Employing Geographical Information Systems in Fisheries Management in the Mekong River: a case study of Lao PDR
Kaviphone Phouthavongs
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Master of Science
School of Geosciences University of Sydney June 2006 ABSTRACT
The objective of this research is to employ Geographical Information Systems to fisheries management in the Mekong River Basin. The study uses artisanal fisheries practices in Khong district, Champasack province Lao PDR as a case study. The research focuses on integrating indigenous and scientific knowledge in fisheries management; how local communities use indigenous knowledge to access and manage their fish conservation zones; and the contribution of scientific knowledge to fishery co-management practices at village level. Specific attention is paid to how GIS can aid the integration of these two knowledge systems into a sustainable management system for fisheries resources.
Fieldwork was conducted in three villages in the Khong district, Champasack province and Catch per Unit of Effort / hydro-acoustic data collected by the Living Aquatic Resources Research Centre was used to analyse and look at the differences and/or similarities between indigenous and scientific knowledge which can supplement each other and be used for small scale fisheries management.
The results show that GIS has the potential not only for data storage and visualisation, but also as a tool to combine scientific and indigenous knowledge in digital maps. Integrating indigenous knowledge into a GIS framework can strengthen indigenous knowledge, from un processed data to information that scientists and decision-makers can easily access and use as a supplement to scientific knowledge in aquatic resource decision-making and planning across different levels.
The results show that when scientific and indigenous knowledge are both stored digitally in GIS databases, a variety of analysis can be done. Multiple layers or visualising functions in ArcGIS are an example of ways in which indigenous and scientific knowledge can be combined in GIS. Maps of deep pools and important fishing grounds gathered using GPS and indigenous knowledge provide base maps of aquatic resources in the study area. The attribute table associated with the map links characteristics of each point, including fishing gear and species found in each pool as well as spawning grounds and migration periods. This information is useful for management and planning purposes.
i This research illustrates that mental maps and GIS digital maps can be used for fisheries management at different levels. Where mental maps are suitable for communicating with the local community and have the potential for use in fisheries co-management in small-scale fisheries; GIS may be appropriated for data storage and analysis at provincial and national levels, it can be used as a communication tool amongst stakeholders to monitor and understand the aquatic environment.
ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank the DANIDA/NARI project for providing financial support for this research. Special thanks must go to Mr. Xaypradeth Choulamany, former Director of LARReC and the present Director Mr. Lieng Khamsivilay, for their support and for giving me the opportunity to do this research. Thanks also to Mr. Sten Sverdrup-Jensen, Technical Advisor, NARI Project, for encouraging to me to continue with my studies.
At the University of Sydney, I would like to thank my supervisor Associate Professor Dr. Philip Hirsch and associate supervisor Dr. Eleanor Bruce for their advice and guidance in helping me go in the right direction. Thanks also to Simon, Krishna, and Cameron for their comments and suggestions on my thesis. Thanks to Jagbir Singh for being kind and friendly and to Joan Schreijaeg for offering help and reading my thesis.
Back home, I would like to thank my colleagues at the Living Aquatic Resources Research Centre for helping me by providing and sending information related to my research. Thanks to Sinthavong, Kongpheng and John for correcting the scientific names of fish, and also Douangkham and Chanthone for providing information on CPUE and deep pools. Thanks to Terry for his wise discussion of the CPUE study.
Thanks also goes to government officials in the Champasack province and the Khong district who provided assistance to me with my field research. Special thanks must go to the village headmen and fishermen who made their time available to me for discussion and who provided me with useful information, as well as a place to sleep and excellent Lao food during my fieldwork. Without their help, this research could not have been completed.
Last but not least, I wish to thank my family, especially my wife, who has taken great care of my sons during my study time in Australia. I would also like to acknowledge my father, Tout Phouthavongs, who continues to work hard to support our family and provide the opportunity for all of us to study. I am not the only one who has a chance to study at the Masters level in Australia. My brothers also graduated and received their Masters degrees in Australia in 1992 and 1998. Thank you Dad.
iii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract...... i
Acknowledgement ...... iii
Table of contents...... iv
List of figures...... ix
List of tables...... x
Acronyms...... xi
Chapter I: Introduction...... 1
1.1 General introduction ...... 1
1.2 Background and rational...... 2
1.3 Research objective and questions ...... 6
1.4 Research design and methods ...... 6 1.4.1 Research design...... 6 1.4.2 Methodology ...... 7 1.4.2.1 Secondary data collection………………………………………………………...7 1.4.2.2 Village stay and observation……………………………………………………...8 1.4.2.3 Semi structure open-ended interview…………………………………………….8 1.4.2.4 Qualitative questionnaire design……………………………………………….…9 1.4.3 Research village ... ………………………………………………………………………..9 1.4.4 Fieldwork methods and data collection……………………………..…………………...10 1.4.4.1 Field data collection……………………………………………………………..10 1.4.4.2 Mental mapping and global positioning system………………………………...12
1.5 Outline of thesis ...... 13
Chapter II: Knowledge systems...... 20
2.1 Introduction...... 20
2.2 Indigenous knowledge ...... 20
iv 4.3 Fisheries co-management...... 25
2.4 Catch Per Unit of Effort and Hydro Acoustic Study ...... 30 2.4.1 Catch Per Unit of Effort …………………………………………………………..30 2.4.2 Hydro acoustic study……………………………………………………………...31
2.5 GIS and natural resource management ...... 33
2.6 Conclusion ...... 37
Chapter III: The Mekong River Fisheries...... 39
3.1 Introduction...... 39
3.2 The importance of fisheries to the people in the Lower Mekong River Basin ...... 39
3.3 Capture fisheries and aquaculture development ...... 41
3.4 Laos fisheries profile...... 43
3.5 Fisheries of Khong District...... 46
3.6 Conclusion ...... 52
Chapter IV: Spatial location...... 53
4.1 Introduction...... 53
4.2 Scientific knowledge...... 53 4.2.1 Geographical Information Systems and GPS...... 53 4.2.1.1 Digital base map………………………………………………………………...53 4.2.1.2 GPS data acquisition and processing……………………………………………54 4.2.2 Spatial location...... 54 4.2.2.1 Village location………………………………………………………………….54 4.2.2.2 Deep pools and other natural resources…………………………………………56 4.2.2.3 The importance fishing grounds..……………………………………………….58 4.2.3 Summary ...... 59
4.3 Community knowledge...... 62 4.3.1 Mental mapping ...... 62 4.3.1.1 Geographical knowledge………………………………………………………..62
v 4.3.1.2 Preparing of materials and meetings……………………………………………62 4.3.1.3 Drawing a map…………………………………………………………………..63 4.3.2 Geographical references...... 65 4.3.2.1 Place and location……………………………………………………………….65 4.3.2.2 Distance and depth………………………………………………………………66 4.3.2.3 Community knowledge of deep pools…………………………………………..66 4.3.2.4 Fishing ground and method……………………………………………………..68 4.3.3 Summary ...... 68
4.4 Comparative discussion ...... 69
4.5 Conclusion ...... 71
Chapter V : Fish species and abundance...... 77
5.1 Introduction...... 77
5.2 Scientific knowledge...... 77 5.2.1 CPUE study in the Khong District...... 77 5.2.2 Understanding the migration process...... 80 5.2.3 Upstream migration...... 81 5.2.4 Relative index of fish abundance and fish species...... 84 5.2.5 National fisheries statistics...... 88 5.2.6 Summary ...... 91
5.3 Community Knowledge ...... 92 5.3.1 Perceptions of fish abundance...... 92 5.3.1.1 Fishermen knowledge of hydrological changes and lunar phases…………..…..92 5.3.1.2 Fishermen knowledge of fish habit and behaviours..…….……………………..93 5.3.2 Perceptions of species and catches...... 95 5.3.2.1 The appearance of rare species………………………………………………….95 5.3.2.2 The total fish catch in the main fishing season………………………………….98 5.3.3 Summary………………………………………………………………………… 99
5.4 Comparative discussion ...... 99
5.5 Conclusion ...... 102
vi Chapter VI: Deep pool and fish stocks ...... 103
6.1 Introduction...... 103
6.2 Scientific knowledge...... 103 6.2.1. Theoretical principles of hydro-acoustic systems...... 103 6.2.2 The use of acoustic systems...... 106 6.2.3 Deep pools study in the Khong District...... 107 6.2.4 Fish densities and behaviours ...... 109 6.2.5 Fish stock and size composition...... 111 6.2.6 Summary ...... 114
6.3 Community Knowledge...... 115 6.3.1 The importance of deep pools for fish stock...... 115 6.3.2 Deep pools as recreational and cultural resources ...... 117 6.3.3 Deep pools and fishery management in Ban Don Houat...... 117 6.3.3.1 Fish conservation zones…….………………………………..………………...117 6.3.3.2 Fishermen knowledge of fish stock………………………….………………...121 6.3.4 Deep pools and fishery management in Ban Hatxaykhoun ...... 121 6.3.4.1 Fish conservation zones..………..……………………………………………..121 6.3.4.2 Fishermen knowledge of fish stock…………….……………………………...123 6.3.5 Deep pools and fishery management in Ban Hat...... 124 6.3.5.1 Deep pool management systems……………………………………………….124 6.3.5.2 Fishermen knowledge of fish stock…………….……………………………...125 6.3.6 Summary ...... 126
6.4 Comparative discussion ...... 127
6.5 Conclusion ...... 130
Chapter VII: Synthesis and theoritical analysis ...... 131
7.1. Introduction...... 131
7.2 Synthesis ...... 131 7.2.1 Incorporating IK into GIS...... 131 7.2.2 Presentation of result into GIS...... 133
vii 7.2.2.1 Multiple representation and analysis tools … ………………………………....133 7.2.2.2 Spatial analyst.. ………………………….………..…………………………..136 7.2.3 Summary ...... 136
7.3 Theoretical analysis ...... 153 7.3.1 Fisheries co-management...... 153 7.3.2 The need for integration of SK and IK ...... 155 7.3.3 GIS as tool for communication and visualisation ...... 157 7.3.4 The implication of fish abundance and decline ...... 158
7.4 Conclusion ...... 160
Chapter VIII: Conclusions...... 161
8.1 Introduction...... 161
8.2 Research findings...... 161
8.3 Significance of research...... 163
8.4 Implications of research...... 165
8.5 Further research ...... 166
8.6 Conclusion ...... 167
References...... 168
viii LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Research diagram ...... 15 Figure 1.2 Map of Lao PDR provinces...... 16 Figure 1.3 Geographical location of study villages ...... 17 Figure 1.4 Thesis outline diagram...... 18 Figure 1.5 Map of deep pools in Khong District ...... 19 Figure 4.1 The layers and its attribute display in Arc GIS 9.0 ...... 60 Figure 4.2 Digital map of fishing ground in Ban Don Houat ...... 60 Figure 4.3 Digital map of fishing ground in Ban Hatxaykhoun ...... 61 Figure 4.4 Digital map of fishing ground in Ban Hat ...... 61 Figure 4.5 Mental map of Ban Don Houat ...... 74 Figure 4.6 Mental map of Ban Hat ...... 75 Figure 4.7 Mental map of Ban Hatxaykhoun ...... 76 Figure 5.1 CPUE data in Ban Hat (1994-2004)...... 82 Figure 5.2 Mean CPUE during CNY and relative water depths in Ban Hat ...... 84 Figure 5.3 Mean CPUE in FCZ vs. Mean CPUE in the Reference site in Ban Don Houat ...... 85 Figure 5.4 Mean CPUE in FCZ vs. Mean CPUE in the Reference site in Ban Hatxaykhoun... 88 Figure 6.1 Basic components of acoustic system ...... 104 Figure 6.2 A relationship between mean target strength and fish size ...... 106 Figure 6.3 Total fish densities (fish /ha) in deep pools and FCZs ...... 110 Figure 6.4 Total fish biomass (Sa /ha) in deep pools and FCZs ...... 111 Figure 6.5 A relationship between depth and target strength (dB) in FCZ Ban Don Houat.... 113 Figure 6.6 A relationship between depth and target strength (dB) in FCZ Ban Hatxaykhoun 113 Figure 6.7 A relationship between depth and target strength (dB) in Khoum Done Phi ...... 113 Figure 6.8-69 A relationship between depth and target strength (dB) in Ban Hat’ deep pool 114 Figure 7.1 Conceptual framework for the integration of IK and SK ...... 132 Figure 7.2 Multiple previews showing province layer and river layer ...... 138 Figure 7.3 ‘Select by attribute’: Champasack province...... 138 Figure 7.4 Clip analysis tool: Champasack province layer and river ...... 139 Figure 7.5 Multiple previews of the riverine system and the deep pools in the study areas .. 139 Figure 7.6 Combining SK and IK: Deep pools in the study area, including river bottom
ix condition...... 140
Figure 7.7 Combining SK and IK: Important fishing grounds in the study areas ...... 141 Figure 7.8 Indigenous knowledge map: common fishing areas ...... 142 Figure 7.9 Indigenous knowledge map: Fishing gear used ...... 143 Figure 7.10 Indigenous knowledge map: traditional management system ...... 144 Figure 7.11 Species distribution: IK vs. SK...... 145 Figure 7.12 Indigenous knowledge map: the appearance of rare species ...... 146 Figure 7.13 Fish biomass in selected deep pools ...... 147 Figure 7.14 Fish densities in selected deep pools ...... 148 Figure 7.15 The relationship between the depth of pools and the number of brood stock in selected deep pools...... 149 Figure 7.16 Map of Done Houat and FCZ (top), species distribution in FCZ (left) and 2D map of Vang Nong Hai fish conservation zone (right)...... 150 Figure 7.17 (A) General over view map of Khoum done phi, (B) 2D map of Khoum done phi and (C) Fishing gear use at different depths and species catch ...... 151 Figure 7.18 Fishing ground in Hat village (right) and fish density in Veun Songkham (left) with common fishing areas ...... 152
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Deep pools and their charecteristicts ...... 73 Table 5.1 Some parameters of the migratory species found in Ban Hat...... 83 Table 5.2: Fish species from CPUE vs. species from IK...... 90 Table 5.3: The important fish species caught in study areas ...... 96 Table 6.1: Fish species using deep pools as a habitat ...... 118 Table 7.1: The attribute table of deep pools...... 133 Table 7.2 : Layers and its features ...... 134
x ACRONYMS
CNY Chinese New Year CPUE Catch per Unit of Effort DAFO District Agriculture and Forestry Office DLF Department of Livestock and Fishery FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FCZs Fish Conservation Zones FIP Fishery Program GPS Global Positioning System GIS Geographical Information System IK Indigenous Knowledge IDRC International Development Research Centre of Canada LARReC Living Aquatic Resources Research Centre LMRB Lower Mekong River Basins LNMRC Lao National Mekong River Commission MRC Mekong River Commission MAF Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry NARI National Aquatic Research Resources Institute (project) NAFRI National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute NGOs Non-government Organizations PAFO Provincial Agriculture and Forestry Office SK Scientific Knowledge SEAFDEC Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre STEA Science, Technology and Environment Agency UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation UTM Universal transverse of Mercator UXO Unexploited Ordnance
xi Chapter I: Introduction 1.1 General introduction The Mekong River, along with its fourteen tributaries, is an essential component of the rural community in Lao PDR. It provides an important source of subsistence for the region, through the supply of animal protein for consumption, such as fish, shrimp, crabs, snails and other aquatic animals. Through fishing, the river provides essential employment and additional household income, as well as supplying water for transportation and agriculture.
