of the pas sive as an

honoriﬁc is but s it in n a ur on sid r d m or a tep , be g t ally c e e e polite to intimate th at an exalted pers on age i s a ble to perform

r n ion n un to s s r he does it him a ce tai act , tha bl tly a e t that self. This honoriﬁc use is the common est use of the form s un der ” n u : Wa a sei u'a hana ra u hina e u n consideratio . Th s g fu z S s i/ i I A I NTR NS TIVE VERBS . 77

“ tsui te hare wo ah a seram ru for sum ui sai nas hi i y y ( ) , There s n ot the slightest doubt but that our government wi ll deman d

i f n s nm n th s o the Chi e e gover e t . Altern ative methods of expressin g potentiality are by

refixin nd ni orm or suffixin u p g the i efi te f , g the vario s in “ ” “ fle c ted rm s of um us d in the s n s of fo , to get , e e e to be ” “ - us : e i wazu or ii ezu nn o s a . m able . Th , , I ca t y S o e

im s uru is us d ui inde n d n as K anzeza m a o e u t e e q te pe e tly , z , “ “ ni d li d n We cann ot but feel asto she ( t . We o ot get n ot

o o a o on a Can n k t y , o e “ ” a a u to i s sufﬁx ed to ri The Verb t , be able , the att butive

s n of r to s s o n i i or in i pre e t other ve bs expre p te t al ty , ( , ts “ n im s si i as uku a ta wazu nn o o egative voice , po bil ty) y , ca t g . ” anum un sufﬁx ed to The verb k , to be able , is the in deﬁnite ” m m s as uki - kanum nn for to express i pos ibility , y , ca ot go .

SEC . 6 . CE A I IN A SI IVE VE ON RT N TR N T RBS .

There is a large class of verb s which it is gen erally c on venient to tran slate by En glish pas sive or potential idioms , but w i are ro r in ran si i in n s h ch p pe ly t t ve Japa e e , an d must be

r u di s in u s d rom ssi s or o n i ca ef lly t g i he f pa ve p te t als . Even in

n is di f n we n two su E gl h , we feel a fere ce bet e ch assertion s as

o d i s m in in urn an d The g l elt g the f ace , The gold is bein g

m d in u n . In rs s ion i r elte the f r ace the ﬁ t ca e , the act s ep re

n d as s on n ous on e in the s ond s i i se te a p ta e ; ec ca e , t s explicitly

r f m u r n Th the wo k o s o e o te age t . e verb of the former

o s on ds t o n s alcum to m n an si c rre p the Japa e e t , elt , (i tr tive) ; “ ” that of the latter to to kam m passive to get melted ( ,

ri d rom r n si i o ku to m de ve f the t a t ve t , elt . Simi “ r in ran si i s mi um t . o isi la ly the t t ve y , be v ble , and ” “ ” obi um i orr s on n y , to start with fr ght , c e p d very early , but

‘ “ not u - n miram m q ite , to the passive pote tials , to get seen A A E E A M 78 J P N S GR MA R .

“ or to to s ee an d o bi a ka sa m m to e t ri h n be able , y , g f g te ed

b s m ne u in r n si i s are n r u h n riﬁ c all s o o . ( y o e o . S ch t a t ve eve ed y

EC . A SI IVE A ND I A SI IVE A I S VE S . S . 7 ON TR N T NTR N T P R OF RB

In En gli sh the s am e word comm on ly does duty both as a “ i an d a an in r n i i r h r n si s s . us to m e t a t ve t a t ve ve b T lt , “ ” “ t urn to s n d m a b e i he ran si i or in tran si o b , ta , y e t r t t ve

i rdi n n e In n s t m nin t ve acco g to the co t xt . Japa e e the wo ea gs are expres sed by different verbs derived from the same

us root , th In ran 've t si ti . to dry in r w to be a o . b e r i h en to f g t ed . t de s n d o ce .

to be ﬁxed . ” r t o eceive . to stan d t o m ove to burn

Tra nsi i ve t .

1 s t dr n ( to y (tra s ) . “ ” 2n d to ut in r ( p a ow. “ (l st to frighten l st t ow o l er . ’ 2n d t ( o ﬁx . 2u i d to g ve . 2 u n d to s et p . “ n a a s r n y k u l st to m ove (t a s . u u l u n r n y k ( st to b r (t a s .

The derivation of these pairs of verbs from the same root fo llows n o ﬁxed rule but the stem of the tran sitive fr equen tly

n ds in s M n a n s in r n si i r s m us ran s e . a y J pa e e t a t ve ve b t be t “ a b En ish i r s as as obu t o mus on e l ted y gl reﬂect ve ve b , , a e “ i sa tsu sum o kill ne self ma nzoku sum c on self j , t o , to ” n n s Th n n u no e e . te t o e elf. e Japa ese la g age has reﬂectiv v rbs A A I E E C US T V V RBS . 79

EC CA SA IVE VE . S 8 . . U T RBS

Causative verbs are derived from tran sitive or intransitive verbs accordin g to the following rule

In r s f h l n add a shimum in 2n d n ve b o t e st co j . , the co j .

eshimum in 3rd ishimum an d in 4th seshimum t , the , the o the

s m u : te , th s ( C o “ ts u u ra shimum m tsu um m k h k . , fi fro , to a e tgmgif } “ mo o m to cause colloq . t matameshimum 4 matomum ( , , “ ” t k em s k o s to ee . ] ee , l , ) “ tsu t o caus e (collo q . kim ) tsuki shimum to m o tsu um to om , co et k , c e to an ” an en d , en d . to caus e kiseshi mum im . , h , to wear to

A ll caus atives are conj ug ated according to the paradi gm o f

2n d on u ion an d are ik o sus i the c j gat , , l e ther verbs , cept ble

of ssi in ion a nzo tomeshimeram m to u the pa ve ﬂect s , s , be ca s ” e d to s k ee .

r i s an rn wa orm n us of The e alte ative y of f i g the ca ative ,

i owin are m s tsukura sum matomesa sum wh ch the foll g exa ple , ,

tsu isa s m kisa sum h s e rn i orm s are i k u . , T e alte at ve f ch eﬂy

us d in assi n ot as us i e s ro but as hon oriﬁc e the p ve , ca at v p per , sub stitutes for the sim ple intran sitive or tran sitive verb s from “ ” whi r d ri d a ra sera m m f r a m t be a e e . . o o ch they e ve . g , ; “ ta zunesa sera m m f r a una m to n uir etc . o t z , e q e ,

