sustainability

Article The Great Scottish Housing Disaster: The Impacts of Feudalism, Modernism, Energy Efficiency and Vapour Barriers on Indoor Air Quality, Asthma and Public Health

Stirling Howieson Department of Architecture, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XQ, UK; [email protected]; Tel.: +44-141-548-4282

Received: 8 November 2017; Accepted: 18 December 2017; Published: 22 December 2017

Abstract: This paper represents 30 years of research into the arena of housing and health. It brings together the conclusions of three books and the findings of multiple research papers undertaken by the author and published by medical, engineering and social policy journals. This work aims to highlight the links and connections between the diverse arenas of urban form, building design, energy efficiency, indoor air quality, respiratory medicine and immunology, all within the socio-economic framework of a small damp country on the fringe of northern Europe.

Keywords: indoor air quality; asthma; public health; housing; energy efficiency; timber frame construction; urban planning; asbestos; feudalism; mould fungal spores; vapour barriers

1. Introduction Life expectancy in many Scottish cities and regions has lagged behind the rest of the UK. The average life expectancy of a male living in the Calton area of Glasgow is 53.8 years [1]. Although mortality remains an excellent measure of poverty, “big data” statistics on morbidity may be a better measure of overall quality of life in any particular country or region. Scotland has for instance, the highest rate of cancer, heart attacks and respiratory disease of all countries in the EU [2]. In addition to genetics, there are 16 major determinants of public health in any given society organised on the basis of neo-liberal economics. These can be categorised under four generic headings (see Table1).

Table 1. 16 determinants affecting Public Health.

Socio-Economic Environmental Lifestyle Access to Services Employment Air quality Exercise Education Social inclusion Housing quality Substance abuse Health services Social capital Water and drainage Diet Leisure facilities Safety net Urban form Risky behaviour Transport

Although “lifestyle” is seen as being the dominant factor under individual control when public health is being discussed, we should not underestimate the role of the environment. The additive, synergistic and antagonistic combinations produced by the quality of our homes, workplaces and cities, and the access they provide to a range of services (cultural/medical/educational), are crucial components, and can influence both life expectancy and any given population’s overall wellbeing. The post-war history of Scotland provides many valuable lessons on the deleterious effect on public health that can occur when policy makers, in concert with architects and planners (even when operating with good intentions and noble motives) adopt “Corbusien” modernism as the optimum

Sustainability 2018, 10, 18; doi:10.3390/su10010018 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 2 of 19

replacementSustainability strategy 2018, 10, 18 for slum clearance. Coleman [3] convincingly demonstrated the unequivocal2 of 19 negativeSustainability impacts 2018 modernist, 10, 18 urban form and dwelling typologies have had on the incidence2 of 19 social replacement strategy for slum clearance. Coleman [3] convincingly demonstrated the unequivocal malaise, such as crime rates, vandalism, graffiti, litter dropping, dog fouling and socio-psychological negativereplacement impacts strategy modernist for slum urban clearance. form and Colema dwellingn [3] typologies convincingly have demonstrated had on the incidence the unequivocal of social effects (particularly associated with tower block and deck access living) such as social isolation and malaise,negative suchimpacts as crime modernist rates, urbanvandalism, form graffiti,and dwelling litter dropping, typologies dog have fouling had on and the socio-psychological incidence of social fear ofeffectsmalaise, crime. (particularly such Urban as crime formassociated rates, can vandalism, with also tower directly graffiti, block affect litter and deck externaldropping, access airdog living) quality, fouling such and with as socio-psychologicalsocial “urban isolation canyons” and at the footfeareffects ofof (particularlycrime. steep hills,Urban associated knownform can to alsowith concentrate directlytower block affect oxides an externald deck of sulphur accessair quality, living) and with such nitrogen, “urban as social ascanyons” isolation well as at benzeneandthe and PMfootfear10 ofof particulates steepcrime. hills, Urban known [form4]. to A can concentrate lack also of directly safe oxides recreational affect of sulphur external space and air nitrogen,quality, in city with centreas well “urban as communities benzene canyons” and at PM may the10 also be contributingparticulatesfoot of steep [4]. hills, to A the knownlack obesity of safeto concentrate epidemicrecreational oxides affecting space of in sulphur city Scottish centre and schoolcommunities nitrogen, children. as wellmay as also Glasgow’s benzene be contributing and traditional PM10 urbantoparticulates formthe obesity was [4]. oneepidemic A oflack tenements of affecting safe recreational Scottish close to school space the workplace, children.in city centre Glasgow’s with communities social traditional amenities may urbanalso be such form contributing as was shops one and bars integratedofto tenementsthe obesity on closeepidemic the to ground the affecting workplace, floor Scottish (Figure with school social1). Modernism children.amenities Glasgow’s such eschewed as shops traditional thisand bars complexity urban integrated form inwas on favour onethe of of tenements close to the workplace, with social amenities such as shops and bars integrated on the zoningground by function. floor (Figure The 1). downModernism side eschewed to this is this that co themplexity good in citizens favour of of zoning the modernist by function. idyll The have downground side floor to (Figurethis is that 1). Modernism the good citizens eschewed of th thise modernist complexity idyll in havefavour to of spend zoning much by function.of their time The to spend much of their time travelling between the various mono-cultural and ring-fenced zones travellingdown side to thisbetween is that thethe good citizensvarious of the mono-culturalmodernist idyll haveand to spendring-fenced much of theirzones time (civic/commercial/industrial/entertainment/educational/health; see Figure2) invariably burning (civic/commercial/industrial/entertainment/educational/health;travelling between the various mono-cultural see andFigure 2)ring-fenced invariably burningzones carboncarbon(civic/commercial/industrial/entertainment/educational/health; as they as they go. go. see Figure 2) invariably burning carbon as they go.

Figure 1. 19th Century complex streets. Figure 1. 19th Century complex streets. Figure 1. 19th Century complex streets.

Figure 2. Ring-fenced modernist shopping zone. FigureFigure 2. 2.Ring-fenced Ring-fenced modernistmodernist shopping shopping zone. zone. This paper reviews the major planning and design decisions taken in Scotland since 1945 to date, Thisand (withpaper the reviews benefit the of majorhindsight) planning demonstrat and designes the decisionsassociations taken and in causal Scotland links since between 1945 the to Thisenvironmentdate, paperand (with reviewsthey the created benefit the major(bothof hindsight) internal planning demonstrat and and extern designesal) the and associations decisions public health. taken and Ifcausal inwe Scotland are links to betweenaddress since the 1945 to date,categoricalenvironment and (with imperatives thethey benefit created presented of (both hindsight) internal by climate demonstratesand change extern al)and and thesustainability, public associations health. thes If ande wemistakes are causal to mustaddress links not betweenthe be the environmentrepeated.categorical To imperatives keep they doing created presented the (both same by internalthing climate and andchange expect external) and different sustainability, and outcomes public thes health.is, eaccording mistakes If we mustto are Einstein, not to address be the categoricalidiotic.repeated. To imperatives keep doing the presented same thing by climateand expect change different and outcomes sustainability, is, according these to mistakes Einstein, must not beidiotic. repeated . To keep doing the same thing and expect different outcomes is, according to 2. Exodus: How to Increase a Nation’s Carbon Footprint Einstein, idiotic. 2. Exodus: How to Increase a Nation’s Carbon Footprint Between 1971 and 2001, the population of the City of Glasgow fell by 362,814. This represented 2. Exodus:a net Betweenpopulation How to 1971 Increase outflow and 2001, of a Nation’s37%. the populationUnlike Carbon New of Orlean Footprintthe Citys, the of Glasgow“evacuation” fell by of 362,814.Glasgow, This was represented not forced bya net natural population disaster; outflow it was of 37%.planned. Unlike The New Clyde Orlean Valleys, the Regional “evacuation” Plan ofof Glasgow, 1946 [5] wasproposed not forced the Between 1971 and 2001, the population of the City of Glasgow fell by 362,814. This represented a dispersalby natural of disaster;550,000 ofit thewas city planned. centre inhabitantThe Clydes toValley peripheral Regional estates Plan and of new1946 towns. [5] proposed Concurrent the net populationwithdispersal the closureof outflow 550,000 of ofthousands the 37%. city Unlike centreof miles New inhabitant of Orleans,railwas toy line,peripheral the “evacuation”a decision estates was and of taken Glasgow,new totowns. redistribute was Concurrent not forced the by naturalwith disaster; the closure it was of planned.thousands Theof miles Clyde of Valleyrailway Regional line, a decision Plan of was 1946 taken [5] proposed to redistribute the dispersal the of 550,000 of the city centre inhabitants to peripheral estates and new towns. Concurrent with the Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 3 of 19

Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 3 of 19 closureSustainability of thousands 2018, 10, 18 of miles of railway line, a decision was taken to redistribute the population3 of 19 to whatpopulation was, to to all what intents was, and to all purposes, intents and the purpos countryside.es, the countryside. The Scottish The Scottish new towns new weretowns conceivedwere population to what was, to all intents and purposes, the countryside. The Scottish new towns were conceived when modernist planners, obsessed with visions of “towers in the park”, ignored the whenconceived modernist when planners, modernist obsessed planners, with obsessed visions with of “towersvisions of in “towers the park”, in the ignored park”, ignored the deleterious the deleterious impacts of the bio-accumulative carcinogens such as benzene, and considered the impactsdeleterious of the bio-accumulative impacts of the bio-ac carcinogenscumulative such carcinogens as benzene, such and as considered benzene, theand internalconsidered combustion the internal combustion engine to represent progress. This strategy had two major deleterious effects. engineinternal to represent combustion progress. engine This to represent strategy progress. had two This major strategy deleterious had two effects. major Firstly, deleterious it systematically effects. Firstly, it systematically extracted from Glasgow the skilled and semi-skilled aspirational working extractedFirstly, from it systematically Glasgow the extracted skilled from and Glasgow semi-skilled the skilled aspirational and semi-skilled working aspirational class. In working the space of class. In the space of a decade, Glasgow lost its tax base and a cohort of productive families that had class. In the space of a decade, Glasgow lost its tax base and a cohort of productive families that had a decade,played Glasgow a crucial stabilising lost its tax role base at the and centre a cohort of most of working productive class familiescommunities. that Secondly, had played moving a crucial played a crucial stabilising role at the centre of most working class communities. Secondly, moving stabilisingfrom a role dense at thecity centre (of 200 of persons most working per hectare class in communities. tenemental areas, Secondly, (Figure moving 3) with fromgood apublic dense city from a dense city (of 200 persons per hectare in tenemental areas, (Figure 3) with good public (of 200transport persons networks)per hectare to semi-rural in tenemental locations areas, with (Figuredensities3 )of with 10 persons good publicper hectare transport (common networks) in the to transport networks) to semi-rural locations with densities of 10 persons per hectare (common in the semi-ruralNew Towns locations (and with now densities also colonising of 10 persons metropolitan per hectare areas, see (common Figure 4), in thehas Newdramatically Towns (andincreased now also New Towns (and now also colonising metropolitan areas, see Figure 4), has dramatically increased colonisingScotland’s metropolitan carbon footprint. areas, see Figure4), has dramatically increased Scotland’s carbon footprint. Scotland’s carbon footprint.

FigureFigure 3. 3.Glasgow’s Glasgow’s historic urban urban form. form. Figure 3. Glasgow’s historic urban form.

Figure 4. The new density. Figure 4. The new density. Figure 4. The new density. In Glasgow 26% of the working population are still employed within two kilometers of their In Glasgow 26% of the working population are still employed within two kilometers of their home [6]. In Cumbernauld (10 miles to the north east of the city and typical of the five Scottish new Inhome Glasgow [6]. In Cumbernauld 26% of the working (10 miles populationto the north east are of still the employed city and typical within of the two five kilometers Scottish new of their towns) it is less than 5%. In Glasgow 1.5% of the employed population work more than 20 km from towns) it is less than 5%. In Glasgow 1.5% of the employed population work more than 20 km from hometheir [6]. home. In Cumbernauld The equivalent (10 figure miles for to Cumbernaul the north eastd is 28%. of the In cityCumbernauld and typical less of than the 18% five use Scottish their home. The equivalent figure for Cumbernauld is 28%. In Cumbernauld less than 18% use new towns)public transport it is less for than their 5%. daily In commute, Glasgow compared 1.5% of the with employed 36% in Glasgow. population The 26% work of commuters more than in 20 km public transport for their daily commute, compared with 36% in Glasgow. The 26% of commuters in fromGlasgow their home. traveling The equivalentunder two figurekilometers for Cumbernauldper day by public is 28%. transport, In Cumbernauld have an individual less than carbon 18% use Glasgow traveling under two kilometers per day by public transport, have an individual carbon publicfootprint transport of less for than their 0.5 daily kg. The commute, Cumbernauld compared commuter with traveling 36% inGlasgow. up to 80 km The round 26% trip of commutersby car, footprint of less than 0.5 kg. The Cumbernauld commuter traveling up to 80 km round trip by car, in Glasgowwill have traveling a footprint under of more two than kilometers 20 kg. This per re daysults byin Cumbernauld, public transport, a town have with an a individual population carbonof will have a footprint of more than 20 kg. This results in Cumbernauld, a town with a population of circa 35,000 having a larger carbon footprint for the daily commute than the entire City of Glasgow footprintcirca of35,000 less having than 0.5 a larger kg. The carbon Cumbernauld footprint for commuterthe daily commute traveling than up the to entire 80 km City round of Glasgow trip by car, with its 650,000 inhabitants (Figures 5 and 6). Such satellite communities are also at the mercy of will havewith aits footprint 650,000 inhabitants of more than (Figures 20 kg. 5 and This 6). results Such satellite in Cumbernauld, communities a are town also with at the a populationmercy of of future oil price hikes, and the population of these new towns is already starting to fall, more likely circafuture 35,000 oil having price hikes, a larger and carbon the population footprint of forthese the new daily towns commute is already than starting the entire to fall, City more of likely Glasgow than not, due to such crude economic drivers. Urban form and location can directly affect the with itsthan650,000 not, due inhabitants to such crude(Figures economic5 and6 ).drivers. Such satellite Urban form communities and location are alsocan atdirectly the mercy affect of the future socio-economic base, which invariably has a direct and immediate impact on public health and socio-economic base, which invariably has a direct and immediate impact on public health and oil pricewellbeing. hikes, andThe family the population budget may of thesenot stretch new townsto the “luxury” is already of startingfresh fruit to and fall, veg more if it likely has been than not, wellbeing. The family budget may not stretch to the “luxury” of fresh fruit and veg if it has been due toexhausted such crude on travel. economic drivers. Urban form and location can directly affect the socio-economic base,exhausted which invariably on travel. has a direct and immediate impact on public health and wellbeing. The family budget may not stretch to the “luxury” of fresh fruit and veg if it has been exhausted on travel. Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 4 of 19

Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 4 of 19 Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 4 of 19 Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 4 of 19

Figure 5. Glasgow’s bustling city centre. FigureFigure 5. 5.Glasgow’s Glasgow’s bustling city city centre. centre. Figure 5. Glasgow’s bustling city centre.

Figure 6. Cumbernauld’s isolated town centre. FigureFigure 6. 6.Cumbernauld’s Cumbernauld’s isolatedisolated town town centre. centre. Figure 6. Cumbernauld’s isolated town centre. Population drift continues to date, with migration from the dense urban areas to rural and PopulationPopulation drift drift continues continues to to date, date, with with migrmigration fromfrom the the dense dense urban urban areas areas to rural to rural and and semi-rural locations. Between 1991 and 2002, Glasgow and Dundee lost a further 10% of their semi-ruralsemi-rural locations. locations. Between Between 1991 1991 and and 2002,2002, GlGlasgow andand Dundee Dundee lost lost a furthera further 10% 10% of their of their Populationpopulation [7] drift to semi-rural continues locations to date, with with poor migration transport links from such the as dense local rail urban networks, areas but to much rural and population [7] to semi-rural locations with poor transport links such as local rail networks, but much populationsemi-ruralfavoured locations.[7] by to privatesemi-rural Between builders locations seeking 1991 with and green poor 2002, field trGlasgow ansportsites. The links populations and such Dundee as of loca lostrurall rail aareasfurther networks, (East10% Lothian but of much their favoured by private builders seeking green field sites. The populations of rural areas (East Lothian favouredpopulationand Perthby [ 7private] toand semi-rural Kinross) builders are locations seeking predicted withgreen to poorincrease field transport si bytes. over The links 30% populations suchin the as next local of few rural rail years networks,areas as this(East trendbut Lothian much and Perth and Kinross) are predicted to increase by over 30% in the next few years as this trend andfavoured Perthcontinues. byand private HouseKinross) builders buyers are predictedare seeking being greensystematicallyto increase field sites. by tempted over The 30% populationsinto inthe the “countryside” next of rural few areasyears by the (Eastas lure this Lothian of trend continues. House buyers are being systematically tempted into the “countryside” by the lure of continues.lower houseHouse prices. buyers They are are being also, insystematically the main, movi temptedng to house into types the that“countryside” are entirely alienby the to thelure of and Perthlower house and Kinross) prices. They are are predicted also, in the to increasemain, movi byng over to house 30% types in the that next are fewentirely years alien as to this the trend Scottish landscape (Figure 7) and constructed of materials unsuited to a climate that has high rainfall lowercontinues.Scottish house House landscapeprices. buyers They (Figureare are being 7)also, and systematicallyinconstructed the main, of movi materials temptedng to unsuited intohouse the typesto “countryside” a climate that arethat entirelyhas by thehigh lure alienrainfall of to lower the levels and many freeze/thaw cycles; environmental conditions that have acute deleterious effects Scottishhouselevels prices. landscape and They many (Figure are freeze/thaw also, 7) in and the cycles; constructed main, environmental moving of materials to house conditions unsuited types that that tohave are a climate entirelyacute deleterious that alien has to high theeffects Scottishrainfall clay bricks (Figure 8) and concrete roof tiles (Figure 9) with much higher embodied energy for both levelslandscapeclay and bricks (Figuremany (Figure freeze/thaw7) and 8) and constructed concrete cycles; roof ofenvironmental materials tiles (Figure unsuited 9) conditions with much to a climate thathigher have embodied that acute hashigh energydeleterious rainfall for both effects levels manufacture and transport. This will eventually result in the eradication of Scotland’s architectural clayand manybricksmanufacture freeze/thaw(Figure and 8) transport.and cycles; concrete environmentalThis willroof eventually tiles (Fig conditionsure result 9) inwith that the muchhaveeradication acute higher deleteriousof embodiedScotland’s effectsarchitectural energy clay for bricks both tradition and identity; a country with a distinct building tradition using local sandstone and slate manufacturetradition andand identity;transport. a countryThis will with eventually a distinct resultbuilding in traditionthe eradication using local of Scotland’ssandstone andarchitectural slate (Figure(materials8) and concretewith low roof embodied tiles (Figure energy9 )and with excellent much higherlongevity) embodied having the energy bland for appearance both manufacture of an (materials with low embodied energy and excellent longevity) having the bland appearance of an traditionand transport.English and suburb. identity; This will a eventuallycountry with result a distinct in theeradication building tradition of Scotland’s using architecturallocal sandstone tradition and slate and (materialsidentity;English a with country suburb. low with embodied a distinct energy building and traditionexcellent usinglongevity) local having sandstone the andbland slate appearance (materials of with an Englishlow embodied suburb. energy and excellent longevity) having the bland appearance of an English suburb.