The decline in fish production in the Mekong River Basin is of increasing concern, not only at the national, but also regional and international levels. Rapid population growth and environmental changes due to the impact of human activity are most likely the main causes of decline in fish numbers (SEAFDEC 2001). Various studies have been undertaken to investigate these issues and to look for alternative solutions to sustainable use of aquatic resources. Fish biology data (fish migration, Catch Per Unit of Effort, hydro-acoustic surveys) and social data (fish production, fish consumption, fish marketing) alone are inadequate for planning and development of natural resources. Indigenous knowledge, however, has shown effective ways to manage fisheries resources in local communities.
Differences are evident between the use of scientific based and local knowledge systems. Scientific knowledge is utilised by scientists and is used for decision making at a national level for planning and development. On the other hand, local communities have developed their own management systems based on observation and direct contact with the environment for sustainable development of their resources. However, indigenous knowledge alone is inadequate to deal with fish stock management and planning. There needs to be a certain level of knowledge and technique taken from scientific methods, in addition to local knowledge, to manage fisheries resources in the Mekong River, where the environment is very complex and there are a diversity of fish species.
It has been said that the most cost effective way to deal with sustainable development is by combining local knowledge with scientific systems. Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
1 have the capability of storing, analysing and manipulating information in various ways and can be used to integrate these two knowledge systems. In this thesis the focus is on small-scale fisheries management in Khong District, Champasack province. GIS will be applied as the main tool for data analysis and communication. This research will use spatial databases in GIS to record, process and present data and information to assess knowledge systems and form a new knowledge based system that combines qualitative information from indigenous knowledge with quantitative data from scientific knowledge that can then be applied to sustainable natural resource development.
1.2 Background and rational Lao PDR is endowed with rich natural water resources. The Mekong River flows from the most northern to the southernmost part of the country. It drains a catchment area of 795,000 square kilometres, out of which 606,000 square kilometres is the Lower Mekong Basin. It comprises almost the whole of Lao PDR and Cambodia, one third of Thailand, and one fifth of Viet Nam (Figure 1.2) (Coates et al. 2003). The Mekong River has a remarkable diversity of fish. It has been estimated between 12,000 to 17,000 fish species inhabit the Mekong River Basin (Coates et al. 2003). Some 481 species have been documented in Lao PDR (Kottelat 2001) and many more are still awaiting taxonomic identification.
The Mekong supports one of the largest inland fisheries in the world. An estimated two million tonnes of fish and other aquatic animals are consumed annually in the Lower Mekong Basin (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam). Of this, 1.5 million tonnes originates from catches in natural water-bodies, and 240,000 tonnes from catches in reservoirs. The total value of the catch is an estimated US$1,200 million (Sverdup-Jensen 2002).
Fisheries management covers a wide range of issues. Some of the key issues are sustainable production and resource utilisation. In the Lower Mekong Basin, there is a need to introduce sustainable management practices as over-fishing and environmental degradation are problems (Coates et al.2003). Participation of stakeholders and increasing management responsibilities at the local level can be seen to be key approaches to effective fisheries management.
2 Boivin et al. (2003) pointed out that as a tool, GIS and remote sensing data, could make a substantial contribution to monitoring fisheries habitats and wetlands, and also provide complementary information on land-use, weather patterns, flood events and related environmental parameters.
GIS can be used for fisheries management to find out where the watersheds are, upstream influences, downstream water quality and quantity, and blocking of waterways influencing fish that go upstream for spawning or to find food (Sjorslev 2000a). GIS operational procedures and analytical tasks are particularly useful for spatial analysis, allowing manipulation of indigenous knowledge systems or traditional fisheries management systems and, presentation and analysis of geographically referenced data of Catch per Unit of Effort (CPUE) / Hydro-acoustic data with indigenous knowledge, which can then be applied in fisheries research and management.
During 1993-1997, 64 villages in Khong District, Champasack province established a total of 68 Fish Conservation Zones (FCZs) in deep water sections of the Mekong River (Baird et al. 1999a). These deep river sections, which are often referred to as ‘deep pools’ (Poulsen et al. 2002) allegedly serve as dry season refuges for a large number of both sedentary and migratory fish species. In order to conserve and sustain use of the living aquatic resources of the FCZs and fishing grounds near the village, village communities have established fisheries regulations prohibiting fishing in FCZs the whole year round and restricting use of certain fishing gear (Baird et al. 1999b). Warren (1992) argued that in the past decade, indigenous knowledge has been ignored by decision-makers, due to its unscientific and unsystematic documentation. Whilst researchers and decision-makers have come to recognise the importance of indigenous knowledge, there still remains the question of ownership (Hirsch 2003).
In 1993, Catch per Unit of Effort was established to conduct basic research on seasonal fish migration, with the long-term objective of establishing a data series for fisheries monitoring. From 1993 to 1997 technical and financial support from the International Development and Research Centre of Canada (IDRC) was provided to provincial and district staff of the Department of Livestock and Fishery for conducting CPUE (LARReC 2000a; Singhanouvong et al. 1996a). The CPUE study of wet season migration indicated that this is the main period of
3 downstream movement of pangasid and silurid in the channel known locally as Hoo Som Yai, located just west of the main Phapeng Waterfall. CPUE research into dry season migrations was also carried out at Ban Hat village, Khong district and Ban Hadsalao near Pakse town. The research highlights the upstream migration of small cyprinid groups occurring during January to April (Singhanouvong et al. 1996b).
In March 2000, Living Aquatic Resources Research Centre (LARReC) carried out a further assessment survey of FCZs. The aim of this study was to provide scientific evidence to support anecdotal reports referred to during interviews with local people. LARReC initiated a CPUE fisheries monitoring program in four villages in the Khong district, which aimed at understanding the impact of the FCZs on fish abundance and catches (LARReC 2000b). The CPUE data collection in Hoo Som Yai, Ban Hat and Ban Hadsalao will continue until 2006. However, the CPUE data alone is insufficient to support effective management and planning, and a new research method of using hydro-acoustic equipment to investigate the role of deep pools and fish stock was introduced.
In 2002, LARReC conducted a hydro-acoustic survey to test the advantages and constraints of using this method to undertake fish biomass assessments in the deep pools and FCZs of the Khong District, Champasack province. Kolding (2000) noticed that hydro-acoustic research methodologies might be particularly useful alone, or in combination with, CPUE data collection, to study deep pools and fish conservation zones in the Mekong. In order to continue research on the possibility of using hydro-acoustic surveys in deep pool areas of Khong Island, between October 2003 and February 2004 the LARReC/NARI project conducted more hydro-acoustic surveys. These aimed at improving understanding of the ecological functioning and significance of deep pools to fish species of the Mekong River; and to clarify if fish abundance and fish behaviour in the sample deep pools could serve as significant indicators of the aquatic ecosystem performance (Phounsavath et al. 2003).
According to Kolding (2000) deep pools in the Mekong River appear to be well suited to hydro- acoustic equipment, especially during the low water season when there are moderate currents. Survey results have shown that the method is easily applied, with the possibility of collecting
4 large information over short periods of time. Relative information, such as overall density estimates and general size distributions can be readily collected without doing any harm to fish stocks. However, for more accurate estimates, as well as species compositions and size frequencies, it is necessary to combine hydro-acoustic data with CPUE data and some kind of test fishing (Viravong et al. 2004).
DeWalt (1999) argued that development projects should integrate both indigenous and scientific knowledge without relying on the findings of one or the other. He acknowledges that there is an implicit assumption that science is ‘value free’ and ‘socially and culturally neutral’, therefore, all knowledge is constructed through a dialectical process between the author and the subject, or the observer and the observed.
A problem emerges, however, when large quantities of fisheries data (biology and socio- economic) is collected and stored in the form of socio-economic reports or unanalysed databases that are not often used or readed by decision makers. At the same time, the value of indigenous knowledge and co-management approaches to decision-making process for sustainable management and use of natural resources is recognised. Indigenous knowledge provides information about the fishing ground and fish abundance, as well as fish species over specific times and locations, while CPUE and hydro-acoustic data (known as scientific information) can confirm fish migration patterns, fish biology and geographical conditions of the fishing habitat. It can be seen that these two views are separated from each other.
There is a need to develop a method to accommodate indigenous knowledge and scientific information for fisheries management in the small scales fisheries of the Mekong River. This method should be able to store, analyse and disseminate the information mentioned above. Geographical Information Systems has the potential function to combine ordinary statistics with geographic location to create a meaningful, attractive map that can be applied to natural resource management and development needs. This research aims to use GIS as a tool for integrating indigenous and scientific knowledge in fisheries co-management in fish conservation zones, Khong district, Champasack province, Lao P.D.R.
5 1.3 Research objective and questions The research objective is to determine an approach which integrates indigenous and scientific information in GIS, as a way of analysing and promoting participatory fisheries co-management in the Mekong River Basin. The research is designed to investigate the establishment of fisheries co-management by local communities, and the existing management system in fish conservation zones in Khong District, as a case study. This study will also analyse CPUE and hydro-acoustic data and take this into account for fisheries management at different scales in the Mekong River Basin. The hypothesis is that integrating indigenous knowledge and scientific information systems will provide a better understanding of natural resources, which can then be used to monitor the use of aquatic resources in the region.
The research will be centred on the following questions: 1. What is the link between indigenous knowledge and traditional access to fisheries resources? 2. What is the relationship between scientific knowledge and access to fish conservation zones? 3. What is the link between indigenous knowledge and scientific knowledge systems, and what is their compatibility? 4. How can GIS aid the integration of different knowledge systems into sustainable management and use of fisheries resources?
1.4 Research design and methods 1.4.1 Research design The research framework is designed to understand small scale fisheries management in the Mekong River Basin. Co-management in fish conservation zones in Khong district, Champasack province will be used as a case study. The research is designed to document local knowledge systems and to look for the correlation with scientific information in fisheries management. GIS will be used as a tool to combine and interpret these two knowledge systems via the use of maps.
GIS can be used in two ways. Firstly, GIS can be used to analyse the relationship between local indigenous knowledge and scientific knowledge systems. Secondly, it can be used to compile
6 these two knowledge systems together and to visualise this information via maps. GIS has special functions that are particularly useful for spatial analysis, including single layer operations, multiple layer operations, spatial modeling, point pattern analysis, network analysis, surface analysis, and grid analysis (Chou 1997). This research will focus mainly on single, multiple layer operations and spatial analysis. Single layer operations can analyse data that corresponds to attribute queries, spatial queries, and alter data operating on a single data layer. Multiple-layer operations can manipulate spatial data on a multiple data layer. Multiple-layer operations can be classified into three categories: overlay, proximity and spatial correlation analyses (ESRI 2005). Overlay analysis involves the logical connection and manipulation of spatial data on separate layers. Proximity analysis deals with operational procedures that are based on distance measurement between features on different layers. Spatial correlation analysis is useful for revealing the relationships between features of different types. ArcGIS has a powerful function to create multi-layers that can help to visualise all information about fishing activities and management, namely fishing grounds, FCZs, fish species caught, fishing gear used, management systems and so on. The research will follow the steps as shown in Figure 1.1.