The aus i s Of um shi num an d s um are kosas himum c at ve h , ,

or ko sas um s hina shimui ' u or shina s uru an d seshimum or ( ) , ( ) , ( sa s um r i ) espect vely . C aus ative verbs are formed from adjectives by addin g a ras himum m as ha a a ra shimum to us to to the ste , y k , ca e be ” ” r m ha a o ki r . early , f y , ea ly Caus atives are formed from negative verbs and adjectives

ORNA MEN'rA L VE B 1 R S . 8

Ima ari san - u nen en ui a rashimureba y j z , lit . If one caused “ it to ir s r n ow i e u in be th ty year befo e , . . S ppos g it had ” n d rs a happe e thirty yea go . “ u n si as obi a hasu i n ta ts um S ch tra tive verbs y , to fr ghte , “ t u m n i n d in mu n ot c on o set . . s p , etc , e t o e Sec 7 , t be foun ded with the corr espon din g an d alm ost syn onym ous “ ” us i obi eshimum to aus t k i a ashi ca at ves , c e o ta e fr ght ; t t “ ” mum u nd u i i d n t o s . n o t , ca e to sta p , etc The tra s t ves o

i n we shi e and are n u hon oriﬁc all . take the postposit o t , ever sed y

EC C VE S . S . 9 . OMPOUND RB

Many complex assertion s are made by m ean s of compoun d

r s i orr s nd i to r osi i n s ve b , wh ch c e po e ther the p ep t o al verb of

n n u to u Europea la g ages , or whole phrases , th s

“ t o p ut through ( by) - l k hrou h m r i mi tOsu t o oo o e l t. t g , n , s e e in ( C “ t t t m ugh ( by) t o hrus hrou h t t t g , fil ffstirl “ g “ to kill ( by) thrus t t o hrus t o de a h t t t , i n “ t o de part ( by ) fly t o fl awa y y , " i n g .

A s n m s rs r i s ut in the see by these exa ple , the fi t ve b p ind ni m an d n r S an ds in an d r i r ion to efi te for , ge e ally t a ve b al elat the se n d w i n i in r o o s d . r r r two a e c , h ch al e flecte Ve y a ely the ” r is r d kai - modosu bu an i k i to d e . othe w e elate , as , y g ve bac , .

to urn in r u in it uki - ka em to o an d ret (a th g) afte b y g y , g

m e k co bac .

om om un er s on sis of m or h n two m m rs S e c po d v b c t e t a e be , as obi - a mi - sa m to ﬂ awa in an u ard di r i t g , y y pw e ct on meshi - a e - ta tenta tsui i - s ere h the on our t o s a e g , I ave h t t .

SEC . 10. A E A L V S ORN M NT ERB .

n r s d rn m n s sa i u Ma y ve bs are u e o a e tally , that i to y w tho t 82 J PA A NESE GRA MMA R .

si ni n and m em s regard to their proper g ﬁcatio , as ere belli h

m n u uohi - emu ai - sumu an d ma hari - uku e ts of style . Th s , , y ” m n n o m n im r s emu smi sumu ea ore tha the s ple ve b , to le ; , “ ” ” m to n usi n an d u u o r s to co e a co cl o ; y k , to g , the p eﬁxe

n m imi w n an bei g eani ngless in m odern usage . S larly he

‘ n m n r is suﬁi x ed as in i a shi - e m or i as hi for or a e tal ve b , t , t “ ” “ i acu do meshi - a e - nmim se - sere for mesu I t , to ; g , , [ have ” ” ' “ - n u sa shim se mesu for shirasui u in o m . the ho o r] to y ; , , to f r

ama u i an in i im The verb t , properly to g ve to fer or , parts

an hon oriﬁc in din us : mesa serare t ge to the prece g verb , th “ a ma u mesu summ on us d w n k n of t , for , to , e he spea i g the

Mik o lif esa sera r ad . ( e is the in deﬁnite form of the potential

us i of mesu us d hon oriﬁc all . r of the ca at ve , e y ) The ve b “ ” ta tema tsum ro to i to su ri or is us d as , p perly g ve a pe , e a

u uf s i in us : as hi - ta tema ts uii respectf l s ﬁx , e pec ally letters , th g “ 3 676 f m hum n u i n s , I beg to o fer y ble co grat lat o

Nari on usi r s n of na m i s mos (the c cl ve p e e t , to be the t u u orn m n r it in nsider d e n to sub s al a e tal ve b , be g co e lega t stitute for the con clusive form s of verbs an d adjectives a periphrasis con sistin g of the corresponding attributive form s

na ri . followed by , e g .

a a r a m n i , for ri . he ( ra a ru be a m z ir/ z nari , k u. a mishi n ri , m ' nam n i , na m .

' so re na i i , so re . s um na ri , su . a su na i i a su l st t t , t t ( ta ts uru n mi a t su 2n d on , t ( c j e /c a i ' i e sh i n i . y , y “ B a a hush n no ka am to i - be i na ri m a Thus ns i c i g i a k , They y ” m irr r f s B eki na ri is be term ed a o of loyalty or all age . (

u mo n n n u beshi w ul be m ch re elega t tha the plai concl sive o d , ) ‘ E S 3 SUBS TA NTIVE V RB . 8

E THE VA I S S A IVE VE . S C 1 1 . . R OU UBST NT RBS

The followin g i s a list of the Japan ese verbs in modern written use correspondi n g to the En glish to be

A m si ni s to n it orm s r an d g ﬁe be whe f pa t of a jective , as ” “ mezura shila mi hi s r n mezum shiheredeme u , was t a ge ; , tho gh

n d i r an d a m it is stra ge . The a ject ve prope the verb are

n i n s us : mezura shihu ai i hi occasio ally wr tte eparately , th ,

rede ma In m s a m mezuras hiku u . al o t all other cases cor “ ” “ ” “ d i s . re spon s to there , there are , there were , etc ,