Figure 7. Suburbia comes to Glasgow. Figure 7. Suburbia comes to Glasgow.

FigureFigure 7. SuburbiaSuburbia comes comes to to Glasgow. Glasgow. Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 5 of 19 Sustainability 2018,, 10,, 1818 5 of 19

Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 5 of 19

Figure 8. Clay bricks deteriorating.

Figure 8. Clay bricks deteriorating.

Figure 9. Moss growth on concrete tiles. FigureFigure 9. 9. Moss Moss growthgrowth onon concrete concrete tiles. tiles.

3. Less 3. LessIs More Is More 30 years30 years agoago ago thethe the averageaverage average househouse house priceprice price in in in Scotland Scotland Scotland was waswas less less than than three three three times times times the the theaverage average average salary. salary. salary. It It isIt isnow nowis over nowover six over six times timessix times the the average the average average salary salary salary (£25,490:£157,174) (£25,490: (£25,490:£157,174) [8 ];[8]; [8]; so so whatso what what factors factors factors havehave have contributed contributed to to the to thereal real costthe costreal of housing costof housing of housing doubling doubling doubling over thisover over period? this this period?period? Are these AreAre newthese these dwellingsnew new dwellings dwellings significantly significantly significantly larger larger or larger areor they or are they simply twice as good? In a study [9] comparing useful floor-space in dwellings across the aresimply they twice simply as good?twice as In good? a study In [9 a] comparingstudy [9] co usefulmparing floor-space useful floor-space in dwellings in acrossdwellings the developedacross the developed world, the UK was ranked the lowest; 76 m2 compared to 113 m2 in France, 115 m2 in world,developed the UKworld, was the ranked UK thewas lowest; ranked 76 the m2 lowest;compared 76 tom2 113 compared m2 in France, to 113 115 m m2 in2 in France, Holland, 115137 m2 m in2 developedHolland, world, 137 m the2 in Denmark,UK was ranked206 m2 in the Australia lowest; and 76 214m mcompared2 in the USA. to 113This mreduction in France, in internal 115 m in Holland, 137 m2 in Denmark,2 206 m2 in Australia2 and 214 m2 in the USA. This reduction in internal Holland,in Denmark,area has137 beenm 206 in mcompounded Denmark,in Australia 206by reducing m and in 214 Australia volumes m in the andas ceiling USA. 214 m Thisheights in reductionthe have USA. dropped This in internal reduction from over area 3.5in has internalm, been areacompounded hascommon been in bycompounded Victorian reducing tenements, volumes by reducing to as as ceiling volumes low as heights 2.3 as mceiling have(Figures heights dropped 10 and have from 11). dropped This over has 3.5 from resulted m, commonover in 3.5 m, in Victoriancommonsignificantly tenements,in Victorian less air to tenements,mass as low in which as 2.3 to to m as dilute (Figures low inte as rnal10 2.3 and pollutants m 11(Figures). This (volatile has10 resultedand organic 11). compounds in This significantly has suchresulted as less airin significantlymassformaldehyde in which less to air dilutenow mass ubiquitous internal in which pollutants in to the dilute indoor (volatile inte envirornal organicpollutantsnment) off-gassing compounds (volatile from organic such fittings, as compounds formaldehyde fixtures and such now as formaldehydeubiquitousprocesses. in the now indoor ubiquitous environment) in the off-gassingindoor enviro fromnment) fittings, off-gassing fixtures and from processes. fittings, fixtures and processes.

FigureFigure 10. 10.Glasgow’s Glasgow’s shrinking tenements. tenements.

Figure 10. Glasgow’s shrinking tenements. Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 6 of 19 Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 6 of 19

FigureFigure 11. 11.Sandstone Sandstone & slate to to brick brick & & concrete. concrete.

4. The Not So “Green” Belt 4. The Not So “Green” Belt Over the last six decades, local authority planning departments have been complicit in Overrestricting the last the sixsupply decades, of land local for housing authority due planning to delays departments in processing haveapplications been complicit and the adoption in restricting the supplyof a policy of land that forhad housing as its focus due the to protection delays in processingof the so called, applications “green belt”; and a therequirement adoption that of aall policy that hadcities as must its focusbe encircled the protection with a ring of theof grass so called, and trees. “green This belt”; policy a decision—although requirement that nominally all cities must be encircledentitled as with “green”—invariably a ring of grass andincreases trees. the This carbon policy footprint decision—although for commuters, as nominallythose traveling entitled to as “green”—invariablywork in the city now increases have to the cros carbons this green footprint “doughnut”. for commuters, This is in direct as those contrast traveling to enlightened to work in the cityurban now planning have toevident cross in this many green European “doughnut”. cities where This a ismetropolitan in direct contrast area can toreduce enlightened its carbon urban planningfootprint evident for commuting, in many European by adopting cities the where “starfis a metropolitanh” configuration area as cana pl reduceanning itsmetaphor, carbon with footprint housing and amenities spreading outwards along its public transport “tentacles” encouraging for commuting, by adopting the “starfish” configuration as a planning metaphor, with housing and commuters to live within walking distance of the local station or hub. amenities spreading outwards along its public transport “tentacles” encouraging commuters to live within5. walkingLand Banking distance of the local station or hub.

5. Land BankingWhen land is eventually zoned for housing by the planning authorities, these large lots are immediately bought up by the volume house developers at premium rates. They who own the land Whencontrol landthe market is eventually and it is not zoned in their for interests housing to “flood” by the the planning market authorities,with new housing. these Increasing large lots are immediatelysupply invariably bought up results by the in volumea drop in house price developersper unit. The at private premium sector rates. has They historically who own kept the its land controlannual the marketcontribution and itto ishousing not in completions their interests within to “flood” fairly precise the market boundaries. with It new appears housing. to be Increasingeither supplyincapable invariably or unwilling results in to a dropincrease in price production per unit. to Themeet private the current sector demand. has historically House building kept its annualin contributionScotland topeaked housing in 1970 completions with the completion within fairly of precise43,906 units, boundaries. only 8220 It of appears which towere be eitherbuilt by incapable the or unwillingprivate sector. to increase By 2016 production house completions to meet the were current down demand.to 17,018 of House which building 13,187 were in Scotland private sector peaked in [10]. Relying on the private sector (half regulated by arcane planning procedures) has resulted in a 1970 with the completion of 43,906 units, only 8220 of which were built by the private sector. By 2016 dramatic reduction in the number of dwellings being built. This artificial shortage has produced a houseprice completions bubble based were on down scarcity to 17,018value, and of whichplanni 13,187ng restrictions were private and delays sector have [10 ].driven Relying hyper on the privateinflation sector in (half land regulatedvalues. Between by arcane 1986 and planning 2006, hous procedures)e prices in the has UK resulted rose by in469%. a dramatic Over the reductionsame in theperiod, number residential of dwellings land values being in built.creased This by artificial764% [11]. shortage The cost hasper square produced metre a priceof a city bubble centre based on scarcityapartment value, in the and UK planning is now €15,187. restrictions This compares and delays with have €7213 driven in Italy, hyper €6991 inflationin Sweden, in €4271 land values.in BetweenThe Netherlands, 1986 and 2006, €3704 house in Germany prices and in the€2853 UK in roseBelgium by 469%.[12]. These Over high the costs same are period,independent residential of landpopulation values increased density. byThe 764% Netherlands [11]. Thehas a cost population per square density metre of 403/km of a city2, compared centre apartmentwith 255/km in2 the UK isin now the UK€15,187. [13]. InThis 2010 compares residentialwith land€ 7213in Glasgow in Italy, was€6991 valued inSweden, at £1.7 million€4271 per in Thehectare. Netherlands, This €3704compares in Germany with and£4.4€ million2853 in per Belgium hectare [12 in]. Edinburgh. These high Those costs buying are independent a dwelling ofin population the respective density. cities (even where flats can be built at target densities of 200 persons/hectare) will have to pick up The Netherlands has a population density of 403/km2, compared with 255/km2 in the UK [13]. In 2010 this additional cost, adding £8500–22,000 per person, per new housing unit [14]. This is symptomatic residentialof the landdilemma in Glasgow at the heart was of valued neo-liberalism. at £1.7 million Although per the hectare. UK government This compares is prepared with £4.4to rely million per hectarealmost exclusively in Edinburgh. on “the Those market” buying to deliver a dwelling new dwellings, in the they respective also know cities that (eventhe market—if where flatsleft can be builtto its at own target devices—will densities of produce 200 persons/hectare) relatively modest will numbers have to of pick poor up quality thisadditional dwellings, cost,as most adding £8500–22,000builders make per person, their margins per new from housing the increase unit [14 ].in Thisland isvalue symptomatic brought about of the by dilemma land banking, at the heart of neo-liberalism. Although the UK government is prepared to rely almost exclusively on “the market” to deliver new dwellings, they also know that the market—if left to its own devices—will produce relatively modest numbers of poor quality dwellings, as most builders make their margins from the increase in land value brought about by land banking, restricting supply, cartel price fixing and monopoly. This economic model also represents a remarkable windfall for those who own the land. Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 7 of 19 SustainabilitySustainability2018, 201810, 18, 10, 18 7 of 197 of 19 restricting supply, cartel price fixing and monopoly. This economic model also represents a restricting supply, cartel price fixing and monopoly. This economic model also represents a remarkable windfall for those who own the land. 6. Whoremarkable Owns Scotland? windfall for those who own the land. 6. Who Owns Scotland? 19.46. Who million Owns acres Scotland? (83%) of Scotland’s land mass are in the hands of 2519 landowners (0.05% of the population)19.4 million with acres the Public (83%) Sectorof Scotland’s owning land 12.1%, mass theare Communityin the hands of Sector 2519 landowners 2.2% and Heritage (0.05% of Sector 19.4 million acres (83%) of Scotland’s land mass are in the hands of 2519 landowners (0.05% of 2.5%the [15 ]population) (p. 106). Such with an the unequal Public Sector distribution owning is 12.1%, a hangover the Community from Feudalism Sector 2.2% and Scotland’sand Heritage failure the population) with the Public Sector owning 12.1%, the Community Sector 2.2% and Heritage to deliverSector a2.5% bourgeois [15] (p. 106). revolution, Such an unequal with feu distribu dutiestion still is a being hangover collected from Feudalism by aristocratic and Scotland’s superiors as Sector 2.5% [15] (p. 106). Such an unequal distribution is a hangover from Feudalism and Scotland’s failure to deliver a bourgeois revolution, with feu duties still being collected by aristocratic superiors late asfailure 2003 to. This deliver is whya bourgeois Scottish revolution, cities have with historically feu duties still been being dominated collected by by aristocratic four storey superiors tenements; as late as 2003. This is why Scottish cities have historically been dominated by four storey tenements; the annualas late groundas 2003. This rental is why in Glasgow Scottish cities and Edinburghhave historically being been twice dominated as high asby centralfour storey London, tenements; requiring the annual ground rental in Glasgow and Edinburgh being twice as high as central London, higherthe densities annual ground to defray rental this in annual Glasgow tax. and The Edinburgh Scottish countrysidebeing twice as is pepperedhigh as central with London, many grand requiring higher densities to defray this annual tax. The Scottish countryside is peppered with many “castles”requiring in the higher baronial densities style to (Figure defray this12), annual built by tax. the The UK Scottish aristocracy, countryside with is funds peppered extracted with many from the grand “castles” in the baronial style (Figure 12), built by the UK aristocracy, with funds extracted urbangrand working “castles” class. in Unlikethe baronial our Celticstyle (Figure neighbours 12), built in Irelandby the UK who aristocracy, chose during with funds the civil extracted war in the from the urban working class. Unlike our Celtic neighbours in Ireland who chose during the civil from the urban working class. Unlike our Celtic neighbours in Ireland who chose during the civil earlywar 1920s in ,theto early burn 1920s,down to the burn “big down houses”, the “big the houses”, Scottish the unionist Scottish workingunionist working class remain class remain in awe in of the war in the early 1920s, to burn down the “big houses”, the Scottish unionist working class remain in houseawe of Saxeof the Coburg house of Gotha Saxe (FigureCoburg 13 Gotha) and (Figure appear 13 content) and appear to contribute content toto annualcontribute running to annual costs and awe of the house of Saxe Coburg Gotha (Figure 13) and appear content to contribute to annual privaterunning funds costs invested and private in off-shore funds invest tax havensed in off-shore [16]. tax havens [16]. running costs and private funds invested in off-shore tax havens [16].