1.4.2 Methodology There are three main methods of collecting indigenous knowledge information, namely interviews, observation and guided field walks (Maundu 1995). Many field researchers find that in order to obtain accurate and detailed information, it is best to combine these three methods. This research is designed to use three methods to gather data, namely: secondary data collection, village stay and observation, and qualitative methodologies (semi-structured open-ended interviews).
1.4.2.1 Secondary data collection Different data sources have been used for this research, including the Sydney University library, the Australian Mekong Resource Centre library, and the Living Aquatic Resources Research Centre library. Information sources have included reports, project documents, project research related to GIS, indigenous knowledge and co-management, as well as online-electronic sources used to obtain broader information related to the topic. Annual reports from provincial and district office have also been considered important to this research.
7 1.4.2.2 Village stay and observation The village stay and observation was the most important part of this study because researchers had the chance to observe and obtain information first hand. Generally in Lao PDR, the local community do not want to talk to outsiders if these people come in for only a brief period of time. Data on agriculture production and fisheries is very difficult to obtain because local people fear the information may be used for calculating taxes. Researchers were given very good background information on the villages and created a close relationship between themselves and villagers. The survey team also participated in fishing and some cultural activities. As a result, villagers discussed issues freely and gave information without any fear of reprisal. On average, the survey team stayed 20 days in each village. In total around 25 days in each village were spent on interviews and data collection.
1.4.2.3 Semi-structured open-ended interviews The reason why this research selected a semi-structure open-ended interview format as a principal of the research is because it is the most flexible method. Questionnaires do not require formulating ahead of time and require only a checklist identifying a particular set of subtopics that are thought to be relevant to the wider issues being investigated. The checklist provides a guide to specific questions and to broader selection therefore allowing interviewers to gain a better understanding of local variations. This method is also commonly used for collecting ethno-botanical information (Maundu 1995).
The study used a participatory approach and rapid rural appraisal through semi-structured open- ended interviews of the village heads and elder group representatives from all the target villages. The main advantage of focus groups in comparison to other methods is the opportunity to observe a large amount of interaction on a topic in a limited period of time based on the researcher’s ability to assemble and direct the focus group sessions (Morgan 1997). In addition, as a rule, the information is more correct, as it is discussed and debated by the more knowledgeable members of the group. Individual fishermen and government officials at different levels (national, provincial and district officer) were also included in these interviews.
8 Semi-structured open-ended interviews were employed both in isolation and in cooperation with other techniques. GPS data collection, maps and diagrams were also used. Interviewing was integral to the whole research process. Literature on interview techniques and skills was considered important. Publications which relate to these techniques include: Fowler and Mangione 1990; Fowler 1995; Hollway and Jefferson 2000; Keppel 1991; Morgan 1997; Presser et al. 2004.
1.4.2.4 Qualitative questionnaire design Various question topics that relate to indigenous knowledge of fisheries provided the background for the interviews based on sub-topics developed during the interview. However, five challenges to writing the questions (Fowler 1995) needed to be considered: firstly defining objectives and specifying the kind of answers needed to meet the objective of the question; secondly, ensuring that all respondents have a shared, common understanding of the meaning of the question; thirdly, ensuring that people are asked questions to which they know the answers; fourthly, asking questions that respondents are able to answer in the terms required by the question; and finally, asking questions respondents are willing to answer accurately.
1.4.3 Research village Khong district was chosen as the research study area for two reasons. Firstly, most previous research in CPUE and hydro-acoustic studies have been conducted in Khong district. Secondly, fish conservation zones have been initiated in the study villages.
In accordance with the scoping study conducted in February 2004, and field observation on seasonal changes in fisheries in July 2004 in Khong district, the deep pools can be classified into three categories according to depth - namely 4-13 m, 14-27m and 28 - 40m (Figure 1.5). Not all of the deep pools were included in the fish conservation zones. The use of fishing gear was different from village to village depending on the fishing ground, target fish species and seasonal changes. Taking the geographical location of the villages and deep pools into consideration, researchers chose three villages Don Houat, Hatxaykhoun, and Hat in Khong district, Champasack province as case studies (Figure 1.3). Two of them (Don Houat and Hatxaykhoun) have fish conservation zones, and are involved in hydro-acoustic and CPUE
9 surveys. However, they have different fisheries management systems and their deep pools are different depths. The third village, Hat, has many deep pools but doesn’t have fish conservation zones, so this village is used as a referent site.
1.4.4 Fieldwork methods and data collection 1.4.4.1 Field data collection
The research team consisted of five people: three persons from LARReC (including the candidate), one person from the Provincial Agriculture and Forestry Office, and one person from the District Agriculture and Forestry Office. At the beginning, the candidate joined the deep pool survey team which was conducted in three study villages. Two LARReC senior staff were responsible for deep pool survey using hydro acoustic equipment, while the researcher assisted in capturing deep pools and fish habitat positioning using GPS, and provided technical assistance on data backup. This data is needed for future data analysis using GIS. The research design for the interviews was originally decided by the candidate with the provincial and district officers involved in making appointments with the village head man and fishermen. The objective of the deep pool survey was to understand the role of deep pools, including their geographical condition, that may serve as a fish habitat for Mekong fish species. This deep pool survey project was also conducted in the Mekong River in Cambodia and the results between deep pools in Laos and Cambodia were compared (Viravong et al. 2004).
After selecting study areas in February and July 2004, data collection from fieldwork started (December 2004 - February 2005). Data collection focused on three main areas. The first was general information about the villages: number fishing households; fishing boats; fish habitat; fish resources and fish species as well as existing fisheries management systems; mapping of deep pools; fishing grounds; and fish conservation zones. The second area of data collection focussed mainly on fishing experiences: the use of local knowledge in fishing activities; knowledge of fish lifecycles namely fish habitat, migration and spawning grounds; the existence of fish regulation; and changes in fisheries resources over time. The third area of data was collected from government institutions (at national, provincial and district levels) and international organisations and NGOs on the use of existing information on fisheries
10 management; the existing management system; and future plans for fisheries management at different levels.
The first type of data collection involved talking to the village heads and elder representatives of the villages. In Lao PDR, these people are known as Naewhom. They provided general information on village resources and fisheries activity, the changes in fisheries over time, the history of setting up fish conservation zones, as well as the participation of the village community in formulation of fisheries regulations for the village. Where fish conservation zones existed, the information about management and the influences of fish conservation zones on fish production and the livelihoods of local communities were also included in discussions.
The second group interviewed were fishermen groups; the interviews focused on fishing experiences, the use of indigenous knowledge to access fishing grounds, fishing gear used, species caught and so on. In order to ensure the information collected was accurate and represented the communities, it was decided to divide individual interviews into three sub- groups. The first sub-group was the expert fishermen, who have very good experience in fishing, the second group was the fishermen who have good experience and the last group was fishermen who have little fishing experience.
The third type of data collection involved talking to government officials at the Department of Livestock and Fisheries, Living Aquatic Resources Research Centre, provincial and district officials, international organisations and NGOs. The interviews asked for general information about natural resource management, the use of different knowledge systems, current research in fisheries management, the role of organisations involved in fisheries development and conservation of natural resources, fisheries policy frameworks as well as the formulation of fisheries regulations.
Approximately 30 fishermen in each village were interviewed, resulting in a total of 90 fishermen interviewed overall. Small discussion groups (five persons) were formed in each village. These groups represented different levels of experience in terms of fishing activities (very good, good and little experience). A total of six groups (two very good fisher groups, two
11 good fisher groups and two little experience fishermen groups) in each village were formed for interview.
In total, 18 groups were questioned about fishing activities both in recent years and the past, fish species, fishing gear, changes in fish composition and species, the formulation of FCZs, fishing regulation, etc.
Thirty persons from government institutions (LARReC/DLF/NAFRI, PAFO, DAFO) and from MRC, LNMRC, and NGOs were also selected for interview.
1.4.4.2 Mental Mapping and Global Positioning Systems De Graaf et al. (2000) pointed out that in order to ensure sustainable use and effective management of fisheries resources, it is important to understand three components: the fishermen, fish species and fish habitat. An understanding of the relationship between these factors is needed to determine different methods and studies. Fishermen and fish species information can be obtained via interview and observation, while habitat is visualised through graphing. One of the most appropriate methods of visualising graphs is through mapping. Although, mapping is time consuming, if a researcher is not familiar with the environment of these areas, the local communities are seen to have a better understanding of their resources than outsiders. Understanding of the environment associated with agricultural and fishing practices are the advantage in knowledge that local fishing communities have. In order to gather this information and make it easier to understand, mental mapping can be used – a technique which has already been successfully used in rural development and environmental conservation (Puginier 1999).
Theories of mental mapping, participatory GIS and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) have been studied (Craig et al. 2002; Gatrell 1983; Leick 1995; Lioyd 1997). Attention has been paid to both mental mapping techniques and mapping elements. Mental mapping differs from digital mapping in terms of accuracy and the use of symbols. This is because it is concerned with memories and observation in specific areas. Not all fishermen know every fishing ground in their village. Selecting a representative group of fishermen was vitally important and a group
12 were carefully selected composed of village heads, elderly persons and expert fishermen who had been involved in fishing practices for at least 20 years. Mental maps are an important tool for communicating with local communities. They can be used on a small scale within a specific area and also have the potential to integrate with GIS to further manipulate and analyse data in different themes or layers to produce an attractive map that can be useful for monitoring and planning purposes.
Mental maps were made based on a participatory mapping method, a mapping process which began straight after interviews finished with the first group. The main purpose of mental maps is to explore and document indigenous knowledge related to spatial locations, that can then be linked with GIS. Key informants were asked to draw a village map, which showed fishing grounds, FCZs etc. Each deep pool and fishing group was marked onto the map. Motor boats were used to visit deep pools and fishing grounds where fish finder and Garmin 76 GPS were applied to record the geographical location and the depth of deep pools. Environmental characteristics of each deep pool were also observed and recorded.
1.5 Outline of thesis This thesis has been developed in eight chapters (Figure 1.4). Chapter one is a brief introduction to Lao PDR’ fisheries and concerns in fisheries management. Research scope, objective, question and research methodology are also detailed in this chapter.
Chapter two outlines the relevant literature, and aims to develop a research framework. A number of topics are reviewed, in particular the knowledge systems of both scientific and local knowledge which focus on natural resource management issues. This chapter also deals with scientific research applications namely GIS, CPUE and hydro-acoustic methods, which more specifically apply in fisheries management.
Chapter three involves the Mekong River fisheries. It explains the role of Mekong River fisheries in the livelihoods of the people in the Mekong River Basin. It also looks at the development of captures fisheries and aquaculture. This chapter explores Lao PDR’ fisheries and focuses particularly on the Khong fisheries, both in terms of management and conservation
13 issues. This chapter also seeks to understand fisheries management in the Lao PDR context, particularly fisheries policy and development frameworks.
Chapter four describes findings in spatial location, based on two different knowledge based systems - mental mapping as an indigenous knowledge system, and GPS based map systems (scientific system). This chapter seeks to compare these two knowledge systems and tries to compile a GIS map aimed towards the use of management and planning in fisheries sectors.
Chapter five covers fish species and abundance, describing scientific information such as CPUE data, and the perception of local communities to fish species and abundance. It focuses on both the differences and similarities that can provide further support to the fisheries management planning process.
Chapter six examines deep pools and fish stock, focusing on information gathering from hydro- acoustic surveys to describe fish, the importance of deep pools and fish stock assessment, and the local communities experiences with deep pools and the assessment of fish stock.
Chapter seven deals with synthesis and the analytical framework of the study, using GIS to integrate indigenous and scientific knowledge into a GIS database and to interpret the GIS digital map. This chapter also deals with the theoretical analysis of results.
Chapter eight is a summary of the main findings, the significance of research and its implications, and the conclusions of the research.
14 Figure 1.1: Research diagram
15 Figure 1.2: Map of Lao PDR provinces
16 Figure 1.3: Geographical location of study villages
17 Figure 1.4 Thesis outline diagram
18 Figure 1.5: Map of deep pools in Khong District (Source: LARReC 2005)
19 Chapter II: Knowledge systems
2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews knowledge systems for fisheries management, namely indigenous and scientific knowledge systems that have been employed for the management and development of natural resources. Indigenous knowledge (IK) is one of many knowledge systems that has recently been recognised as valuable in community-based natural resource management. The importance of IK, the reasons why it has been ignored from mainstream studies, as well as methods of documentation and integration will be discussed. Decentralisation, or empowerment of local communities in management and planning processes, is looked at and there will be a focus on fisheries co-management issues both in marine and inland fisheries, including the history, experiences and lessons learnt from both around the world and within the Lao PDR context. Two scientific knowledge (SK) methods in fisheries research in the Mekong River are covered: Catch per Unit of Effort research methods which attempt to understand fish migration routes; and the hydro-acoustic survey methodology which has recently been introduced to the Mekong River to investigate the role of deep pools and fish stock on Khong Island. The advantages and disadvantage of these two knowledge systems are discussed. Finally, GIS and its potential use for fisheries management is explored, with special attention being paid to the analytical and visualisation functions that can be used within GIS to integrate IK and SK.