“ — - shu (1 173 k n d an s n thus : Ni , There are two i s as ertio to

u u us di s in uis m Ni - shu na ri be s cr p lo ly t g hed fro , They are

di ff r n kin d im a re n two i . e . s . zu ( e e t) S ilarly (ge erally , how

d b n i i nashi n ever , replace y the egat ve adject ve ) sig iﬁes there ” ” is not w na raz a si ni s it is n ot . , hile g ﬁe ( )

A raser am m o n - us i rm am is u , the p te tial ca at ve fo of , sed “ ” h n riﬁ c all o a m an d for uku to n o o y b th for , y , go , whe the

i d n n i n d act on s of exalte perso ages are me t o e .

ay-a m Sara but m h n riﬁ G a a s s as o o o c . z , the a e , re “ ” “ ” “ Im to d to i to in n , . well , l ve , be ( the se se of

i n n n us w n s k n i in u l vi g) ; he ce o ly ed he pea i g of l v g creat res ,

s i um n in s m a n mi d n e pec ally h a be g . It y ofte be o tte when tra s “ - in . us : Yoko ha ma ni im ai ohu in n lat g Th g k j , the foreig ers ” dw li n in Y ok m [ el g] oha a . “ m i u u ui n u a Na s s of e . to u the al eq vale t the c p l be , th s

a u no ni ku wa Jo e no s he ku nari s k i J k y , The ﬂe h of the wea s ” d f r r n is u d t urn n i d foo o the st o g . It se o t nou s nto a jectives “ an d so r r u n as an rn m n (p . al ve y f eq e tly o a e tal verb

O sion ir um o u ion ui a m or ni e a m (p . cca ally the c c l c t t

u d n s d na m hus : Toki i ma da a on no o i ni is se i tea of . T g t k

a raz a for n ara zu is not o n . In su ( ) , It yet the g lde age ch

s s ui i s not r s i ion ni but an old indeﬁ ca e prope ly the po tpos t , “ ” m nam t o n w mos su ite nite for of , be , o al t di sed . N is the 4 A A 8 J PA NE SE GR MMA R .

“ un d f na o m t . In m s n am n d f r ni ger , o be so e ca es sta s o

os osi ion in an d a m and m us h n r nd re d (the p tp t , t t e be e e “ “ ” b in r us : O sa ka na m f r ui a m D a i y o at . Th ( o ) “ J u- shi chi K e uri ts u Gi nka n n N n nk k , the Seve tee th atio al Ba

i is k [wh ch ] at Os a a . “ Na u nashi na i m m l d n ad ec k , , k (so eti es ca le the egative j ” “ ” “ ” is n ot not . u : Sat tive ) there , there was , etc , th s “ hi n u nas . , there is o do bt m m im 0 . , sa e as

Sara see a w n us on i s ui n to ( Ch pter X) , he ed al e , eq vale t M i both a m an na m . ore frequently it s an orn amental sufﬁx

s and d i to other verb to a ject ves . “ “ Sum o r to do om im s m ns to as in , pr pe ly , s et e ea be ,

m i n - be h e e e a u - be a ra u te su s o s . In u s i n 0 , There a i e k t , k h z , “ ” n one m a k an d on e m a not do lit . Bei g that y tal , that y , “ ” m a k d f bu i nn u a u i . e . o t t o d n . Y k z It y be tal e , ca t be o e ” f u a u in n in n in s shi e or k z ot o . O as t , y , [be g] g g fte , the la t

in n it i s m os on n i n ook on as on of thes e sta ces , t c ve e t to l it “ Ni ho n i n ni shi e in n M fr s . s s expletive . j t , Be g a Japa e e o t

m s a iz noun quently sum si ply serve to verb l e s , as

u m ai a i s m , to love fro , love . di h s um e d . s i , to eath

a a s um to i iz d kaika i i iz i n k ik , be civ l e , c v l at o .

sul in r as n s n s n s i s s om im s The re t g ve b , see by the e i ta ce , et e a som im s n u r s om im e s s si us a n ctive , et e e te , et pa ve , ge alo e

idin in s hi it s l T dec g each ca e w ch ha l be . o obtain an equi “ i t i ili z Valen t for the act ve verb o c v e , we m ust use the “ e h m m —Sum s m im s m n s causative form kaika s s i u . o et e ea to ” “ ” t : Sen to sum am ou . me be about o , as , I ab t to do So “ ” : K in - a nari to sum times it mean s to consider , as y , To

consider import ant . E E Eo PTIO A LL Y V RBS U S D N . 85

2 E A E A E C . 1 . VE S S EEC S RBS U D OTH R P RTS OF SP H .

S ome few verbs (mostly in the gerun dial form) are used as

os osi ion s . hus : ui ai e e i te s nds for e ki e p tp t T [ ] t , ( ta t , “ “ ” run d of o u to we matte b m n ge k , place [ ] , y ea s of “ matte s n ds for me ohi te rund of mo su to O r ( ta , ge t , the s

o ond to En s i c rresp gli h adverbs , adverb al phrases , or c on

un i n u j ct o s , th s ge rund of hayi mum ha imete for the rs ime “ , j , ﬁ t t t o be i g n . g e rund o f me tamum motomete on ur ose , , p p “ ” t o seek . gerund of shiyam urg e ntly “ , t o r p e s s . eru d ne g . g n of ne ke m ne ke m z u wi hou e e io all , , t t xc pt n , ; “ ” t o re mai n . o di io a f “ ” ‘ i c n t n l o sum sa reba ha bei s o he , , t t ng , t n “ t o be hus t“ . rom 86 hus and f , t , ” so shi e ha in do e s o shi e e ru d of sum t , v g n , t , g n , t o “ ” n s hiba ra ku shi e a er a i e whi e t , ft l ttl l , ” hik r z hi r r s a a u s e on the o a . t , c nt y

The attributive form of the present tense is sometimes “ d d d i u : a esu- aes u ou an us d . d ble e a verb ally Th s k g , over “ ” and o in r m ka esu to urn r mim - mim ver aga , f o , t ove , ’ m mim o on s r s ro see . bef re e ve y eye , f , to

ri u i rm s s an d d i s o n t The att b t ve fo of verb a ject ve , foll wed or o

o o o n s on d to En s s r noun or by k t , fte corre p gli h ab t act s , to

En i s inﬁnitives or r s n r i i s . us : shim o sum gl h p e e t pa t c ple Th p , ” ” r shim o sum o o o r s to o r s s m kin r o p k t , pr g e s pr g e , a g p o ” ss na i ko o in as n s na kai i s i o o gre ; k t , or the p t te e h k t , “ ” “ n Shim o sum mono ou d m n n or abse ce . p w l ea a thi g ( ” “ ” son o r s s na ki mono an s n n per ) that pr g e se ; , ab e t thi g