Figure 12. The Scottish baronial chateau (Source: FigureFigure 12. The Scottish12. baronialThe chateau (Source:Scottish https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/440578776031516185/ baronial chateau (Source: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/440578776031516185/?lp=true). ?lp=truehttps://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/440578776031516185/?lp=true).).

Figure 13. The aristocratic “tower in the park” (Source: https://neitshade5.wordpress.com/ FigureFigure 13. The 13.aristocratic The aristocratic “tower “tower in the park”in the (Source: park” https://neitshade5.wordpress.com/category/(Source: https://neitshade5.wordpress.com/ category/royalty-politics/page/4/). royalty-politics/page/4/category/royalty-politics/page/4/).). These historic ownership patterns, many dating back to the 1066, 1314 and 1745 re-organisation These historic ownership patterns, many dating back to the 1066, 1314 and 1745 re-organisation of the Scottish feudal hierarchy (depending on which side they had backed in the war), continue to Theseof the Scottish historic feudal ownership hierarchy patterns, (depending many on dating whichback side they to the had 1066, backed 1314 in andthe war), 1745 re-organisationcontinue to play a significant role in what is built, where, for whom and at what cost. Apologists for such an of theplay Scottish a significant feudal role hierarchy in what (depending is built, where, on whichfor whom side and they at hadwhat backedcost. Apologists in the war), for such continue an to anachronistic social hierarchy (sometimes in ironic combination with a robust defense of playanachronistic a significant rolesocial in hierarchy what is built,(sometimes where, in for ironic whom combination and at what with cost. a Apologistsrobust defense for suchof an modernism) will point to the unanticipated technical failures and unintended consequences of anachronisticmodernism) social will hierarchy point to (sometimesthe unanticipated in ironic technical combination failures withand uninte a robustnded defense consequences of modernism) of attempting slum clearance and replacement at such breakneck speed, being the root cause of the attempting slum clearance and replacement at such breakneck speed, being the root cause of the will pointproblems to the we unanticipatednow face and technicalto some extent failures they and have unintended a point. The consequences major policy ofposition attempting for all slum problems we now face and to some extent they have a point. The major policy position for all clearancepost-war and governments replacement was at such the promise breakneck to build speed, large being numbers the root of new cause homes. of the In an problems economy we where now face post-war governments was the promise to build large numbers of new homes. In an economy where and toboth some materials extent and they skilled have labour a point. were The in critical major policyshortage, position improvisation for all post-warand innovation governments were the was both materials and skilled labour were in critical shortage, improvisation and innovation were the the promiseorder of tothe build day. Untried large numbers and untested of new materials homes. an Ind techniques an economy were where deployed. both The materials legacy andof this skilled order of the day. Untried and untested materials and techniques were deployed. The legacy of this approach will be with us for decades to come. labourapproach were in will critical be with shortage, us for decades improvisation to come. and innovation were the order of the day. Untried and untested materials and techniques were deployed. The legacy of this approach will be with us for decades to come. Sustainability 2018,, 10,, 1818 8 of 19 Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 8 of 19 7. Asbestos, Energy Efficiency and Asthma 7. Asbestos, Energy Efficiency and Asthma 7. Asbestos,In the first Energy century Efficiency AD, the and Greeks Asthma and Romans are claimed [17] to have observed that slaves In the first century AD, the Greeks and Romans are claimed [17] to have observed that slaves involvedIn the in first the ceweavingntury AD, of asbestosthe Greeks cloth and were Romans afflicted are claimedwith a sickness [17] to have of the observed lungs. Inthat 1898 slaves the involved in the weaving of asbestos cloth were afflicted with a sickness of the lungs. In 1898 the involvedChief Inspector in the ofweaving Factories of (UK)asbestos reported cloth thatwere asbestos afflicted had with demonstrable a sickness of health the lungs. risks [18].In 1898 In 1927 the Chief Inspector of Factories (UK) reported that asbestos had demonstrable health risks [18]. In 1927 ChiefCooke Inspector [19] reporting of Factories on a post-mortem(UK) reported involving that asbestos a 33-year-old had demonstrable male worker health who risks was [18]. the In 1927only Cooke [19] reporting on a post-mortem involving a 33-year-old male worker who was the only survivor Cookesurvivor [19] out reporting of ten workers on a post-mortem in an asbestos involving carding room,a 33-year-old named themale condition, worker who“asbestosis”. was the Circaonly out of ten workers in an asbestos carding room, named the condition, “asbestosis”. Circa 3000 deaths survivor3000 deaths out in of the ten UK workers each year in an are asbestos due to historiccardingal room, asbestos named exposure, the condition, and this is“asbestosis”. likely—given Circa the in the UK each year are due to historical asbestos exposure, and this is likely—given the incubation 3000incubation deaths period—to in the UK eachrise to year 10,000 are dueby 2020 to historic [20]. Thale asbestos World Health exposure, Organisation and this is [21] likely—given estimates that the period—to rise to 10,000 by 2020 [20]. The World Health Organisation [21] estimates that more than incubationmore than period—to107,000 people rise to 10,000die each by 2020year [20]. from Th emesothelioma World Health andOrganisation asbestosis, [21] resulting estimates from that 107,000 people die each year from mesothelioma and asbestosis, resulting from occupational exposure. moreoccupational than 107,000 exposure. people Applying die theache same year algorithm, from mesothelioma deaths worldwid ande willasbestosis, rise to circaresulting 350,000 from per Applying the same algorithm, deaths worldwide will rise to circa 350,000 per annum by 2020. The total occupationalannum by 2020. exposure. The total Applying number th ofe deathssame algorithm, from expo deathssure during worldwid the 20the will century, rise to circa is thus 350,000 likely per to number of deaths from exposure during the 20th century, is thus likely to be in the region of 20 million. annumbe in the by region2020. The of total20 million. number In of the deaths late from1970 sexpo courtsure documents during the [22] 20th proved century, that is thusthe asbestoslikely to In the late 1970s court documents [22] proved that the asbestos industry knew of the health dangers beindustry in the knew region of theof 20health million. dangers In the as earlylate 1970as thes 1930scourt anddocuments subsequently [22] proved concealed that them the fromasbestos the as early as the 1930s and subsequently concealed them from the public. The use of blue and brown industrypublic. The knew use of of the blue health and browndangers asbestos as early was as the only 1930s banned and subsequentlyin the UK in 1985, concealed with whitethem fromasbestos the asbestos was only banned in the UK in 1985, with white asbestos being banned as late as 1999 [23], public.being banned The use as of late blue as and1999 brown [23], almost asbestos 100 was years only after banned the emergence in the UK of in the 1985, evidence with white base. asbestosWhen it almost 100 years after the emergence of the evidence base. When it came to the health risks associated beingcame bannedto the health as late risksas 1999 associated [23], almost with 100 asbest yearsos, after vested the emergence commercial of intereststhe evidence were base. remarkably When it with asbestos, vested commercial interests were remarkably successful in delaying prohibition. camesuccessful to the in healthdelaying risks prohibition. associated with asbestos, vested commercial interests were remarkably The asbestos narrative provides an excellent analogy to the current crisis in the UK surrounding successfulThe asbestos in delaying narrative prohibition. provides an excellent analogy to the current crisis in the UK surrounding flammable insulated over-cladding, that allowed the Grenfell Tower fire (Figure 14) to spread with flammableThe asbestos insulated narrative over-cladding, provides thatan excellent allowed anal the ogyGrenfell to the Tower current fire crisis (Figure in the 14) UK to surroundingspread with horrifying rapidity and loss of life; the flammable version of the cladding being significantly cheaper flammablehorrifying rapidityinsulated and over-cladding, loss of life; the that flammable allowed versionthe Grenfell of the Tower cladding fire being(Figure significantly 14) to spread cheaper with than the non-flammable version. This follows the Ronan Point collapse in 1968 (Figure 15) where a horrifyingthan the non-flammable rapidity and loss version. of life; This the flammablefollows the version Ronan ofPoint the collapsecladding in being 1968 significantly (Figure 15) wherecheaper a system designed to increase the speed of construction by supporting each floor slab on the precast thansystem the designed non-flammable to increase version. the speedThis follows of construc the Ronantion by Point supporting collapse each in 1968floor (Figure slab on 15) the where precast a wall panel, resulted in a progressive collapse after a gas bottle exploded. It appears that, at least in systemwall panel, designed resulted to increasein a progressive the speed collapse of construc aftertion a gas by bottle supporting exploded. each It floor appears slab that,on the at precastleast in the UK, clarion calls warning of such dangers in advance of each entirely predictable catastrophe, wallthe UK, panel, clarion resulted calls in warning a progressive of such collapse dangers after in ad a vancegas bottle of each exploded. entirely It predictableappears that, catastrophe, at least in rarely precipitate behaviour change. A total of 75 people died in the fire and the previous structural therarely UK, precipitate clarion calls behaviour warning change. of such A dangerstotal of 75in peadoplevance died of eachin the entirely fire and predictable the previous catastrophe, structural collapse. This number pales into insignificance when compared with those dying every year due to rarelycollapse. precipitate This number behaviour pales change.into insignificance A total of 75 wh peenople compared died in withthe fire those and dying the previous every year structural due to living in cold, damp and energy inefficient “slum” housing. collapse.living in cold,This numberdamp and pales energy into inefficientinsignificance “slum” wh enhousing. compared with those dying every year due to living in cold, damp and energy inefficient “slum” housing.