2.2 Indigenous Knowledge Indigenous knowledge (IK) has been defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society, acquired by indigenous and local people over many hundreds of years through direct contact with the environment (Warren 1992). It may include an intimate and detailed knowledge of plants, animals, and natural phenomena, as well as the development and use of appropriate technologies for hunting, fishing, trapping, agriculture, and forestry.
Indigenous knowledge, also referred to as ‘traditional’ or ‘local’ knowledge, is embedded in communities, and is unique to a given culture, location or society. As IK is closely related to survival and subsistence, it provides a basis for local-level decision making in food security, human and animal health, education, natural resource management and various other community-based activities (Warren 1980; Guchtereire et al. 1999). IK is dynamic, the result
20 of a continuous process of experimentation, innovation, and adaptation. It has the capacity to blend with knowledge based on science and technology, and should therefore be considered complementary to scientific and technological efforts to solve problems in social and economic development.
In the 1950s, Conklin studied the ethno-ecology of indigenous knowledge understanding of plants in Hanunoo in the Philippines. His findings highlighted that by using indigenous knowledge more plant species were identified, than those that could be identified by botanical scientists (Conklin 1957 cited by Ellen 1985). As a result of Conkin’s findings, many researchers became interested in IK and began debating the importance of indigenous knowledge in forestry and agriculture management and development (Richards 1985; Ellen 1995; Warren 1992).
Many studies have highlighted the importance of IK in rural development and natural resource management. Warren (1992) studied the role rural communities in Africa have played in generating knowledge based on a sophisticated understanding of their environment, devising mechanisms to conserve and sustain their natural resources. Indigenous people in Africa identify specific plants and animals as occurring within particular ecological zones (Meenhan 1980). They have a well-developed knowledge of animal behavior, and also know which plants are associated with particular animals. Plant types in turn are associated with soil type, each ecological zone represents a system of interactions among plants, animals, and soils and the people. IK has been used in traditional medicine in Africa and Indonesia (Howes 1980b; Erdelen et al.1999) to discover traditional herbal medicine and treatment methods.
Richards (1985) pointed out that after several decades of failure to control the trypanosomiasis problem in colonial Africa, scientists concluded that many scientific solutions made the problem worse and not better, and that it might be advisable to reassess indigenous management strategies. Based on experiences in Africa, Richards argued that indigenous knowledge of environmental management is dynamic and innovative and not merely static. IK has been developed and adapted according to environmental changes. For example intercropping facilitates not only protection against soil erosion by lengthening the period in which crops are in the farm, but also the diversity of plant leafing and growth characteristics which helps minimise insect problems (Richards 1985).
21 Recently scientists have begun to demonstrate how native people can teach us new models for sustainable natural resource use and management. Their ancient traditions, developed through millennia of experience, observation and experiment, do have relevance in providing options for future development (Calamia 1999; Posey 2004). DeWalt (1999) pointed out that development projects should integrate both indigenous and scientific knowledge without relying solely on the findings of one or the other. IK can not only complement scientific knowledge by qualitative monitoring, but also provide long-term local observation for understanding ecosystem change (Howes 1980a; Berkes et al. 2002). This qualitative data is not available via scientific systems, is time consuming and requires a high cost for data collection. In fisheries management, for example, fishermen’s knowledge of fish habitat, behaviour, marine physical environments and the interaction among the component (Grant et al. 2003) is vital information for short and long-term management and planning.
As Johanes et al. (2000) pointed out ‘ignore fishermen’s knowledge and miss the boat’. In the case of the North Atlantic cod fisheries collapse, the weakness of scientific information was highlighted, along with the need to take fishermen’s knowledge seriously in management planning. He added that when scientific and knowledge are combined, our confidence in both increases. Worldwide, examples of combining indigenous and scientific knowledge to improve agriculture and natural resource management are well documented (DeWalt 1999; Ortiz 1999; Tabor et al. 1994).
The disadvantage of IK is that it is not documented and stored in a systematic way. The main reason for this is that it is handed down orally from generation to generation. According to Guchteneire et al. (1999) the characteristics of indigenous knowledge are that: it is generated within communities; is location and culture specific; it is the basis for decision making and survival strategies; it is not systematically documented; and it is dynamic and based on innovation, adaptation, and experimentation.
Issues of ownership have emerged when the use of IK is mainly of benefit to outsiders (Posey et al. 1995). Native peoples rarely benefit from the marketing of traditional knowledge or natural products. In the last decade, indigenous peoples have been increasingly debated in terms of human rights, biodiversity conservation, environment and development. The United Nations has emerged as a primary forum for the discussion of intellectual
22 property rights and has drafted the United Nations Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (Posey et al. 1995).
IK has long been ignored as it is not systematically recorded, does not exist in written form, and/or is based on assumption (Warren 1992; Boven et al. 2002). These limitations have excluded IK from scientific knowledge systems. Many researchers have tried to bridge this gap by developing data collection and storage methods for integrating IK with scientific knowledge. According to Maundu (1995) there are three methods to obtain ethno-botanical information: interviews, observations and guided field walks.
The most cost-effective way of recording and storing IK so that it can be used to facilitate national development efforts, may be through the growing global network of indigenous knowledge resource centres (Warren 1992). In 1992, there were 10 indigenous knowledge centres, three with global functions, two with regional roles, and five with regional and national roles. In 1999, the Management of Social Transformations Programme and the Centre for International Research and Advisory Networks published 27 indigenous knowledge best practices, which were included in the UNESCO-MOST database (Guchteneire et al. 1999). By 2002, 28 Indigenous Knowledge Resource Centres had been established worldwide (UNESCO 2002) and another 22 best practices using indigenous knowledge had been published (Boven et al. 2002). These best practices are an illustration of the use of indigenous knowledge in cost effective and sustainable strategies, which may help poor people in their daily struggle for survival. These practices provide alternative solutions that can improve development planning by providing policy-makers with deeper insights into the many different aspects of sustainable development and the interrelated role of local people and their culture.
According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) program on Traditional Knowledge for Conservation (IUCN 1996: 15) there are five practical benefits of indigenous knowledge: - Traditional knowledge may be useful for new biological and ecological insights. - Traditional knowledge is of great value for resource management. - Traditional knowledge is often applied to protected areas and conservation education.
23 - In development and planning, traditional knowledge may benefit development agencies in providing more realistic evaluation of environment, natural resources and production systems. - Traditional knowledge is suitable for environmental assessment.
In the Lower Mekong Basin, the Fisheries Programme of the Mekong River Commission (MRC) has used local knowledge to study a baseline set of data on the life-cycles, habitats and behaviour (particularly in relation to migration and spawning), of important fish species in the Mekong Basin (Poulsen et al. 2001). The study used Rapid Participatory Appraisal and interview methods to gather indigenous knowledge from fishermen about fish migration and spawning habitat, and changing fish composition and species over time. The study has shown that by accessing local knowledge it is possible to obtain important information that may not have been uncovered using conventional biological techniques (MRC 2001a).
A similar study has been carried out by the Knowfish project (the Institute for Fishery Management, Denmark) which aimed to investigate knowledge based fisheries management in Xedon River, Champasack province. This study used participatory methods to collect information by asking fishermen to draw maps which included the village location, and where and how they chose to go fishing. Environmental changes in the last 30 years, as well as fish species and management methods were also recorded (Wilson 1999).
The studies above have used indigenous knowledge as a tool to extract information from local communities. There are still concerns, however, about the ownership of the information and how this information can be accepted and combined with the scientific data for the planning and management of natural resources. It has been argued that while indigenous knowledge provides valuable information which can be applied to sustainable development, scientific information can also support and provide more specific data on biology or module for long term monitoring and development of natural resources. It is believed that by combining these two knowledge systems together, it will complement their strengths and weaknesses (Ogunbameru et al. 1996) and provide better understanding of our resources.
24 4.3 Fisheries co-management Fisheries in developing countries are under pressure due to increasing population growth, environmental changes, overexploitation of resources, and conflicts over access to resources. Current fisheries management approaches in Southeast Asia and Southern Africa based on centralised government intervention have proven inadequate in overcoming these pressures and in resolving user-group conflicts (Jentoft et al.1995; Persoon et al. 2003; Raakjær Nielsen et al. 2004). There is need for a new governance approach to deal with the problem facing fishing communities. One of the most significant developments has been the broad promotion of co-management programmes.
Co-management has been defined as an arrangement where management responsibility is shared between the government and fishing communities (Viswanathan et al. 2003). It can be viewed as a set of institutional and organisational arrangements that define the cooperation among the fisheries administration and fishing communities (Raakjær Nielsen et al. 1995). Other terms for co-management, include: ‘joint management’, ‘community based management’, ‘adaptive management’ and ‘collaborative management’.
During the last decade the co-management concept has been increasingly accepted by government institutions, development agencies and researchers as an appropriate arrangement for future fisheries management systems (Berkes 1991, Raakjær Nielse et al. 2004). At the same time it has become evident that the co-management concept is not clearly defined and that it means different things to different people. A number of studies in fisheries co-management systems have been undertaken, and the lessons and experiences are well documented (Clifton 2003; Degnbol 2001, 2003; de Silva 2004; Eggert et al. 2003; Jentoft et al. 1998; Jul-Larsen et al. 2003; Pomeroy et al. 2003; Phuthego et al. 2004; Raakjær Nielsena 1996; Sverdrup-Jensen et al.1998; Thompson et al. 2003).
The most important factors in the growth of co-management systems are (Persoon et al. 2003:5): 1. Failure of centralised natural resource management by the state. 2. The processes of democratisation in many countries, whereby greater prominence has been given to local interests.
25 3. Environmental NGOS, many with strong financial backing from abroad, have become more powerful and vocal in advocating local people’s interests. 4. The ‘spirit of the time’, as promoted by the donor agencies. 5. Romanticisation of the past as part of an increased ethnic awareness and identity, providing a basis for revitalisation of traditional management structures adjusted to present- day circumstances. 6. Aspects of distributive justice are being incorporated in natural resources management, in tandem with the alleviation of poverty. 7. Food and environmental security are now higher on the political agenda; there is acknowledgement that local potential for self-sufficiency might be strengthened by new management arrangements.
There are different incentives for cooperation between fishermen and government. The most important incentives for fishermen to cooperate with government are: over-exploitation of resources, conflict between commercial and small-scale fishermen, conflict between fishermen and others sector interests, lack of access rights, and lack of participation in fisheries management decision-making. From a government perspective, the most important incentives to cooperate with the resource users are: failure in centralised management, over- exploitation of fish resources, high costs of resource monitoring, control and enforcement, avoidance of conflicts among resource users, and donors promoting policy co-management (Sverdrup-Jensen et al.1998).
Co-management arrangements, no matter how well designed and implemented, however, can never solve all environmental problems. Different management structures will still be necessary for some resources, user groups and circumstances. In general, though, co- management arrangements have proven to be helpful in overcoming a variety of problems formerly associated with state and centralised styles of management. This does not, however, imply that co-management projects are always successful, nor that implementation of these new management regimes is unproblematic (Berkes 1991).
Sen et al. (1996:406) classified typology of co-management into five types according to the role government and users play in management and decision processes: Type A: Instructive: Minimal exchange of information between government and users. Co- management regime is only different from centralised management in the sense that the
26 mechanisms exist for dialogue with users, but the process itself tends to be government informing users of the decisions they plan to make. Type B: Consultative: Mechanism exists for government to consult with users, but all decision are taken by government. Type C: Cooperative: Government and users cooperate together as equal partners in decision-making. Type D: Advisory: Users advise government of decisions to take and government endorses these decisions. Type E: Informative: Government has delegated authority to make decisions to user groups who are responsible for informing government of these decisions.
Sverdrup-Jensen et al. (1998) argued that co-management should not be considered a precise management concept, but rather a strategy to involve and integrate user groups as participants in decision process. Therefore, from an administrative viewpoint, co- management arrangement can be classified into three types (Raakjaer Nielsen et al. 1997:15): Consultative: where co-management takes the form of consultation with user groups at a central level. Cooperative: where co-management is a cooperative process between, on one side the government, and on other side the traditional local power structure and user groups. Delegated: where management authority (mainly the determination of operational rules) is delegated to user group at the local /regional level.
There is a multitude of tasks that can be co-managed under the different types of co- management arrangements at different stages in the management process. Co-management involves collaborative decision-making between government and user groups, that includes the role of government and fishermen in decision making, the type of management tasks that need co-management, and the stage in the planning, implementation evaluation process when co-management is introduced (Sen et al. 1996).