0 hi i s u e d o t o o e e rb s not ou s . Nouns ar So s te s nly c nn ct v , n n e o e e d b to or sim ac ed eside e a h o her i hou an c nn ct y , ply pl b c t w t t y " rd i ni in and wo s g fy g . E 86 JA PA N SE GRA MMA R .

r n F or ou h o h ko o an d mono are m os i e (o perso ) . th g b t t t l t r “ ren d r d b the En i sh word in o o w s ally e e y gl th g , k t al ay

re r t a s in s s ffairs m a rs . whi e fe s o b tract th g , fact , a , tte , etc , l mono n r r u n i s and n t o ge e ally refe s to act al ta g ble Object , eve

rs n pe o s .

H C APTER IX .

SYNTA " .

1 — un d m n ul n s ns ru on is . The f a e tal r e of Japa e e co t cti that

ua i us qualifyin g words precede the words they q l fy . Th the

r ni i r d s n un i it d n the adjecti ve o ge t ve p ece e the o wh ch eﬁ es ,

d r an d n or us s r d adverb prece es the ve b , expla at y cla e p ece e the

u o ik wis r d s r . prin cipal cla se . The bject l e e p ece e the ve b The verb (or predicative adjective) of each clause is placed

end us i r d i at the of that cla e , the ch ef ve b (or pre icat ve

ff h n ir n n adjective) roun di ng o t e e t e se te ce .

— B an ion i is m n os N B . . y except , wh ch erely appare t , p t

i i n o n s d of din w rds w i pos t o s foll w , i tea prece g , the o h ch they

imi r in i l o n . s deﬁ e S la ly , the terrogative part cle fo low the w rds m whose s ens e they odify .

2 — Mos s n n s are u s r ss n . t e te ce s bjectles , the ve b expre i g

h r omin wi h re erenc e t o s om son n an rat e a c g to be t f e per , tha

i i r d r d b i u d r act expl c tly decla e to be perfo me y h m . Sho l the e

su it is en r d Of s n n . be a bject , g e ally placed at the hea the e te ce More frequently the word which it is wished to lay stress on is

s a e d b we an d h d n i ol t y ea s the sente ce .

— r i i r r d 3 . The p ed cat ve ve b o a jective of the ﬁn al clause of a s enten ce is p ut in the con clus ive form (subject to a few ex c ep tion s caus e d by the pre sence of in terrogative words an d of certain postpositions while the predicative verbs or

ii‘ See a e s 24 34 42 and 4 p g , , 8. A " SYNT . 87

adjectives of all the precedin g clauses meant to expres s the m s a e ten se or m ood as the verb of the ﬁn al claus e are p ut in

the ind ni rm imi eﬁ te fo . S larly in the case of a s et of clauses

in an a ri u i on di ion a h o he i r hav g tt b t ve , c t l , yp t t cal , o gerun dial

si ni a ion it is on er f as g ﬁc t , ly the v b o the l t clause of the s et

rs in the ri u i on di ion o i a that appea att b t ve , c t al , hyp thet c l , or

run dia orm re din r s in u ge l f , all the p ce g ve b be g p t in the

n ni rm i deﬁ te fo .

o owin m s s to us r ul 1 2 The f ll g exa ple will erve ill t ate r es , , and 3 (see also pages 1 7 an d

‘ “ Te ri na ki sa e no me ri i l i u t ke , The bat of a v l age W tho t ” irds b . “ “ M a o no mono im - be a ra u lit rs n of no usin s y k z , . Pe o s b e s

ma n t n r i i n u in N dm n o s ss . o . e O y e te , . a tta ce except b e

M ona i s u d n d mu 5 i di n ( the s bject , eﬁ e by g/ , wh ch accor gly

r d p ece es . )

F n iu a hi ore we i seba u a na m - beshi tote sui ni sane mei t k y , f k , t “ ui ski a e n He n d d b o in the omm n d n kin t g , e e y bey g c a , thi g ” it u d im r f r him r u a ain N sub that wo l be p oper o to ef s e g . ( 0

e c A r u rmin a n s n n t . s e s own the s s o s j ) h e h , cla e f g a J pa e e e te ce mus o n r n s d in in rs ord r En ish on s ru ion t fte be t a late ve e e , gl c t ct

n r r rrin t i s m n rs an d ge e ally p efe g o place the ch ef tate e t ﬁ t , the

n r r r i The is i r l i expla ato y ph ases afte t . above l te al y Tw ce

is if r use im r r i - be inkin - h he s th [ I ] ef , p ope w ll th g t at , [ ] at la t ” mm n d Shi ta a u i ri r s n in s d of o o s . s that c a bey ( g , h to c p e e t , tea ” s shi ta aiki o d pa t g , beye )

K ei re we he e i s hi F u ushu we ara shi Tansui we seme Neiha g k , k , , we e s ei Ton i no sa a we e ete sei ui seme - i m u o munin , k n k i k , K ri , J “ no c hi we u u a ateshi Ha i n om arde d K e un y k y g , v g b b e l g , r d F o w in s d Tam sui k d Nin o an d avage o cho , ve te , attac e gp ,

ross d the ron i rs of on uin F n r ss e d or rd c e f t e T q , [the re ch] p e f wa

n n si an m d in n rou i to Kwa g , d see e to march every directio th gh

A " SYNT . 89

m n n ot sui i s i fﬁ u [it] by ea s of faces will t , . . The d c lty of knowin g the hearts of men cann ot be solved by an appeal to

their faces .