FigureFigure 14. 14.Grenfell Grenfell Tower, Tower, London London (Sources: (Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenfell_Tower_ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenfell_Tower_).). Figure 14. Grenfell Tower, London (Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenfell_Tower_).

Figure 15. Ronan Point, progressive collapse (Sources: Figurehttps://buildingfailures. 15. wordpress.com/1968/02/06/ronan-point-disaster/).Ronan Point, progressive collapse (Sources: Figure 15. Ronan Point, progressive collapse (Sources: https://buildingfailures.wordpress.com/1968/ https://buildingfailures.wordpress.com/1968/02/06/ronan-point-disaster/). 02/06/ronan-point-disaster/). Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 9 of 19

8. Fuel Poverty and Excess Winter Deaths (EWDs) The UK has a peculiarly high number of EWDs (deaths occurring in December–March compared to any other four-month period). There were circa 50,000 in 2015, down from over 65,000 in 1975 [24]. This phenomenon is not evident in countries with similar climates. The major causal factor therefore appears to be the inability of many UK subjects to adequately heat their homes to thermally safe [25] temperatures, due to a combination of poverty, inefficient or expensive fuel options/systems and historically poor insulation standards. When the Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation SIMD [26] was correlated with excess winter deaths per region, a clear pattern emerged demonstrating that those living in “fuel poverty” in regions with a high SIMD were twice as likely to die in the winter months as those living in more affluent areas [27]. These deaths are rarely registered as hypothermic in nature. Drops in body temperature result in physiological changes that thicken the blood and reduce the immune system’s ability to fight infection [28,29]. This results in an increase in heart attacks, strokes and respiratory disorders, many of which prove fatal. The most recent statistics published by the Scottish House Condition Survey [30] (relating to 2014) estimated that 30.7% of the population (748,000 households) remain in “fuel poverty” with 8.3% in extreme fuel poverty; where the household has to spend over 20% of their net income on fuel. This is a legacy of the initial government response to the OPEC oil crisis in 1975, where fuel costs increased over a short time frame. The UK Government Act and associated campaign [31] to “save it and seal it” was an initiative that focused on reducing energy use by fitting draught stripping measures and blocking chimney flues; a strategy that was already on-going as part of the 1960’s Clean Air acts. Reducing draughts was considered to be the most cost-effective route to energy efficiency. More enlightened contemporary efforts have focused on fitting cavity or external insulation and double glazing, incorporating small slots in the upper window frame to allow what purports to be, an appropriate level of background ventilation. The effect however, has been to dramatically reduce internal air change rates that have now fallen to such a low level that internal water vapour build-ups from bathing, cooking and internal clothes drying [32] have resulted in exceptionally poor indoor air quality (IAQ) where high relative humidity supports the growth of bacterial pathogens and in particular, the growth of mould fungal spores that are particularly prevalent at multiple “cold bridges” in the building fabric.

9. “Open Your Windows and Turn up Your Heating” In 1984 the Scottish Local Authority Housing Group [33] reported that over 250,000 Scottish public sector dwellings were affected by condensation dampness and mould growth. In 1989 Glasgow District Council published their own survey [34] and reported that of the 287,194 occupied units (all tenures), 84,519 were damp with a remarkable 38% of the public sector dwellings affected. After 10 years of investment to refurbish and improve the energy efficiency of the existing stock, the 2002 Scottish House Condition Survey [35] reported that 131,000 dwellings were still suffering from rising or penetrating dampness, and 233,000 dwellings had visible mould growth due, in the main, to poor energy efficiency leading to condensation dampness. This equates to 11% of the stock. The figures for 2014 [36] confirmed that 304,000 dwellings remained damp, with condensation being observed in 226,000; almost no change over a period of 12 years where the stock has had significant level of retro-fitting with loft, cavity wall or external insulation. These statistics support the hypothesis that, although the stock is significantly more energy efficient than it was 20 years ago, the major portion of this energy saving has been won by reducing ventilation rates, allowing internal relative humidity to remain at elevated “unhealthy” levels and highly likely to result in condensation dampness and its associated growth of mould fungal spores. Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 10 of 19

10. Mould Fungal Spores and Health: A Society in Denial During the late 1980s, the possible links between mould growth and health status were investigated by a team of architects and medical researchers, over a two-year period. The results Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 10 of 19 published in the British Medical Journal [37] demonstrated unequivocal associations between mould growth andand a varietya variety of medicalof medical conditions. conditions. The mould The fungalmould spores,fungal mainly spores, from mainly genera from penicillium, genera cladisporium,penicillium, cladisporium, aspergillus andaspergillus alternaria and found alternaria in the found dwellings in the (Figure dwellings 16), have(Figure subsequently 16), have beensubsequently associated been with associated diseases such with as diseases alveolitis, such aspergillosis, as alveolitis, bronchitis, aspergillosis, toxic pneumonitis, bronchitis, rhinotoxic conjunctivitis,pneumonitis, cancer,rhino conjunctivitis, chronic fatigue cancer, syndrome, chronic asthma, fatigue bronchitis, syndrome, gastro-instestinal asthma, bronchitis, ailments, depression,gastro-instestinal Crohns ailments, disease anddepression, multiple Crohns sclerosis disease (MS). Scotlandand multiple has the sclerosis highest (MS). prevalence Scotland of MShas [the38] andhighest Crohns prevalence disease of [39 MS] in [38] the and world Crohns with adisease 750% increase[39] in the in world the last with 45 years; a 750% a remarkablyincrease in the similar last increase45 years; toa remarkably prevalence assimilar asthma increase over the to prevalence same timeframe. as asthma The surveyover the collected same timeframe. thousands The of survey mould samplescollected fromthousands mainly of wallmould surfaces samples for from laboratory mainly analysis,wall surfaces however, for laboratory the number analysis, of species however, and typesthe number identified, of species produced and antypes unmanageable identified, produc numbered ofan variables unmanageable and it wasnumber therefore of variables impossible and toit demonstratewas therefore direct impossible causality to betweendemonstrate a particular direct ca speciesusality of between mould anda particular any specific species disease. of mould Although and theany workspecific was disease. widely Although quoted in the various work was court wide proceedings,ly quoted Scottishin various Sheriffs court proceedings, refused, in the Scottish main, toSheriffs recognise refused, this in association the main, andto recognise award damages this association to those and who award were damages condemned to those to live who in were such squalidcondemned conditions. to live in such squalid conditions.