Co-management, or empowerment, enables local fishermen to take part in the management decision-making process. Empowerment can be defined as a process or mechanism by which people, organisations, and communities gain mastery over their affairs (Rappaport 1987; cited by Jentoft 2005). Local communities are empowered when it becomes possible for
27 them to sustainably manage their resources. Much research has shown that local fishermen lack capability and experience to participate in decision making with high-ranking people. As Jentoft (2005) stated, capacity building and institution building are vital for the co- management process. Education, training, and field visits are part of the knowledge that fishermen need to gain in order to negotiate and participate in planning and decision making with stakeholders. Case studies in Africa indicate that the lack of capability or aspiration among fishing communities to participate in the fisheries management process reflects the participation of true fishermen in the decision-making process (Sverdrup-Jensen et al. 1998). Experiences from African and Asian countries show that devolution of the authority of fisheries management from government to local fishermen is the most difficult task of co- management, because user groups may not have the aspiration or capabilities to takeover fisheries management responsibilities (Raakjaer Nielsen 1996). Persoon et al. (2003) argued that devolution of management roles and responsibilities will place heavy demands on local organisations and they will still need support from government and NGOs to help develop capability and resources in which many of them are currently inadequate.
In co-management in developing countries, in most cases, NGOs have became actively involved in many activities ranging from organising meetings to providing funds for village development. In Bangladesh, NGOs played a central role in organising and representing fishing interests, until local fishermen were sufficiently organised to represent themselves (Ahmed et al. 1997). The NGOs were also responsible for securing a lease from the government on behalf of the target beneficiaries.
Co-management consists of several aspects of group decision-making, which is important to consider when looking at the background conditions under which fisheries management takes place (Hanna 1998). These background conditions include property rights and uncertainty. Property rights are the set of entitlements to access and rules of use which form peoples expectations about their claims to fisheries (Hanna 1998:3). Uncertainty is a background condition for all fisheries, includes different ecological systems, markets expanding and contracting and government policy changes.
In general, co-management in South and West African contexts have been implemented to encourage the resource users to become involved in establishing operational rules such as gear restriction and closed seasons (Sverdrup-Jensen et al. 1998), but control and law
28 enforcement is mainly left to government departments. In marine fisheries, co-management mainly concerns conflict between user groups about fishing rights and quotas rather then biology conservation. Based on experiences in Asia, co-management can examine the following issues: differences in time perspectives, community and management in community-based management, dissolving state responsibilities and non-local interests, third parties in co-management arrangements, failure and success in co-management, a comparative perspective, the ecological basis of natural resources under co-management arrangement (Persoon et al. 2003).
Pomeroy et al. (2003) described conditions and principles for successful co-management, including individual incentive structures that induce various individuals to participate in the process, leadership, empowerment, trust between partners, effective enforcement, adequate financial resources, local political support and so on.
In recent years, co-management and participatory approaches have been widely promoted and used in Lao PDR in the field of rural and natural resource management. An example of co-management of fisheries in Lao PDR can be found in Baird et al. (1999a), where local communities use indigenous knowledge to establish FCZs to protect fisheries and create fishing rules, while government agencies declare these FCZs and endorse village fishing rules. Local communities are responsible for administration and the implementation process. In Sanasomboun and Phonthong districts, Champasack province, co-management has been established in the form of community based management, whereby communities can manage and utilise their resources by themselves (Noraseng et al. 2001). Similar work has been carried out by the Regional Development Committee (RDC) in Savannakhet province. Keng Noi fisheries conservation in Nam Ngum Reservoir is another example of co-management where the Management of Reservoir Fisheries Project (MRC) plays a role as facilitator and helps communities to formulate fishing regulation. This project also extends to Nam Houm, Nam Souang (Naxaythong district) and Pak Peung, Houa Siet (Borikhamsay district).
In general, the government of Lao PDR is promoting, and focusing on, the participation of the people as a pre-requisite for any community-based natural resource management and development, by performing the development planning process at the district level. The community fisheries and local managers, considered as main stakeholders, should be
29 responsible for planning and implementing the local development plan. Community fishermen and local fisher managers are considered to be very important (Phonvisay, 1997).
2.4 Catch Per Unit of Effort and hydro-acoustic studies 2.4.1 Catch Per Unit of Effort A number of large-scale water development projects are currently being developed in the Mekong River, particularly hydropower development (dams). Dams are known to be one of the main barriers blocking fish migration runs, and can prevent spawning and recruitment (MRC, 2001a). As a result, there is a need to investigate and understand more about fish lifecycles and movements in the Mekong River, so that there can be sustainable development and planning in the future. There are many stock assessment methods for fisheries data collection, namely tagging (capture-recapture), gear calibration, poisoning, hydro-acoustic, and Catch Per Unit of Effort (CPUE) (Cowx 1995).
In the early 1990s, technical difficulties, the environmental characteristic of the Mekong river and the lack of financial support, lead to CPUE being chosen to gather fisheries data in Khong district. Other methods were seen as impractical (gear calibration, poisoning) or high cost and required a certain level of skill to operate (tagging, hydro-acoustic). CPUE studies began in Khong district in southern Lao PDR in 1993, with the aim of investigating the level of migratory activities and migratory patterns of fish in wet and dry seasons around the Khong district. The result of the wet season CPUE study in Hoo Som Yai showed that at least 30 different species of fish migrated during May, June, July and August each year in the area. Some migrated upstream and some migrated down stream. The upstream migrators were: the bagridae: mystus microphthalmus, mystus nemurus; the cyprinidae: cyprinus carpio; the pagasidae: helicophagus waandersii, pangasius bocourti, pangasius conchophilus, pangasius kremfi, pangasius larnaudii, pangasius macronema; the siluridae; kryptoterus sp; the sisoridae; bagarius yarrelli. Most of the species that migrated downstream were carp fish species such as members of the Cyprinidae family: cirrhinus lobanus, cirrhinus siamensis, labeo cf pierrei and probarbus jullieni (Sihanouvong et al. 1996b).
A dry season CPUE study was carried out in Hat Village annually during the dry season from December to March 1994-1996 (during the Chinese New Year). At least 40 different fish species undertake complex migratory movements through the Khong area during the dry
30 season from December to early February each year (Singhanouvong, 1996a). The most important species caught at Hat village were S. bandonesis, M. erthrospila and C. microlepis. Fish migration in this area was dependent on water levels and the lunar cycle. Every year, the catch was high when water levels were down and there were dark nights, especially during the Chinese New Year period each year (around the end of January or early February). Conversely, the catch was low when water levels were high and the nights bright.
Fish biology data for monitoring and planning in the Mekong River are limited; the CPUE data alone cannot determine fish abundance or fish lifecycle. It needs to be linked with other data and factors that directly (eg fish habitat) and indirectly (eg water development) impact fisheries. Deep pools in the Mekong River have been recognised by local communities as critical habitats for many species, and scientists have recently become interested in, and have considered them important, as habitat for brood stocks. It is believed that by conducting more in-depth studies of deep pools, a better understanding of the Mekong fisheries will be provided. An option for long-term fisheries monitoring is the use of high tech equipment like hydro-acoustic analysis to gather information on fish stocks and biomass in deep pools.
2.4.2 Hydro acoustic study Hydro-acoustic (or echo-sounder) systems have been used mainly in marine environments in developed countries, both in research and for commercial purposes. Echo-sounder provides the biomass with related fish length index and its behaviours (Balk et al. 2000), essential for stock assessment and monitoring. However, the high tech hydro-acoustic method is costly and needs high levels of knowledge and experience to operate. In developing countries, hydro-acoustic methods are rarely used, especially not in the riverine environment where water currents are strong and there is high turbidity.
The importance of deep pools as critical habitat for brood stocks has long been known by indigenous people, but only recently been acknowledged by scientists. Further research must be done on the function of deep pools as a fish habitat and spawning ground for important fish species. For this reason, in 2002 the hydro-acoustic method was introduced to the Mekong River with the aim of investigating the possibilities of using this method to monitor fisheries in the important deep pools.
31 In 2002 and 2003, LARReC carried out a hydro-acoustic survey in Khong district Champasack province. The main objective was to test the advantages and disadvantages of using hydro-acoustic survey methodologies in making fish biomass assessments in deep pools and FCZs in the Siphandone areas. The study showed that deep pools in the Mekong River appear to be well suited to hydro-acoustic monitoring, at least during the low water season when there are moderate currents (Kolding 2000). The results showed that the method is easily applicable, with the possibility of collecting large information over short periods of time. Relative information, such as overall density estimates and general size distributions, can be readily collected without harming the fish stocks. For more accurate estimates, as well as accurate data on species compositions, it will be necessary to combine this method with some kind of test fishing.
Although, hydro-acoustic methodologies can provide biomass indexes, size distributions, fish behaviors and information on the bottom condition of deep pools, fish species are very difficult to identify using hydro-acoustic methods alone, and it is necessary to combine with other methods like CPUE collection and indigenous knowledge, to get a full data analysis. In addition, there is not much experience or information available for the use of hydro-acoustic methods in inland fisheries where the water and living aquatic resources are different from marine resources. Therefore, there is a need to develop capacity, not only in technical skills to operate the equipment, but also in understanding of fish ecology and biology. Estimations of fish size distribution from hydro-acoustic surveys are based on swimbladder, and many pangasius species consist of small swimbladders (in comparison to other species), and thus the size may be smaller than the actual fish.
Hydro-acoustic research in Lao PDR is still in its early stages. Data gathered from field surveys needs to be analysed and linked with other information to clarify and check for accuracy. Existing information, like CPUE and indigenous knowledge on fish habitats, species and deep pools, may be useful to use in terms of complementing hydro-acoustic data and to use for monitoring and management of deep pools in the Mekong River.
The issue of conducting research using CPUE and hydro-acoustic surveys, is based on the priorities of who needs the information. When project design and planning are based on the interests of politicians and scientists, local communities have little chance to participate in the planning process. In addition, the mechanism of information dissemination is still
32 limited; most information is stored in national institutions and does not get back to the fishermen and organisations concerns.
2.5 GIS and natural resource management GIS is a computer model that uses tools to store, retrieve, manipulate and analyse data (ESRI 2004). GIS has many components, namely hardware, software, data and personnel (Delaney 2002). The basic principle of GIS is to link data stored in a table with a location on a map. GIS is a tool which allows for the display of spatially-related data in a manner that is easy to understand for most people. It produces digital maps, which are easy to update and integrate with other data sets.
To explore geo-referenced digital information, electronic tools designed for acquiring, presenting, and interacting with information that links locations with measured values are needed (Piearson et al. 2000). One such tool is called a Geographic Information System, better known as GIS. Desktop GIS is an immensely powerful computer mapping system. In general, people use GIS for four main purposes: data creation, data display, analysis, and output. Many industries use GIS, including commercial businesses, transportation, health care, agriculture, and local, state, and federal governments (Stillwell et al. 2004). Industry uses GIS for natural resource management, land use planning, demographic research, environmental assessment and planning.
GIS is a computer-based tool for solving problems. GIS integrates information in a way that helps us understand and find solutions to problems (Goodchild 1997). Data about real-world objects is stored in a database and dynamically linked to an onscreen map, which displays graphics representing real-world objects. When the data in the database changes, the map updates to reflect the changes.
There are essentially two types of GIS: vector and raster systems. These systems differ in the manner by which special data is represented and stored. In vector GIS, special data is defined and presented as point, lines or polygons, while in a raster GIS, space is represented by a uniform grid, each cell of which is assigned a unique descriptor depending on the coordinate system used (ESRI 2005). In both systems, a geographic coordinate system is used to represent space. Many coordinate systems have been defined, ranging from simple
33 Cartesian X-Y grids to spatial representations that correspond or the Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system (Burrough 1996; Thompson et al.1998).
Recent advances in GIS have created a new arena for precision special analysis (Chou 1997). The most important of this new GIS technology is the establishment of a link between map- based analysis of spatial patterns, and well developed, rigorous quantitative analytical methods. Single layer, multiple layers and special modelling analysis are very useful functions in GIS and are commonly used for development and monitoring purposes (ESRI 2004).
Visualisation is one of the most important components of GIS. It can be used to visualise spatial data, and understand spatial distribution and relations. Kraak (2005) describes three roles for GIS visualisation: first, visualisation can be used to present spatial information in the map, which is easily understood by a wide audience, especially the question ‘what is? or where is?’; second, visualisation may be used to analyse the known data. For example, the two datasets can be fully understood but not their relationship. A spatial analysis function overlay can combine the datasets together to determine their relationship. The questions ‘what is the deepest pool’ or ‘what is the critical fish habitat?’ can be answered. Third, visualisation may be used to explore data when unknown and raw data needs to be analysed.
Remote sensing and Geographical Information Systems are the technologies currently favoured in the field of natural resource management and monitoring (Malyvanh et al. 1999; de Graaf et al. 2002). GIS provides a powerful tool to observe and collect information on natural resources and dynamic phenomenon on the earth’s surface, and has the ability to integrate different data and present data in different formats. Through the use of this technology, the most recent and reliable information can be provided to decision makers and planners, to help them formulate appropriate policies and strategies to preserve natural resources.
The importance of remote sensing and GIS for information generation and monitoring of large river fisheries has been reviewed by Boivin et al. (2003). They note that remote sensing approaches can be very cost effective, especially as a large library of relevant data and images has already been obtained for many areas of the globe. GIS can be used as a tool for assessing the impact between environmental, economic and social aspects of fisheries.