Or n k n m n - of s m the followi g , ta e fro the otice board a tea er

“ G e she i no shina ban i o in a rasera re - a u s r ss n j j g i t k o e, Pa e i s are u s d to r ar u of i ff s l t . ger req e te be ve y c ef l the r e ect ,

i s of u us os s s sion r in are n in Art cle a g t p e , eve yth g wa t g to be

u u r H r the r a m on s able to Ca s e to be a gust ca e . e e ve b bel g ” to a in us i - o n i min ion a sera r e y j , care ; the ca at ve p te t al ter at ,

honoriﬁc all us d in di s r s ow rds the s sen rs y e , cate e pect t a pa ge , who however are n ot explicitly m ention ed ; ta ku re fers t o

m n rs f m shi om n s n ot m n ion d the a age o the stea p c pa y al o e t e ,

an d sor is m r rn m n uﬂi x e a e ely o a e tal s .

om r n sion of s u n s ru i ns w are omm on C p ehe ch co t ct o , hich c

in s o ar s i i i d b n o in in the the epi t l y tyle , w ll be fac l tate y t g that , cas e of an hon oriﬁ c verb with the desiderative termin ation

aku the r i s a wa s rs t o hon our d r s on an d t , ve b t elf l y refe the e pe ,

h rm i n i n t i r us O n ide ud a sa re - a ku so re t e te at o o the wr te . Th k t mean s lit [ I ] am wishin g [you will] con descen d august “ m Sara in su h c on min i ou wi o . co g , . e . I hope y ll c e c

’ i i r r k texts s often om tted fo b evity s s a e . Another comm on con struction violatin g European rules is that in which a quotation is both preface d an d roun ded off by “ som r m n in to s a hus : Iwu u e ve b ea g y , t k

to i n i e sa id wa s wha he sa id ui 8 . H , . t

a n d hereu on T m k n s in En ish we m us su t p o a e s e e gl , t p

re s s i r r aid h n d s s or t e s o . p e the the ﬁ t , ec

4 — A in f r h n a r f he s en . s the case o ve b s only t e ﬁ l ve b o t

n i s ut in on usi orm s o a so in the as e of te ce p the c cl ve f , l c

n oun s it is n the s of set noun s h ake s the o s , o ly la t a of t at t p t

osi ion ommon t w hus Tanki uki ha na no p t c o the hole set . T , y , ” na a me n th n a d soms g , The sight of the mea , e s ow , n the blos . 90 A E JA P N SE GRA MMA R .

5 — N e as in En us . egatives destroy ach other , glish , th

K im e to iwa a ru - beka ra u n n but it s r n y z z , [We] ca ot call t a ge ,

mu d r O no re no us aka we shi It st be allowe to be st ange . f

’ razumba a ru- be ara zu n u i kn o n s k , [O e] m st not fa l to w o e ” own d n s eﬁcie cie . — k 6 . n i n uns r s Japa ese has no negat ve pro o or adve b , li e the “ ” “ ” “ ” En is wor s n on n i n . i s n gl h d e , e ther , ever The r ab e ce is su n i m f om in pplied by the egat ve for s o the verb , c b ed with “ s i ronoun s an d r us for En is po it ve p adve bs . Th , the gl h I “ kn n in n s i i Na ni mo shi razu ow oth g , a Japa e e w ll wr te , I

” ‘ kn - n far as r mm i o ot r hin m or lit . s o w eve yt g , e ( the g a at cal “ r s sion i s on rn d i n or r in . The o owin exp e c ce e ) , I g e eve yth g f ll g examples will Show how the various kin ds of En glish negative or quasi - negative as sertion s are expressed in Japanese “ K i a m o o na shi r H a - a bi me i ta razu He n r t k t , o i t t k , eve “ om s r i ra min in is c e . The ﬁ st form mean s l te lly Co g th g not s n d i n the eco s Even on ce comes ot . “ K i a m e i me a ri K a m ko o me a ri He s m im s t t k , or i t t , o et e ” “ c omes ; more literally There are also times when [he] ” m s i s u in as his min . co e , There also s ch a th g [ ] co g “ K i ta ra a m e i me m r Ki ta ra a m e e me a r i He z t k i , o z k t , ” ” s m m m i H d s n t s om . do s n ot s . e o o o eti es e co e , . e alway c e “ ” M a a a sh ra za n k n lit . ui tt k i , I do ot ow at all , Q te

kn ow not . “ “ K uwashi u wa shira u d not ui kn . A s k z , I o q te ow , lit

f min or u kn n t . tely , [I] ow o “ i n t Shim hi o na shi No on e kn . h s o t , ows , lit T ere a ” knowin r n g pe so . “ Shim h o s a k na shi F e kn o lit K n owin o i a w w . t , , g pe ple

are few . “ Shi ra za m hi e me a ri E n n t kn lit . t , very o e does o ow , ” kn not There are also people who ow . S A " 9 1 YNT .

The difﬁculty of using negative con struction s correctly will

a e r if it i s orn in min d ha in an s n i dis pp a , b e t t Jap e e the egat ve

n i e d of as two s r id as as an d the verb are n ot co ce v epa ate e , is

he as in En ish b ut as sin id . E n in m o stly t c e gl , a gle ea ve

n ish ow r r are n of ra e s is n E gl , h eve , the e ple ty pa ll l to th Japa “ i f r n t i m . us n o o e se di o Th , capable capable to ”

ik f r n ot to ik u for n ot s . di sl e , o l e ; difﬁc lt , ea y If,

n in s d of r nd in ma a ka shira zu b do for in sta ce , tea e er g tt y I “ ” a we r n d r it b am n ir un n ot kn ow t all , e e y I e t ely aware ,

t n m the Japan es e con struction ceases o appear ab or al . Occasion ally a n egative i s limited by sufﬁxin g we or shi me

hi i s m nin s s us K anara zu kitara zu (s a ea gle expletive) , th ,

in i n t om but K ana ra zu shi me ki ta razu He cert a ly w ll o c e ,

i n n t m He s ot certai o co e .