Figure 16. Mould fungal spore growth prevalent throughout the public sector housing stock. Figures 16. Mould fungal spore growth prevalent throughout the public sector housing stock.

A moremore recent recent study study [40 ][40] has managedhas managed to resolve to re thissolve complex this complex problem byproblem correlating by correlating respiratory symptomsrespiratory insymptoms people with in people GP diagnosed with GP asthma diagnose withd asthma the spores with found the spores in hundreds found ofin dusthundreds samples of takendust samples from domestic taken from carpets domestic and bedding.carpets and A bedding. new index, A new known index, as known the “Environmental as the “Environmental Relative MouldinessRelative Mouldiness Index” (ERMI) Index” reported (ERMI) thatreported values that taken values from taken a random from a sample random of dwellingssample of (dwellingsn = 99) in Scotland’s(n = 99) in Scotland’s central belt, central showed belt, a statistically showed a statistically significantcorrelation significant betweencorrelation mould between and a mould reduction and in a forcedreduction expiry in forced lung volume expiry (FEV).lung volume This paper (FEV). may This well paper prove may to be well the prove “smoking to be gun”, the “smoking demonstrating, gun”, atdemonstrating, least on the balance at least of on probability, the balance that of mould probability, fungal sporesthat mould have seriousfungal andspores profound have serious detrimental and healthprofound impacts detrimental for those health living impacts in damp for dwellings. those living in damp dwellings.

11. “Building Tight–Ventilating Right”:Right”: HealthHealth ImpactsImpacts ofof PoorPoor IndoorIndoor AirAir QualityQuality The quality of the air we breathe in our homes is predicated on the quality of the external air and internal ventilation rates. The UK Building Regulations state that, “ventilation should have the capacity to provide outside air to maintainmaintain indoor air qualityquality sufficientsufficient for humanhuman respiration,respiration, remove excess water vapour from areas where it is produced in sufficient sufficient quantities in order to reduce the likelihood of creating conditions that support the germinationgermination and growth of mould, harmful bacteria,bacteria, pathogens and allergens and remove pollutants pollutants that that are are a ahazard hazard to tohealth health from from area areass where where they they are produced are produced in significant in significant quantities quantities”. The”. TheScottish Scottish BuildingBuilding (Standards) (Standards) Regulation, Regulation, Technical Technical Standard Standard 3.14 3.14 [41] [41 stated,] stated, “Every “Every building building must must be bedesigned designed and and constructed constructed in such in such a way a way that that the theair airquality quality inside inside the thebuilding building is not is nota threat a threat to the to thehealth health of the of theoccupants occupants or the or thecapability capability of the of thebuilding building to resist to resist moisture, moisture, decay decay or infestation or infestation”. ”. With the increase in insulation standards in new-build dwellings, combined with major retro-fit retro-fit programmes, particularlyparticularly in in the the public public sector sector stock, stock, average average internal internal temperatures, temperatures, both air both and air surface and surface have been rising for 15 years [42]; however reductions in air change rates due to tighter construction techniques are transforming the stock from “cold and damp” to “warm and humid”. This somewhat ironically has presented the occupants with a new set of health problems. The drive to reduce carbon emissions through domestic energy efficiency has in the last decade driven increasing levels of air tightness in the building envelope, a strategy that has dramatically reduced what could be considered as fortuitously high, historical air infiltration rates. Recent research reporting on post occupancy evaluations [43,44] of new-build homes constructed to the Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 11 of 19 have been rising for 15 years [42]; however reductions in air change rates due to tighter construction techniques are transforming the stock from “cold and damp” to “warm and humid”. This somewhat ironically has presented the occupants with a new set of health problems. The drive to reduce carbon emissions through domestic energy efficiency has in the last decade driven increasing levels of air tightness in the building envelope, a strategy that has dramatically reduced what could be considered as fortuitously high, historical air infiltration rates. Recent research Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 11 of 19 reporting on post occupancy evaluations [43,44] of new-build homes constructed to the 2010 air 3 2 tightness2010 air standardtightness ofstandard 5m /m of/hr@50Pa, 5m3/m2/hr@50Pa, with only with trickle only trickle vents invents the in windows the windows as the as planned the ventilationplanned ventilation strategy, measured strategy, COmeasured2 levels CO in2 occupied levels in bedroomsoccupied bedrooms (n = 24 − (2n ×= 247-day − 2 × profiles 7-day profiles shown in Figureshown 17 )in to Figure be two 17) to fourto be times two to above four thetimes 1000 above ppm the threshold 1000 ppm (originally threshold defined (originally by Pettenkofer defined by [45 ] inPettenkofer the 19th century) [45] in asthe representing 19th century) reasonable as representing indoor reasonable air quality. indoor air quality. WhenWhen considered considered as as a discretea discrete volume, volume, an occupiedan occupied apartment apartment will will require require a substantially a substantially greater ventilationgreater ventilation rate than canrate bethan provided can be provided solely by tricklesolely by ventilators trickle ventilators with a free with vent a areafree vent of 11,000 area mmof 2. This11,000 can mmalso2. beThis compounded can also be compounded by occlusion by from occlusion curtains from or curtains blinds andor blinds the habitualand the habitual closing of controllableclosing of controllable trickle vents. trickle Such vents. high Such concentrations high concentrations of carbon of carbon dioxide dioxide are are invariably invariably foundfound in badin company.bad company.

Figure 17. CO2 levels in 12 Scottish new build bedrooms at various locations. Figure 17. CO2 levels in 12 Scottish new build bedrooms at various locations.

12. Our Toxic Indoor Environment 12. Our Toxic Indoor Environment At the outset of the 20th century there were approximately 50 materials used to construct buildings. At the outset of the 20th century there were approximately 50 materials used to construct Bybuildings. the end ofBy the the centuryend of the Raw century [46] claimedRaw [46] that claime thisd listthat hadthis grownlist had togrown around to around 55,000, 55,000, half of half them beingof them synthetic. being synthetic. Compounds Compounds found in found indoor in air in maydoor haveair may off-gassed have off-gassed from the from building the building materials, furnishingsmaterials, andfurnishings fittings, and internal fittings, processes internal and pr cleaningocesses and products. cleaning The products. most common The most gases common found in thegases indoor found environment in the indoor are environment carbon dioxide/monoxide, are carbon dioxide/monoxide, nitrogen and nitrogen sulphur dioxide,and sulphur formaldehyde dioxide, andformaldehyde other volatile and organic other volatile compounds, organic radon compound and ozone.s, radon Some and ozone. of these Some compounds of these compounds are known to beare bio-accumulative known to be carcinogensbio-accumulative or hormone carcinogens disrupters. or hormone The most disrupters. common suspendedThe most common particulate mattersuspended are asbestos particulate fibres, matter fibrous are particulates asbestos fibres, (fibreglass fibrous or particulat rockwool),es bacteria(fibreglass and or fungi,rockwool), tobacco smoke,bacteria house and dustfungi, mite tobacco allergens, smoke, pollen house and dust dust mite [47 allergens,,48]. Changes pollen in and lifestyle dust such[47,48]. as indoorChanges clothes in drying,lifestyle are such in part as indoor driven clothes by changes drying, in design,are in part and driven highlevels by changes of indoor in design, humidity andcan high have levels a major of indoor humidity can have a major impact in terms of the germination of bacteria, fungi and the colonisation and proliferation of house dust mites [49].

13. Housing and Asthma In February of 2004 the Global Initiative on Asthma (Gina) [50] reported that 18.4% of Scots suffer from asthma. This compares with 15.3% in England, 10.9% in the US, 6% in Belgium, 4.5% in Italy and 2.3% in Switzerland. The report also claimed that 35% of Scottish 13–14 year-olds, experienced “wheezing” over a 12 month period. Of the 84 countries surveyed, Scotland had the Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 12 of 19 impact in terms of the germination of bacteria, fungi and the colonisation and proliferation of house dust mites [49].