34 This includes total fish production and fisheries habitats, dependency of people on aquatic resources and so on. Anuchiracheeva et al. (2003) described how systematised local knowledge could be presented visually as GIS maps for use in marine fisheries management at the local level in Thailand. Close et al. (2005) developed a GIS-based protocol for the collection and use of local knowledge in fisheries management planning. His framework suggests that resource knowledge can originate from two disparate sources - scientific and local knowledge. Scientific and local knowledge pass through a spatial information translator (GIS) that unifies them into a representational and analysis environment, before supplementing the resource knowledge base and subsequently making resource management decisions.
It has been argued that the constraints with remote sensing are not in the technology or cost, but in its application (Boivin et al. 2003). The main problem is that remote sensing specialists generally are not sensitive to the information requirements for inland fisheries in tropical river basins. According to Coates (2002), current statistical systems and information needs for inland fisheries in Southeast Asia show serious discrepancies between information requirements and information generation. In order to protect and conserve fisheries resources in large river basins, it is essential that local fisheries managers have access to up-to-date information and cost-effective tools for monitoring changes in fish habitat and fishing activities (de Graff et al. 2000). As a tool, GIS can make an important contribution to the monitoring of fisheries habitats and wetlands.
The effective management of fisheries resources can be improved through the use of remote sensing and GIS applications. Initial studies have been carried out to test the application of remote sensing and GIS technologies on fish and fish habitats (Boivin et al. 2003). The integration of GIS and remote sensing applications to inland fisheries management has important implications for the assessment of fish abundance, distribution, and habitat classification (Welcomme 2001). de Graff et al. (2002) reported the use of GIS and remote sensing in fisheries monitoring, analysing and management. An example of GIS use in inland fisheries monitoring is the Floodplain Fisheries Monitoring Program developed as part of the Pilot Project in Bangladesh. Boivin et al. (2003) used remote sensing data to record and map fish habitat in the Great Lake and Tonle Sap River basin in Cambodia.
35 Janetos et al. (1999) argued there are a numbers of basic reasons for continued difficulties in using remote sensing and GIS in basic resource management. On one hand, in terms of information policy ‘who owns information, who controls access to it, and what are the roles governing it use?’, on the other hand high prices, access and interpretability are still problems. Remote sensing and GIS technologies by themselves cannot hope to provide everything that is necessary for natural resource management systems. Some information will always be required that can only be collected through in situ observation, measurements, and through tracking economic activity (Janetos et al. 1999).
Recently, participatory GIS has widely been used for natural resource management (McCall 2004; deMan 2004; Trung et al. 2004; Turyatunga 2004). Participatory GIS can be defined as the integration of local knowledge and stakeholders’ perspectives in GIS. According to Quan et al. (2001) stakeholders should also have access to GIS databases and be able to apply GIS to development planning, resource management and advocacy. The documentation and mapping of indigenous knowledge is intended to preserve local knowledge held by local indigenous people, whose ancestors have long inhabited a region (Puginier 1999; Tripathi et al. 2004).
A digital base map of Lao PDR was produced in 1993 by the National Unexploited Ordnance Programme (known as Lao UXO) with cooperation from the Science, Technology and Environment Agency (STEA). This base map includes province and district boundaries, roads, rivers, and village location. Further digital maps were produced by the Mekong River Commission (MRC) Watershed and Classification Project in 2000. These digital maps focus on watershed classification and show the Mekong River and its tributaries, as well as other small streams throughout the country.
Lao UXO was the first organisation to use GIS for monitoring unexploited ordnance in villages in Lao PDR. Agriculture and forestry organisations started using GIS in early 1995 for forest cover classification and monitoring, and soil surveys and land classification (Inthavong 1999; Malyvanh et al.1999). In terms of fisheries management, GIS was initially introduced to map fish migration in the Sedon and Mekong Rivers (Noraseng et al. 2001; Poulsen et al. 2002). Phouthavongs (1999) described the use of GIS in the planning, sampling and data analyses of the fisheries survey in Louangprabang (Sjorslev 2000b). Bush
36 (2003) used GIS to visualise aquaculture ponds and stocking species in Savannakhet province, Lao PDR.
An example of combining indigenous knowledge with GIS techniques in Lao PDR is the creation of a seasonal fish migration map of important fish species in Sepon river, Savannakhet province. Living Aquatic Resources Research Centre used GIS to interpret indigenous knowledge of fishermen in the Sepon district, to show seasonal migration patterns as well as the breeding grounds of some species. The Assessment of Mekong Fisheries Project demonstrated how GIS can link indigenous knowledge with scientific information and use this to create a visual map of fish migration in the Lower Mekong Basin.
Interestingly, most GIS users use GIS as a tool for planning and monitoring specific projects. These users belong to government institutions or organisations that receive aid from international organisations or NGOs. The limitations of the development of GIS as a research tool in Lao PDR, are the likely lack of local experts and financial support; the lack of suitable access and exchange of digital data sources; and policies on information exchange and dissemination. These limitations need to be addressed for the future development of GIS in Lao PDR.
2.6 Conclusion In general, there are two knowledge systems that exist in the development of fisheries resources - indigenous and scientific knowledge systems. Indigenous knowledge has recently been promoted in management and planning processes as a result of donor requirements. There has been a growing awareness of the importance of IK in rural and agriculture development, as IK proves itself to have a vital role in the survival and problem-solving of local communities that rely on these environments. Meanwhile, scientific knowledge plays an important role in the decision making process because it has been developed from a scientific perspective and tested via experimental research. However, in many cases, it is shown that scientific knowledge alone is sometimes inadequate and fails to deal with the management and conservation of aquatic environments. This calls for new, alternative approaches, both in management and research, to be encouraged, which empower the local community to participate in the management and planning process.
37 The failure to address environmental issues with a centralised management system, has urged a shift to new management systems that decentralise power to local users in the management and planning process. Fisheries co-management in Khong Island is an example of a traditional management system whereby local communities initiated FCZs to protect fisheries and formed a village rule to prohibit the use of destructive fishing gear.
Many research methods have recently been applied to fisheries management strategies, including CPUE, hydro-acoustic, remote sensing and GIS. However, these applications still have their limitations and cannot alone provide sufficient information for effective management. They need to be combined with IK to strengthen their use in the monitoring and management process. As most IK provides qualitative information which rarely exists in written documentation, attention must be paid to the collection and storage of IK in systematic ways, as well as methods with which to link IK with SK. Effective methods of IK data collection are through group discussion, observation and mental mapping. GIS is one method commonly used for integration, because of its capacity to store, process and represent data.
38 Chapter III: The Mekong River Fisheries
3.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the importance of the Mekong fisheries to the people living in the Lower Mekong Basin. Firstly, it looks at the contribution of the Mekong River fisheries to food security for the poor and to the regional economy as a whole. Fish species, production, migration as well as the geographical condition of the Mekong River are also described. The research and development of capture fisheries and aquaculture in the Lower Mekong River Basin is discussed, followed by discussion of fisheries in Lao PDR both in terms of current status and management aspects. Finally fisheries in the Khong District are focused on, and more specific attention paid to traditional management systems.
3.2 The importance of fisheries to the people in the Lower Mekong River Basin
The Lower Mekong River Basin is home to the most diverse number of fish and aquatic animals in the world. More than 1200 fish species have been recorded. According to its geographic and aqua-ecological characteristics, the Lower Mekong Basin can be classified into six aqua-ecological zones (Sverdrup-Jensen 2002): Northern Highlands covers all northern parts of Lao PDR including the Vientiane municipality, and is characterised by rugged areas, narrow river valleys and some tributary systems. Korat Plateau is located in northeast Thailand and the west central and southern parts of Lao PDR, and is characterised by large tributaries and a low relief. Annamite Chain covers east central and the southern part of Lao PDR and Northeast part of Cambodia, and is characterised by limestone cliffs, dissected hills and rolling plateaus. The Mekong Plain, characterised by lowland areas, covers most parts of Cambodia and some small parts of the Mekong Delta in Viet Nam. Southern Upland covers the west part of Cambodia, and is characterised by forest and field crops. The Delta Coastal Zone covers the coastal areas adjacent to the South China Sea.
The Mekong River supports one of the largest wild capture fisheries in the world. The annual fish catch is three million tonnes, with an estimated value of US$2,000 million (MRC, 2005). In Cambodia, the fisheries sector contributes 12% of national GDP (Hortle et al. 2004), in Lao PDR fisheries accounts for 7% of the country’s GDP. The fisheries sector in Thailand and Viet Nam are less important when compared to other sectors, but a significant
39 figure of US$750 million is contributed to the economy of each country (MRC 2005). Around 60 million people in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam are dependent directly or indirectly on wild capture fisheries. Dai fisheries in Cambodia, for example, provide several labour opportunities. Wild capture fisheries are the main source of income for the rural poor. Fish processing and others fisheries activities (marketing and trading fishing gear) also provide job opportunities for local communities. Around 71% of all farm households in Lao PDR are engaged in fisheries (NSC 1998). There are also significantly high numbers of people involved in fisheries in Thailand, Viet Nam and Cambodia. It is estimated at least 40 million people are actively engaged in fisheries (Sverdrup-Jensen 2002). Fish are the main source of animal protein for the rural poor. People eat fish at almost every meal, be it fresh, dried or fermented. Fish account for more than 60 percent of animal protein intake of the people in LMB (MRC 2005). In Cambodia, fish and others aquatic animals provide approximately 80 percent of animal protein, vitamins and minerals (especially calcium and vitamin A) (Hortle et al. 2004).
Fisheries in the Mekong River are very complex, both in terms of biology and management systems. The largest freshwater fish in the world are found in the Mekong River, including the Mekong Giant Catfish (pangasianodon gigas), the Giant Barb (catlocarpio siamensis), Giant Stingrays (himantura chaophraya) and Irrawaddy dolphins (orcaella brevirostris). Apart from large species, there are also medium and small species that support more than 50% of the total catch in Khong Island and provide the main source of food and additional income for the rural poor. Fish migration and reproduction are complex and occur in different territories. For example, spawning grounds are located in the Great falls of Lao PDR, while nursing and feeding grounds are found on the floodplains in Tonle Sap and the Great Lake in Cambodia (MRC 2002). During the dry season migration, migratory fish species move into deep pools in the Mekong River in Lao PDR and Cambodia. Overall fish stocks are shared between Viet Nam, Thailand, Cambodia and Lao PDR.
Changes in water development in the upper Mekong River may affect fisheries production in the lower part of the Mekong. Flooded forest and wetlands in the Great Lake and Tonle Sap regions of Cambodia are believed to be the main nursery and spawning habitat of many Mekong fish species. It has been reported that during the wet season, fish from Khong Island migrate to the floodplains of Cambodia, and return to the Mekong River at the end of the wet season when water levels decline.
40 Because of the complexity of ecosystems and fish migration systems in the Mekong River, there is no doubt that management systems needed cooperation from each country that benefits from Mekong fisheries. The Mekong River Commission (MRC) is an intergovernmental body created in 1995 by an agreement between the governments of Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam. The main goal of the MRC is to coordinate water resource development for the sustainable use of water resources, including fisheries and aquatic animals, in the four riparian countries.
3.3 Capture fisheries and aquaculture development
Capture fisheries in the Mekong River are historically and traditionally important to people in the Mekong regions. The main fishing season can be categorised into wet and dry seasons, when fish migrate from the Mekong River to floodplains and tributaries for spawning and feeding in the wet season, and move back to the Mekong River for refuge and shelter in deep pools in the dry season. Large nets and other commercial fishing gear are used in Cambodia and Viet Nam, while individual professional fishermen using medium scale fishing gear are found in Lao PDR and Thailand.
There is a wide range of fishing gear used to capture fish and aquatic animals in the Mekong River. Most fishing gear has traditionally been designed and developed with local available materials. The use of this fishing gear is associated with the type of water in a specific locality. For example, Lee traps can be found only in the Great falls, Lao PDR while Dai fishery and large lifts are used only in Cambodia and Viet Nam. More than 160 fishing methods are employed in the Mekong River, around 150 type of fishing gear have been recorded in Cambodia (Deap et al. 2003).
Fishing activities involve a wide range of people. Commercial fishing is usually dominated by men, however, a large percentage of small scale fisheries involve both genders and different age ranges, from children aged five years old to those aged 60 years old or more. While men practice the main fishing activities (such as setting the net), women and children are involved in controlling the boats and collecting fish from the fishing gear. Data from the study areas show that in the Khong island area about 30% of fishermen are women, who set and harvest fish from drift gill nets or employ scop nets to target fish in the shrub near river banks.
41 According to field observations, anecdotal information and official reporting, Mekong fisheries are heading in the right direction. Important habitats are under control and still exist on a large scale (Sverdrup-Jensen 2002). In addition, there is no evidence that fishing has reduced production or reached its maximum yield. However, destruction of important habitats will substantially affect species and production. This has already occurred to some extent and is found in many places. For example, in southern Lao PDR many species are rarely seen and there has been a reduction in both the quantity and size of the catch (wallado leerii, probarbus jullieni). It has also been reported that the Mekong giant catch fish (pangasianodon gigas) has decreased in population in Cambodia and the northern parts of Lao PDR and Thailand.