— n r o on is m k not as in En s an in 7 . I te r gati ar ed , gli h by ver s on of n s u n but b us n rro i s i the co tr ctio , y the e of i te gative part cle

see he 23 and a on usi orm of ( , page , y , page The c cl ve f the r is in n ro s n n s n d t o attribu ve b , i ter gative e te ce , cha ge the

i o m see s 42 an d In r e r u s ion t ve f r ( page a h to ical q e t ,

n a i is d ord a ni is where a eg t ve reply expecte , the w placed at

inn in s n n an d a end us : A ni the beg g of the e te ce , y at the , th “ a r a W u d n n u ha k an o o s os so ? i . s . Of u s y , l a y e pp e ( co r e no one would h ave supposed

— 8 . Tli e s n us e of su s i and ca ty bject w th the verb , the

s n of rson s in are m ad d ab e ce pe the verb , e goo to some exten t by an un d n use of um and honorifi c e i n ab a t h ble xpress o s , thus ” “ ” u u m r li t s tu id a g f , y fathe , the p f ther . “ ” setta ku m ous wkwa d u , y h e , the a r ho se . ” heis ha our firm oken - do n fi rm , , the br w . “ “ o so m zt ou a h r au us n r g p , y r f t e , the g t ve e able father . ” ” on aku u ous onou t , yo r h e , the h rable house . ” ” kis ha u firm d fi , yo r , the exalte rm .

and h n riﬁ These other o o c expres sions , though naturally

A " SYNT . 93 occasion ally by p reﬁxing som e such expression as amoer a ku

u ii - kem wa as for w a d it was I tho ght , hat he s i , [ ]

1 — er are som im s e mitted en d n n 0. V bs et e at the of a se te ce ,

i in mus u especially in the h gher Ch es e style . They t be s p

i d r m the on hus pl e f o c text , t “ u h u s u o d s n Tab un no c i ky gyo [ ] Cl se for the pre e t . “ a na r li M a h e ui i ta r u o o s uk i i t . n K s ik k t [ ] , y goi g there

ra im i i . did as s r m s . e o r . [w ] eve al t e , Seve l t es I g the e R enohe ku we matte seika we en to ts ute mum ui ya [a m ] ? [Is it] perchan ce that they are en deavourin g to obtain a

r u i n for m od s ? d no m ep tat o erate charge After the wor i , “ ” onl n r na ri is n r us mi y , the ﬁ al ve b ge e ally th o tted , as “ Na ni no nasu - beki e na ku tansaku s um nomi na ri y , [ ] , It ” nn an d c an is Si m ca ot be helped , all I do to gh , ore lit . “ i s not an one ma an d There y way that y do , [ it is] only

in sigh g .

— 1 1 . n u n u Passive co str ctio s are very rarely sed . They are alm ost always replaced by the subjectless active c onstruc

i n in d n . an d 1 m t o s expla e o pp 88 3 . The gra mar of the passive

u i . 5 . is pec l ar . See p 7 — im 1 2 . n n o s I a ate bject are rarely , if ever , personiﬁed . It is hardly permissible even to use the n ame of an in animate

u f an i u object as the s bject o act ve verb . Th s a Japanese

n ot sa or n d d m “ will y write , The rai elaye e but I have

m n un n me beco e late o acco t of the rai , A no tame ni c hikaku

1 — L n u s di in n 3 . a g age ffer greatly the degree of i tegration of

ir n n . u hin s an d Pid in En i the se te ces Th s , C e e j gli sh s mply

ut ss r ion s id sid ik on s u p a e t s e by e , l e st e witho t cement , as

M n ks ur m He bad m an . y o li e he . O ore synthetic Eng lish would generally subordi n ate on e of such a couple of “ ’ a ns the t n ik ssertio to o her , as I do t l e him , because he is a JA A ESE A 94 P N GR MMA R .

n N w n f m s s s n tia h b ad m a . o o e o the o t e e l c aracteristics of the J apan e s e language i s the extrem e degree to which it

us s s n h i n de n in the s ru ur f en en p he the y t et c te cy t ct e o s t ce s .

E e w n m odi d hin s e or o h r orei n in u n e xc pt he ﬁe by C e t e f g ﬂ e c , J apan e s e always tries to in corporate the whole of a state

m n owe r om it m a an d we r n um rous e t , h ve c plex y be , ho ve e

its ar s wi h n imi s of sin s n en w os m em p t , t i the l t a gle e t ce , h e

mm i in r d n In n orm bers are all gr a at cally te pen e t . fact the al

an s s n n i s r h or s o s a an or ani sm Jap e e e te ce a pa agrap , ( to y) g , as m uch m ore complicated than the typical En gli sh s enten ce

us u d as En is n n is m or om i d j t q ote , the gl h se te ce e c pl cate

i r Pid in En i F r s son it than the Ch n es e o the j gl sh . o thi rea

diffi u t r n s i n o En is so as to o i s c lt o t a late l terally i t gl h , Sh w

i m n o o n m us suffi as an r m what s ea t . The f ll wi g t ce ext e ely " i s rom stor ro of w i ei s imple example . It f a yﬁ the he h ch p

uades hi s wi ki ir n n i d in ord r to m or s fe to ll the i fa t ch l , e have e

m m an s of su or in his own d m o h r — an of a ple e pp t g age t e , act

i i w i n w rds the i Of o d n ﬁl al p ety h ch heave re a by g ft a g l e pot .

rdin En i s w u d run u I n o ary gl h , the passage o l th s

aid : W a nk ou Of u n our i in S he h t thi y b ryi g ch ld alive ,

’ order to h ave ampler mean s of making my m other s existen ce

om or e ? His i n as ﬁliall m n as m s e c f tabl w fe , bei g y i ded hi lf,

is n o o on s . out i s n wi ra ed bjecti So they carried th pla th tears ,

d du o an d in it oun o d n . an g a h le , they f d a g l e pot The Japanese s enten ce is as follows

a i me bin na i o o na a ra ke we uzume - sutete ha ha no Ik u k k t g , , ” ashina i we e e re e u sen wa i a ni f to a m ui s ma me y k k y k k , t u

e a h r ma e areba is asa a i na m e e re n jiku kos in na u n n , k u k k na ku ;

a - e re i shita ai te tome u ana we Imri - em a h ta n ku na ku k u g , i k y , i tsu

o e ane no ama har - o a n k g k we i t ri .