13. Housing and Asthma In February of 2004 the Global Initiative on Asthma (Gina) [50] reported that 18.4% of Scots suffer fromSustainability asthma. 2018 This, 10, 18 compares with 15.3% in England, 10.9% in the US, 6% in Belgium, 4.5%12 inof 19 Italy and 2.3% in Switzerland. The report also claimed that 35% of Scottish 13–14 year-olds, experienced “wheezing”highest prevalence over a 12 of month symptoms period. in Of this the group. 84 countries Over surveyed,the past 30 Scotland years the had incidence the highest of prevalenceasthma ofepisodes symptoms has in increased this group. by Overa factor the of past three 30 to years four the in adults incidence and ofsix asthma in children. episodes In 2014, has increased5.4 million by a UK citizens were receiving some form of treatment for asthma [51]. Although allergic disease is on factor of three to four in adults and six in children. In 2014, 5.4 million UK citizens were receiving some the increase across the developed world, what factors are unique to the Scotland that can be form of treatment for asthma [51]. Although allergic disease is on the increase across the developed identified as key causal mechanisms driving these differentials? Numerous hypotheses have been world, what factors are unique to the Scotland that can be identified as key causal mechanisms driving postulated to account for the dramatic increase in allergic disease [52] (pp. 6–22); increased exposure these differentials? Numerous hypotheses have been postulated to account for the dramatic increase to perennial allergens; more time spent indoors, decrease in bacterial and other infections, improved inhygiene, allergic diseaseimmunisation [52] (pp. the 6–22); prophylactic increased use exposure of antibiotics, to perennial changes allergens; in gut flora more caused time by spent the indoors,over decreaseuse of antibiotics, in bacterial a decline and other in physical infections, exercise, improved high fat/salt hygiene, diet immunisation and the loss of the a specific prophylactic protective use of antibiotics,effect such changes as exposure in gut to flora types caused of bacteria by the fo overund usein natural of antibiotics, environments a decline or the in physicaleradication exercise, of highparasitic fat/salt intestinal diet and tape the worms; loss of ahowever, specific protectiveit is difficult effect to build such an as evidence exposure base to types case ofthat bacteria identifies found inany natural of these environments factors being or unique the eradication to Scotland. of parasiticPollution intestinalfrom motor tape vehicles worms; has however, been implicated, it is difficult but to buildthe incidence an evidence of acute base caseattacks that is identifies higher in anythe West of theseern factorsIsles of beingScotland, unique where to Scotland.external air Pollution quality fromis motorexcellent, vehicles than has in beenLondon implicated, [53]. Exhaust but thefumes incidence may trigger of acute an attacksattack but is higher they do in not the Westernappear to Isles be of Scotland,important where in the external aetiology air of quality the disease. is excellent, than in London [53]. Exhaust fumes may trigger an attackThere but they is an do additional not appear major to be problem important in urban in the ar aetiologyeas where of external the disease. air pollution is invariably high.There A recent is an additionalstudy [54] majorinvestigating problem ventilation in urban areasrates wherein central external Glasgow, air pollution demonstrated is invariably that high.opening A recenta window study will [54] investigatingresult in CO2 ventilation levels falling rates with in central‘fresh’ Glasgow,air infiltration, demonstrated however, that formaldehyde levels were positively correlated and there was a distinct negative correlation with opening a window will result in CO2 levels falling with ‘fresh’ air infiltration, however, formaldehyde PM10 particulates (see Figures 18 and 19). Opening windows in urban areas clearly allows allows levels were positively correlated and there was a distinct negative correlation with PM10 particulates (seetrafficFigures fumes 18 to and infiltrate. 19). Opening The UK Government windows in has urban published areas data clearly [55] allowsclaiming allows that there traffic is no fumes safe to threshold for such particulate matter, with each rise of 10 µg/m3 responsible for a 3% increase in infiltrate. The UK Government has published data [55] claiming that there is no safe threshold for asthmatic attacks, broncho-dilator use and lower respiratory tract problems and a 1.9% increase in such particulate matter, with each rise of 10 µg/m3 responsible for a 3% increase in asthmatic attacks, hospital admissions. Average background levels across the UK in urban areas in 2016 were broncho-dilator use and lower respiratory tract problems and a 1.9% increase in hospital admissions. measured at 20 µg/m3 [56]. Average background levels across the UK in urban areas in 2016 were measured at 20 µg/m3 [56].

Figure 18. CO mapped against formaldehyde. Figure 18. CO22 mapped against formaldehyde. SustainabilitySustainability2018 2018, 10, 10, 18, 18 13 of13 19 of 19 Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 13 of 19

FigureFigure 19. 19.PM PM2.5 mapped against against ventilation ventilation rates. rates. Figure 19. PM2.52.5 mapped against ventilation rates. 14. Energy Crisis as the Primary Driver 14.14. Energy Energy Crisis Crisis as as the the Primary Primary DriverDriver The genesis of the asthma pandemic in Scotland can be traced to the mid-seventies. TheThe genesis genesis ofof thethe asthmaasthma pandemicpandemic in Scot Scotlandland can can be be traced traced to tothe the mid-seventies. mid-seventies. Draught-stripping, the sealing of chimneys and double-glazing kick started the reduction in Draught-stripping,Draught-stripping, the the sealing sealing of chimneysof chimneys and and double-glazing double-glazing kick startedkick started the reduction the reduction in domestic in domestic ventilation rates [52] (pp. 62–73) which in turn produced a warm and humid indoor ventilationdomestic ratesventilation [52] (pp. rates 62–73) [52] which (pp. 62–73) in turn which produced in turn a warm produced and humid a warm indoor and environment. humid indoor Such environment. Such conditions are ideal for the colonisation and proliferation of the house dust mite environment. Such conditions are ideal for the colonisation and proliferation of the house dust mite conditions(HDM). HDMs are ideal thrive for thein high colonisation humidity and that proliferation moistens their ofthe major house food dust source mite (human (HDM). skin HDMs scales). thrive (HDM). HDMs thrive in high humidity that moistens their major food source (human skin scales). inThey high humidityexcrete a thatrange moistens of highly their allergenic major food proteins source that (human have skinbeen scales).identified, They both excrete as a a causal range of They excrete a range of highly allergenic proteins that have been identified, both as a causal highlymechanism allergenic in the proteins development that have of been the identified,disease, and both as asirritants a causal likely mechanism to trigger in and the developmentexacerbate mechanism in the development of the disease, and as irritants likely to trigger and exacerbate ofasthmatic the disease, symptoms. and as irritants Eight out likely of ten totrigger asthmatic and children exacerbate have asthmatic been found symptoms. to be allergic Eight to out these of ten asthmatic symptoms. Eight out of ten asthmatic children have been found to be allergic to these asthmaticproteins children[57]. Figure have 20 beenshows found the rise to in be asthma allergic prevalence to these proteins mirroring [57 the]. Figure widespread 20 shows reduction the rise in in proteins [57]. Figure 20 shows the rise in asthma prevalence mirroring the widespread reduction in asthmaventilation prevalence rates. mirroring the widespread reduction in ventilation rates. ventilation rates.

Figure 20. The sudden rise in asthma prevalence co-incident with the energy crisis [52]. FigureFigure 20. 20.The The sudden suddenrise rise inin asthmaasthma prevalence co-incident co-incident with with the the energy energy crisis crisis [52]. [52 ]. Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 14 of 19

In 1999, a two year study [58] that focused on one housing scheme undergoing a major capital investment programme on the outskirts of Paisley, reported that childhood asthma rates were significantly higher in the dwellings that had been retrofitted with insulation, new windows and central heating systems. Taking children out of cold, damp homes and re-housing them in warm humid homes, appeared to trigger a significant increase in disease prevalence and symptomatic state. The culprit was quick to emerge. House dust mites do not thrive in cold and mouldy dwellings [59]. They are much more at home in hygro-thermal conditions where relative humidity is maintained above 70%, and average indoor temperatures are close to 25 ◦C, an environment typical of small, air-tight and well insulated dwellings, where indoor clothes drying keeps RH at ideal levels for colony proliferation. Dust mites excrete 15 highly allergenic proteins in the faecal pellets that can typically be found in high concentrations in dust reservoirs and bedding [52] (pp. 87–105). Such a hypothesis was further supported by two interventionist trials undertaken in North and South Lanarkshire [60,61] that confirmed the majority of dwellings had dust reservoirs containing HDM allergen levels well above the WHO sensitisation threshold of 2 µg/g of fine dust, with 56% of beds found to contain concentrations known to cause an immediate acute reaction (10 µg/g). Steam cleaning the carpets and the replacement of bedding and mattresses, successfully reduced HDM allergen levels by around 95%. Improving indoor air quality by installing mechanical whole house ventilation systems incorporating heat recovery to reduce indoor water vapour pressures below 60% RH, increased lung function by over 20 L per minute in a cohort that had medically diagnosed “severe” asthma; compelling evidence that aggressive allergen avoidance measures (whole house steam cleaning in combination with new bedding) can produce immediate and significant improvements, even in an adult cohort with a well documented history of symptoms over many years.

15. Timber Frame Construction—“Living in a Plastic Bag” In Scotland the market in private dwellings is almost exclusively based on timber frame construction techniques. The timber frame and integral insulation, fitted between the timber studs, isolate the thermal mass of the brick outer leaf, resulting in a lightweight, fast response thermal environment, suited to intermittent occupation cycles. Such a technique also incorporates a polythene vapour barrier behind the plasterboard, effectively trapping all moisture within the impervious building envelope. When combined with air-tight construction techniques that further reduce background ventilation rates, the result is a warm and humid internal environment. When the heating system is switched off overnight, internal temperatures drop rapidly and result in a diurnal condensation cycle, particularly during the winter months when trickle vents are habitually kept in the closed position, with the excess moisture typically absorbed by hygroscopic soft furnishings, carpets and bedding. The saturation of these micro-climates and the growth of aspergillus mould on the shed human skin scales (reducing their fat content) is the key precursor for HDM colonisation and proliferation [62]. Timber frame construction that encapsulates the occupants in plastic vapour barriers is therefore the key variable that has produced Scotland’s asthma pandemic. Similar to the asbestos debacle, the entire timber frame house construction industry is once again in denial and it is these short-term commercial interests that are inhibiting the necessary corrective action.