Recognising the importance of capture fisheries to the livelihood and economies of the Mekong countries, governments of the riparian countries in the Lower Mekong River Basin, with assistance from DANIDA through MRC, are playing an important role in the development and management of capture fisheries in the Mekong River. This role is aimed at sustainable management and use of fisheries resources. In past decades, a variety of studies on fish ecology, biology, and baseline socio-economic data on fisheries have been conducted in the Lower Mekong River Basin (Coates et al. 2003).
Aquaculture in the Mekong River is vital for food security and poverty alleviation in the region. It contributes about 10 percent of total fish production of the Mekong River (MRC 2005). While it is not possible to increase wild capture fisheries, many countries use aquaculture to enhance fish production. Recently, the issue of poverty in developing countries has been of increasing concern. There are many alternative methods to overcome poverty and one of these is aquaculture. In Lao PDR, aquaculture has been promoted in upland areas where resources are available for small-scale aquaculture development. Aquaculture is one of the government priorities being used to eliminate poverty in rural areas of the country (Choulamany 2004).
The aquaculture industry is well developed in Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam. In Thailand and Lao PDR mono sex tilapia are commonly used in cage culture in the Mekong River and its tributaries, while Cambodia and Viet Nam use indigenous fish species such as the Striped Snakehead (channa striata), Giant Snakehead (channa micropeltes) and pangasianodon hypophthalmus for cage and pond cultures. Aquaculture production in
42 Cambodia and Viet Nam is not only used for subsistence, but also for commercial purposes and export to Western countries (MRC 2002b).
It is believed that introduced fish species used for aquaculture in the Mekong River are a threat to the environment, and particularly to indigenous species. Introduced species reduce indigenous species through competition and predation. Recognition of the contribution of aquaculture to poverty alleviation, yet the risk of adding invasive alien species to the environment, means attention is now being paid to the development of aquaculture using indigenous fish species.
The MRC Aquaculture of Indigenous Mekong Species Project has played an important role in developing indigenous fish breeding techniques in Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam and Thailand. Around eight priority indigenous species are being investigated. Some of these have already induced spawning of brood stock, including cirrhinus miclolepis and cirrhinus molitorella (MRC 2005).
3.4 Laos fisheries profile
The Mekong River is the biggest and longest river in Lao PDR. It runs from the North (Phongsaly province) to the South (Champasack province) of the country at a length of 1,898 km. It drains 80 percent of Lao PDR’ land area (ICEM 2003). The Mekong is traditionally associated with the lifestyle and culture of the nation. It is called ‘The Mekong, The Mother’ and it provides food, transportation, electricity, and traditional culture and recreation.
Fish and rice are common staple foods in Lao PDR, as is the case in Southeast Asia in general. Fish and aquatic animals account for more than 50% of dietary protein intake for the rural people (Phonvisay 2002). In 2001 fisheries contributed about 7 to 8 % of national GDP. Fishing and fish related activities involve a wide range of people, from children, women, and men to elderly people. Fisheries provide not only additional job opportunities but also income for rural people.
Apart from socio-economic importance, the Mekong River and its fourteen tributaries in Lao PDR, are home to more than 480 fish species. Many aquatic animals and plants species, particularly in remote rural areas, are still undiscovered and waiting for taxonomy identification.
43 Fisheries production is dependant on annual flooding in wetlands, and the Mekong’s tributaries throughout the country. Poulsen et al. (2002) identified fish migration into two systems: longitudinal (mainstream) and lateral (floodplain) migration. Longitudinal movement occurs between February and April when fish move to dry season refuges and deep pools. It repeats again in May and June as longitudinal migration to spawning grounds. Lateral movements start in the flood season (July to November) with larvae and adult fish moving onto floodplains for feeding and growth. It continues during December to January when juveniles and adults move from seasonal to permanent water bodies.
Capture fisheries in Lao PDR are usually on a small-scale and mainly used for subsistence, however commercial fisheries are found in the Nam Ngum reservoir and Khong districts. Commercial fisheries in Khong Island mostly take place in the wet season when the Pangasuies species (particularly hemibagrus wyckioides) command high prices and market demand. Fishing methods vary depending on target species and seasonal changes. More than 60 types of fishing gear have been recorded in Lao PDR (Claridge et at. 1997). Common fishing gear found in the Mekong River and its tributaries include cast nets, gill nets, long lines, and traps.
Data on fisheries production and consumption is difficult to obtain. Fish production statistics are based on estimation of yield per hectare and multiplied by the total number of water bodies. Capture fisheries data relies on big sites in Nam Ngum reservoir and Veun Kham (Khong District). Small-scale fisheries are excluded from the national statistics due to difficulties with access, lack of staff, time consumption and high costs. Based on the limited data available, fisheries production in Lao PDR is steady but there are significant declining trends apparent with some fish stock, particularly big and high value fish. The cause of this is unclear. Some scientists refer to over-fishing and the use of destructive fishing gear, while others mention the degradation of fish habitat and environmental changes resulting from water development (dams, irrigation, transportation) and deforestation as the cause.
Fisheries management in Lao PDR is focused on sustainable use of aquatic resources, and decentralisation of the management to local communities as a key strategy to manage and conserve the environment and fisheries resources. According to Phonvisay (2002), fisheries development in Lao PDR can be reviewed in two phases: before and after the 1990s. Before
44 the 1990s, fisheries development aimed at increasing fish production and maintaining capture fisheries. The development of aquaculture focused on the establishment of fish hatchery centres. During the 1960s, with USAID assistance, fish seed farms were built in several provinces including Vientiane, Savannakhet, Pakse, Sayaboury and Luang Prabang; and in the early 1970s with financial support from China and Viet Nam, hatcheries were constructed in the northern provinces (Houaphanh, Xiengkhouang and Oudomxay). Capture fisheries management at that time was paid less attention and some of the fisheries management activities were implemented by the Department of Forestry with wildlife and aquatic resources conservation projects.
The development of fisheries management in Lao PDR was highlighted in the 1990s with the reorganisation of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, the New Economic Mechanism and the recognition of the Department of Livestock and Fisheries. Recognising the decline of important species catches from the Mekong and its tributaries, the government of Lao PDR gave priority to fisheries development with a strong emphasis on sustainable use of aquatic resources and sustainable aquaculture development (Phonvisay 1997). With regard to the need to improve inland fisheries management in the country, the main issues relate to: inadequate information on physio-ecological and human use values; inadequate physical infrastructure; lack of research and development design in aquaculture; and the lack of sustainable strategy to manage efficiently the aquatic resources (Phonvisay 2002).
Fisheries development frameworks emphasis local participation and the empowerment of local communities. In Lao PDR, there is constitutional support for local management and customary law. Recently, the government declared a new decentralisation policy aimed at empowering provincial and district authorities to manage local financial and natural resources. A slogan ‘self reliance, self sufficiency and self strengthen’ is being promoted. In line with this slogan, the province becomes the strategic unit, the district the planning and budgeting unit, and the village the implementing unit. In theory, this fisheries policy highlights decentralisation of fisheries management functions to empower local communities and calls for local community participation in co-management measures. In reality, however, it is not put in practice due to various constraints such as lack of capacity and financial support. In spite of these difficulties, there is a growing trend towards decentralising decision making in natural resource management to the provincial and district level, and devolution of some management responsibility to local communities (MRRF 2004). A good example of a
45 ‘bottom up’ approach, is village fisheries regulation for managing fish conservation zones in Khong district and Keng Noi, Nam Ngum reservoir. Villagers have drafted their own regulations and the government has supported and endorsed them. Communities are allowed to make regulations addressing local issues, if these regulations do not conflict with national laws.
Experience has shown that the rights and duties regarding resource management, of authorities in different levels of government organisations, are still unclear. These have to be analysed and clarified. There is a need for improvement in community participation in resource planning on a broader level. Government support for community-based management has proved to be important for local people. Close working relationships with district authorities are a factor likely to lead to the success of co-management. In order to be successful in implementing a new decentralisation policy, strengthening human resource development at different levels is important. Awareness of the rights and responsibilities at the provincial, district and village level are essential.
In general, there are different knowledge systems in use in fisheries management in Lao PDR. International organisations and NGOs working on fisheries management rely on scientific information for planning and decision-making. However, they are aware of the importance of indigenous knowledge in the management of natural resources. Indigenous knowledge, however, is difficult to access and understand due to it not being standardised and the lack of systematic data collection. At national and provincial levels, both indigenous and scientific knowledge have been used in the management and implementation process, whilst the decision-making relies on scientific information. In contrast, district and village communities use indigenous knowledge as their main knowledge source, because no other knowledge is available to them, or as they do not have access to other information.
3.5 Fisheries of the Khong District
Champasack province is one of the richest provinces in Lao PDR, in terms of biodiversity and culture. It is called ‘Ou Kao Ou Pa’ (high rice yield and fish abundance). This is particularly true of Khong district (one of ten districts of Champasack provinces) also known locally as Siphandone (four thousand islands). It presents a unique geographical region consisting of a series of shallow braided channels that enter a 40 km wide stretch of
46 waterfalls and cascades created by a geological fault line. In the south of the island, where the Mekong River splits into small channels, it is surrounded by thousands of island flows to Khong waterfall, before it reaches Cambodian territory. Khong district has borders with Cambodia to the south and east, Pattumphone to the north and Mounlapamok to the west.
There are many studies investigating fisheries resources in the Siphandone area. These studies range from socio-economic, to fish biodiversity and lifecycle, to wetlands and biodiversity (Baird et al.1999; Kolding 2000; Singhanouvaong et al. 1996a and 1996b; Singhanouvaong et al. 2003; and Viravong et al. 2004). Efforts have been made to study fish migration and spawning in the area. As Baird (1999b) noted, there are more than 200 fish species found in Khong district. Singhanouvong et al. (2003) reported that in Veunkhao and Na village Khong district, more then 150 species were caught.
Due to the unique geographical and ecological conditions in the Siphandone area, the four thousand islands are not only home to more than 72,000 people (2004) but also provide agriculture land and feeding habitats for aquatic animals. In the dry season (November to April), most of the islands are used for agriculture, rice and vegetables. In the wet season (May to October), the water volume increases significantly and, as a result, more than half the islands are flooded. These temporarily flooded areas provide feeding and spawning grounds for many fish species.
As mentioned earlier, fish migration in the Mekong River can be divided into longitudinal and lateral migration. Two main periods of fish migration occur in the Siphandon area. This area supports the most productive natural fisheries in Lao PDR. The first migration period occurs in the dry season (November to April). This migration is mainly of cyprinidae. The second migration, during the wet season (May to October), mainly consists of pangasidae, siluridae, bagridae, sisoridae and syprinidae (Singhanouvong et at. 1996a). Most of the scaleless pangasuis species (pangasius conchophilu, pangasius larnaudii) and the scaled boesemania microlepis and probarbus jullieni species attract high values and are found in the Siphandon area (Phonvisay 2003).
Fishing is one of the most important activities of the Khong district. Most households are engaged in fishing, both for subsistence and as a means of additional income. Baird et al. (1999a) reported that total fish production in Khong district was 4,000 tonnes and that fish
47 consumption per capita was 43 kg per annum. A recent study estimated, based on surveys across four districts in Champasack province, that fish and aquatic animal production ranges from 16,000 to 18,000 tonnes and consumption is 58 kg per capita per year (Singhanouvong et al. 2002). These figures look very high, however, when compared to official data from the DLF which claims the fish consumption in Lao PDR is only 7-8 kg per person per year (Phonvisay 2002). Further research being undertaken by the MRC aims to look at fish consumption data from daily meals at the household level. It is hoped that this data will provide accurate figures on actual fish consumption and production in Champasack provinces and in Lao PDR as a whole.
Khong fisheries production serves not only the local people in Champasack, but also trade to Vientiane and neighbouring countries. Bush and Phonvisay (2000) report that fish from the Khong district supply more than 80% of the local market in Champasack province, some also being diverted to Vientiane and exported to Thailand.
Wild capture fisheries in Khong Island are associated with traditional cultures and beliefs. Fishers use fishing time not only to catch fish, but also to exchange news and culture within their villages or family. Boun Ban village celebration days usually take place at the end of the year when the rice harvest is completed or in the Lao PDR New Year in April. Rural people in Lao PDR strongly believe in ghosts or spirits. Every month at the full moon (van sin) in the lunar calendar, they do not allow fishermen to go fishing. They know that this day is Buddhism day and it is prohibited to catch fish. If someone goes fishing, something will happen to them sooner or later. Some deep pools are declared vang sak sid - deep pools for the ghosts who it is believed protect and watch their villages.
Fisheries management in Khong district can be classified into two periods - traditional management before the 1990s, and an awareness of the conservation of aquatic resources after the 1990s.