9 the hines Borrowed from C e . E IS A E P TOL RY STYL . 9 5

ma i . e as . , as literally y be

On his s in W i so ous in how u ay g h le ever pite a th g , wo ld

’ do n uri d ur i d to m ak m m o h r s n ouris it , havi g b e o ch l , e y t e h m n om or ? wi as She too was rs on of e t c f table . the fe , a pe

‘ i i e ha d not but a s the i ndt ini te orm r n t . . ﬁl al hea t , o ( , y f i s used the ense c a nno t be nown un il the verb o the ne r c la use , t k t f t , to whic h i t i s ra m/ra d ic a ll s ubordin a ed i s rea c hed s i g y t , the l ghtes t in n ion of r usin h in o w d hi s an wi te t ef g ; t ey , hav g f llo e t pl th

rs o r du o w r u on the ward rend ered tea , t gethe g a h le , he e p ( whereup on is i n the o ri gina l the p a rti c le ga a tta c hed to the p rec eding c la us e i n s uc h wise a s to subordina te i t to wha t fe llo w } ” they obtain ed by di ggin g a golden p ot . G ramm atical in terp en den c e between clauses is s ecured

hi the i ion of rul 3 of s n a b in c r c eﬂy by appl cat e y t x , y the o p o ra ion of uo a ion s as in o m b us e t q t t the ab ve exa ple , y the of the on di ion a an d on s si m oods an d b use f c t l c ce ve , y the o the or in r i s a ni an d we sufﬁx e d to e r s c relat g pa t cle g , , v b .

I n r n s a in a an s s n n in o idiom a i En ish t a l t g a J p e e e te ce t t c gl , it is n ral n e s s r to r ak it s r Of s bi a t es ge e ly ce a y b e at eve al the e / , as h m a r rm d t ey y pe haps be te e .

H ER C APT X .

THE EPISTO LA R Y STY LE .

is o r s as its n m in di e s is em The ep t la y tyle , a e cat , that

d i rs an d s Its use i s n ot howe e r o e n d s . pl y lette e patche , v ,

imi d h e is r u n m et wi h in n o i s an d l te t o t es . It f eq e tly t t ce

ad er is m n s an d o s ion in ooks an d n ws a ers . v t e e t , cca ally b e p p In the l atter it chieﬂy appears as a con ven tion al s ub stit ut e for o o ui i s to s a a it is us d wh n it i s the c ll q al , that y th t e e de sir d o r r du as as m a the ua ords e t ep o ce , exactly y be , act l w

u s ds in the spoken by some person q oted . To give the e wor

PI LA E E STO RY STYL .

Y ONJ ON EPISTOLA R C UGATI . “ d Ita su To o . ,

Inde ﬁnite itashi “ - SO I d or did Pre se or Pas i ashi N) o . nt t t [ ,

- e ku r I shal d o Fut ure o r Pote ntial it asu b s6 6 [ ] l .

i - s ra as I d Co nditi on al itash O e b a [ ] o .

i i - if I d o Hypo the t cal itash sOrawab a [ ] . though [I] ac tually A ua o e ssi e i ashi - sb rae dom o ct l C nc v t d o . Hyp othe tical Con - m o e if do i tashi Sarnte ev n I . c e ssi v e i d d i . e ru d itashite . ha o e o G n v ng n , ng

‘ - r De siderat i ve itashi taku sO t) [I] w a nt t o do .

de i e orm not d oi not ha i In ﬁn t F ng , v ng i tasazu eru d d e G n on . re se n r r d P t o Pas t itas az usb f) [I d o not o .

u ure - d o i a i h not . F t . tasu m j ka s 0ro [I s all

o di io a - n d C n t n l it as azu sOraeb a as [I] d o ot o .

o h i - d o Hyp t e t c al it as azu sOrawab a if [I] d o no t .

- A ua o c e ssi e it as azu ra domo hou h I d o not d o . ct l C n v s é e . t g [ ] Hyp o the tical Con i tas az r m e e e if do not d o . u sO Ote . v n I c e ssiv e

Of the on u i n Of d o o n m s c j gat o a jectives , the f ll wi g exa ple m ay s ufﬁ ce

: ‘ r s n e reshiku sbra it i s d . P e e t y , [ ] goo

on ss orosh i : i ku sara edome u it s o . C ce ive y , tho gh [ ] go d

Sara is o n dro d r d i e s i a ku fte ppe afte a ject ves , pec ally after t and be h h - a ku. Thus : S esei shutta tsu ma e ba i kya ku i tas i t ku “ sor e ui ts uki A s am d ir lin i m [ ] , I es ous of s el g t before y d r epa ture .

in s n un i z d b m n s of s um The Ch e e o s , wh ch are verbali e y ea in the ordin ar s of ks an d n rs are in y tyle boo ewspape , the

is o r s m os er a i z d b m e an s of i as hi - sor e ep t la y tyle tly v b l e y t , or of th e m or oli ts u a ma ts ztr - sb r f r rs rson e p te k i d o the ﬁ t pe , an d kuda sa r e - sbre or na sa r e - s er n d us e for the seco . Th

Tac ha ku i a shi - s en] or tec ha ku ts uka ni a ts wi - sbre or som t , , I ( e ” other humble pers on ) have arrived ; Ge tac he ku kud a sare 98 A A E E A A J P N S GR MM R .

sore You s m on u n , (or o e other h o rable perso ) have arrived . n H o . on riﬁ a 2 o c s e 9 . C f , p g

Som im s care is sufﬁx ed di r to n un s u et e ectly o , witho t the “ in er en ion of i ta su or s um as K ika n b aida a sure t v t , k , I have ” h ad on our to rus our r the h pe e y lette .

SE C . 2 . A EC IA R A SE P UL R PH OLOGY .

sid s its ua n u ion o m s s re m n Be e act l co j gat al f r , o co bi es with

n um r of n oun s t o orm uli idi ms s an d a be f pec ar o . The e

others s u h as he re a rt an d he re na ku o un in , c , will be f d the

’ li st of idiom s given at the en d of the presen t author s Roma

n iz ed n s R d r un d r din s of a ida dan i Japa e e ea e , e the hea g , , g ,