16. “Rubble in the Park”: The Demolition of Glasgow’s Red Road Flats Occupied in 1969, the 32-storey blocks initially housed a total of 4700 occupants. The mid-70s energy crisis saw the flats develop a high incidence of dampness and mould. This is not unusual for high rise towers where Glasgow’s driving rain index combines with poor joint integrity and high specific heat losses, to produce both penetrating and condensation dampness. A series of dust assays taken in an similar block where the tenant was suing the public sector landlord for causing her son’s asthma [63], produced a figure of 1400 µg of HDM allergen per gram of dust; 700 times higher than the WHO sensitisation threshold [48]. Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 15 of 19 Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 15 of 19

InIn 2003 2003 Glasgow Glasgow City City Council Council transferred transferred their their remaining remaining housing housing stock stock (circa (circa 85,000 85,000 units) units) to to GlasgowGlasgow Housing Housing Association Association (GHA). (GHA). The The economic economic rationale rationale for for this this was was compelling. compelling. The The Scottish Scottish ExecutiveExecutive agreedagreed toto write-off write-off circacirca one one billion billion pounds pounds of of housing housing debt, debt, allowing allowing GHAGHA toto raiseraise newnew fundsfunds for for much much needed needed repair, repair, renovation renovation and and improvements; improvements; aa sumsum estimatedestimated atat thethe timetime toto bebe in in thethe region region of of £900 £900 million million The The economics economics of of this this transfer transfer were were quite quite remarkable. remarkable. The The 85,000 85,000 council council dwellingsdwellings beingbeing transferred,transferred, hadhad aa bookbook valuevalue ofof only only £25 £25 million million [ 64[64].]. ThisThis equatedequated toto just just under under £300£300 per per dwelling, dwelling, yet yet many many of of these these units units -previously -previously purchased purchased by by the the sitting sitting tenants—were tenants—were now now changingchanging handshands forfor over over £50,000. £50,000. HiddenHidden withinwithin thethe figuresfigureswere were the the estimated estimatedcosts costs for for the the future future demolitiondemolition of of Glasgow’s Glasgow’s 330 330 tower tower blocks, blocks, and and none none was was more more expensive expensive than than the the demolition demolition of of the the RedRed Road Road flats; flats; the the volume volume and and position position of the of asbestos the asbestos ensuring ensuring that explosives that explosives could not could be utilised not be untilutilised all theuntil fibrous all the material fibrous wasmaterial stripped was outstripped by hand out (Figureby hand 21 (Figure). 21).

Figure 21. Red Road flats before and after showing the position of the asbestos sheeting. Figures 21. Red Road flats before and after showing the position of the asbestos sheeting.

DemolitionDemolition andand constructionconstruction timestimes werewere remarkablyremarkably similar.similar. TheThe preciseprecise costcost ofof thisthis workwork isis difficultdifficult to to ascertain ascertain but but one one estimate estimate puts puts it it at at circa circa £60 £60 million. million. The The men men who who built built the the blocks blocks paid paid a a muchmuch higher higher price. price. InIn 1984,1984, aa locallocal actionaction groupgroup traced traced 180 180 workmen. workmen. OfOf thisthis cohort,cohort, 6060 werewere alreadyalready deaddead and and of of these, these, 50 50 had had died died from from mesothelioma. mesothelioma The. The average average age age of theof the men men when when they they died died was was 51. 51. 17. Towards a “Wealthier, Fairer, Smarter, Healthier, Safer, Greener Scotland”? 17. TowardsScotland’s a “Wealthier, legacy of feudal Fairer, land Smarter, ownership Healthier, patterns Safer, combined Greener with Scotland”? land banking by private builders are driving house price inflation. These companies and individuals are enriching themselves Scotland’s legacy of feudal land ownership patterns combined with land banking by private at the expense of the population who, in the main, are paying significantly more for less in terms of builders are driving house price inflation. These companies and individuals are enriching space standards and built quality. This is the exact opposite of a “wealthier” and “fairer” society; two of themselves at the expense of the population who, in the main, are paying significantly more for less the key stated aims of the current Scottish government [65]. As house price inflation is again starting in terms of space standards and built quality. This is the exact opposite of a “wealthier” and “fairer” to rise, it is obvious that national governments remain incapable of intervening in the boom and bust society; two of the key stated aims of the current Scottish government [65]. As house price inflation is cycles delivered by neo-liberalism. Private sector developers are building dwellings on green field sites again starting to rise, it is obvious that national governments remain incapable of intervening in the using techniques and materials that off-gas pollutants and are particularly prone to HDM infestation. boom and bust cycles delivered by neo-liberalism. Private sector developers are building dwellings The drive for energy efficiency has dramatically reduced indoor air quality and increased humidity, on green field sites using techniques and materials that off-gas pollutants and are particularly prone resulting in dwellings being infested with house dust mites. This is the key variable accounting for the to HDM infestation. The drive for energy efficiency has dramatically reduced indoor air quality and higher disease prevalence in Scotland. This is neither “smarter” nor “safer”. increased humidity, resulting in dwellings being infested with house dust mites. This is the key variableReducing accounting ventilation for the rates higher to improve disease energy preval efficiencyence in Scotland. and lower This carbon is neither emissions, “smarter” without nor incorporating“safer”. a planned and effective ventilation strategy, is likely to result in a more toxic and hazardousReducing indoor ventilation environment rates thatto improve will have energy an insidious efficiency and and long-term lower carbon impact emissions, on public without health. Scotlandincorporating is rapidly a planned moving and from effective cold damp ventilation housing, stra totegy, warm is likely humid to housing. result inThis a more has changedtoxic and thehazardous nature of indoor the deleterious environment impacts that onwill respiratory have an insidious health, with and HDMlong-term allergens impact now on ubiquitouspublic health. in Scotland’sScotland is indoor rapidly environment. moving from Building cold damp dwellings housing, that to arewarm more humid prone housing. to HDM This infestation has changed will not the producenature of a “healthier”the deleterious Scotland. impacts on respiratory health, with HDM allergens now ubiquitous in Scotland’sBy allowing indoor new environment. housing to beBuilding built in dwellings the countryside, that are the more drift prone away to from HDM urban infestation locations will with not goodproduce public a “healthier” transport infrastructure Scotland. will increase Scotland’s carbon footprint. This is neither “smarter” nor “greener”.By allowing new housing to be built in the countryside, the drift away from urban locations with good public transport infrastructure will increase Scotland’s carbon footprint. This is neither “smarter” nor “greener”. Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 16 of 19

18. Tackling Poor Indoor Air Quality: What Is to Be Done? Technical Standards prescribed by the Building Regulations should be rigorously enforced with designers and house builders required to demonstrate a planned ventilation strategy that maintains “healthy” IAQ (CO2 maintained below 1000 ppm) in all occupied rooms. Post occupancy building performance evaluation is required to establish actual real-life performance, and to provide an epidemiological evidence base for changes in legislation and design for occupant health. This will force the industry to adopt techniques that can optimise energy efficiency while ensuring “healthy” indoor air quality. This in itself may be sufficient to prevent the next generation from developing HDM induced asthma. Reliance on trickle ventilators to provide background ventilation in airtight buildings should be reconsidered, with a greater emphasis placed on the planning and prediction of overall house ventilation strategies, taking into account (either solely or in combination) cross, stack, permanent, displacement and mechanical ventilation (either positive pressure or balanced systems preferably with heat recovery as standard). Legislation is required to specify minimum “safe” levels for indoor air pollutants in the domestic environment. Although any study that attempts to incorporate the synergistic, additive or antagonistic chemical and biological reactions that may occur in the indoor environment would have to address an unmanageable number of variables, such complexity should not provide an excuse for doing nothing in terms of research, guidance and the development of legally binding standards in respect to individual compounds. The use of proxy compounds such as CO2 and/or relative humidity can be used indicatively as measures of IAQ, and should be included in performance standards. Monitoring or control of actual performance for immediate feedback to occupants or mechanical systems could be achieved by using CO2 or humidity sensors. This could include a CO2 monitor installed in the living room (possibly on a standard traffic light warning system) to alert occupants when CO2 levels exceed 1000 ppm (amber) and 2000 ppm (red). Such an alert may stimulate occupants to open a window for even a short period of time and allow CO2 levels to partially equalise with ambient air; a recommendation that has somewhat remarkably been rapidly adopted and enshrined in the latest revision of the Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations [66].

19. Increasing Housing Quality and Reducing Carbon Emissions Enacting a “land tax” [15] (p. 277) to replace the current Council Tax, will see the vestiges of the feudal aristocracy and “land bankers” divest their holdings. This will result in land values dropping, allowing fixed budgets to be spent on a better quality product, in terms of volume, technique and materials that have longevity and the ability to be re-used, recycled or revert to their original state; the much vaunted “long-life loose fit” and “cradle to cradle” scenarios at the heart of sustainable building design. Reducing urban land values could allow mixed tenure neighbourhoods to be developed at 200 persons per hectare. If architects are given the budgets to produce a high quality, affordable product, increasing the quality and amenity of urban high density house design may arrest the on-going drift away from sustainable transport networks and in turn start to reduce Scotland’s carbon footprint.

20. Epilogue An estimated 300 million people worldwide suffer from asthma, with 250,000 annual deaths attributed to the disease. It is estimated that the number of people with asthma will grow by more than 100 million by 2025 [67]. In the case of asbestos, it took over 100 years for the evidence base to be recognised. Vested commercial interest played an important role ensuring that profit was prioritised over the “health and safety” of circa 20 million asbestos victims. Similar to asbestos, a significant proportion of the current asthma pandemic and ill-health, being driven by toxic compounds found in ever increasing concentrations in indoor air, is preventable if the Scottish and UK governments are Sustainability 2018, 10, 18 17 of 19 willing to accept the existing evidence base, and take steps to implement the required amendments to the building codes in conjunction with minimum air quality standards. The laudable improvements in public health that occurred during the 20th century were driven, in the main, by the need to produce healthy workers and soldiers, to protect the economic interests and imperial conquests of UK plc. As robotics and drones are predicted to displace such a “boots on the ground” approach to manufacturing and warfare, this dynamic may not be as important to 21st century elites. The current health gap between the rich and poor may well widen, if governments do not intervene and action radical proposals. If they do nothing, they will, de facto, be complicit and the “Great Scottish Housing Disaster” will be set to continue and afflict the health and wellbeing of future generations.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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