‘ o a a a ore ate an d o oro i n a ir s z o k . o ss s o u g , j , k t , k , h , t P l te e l req e

the on s n r i i n f h n riﬁc s an d f rn m n a r s c ta t epet t o o o o o o a e t l ve b . Letters always open with some such polite phra se as Sha ke n

we matte kei a i a shi - s ore the on ou to ddr s s ou j t , I have h r a e y

" “ r i i tsu kei a on e r s u s rok of en by lette ; pp y , e pectf l t e the p “ ha i ai to or in r i s On e ami ra kushu k , I beg state , epl e , t g

tsu a ma tsmi - sera You nou r is to an d ka ka n k , r ho rable lette h

hai ten [tsuka ma ts mi - sare] I have open ed your ﬂo wery epistle

e in ri r m a s n n e tc . e t c . h n at e as s s , T e ( l t p vate lette ) co e e te c in which the correspon dent is congratulated on the good health which he enj oys n otwithstandin g the adverse state of the

w r - is d s i of the ri ro has eathe , th , e p te the fact that w ter p bably

u : Rei i a i - s unari - sara n o information on the subject . Th s k t “ e ke re ma s u- ma su o sei u u kei a ta tema ts mi - serh to t , g f k g , I beg c ongratulate you on the perfect way in which you keep your ”

h a h n o i hs n din in in o dn ss of the s son . e lt , tw t ta g the creas g c l e ea The re al subject of the letter is then introduced by the words

c hi n wa or shika reba for i see is of idiom s r d , wh ch the l t al ea y r er d m im s s i in s - rds the in ro ef re to . S o et e , e pec ally po t ca , t i duc tory c ompliments are superseded by some such apologet c E I P STOLA RY STYLE . 99

“ Z enr aku o kai e udasaru- be sa m c m phrase as y g y k ku w, I o it o

lim ents r us m e for s o in L s os p ; p ay exc e do g . etter are cl ed

s om su h a K ano dan ii e - a u or M i i meshi - a e by e c phrase s k t k , g g

a ku ka u no oto u a e - s r na ri to in o t , k g k g z o e , I beg br g the ab ve to u u i O n o a e ata a ta ii e - sere k yo r favo rable n ot ce k t k g k , I ta e the occasion of this reply to brin g the above to your favourable “ sh b n i . m u r s sion as an u ow ot ce To thes e so e s ch exp e t , I “ “ m e s u- ots u s s wri n u u in suf y head k t k , carele ly tte f g ,

ﬁc i n i d d e t s usu d . , ally a e

In oﬂi c ial s s n u s do n to de patche , the i trod ctory phra es , w shika reba or c hin an n usi m a r n d r d b i cl ve , y be f eely re e e y I

n ur in orm u or in s Of have the ho o to f yo , the ca e

n s r n r kn d i a we s , by I have the ho ou t o ac owle ge the rece pt

u omm un i n f in n an d in of yo r c icat o o the sta t , to state reply that Such English paraphrases of the openin g words m ay also be held to in clude the resumptive ﬁn al phrase

K a e da - - s m a n n ii e a u hi to s hu e s u kot u . k t k , w le n , k t , etc , y be

r r d Wi h s b n u to . pa aph a e y I have the ho o r be , etc t o ious sli n s m ks to n s bv ght cha ge , the s ame re ar apply the tra

i n of i r lat o pr vate lette s .

m difﬁ ul i of s n w s i So e of the c t es par i g , hich are pec ally

min n in is o i oun d in d pro e t the ep t lary style , w ll be f expla e on page 89 .

THE END .

“ ” P I E A T T HE JA PA A Z E E ICE R NT D N G TT OFF , Y K HA A JA PA N O O M , .

I N D E " .

Ab s tract Nouns A cce nt A dje ctive s A dje ctive s i n s hi and yz A dje ctive s ( Noun s use d as ) A d ve rbial Form A dve rb s A i

k r i A u ( Te m n . ) A ku ( Ve rb ) A lp hab e t A ltai c A rase raruru

A rinu- b e s hi A r ticle s A ru A tau A t aw azu A ttrac ti o n A ttrib utive F orm A ux iliary Nume rals B as e s B e ku b e ki b eshi , , Causative s Chine se W ords C olloq uialism s Comp ound s Comp ound Ve rb s 8 1 Co nc e ssive M o od 69 o lusi e orm 4 i 4s se C nc v F , , C o nditio n al M o o d as Co njug ation s 4 9 C onjuncti on s 8 Co n s t ructio n De m on s trative P ro noun s 1 5 De side rative F orm s 69 0 " 1 2 INDE .

D ome D ouble Ne g ative s E ( Pote nti al) E ( Le tte r) Ellip si s En y a Ep is tolary Style Eraku Ezu Firs t C onjug atio n Fourth C onjug atio n Fre q ue ntative s F uture Ga Ge nde r Ge rund G oz a s Orf) Ho norific s Honorific P ote nti als H umble Ex p re ssion s Hy phe n s Hy p othe tic al Mo od Ie raku Illative F orm s Imp e rative Inde finite F o rm Ind e finite Pro n ouns 1 6 Infinitive Inte rje cti on s 8 Inte rrog a tive W ords Intran s itive Ve rb s Irre gular Ve rb s Iru Iw uku Iw a n y a K a

K anarazu K anuru K ara Kare K aru e ri e i Suﬂi x K , K“ n ( ) e ru t o kic k K , .

K okoromuru K e no 1 03 INDE " .

K o re a n Ii o s o Ii o t o K uru Kyoto C olloquia L e tte r Change s Lite rature M ad e M aho shiki

M akari Mi M O M o n o M otte Nag ara Naku aki ashi , n , n Nare dom o Nari “ Naru t o b e , “ Naru t o b e ome , c Nan 90 Ne g ative s Y i Ni aru Ni O ite Ni oke ru

Ni t s uki Ni y ori Ni y otte Nig ori Nite 83 Nite aru

Nu - b e shi Numb e r Num erals Nuru

Nzu Obliq ue M o ods O no g a O n om atop e e On ore

I E" ND . 1 05

Sy ntax Synthe si s of C o ntradictorie s Tachi Tag a Taku aki ashi , t , t Tam au Tara n Tari Taru ( Sufﬁx ) Tarn ( Ve rb) Tate m at s uru Third C o njug atio n To “ T his o , t To i n To shite To suru Tok o ro no To ne s Tote Tran sitive Ve rb s Tsu Ts uru Ts ut s u U c hi U ninﬂe c te d W o rd s U ru U ry é ru Ve rb s

W ag a VVO W o b a W e m o tte W e shite W e y a W ritte n Characte rs Y a Y a m o Y a w o

Y e Y ori

Z aru- b eshi Z o Z u

Z umb a aru- b ekarazu