Traditional management before the 1990s
Over the past two decades, a big gap has developed between rural and urban areas in Lao PDR in terms of infrastructure development and environmental health. In Khong Island, the livelihoods of people in the 1980s relied on agricultural production. Fishing was traditionally
48 for subsistence only. About 30 years ago, elderly fishermen in Ban Hat described their environment as healthy, fish were in abundance and easy to catch. There were almost no fish sold in the market, and fish were considered of low monetary value, because everybody caught enough fish for their family, even if they did not have time to go fishing themselves they could ask a neighbour for a free fish. This was part of Lao traditional custom - sharing not only fish but also the labour for agricultural work. Fishing was the main activity for adults and normally the husband or head of a household would fish, while wives and children participated in fish processing.
The Fishermen used traditional fishing gear that did not harm brood stock. For example, in Ban Don Houat in the 1960s, only two cast nets existed. These were made from native trees. It took almost one year to make a cast net. The mesh size was large (20 to 30 cm), and was targeted at large fish. These cast nets were used to catch big fish for traditional cultural ceremonies. For consumption, only hooks were used in order to catch fish near the riverbank closest to the village. They could even use their hands to catch fish in the roots of trees during the fish migration time. The abundance of fish in the past is emphasised in a Lao proverb: ‘Kang Mo Wai Pa Ten Kuan Eng’, or ‘Put the pot on the fire and the fish will jump in by themselves’(Information from interview, December 2004). Perhaps this is a slight exaggeration, but it shows that fish were in abundance and fishermen could get fish anytime that they wanted. This finding supports a previous study of Fish Conservation Zones and Indigenous Ecological Knowledge in Southern Laos (Baird et al. 1999a) which pointed out that old fishermen mentioned fish were in abundance in the past. For example when Pasoi migrate, the fishermen hit the water with a boat paddle in order to scare the fish and fish will then jump into sand near the river bank (Baird et al. 1999a). What they catch is enough for serving a lunch for a family the of six persons.
In the dry season, when a thousand or more pasoi migrated up the river they made a sound, the dog barked and children under the age of four were scared. At that time fishermen did not need any fishing gear to catch fish. They used only a boat paddle to splash the water and the fish would jump into the boat. There would be enough fish to made one small jar of fermented fish (padeak). Big fish were also found 30-40 years ago. Fishermen from Ban Hat, Hatxaykhoun and Don Houat report having found the Mekong freshwater stingray Pa Fa (himanture chaophraya), Jullien’s Barb Pa Eun (probarbus jullieni) and the croaker Pa Kuang (boesemania microlepis) with weights of 30 to 80 kg or more than 100 kg of Pa Fai
49 Lai. Today, however, only small size fish are found. Some of these species have now been included on the IUCN ‘Red List’ as endangered species.
The decline of some fish species was noticed in the early 1980s, but in general catches were still good. The nylon cast net and the gill net existed, but the price became quite high and not everybody could afford to buy them. Paddleboards were commonly used, and a few motorboats existed but were mostly used for transportation. Fishing was still under control and no harm had come to brood stock and species. Fisheries management at the time was traditional or did not exist, and most fisheries management was based on District or Provincial Agricultural Office rules that mainly dealt with problem solving related to fishing activities with Cambodia rather than at the local community level.
An awareness of the conservation of aquatic resources after the 1990s
In the past two decades, hydrological change and water development (dams and irrigation) in the upper Mekong River and its tributaries have affected living aquatic resources and people in the Khong district. In addition, removing vegetation from riverbanks and islands for cultivating crops, has probably accelerated erosion (Elliott 2001). Bank erosion has affected not only the villages, which were studied, but also the villages in the Khong district as a whole. As a result of water fluctuation in the wet season, and a difference of 30 fold between wet and dry season water discharge (Cunningham 1998), fast water flow has moved the garden and house to the riverbank. It is becoming a big issue in these areas and so far no action is being taken.
The improvement of infrastructure, especially roads and electricity, has made it easier to access the city. Fish can also be better preserved for longer transportation. According to Phonvisay (2003), more than half of the fish caught in Khong Island today are transported to the Pakse and Vientiane Markets and some believe that they are also transported to Thailand. Fisheries resources are under threat due to overexploitation and high market demand. Competitiveness among fishermen, sophisticated fishing and an increase in fishing boats and gear, has lead to fish stock declines in both production and composition. Fishing gear is available at affordable prices, and the number of motorboats used for fishing has increased. In the study villages, each household owned at least two to three nylon gill nets and one nylon cast net. Fishing now involves the whole family, including women and children. The
50 catch is not only for consumption, but also for trade - meaning the larger and more valuable species are targeted when fishing.
Fish are not given as gifts any more. Fishing has changed to subsidise trade and the exchange of goods. It now takes more effort in order to catch fish for home consumption. Knowing the difficulties incurred with catching fish, local communities are now looking at mitigation in order to protect and preserve sustainable use of their resources. In the early 1990s, government institutions were concerned about the degradation of the environment and started research on a baseline database of fish biology and the socio-economic value of fisheries. The Prime Minister’s Decree 118 (concerning the management and conservation of aquatic animals, wild animals, and hunting and fishing) was endorsed in 1989, aimed at initiating fisheries management conversation. At the same time, non-government organisations were promoting the conversation approach with regard to aquatic resources, and played an important role in the establishment of community-based management systems. In 1993, with financial support from NGOs (The Laos Community and Dolphin Protection Project) villagers began to protect a dolphin species in Hangkhone village. The villages in Khong Island soon learnt from the project village and began to realise that only protected brood stock and restricted fishing gear would help them to sustain the exploitation of fisheries resources. More and more villages joined the project. The villages involved in fish conservation zones had increased to 64 villages by 1999 (Baird et al. 1999a).
Fisheries management in Khong Island uses a community-based management approach where local communities establish their own fish conservation zones based on the decree from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry on Conservation of Wildlife and Aquatic Animals. Fishers have created rules that forbid using certain fishing methods, as well as not allowing the catching of certain aquatic animals (eg frogs) in the spawning season. The village rules and management system have been acknowledged and supported by local authorities as well as those at the national level. Community-based management in Khong Island can be described as fisheries co-management, whereby fishermen and the Ministry concerned are sharing the management and responsibility for protecting natural resources. Today, local communities believe that the reappearance of some fish species are the result of their effective management methods within fish conservation zones. As a result, the basic fishing regulations of fisheries conservation villages (eg prohibiting the use of electric shock,
51 poisoning and scaring fish, banning certain fishing gear) have become a general rule for fishing in Khong Island.
3.6 Conclusion
Mekong fisheries have contributed not only to the national economy of the countries in the Mekong River Basin, but have also provided the main source of food for poor people in rural areas of developing countries. Although, fish production figures are still debated, there is no doubt about the role of fisheries production in food security and providing additional income for the rural poor.
Fisheries resources, including fish production and habitats in the Mekong River, are still rich, but there is a significant downward trend seen amongst some species, and loss of fishing habitat resulting from the development of hydropower and deforestation in the region. Fisheries resources are shared between the countries in which the Mekong River flows and management is needed to ensure co-operation between all riparian countries in order to ensure the sustainable use of aquatic resources and equal benefits among all stakeholders.
In Lao PDR, fisheries resources play a vital role in poverty alleviation, providing cheap food and additional income to the rural poor. Where there are abundant water resources available, like Khong Island, fisheries have traditionally and historically been associated with the livelihood of local communities. Fish has served as a main source of food not only for everyday meals, but also in traditional celebrations and other village cultural activities. Local communities know the health of their fish stocks well, and try to enhance and sustain their resources by establishing village fishing rules and fish conservation zones. Most of these rules are supported and enforced by local authorities and government agencies.
52 Chapter IV: Spatial location
4.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with two different knowledge based systems, namely scientific and community based knowledge systems, which can be used to express spatial location. Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are used as scientific knowledge based systems to provide an overview of villages and their fishing habitats, including fishing grounds and fish conservation zones. Mental mapping is used as a tool of community knowledge based systems, to describe understanding of fisheries resources. These two knowledge systems are presented separately, followed by a comparative discussion at the end of this chapter. The mapping process is also presented in detail, focusing on the preparation and difficulties of drawing mental maps, and GIS data processing.
4.2 Scientific knowledge
4.2.1 Geographical Information Systems and GPS 4.2.1.1 Digital base map GIS was selected for this research because it allows for visualisation and analysis of spatial data, and can combine different attributes onto maps. In Lao PDR, where much fisheries information has been collected, there is no systematic method for data storage and analysis. GIS may prove suitable here for compiling and analysing fisheries information. This is because spatial information can be stored in GIS in digital form, and is quite easy to manipulate, copy, edit and transmit (ESRI 2004). In the past decade, research on fish conservation zones in Khong district have tried to map FCZs, but due to a lack of equipment and technical capacity, only the village location of FCZs have been mapped. For management purposes, it is necessary to identify the location and characteristics of FCZs. By using GIS applications, accompanied by GPS, FCZ locations can be visualised and linked with other related information, such as geographical conditions, depth, and fish species.
A GIS digital based map of Khong district was obtained from the MRC and NAFRI digital based map. The river and road digital files were obtained from the Wetland classification
53 project-MRC, the village location and administrative boundaries from NAFRI, the deep pool information from LARReC and the fishing ground data from field surveys. The map projection is WGS 1984, UTM zone 48 North.
4.2.1.2 GPS data acquisition and processing GPS is currently the most appropriate application for GIS data capture. GPS is an excellent tool for spatial data collection if the user can see clear sky and is able to get close to the objects to be mapped (Longley et al. 1999). Spatial data can be linked with other information and visualised onto maps.
The geographical location of the country map datum WGS 1984, and map coordination system at Indian 1954 N 48 were used for GPS capture. Motorboats were used to reach the fishing ground and Garmin GPS 76 was applied, in association with the fish finder, to capture the location and depths of the important fishing grounds of the study villages. In total, 21 fishing grounds and FCZs in Don Houat, Hatxaykhoun and Hat villages were captured.
In order to use GPS data in GIS, special feature data needs to be transferred from the GPS device to the GIS database. The simplest way to transfer GPS data to GIS layers, is to copy the coordinates and attributes in a comma delimited file. However, most users prefer to apply a translation program that will allow them to modify slightly the output data (Gilbert 1994). In this research all GPS data was transferred to GIS layers by employing DNR Garmin software version 4.4.1. ArcGIS 9.0 was used as the main tool for data storage, retrieval analysis and presentation. Microsoft excel was also used for editing and linking other information to the GIS database.
4.2.2 Spatial location 4.2.2.1 Village location All three study villages are located on the Mekong River bank (Figure 4.2-4.7). Two are situated on the mainland (Ban Hat and Hatxaykhoun) and the third is located on a small island (Ban Don Houat). The administrative boundaries of the villages are based on the village location and its resources. The inland border was determined by a small stream. The riverine border was determined by the navigation stone and island. The borders became important when Land and Forest Allocation Programs were implemented in Champasack
54 province. In Nong Boua, for example, common property was used to equally benefit seventeen villages. Changes to the new management system allow only one village to have more power to control and benefit from resources (Tubtim et al. 2004). Villagers in the neighboring Ban Don Houat complained about restrictions to fishing near to fish conservation zones in the dry season when there is less water and it is difficult to identify between the FCZ and fishing grounds.
Ban Don Houat is located on a small island and lies to the north east of Khong Island. It has a total population of 615 persons and 200 fishermen. The island is surrounded by small islands, wetland forest, and shallow rapids. Motorboats and paddle boats are the main forms of transport used to access the village. The villagers have divided their water resources into two zones: the east is conserved as a vang saguan (fish conservation zone) restricting fishing activities, while accessible fishing grounds are located in the west where fishermen can fish all year round. Fishing grounds are characterised by rapid, yet shallow water that is quite unique compared to other places. In the dry season, the depth of the river is between one and a half to eight metres.
Ban Hatxaykhoun is located opposite Khong Island. Approximately 1257 people live in this village, including 436 fishermen. The village is situated on the Mekong riverbank. The section of Mekong River where Ban Hatxaykhoun is located, is composed of small, rocky and sandy banks with shallow, deep waters and small canals. In terms of geographic features, the Mekong River is quite wide here, compared to Don Houat and Hat village. Hatxaykhoun used to be the main ferry station to Khong Island, due to the shallow water levels in the dry season, and ferries with heavy goods and cars having difficulty moving across the river elsewhere. The ferries have subsequently moved to Ban Hat, but tourist taxi boats are still running from Hatxaykhoun village. Ban Hatxaykhoun has one fish conservation zone located near the taxi boat stop. Fishing habitats are located to the west of the village. Due to the shallow water in the dry season, fishermen can stand and fish in the middle of river without the assistance of a boat.
Ban Hat is located further south than Ban Hatxaykhoun village. It has a total population of 868 persons, more than half of whom are fishermen. Ban Hat shares a border with Ban Veun Kao and Ban Na. Ban Hat, as a result of the ferry now docking there, has developed quickly,
55 with the village used as an interim stop for tourists before they cross to Khong Island. It is also known among fishermen for the fishing ground in the upper Khone fall areas. The environment is similar to Ban Hatxaykhoun, the difference being only that the water is narrower than Ban Hatxaykhoun. Deep pools are composed of rock and sand, with a maximum depth of 38 metres and a minimum of about four metres in the dry season. The fishing season begins in February when hundreds of paddle and motorboats arrive using mong (deep and surface gill nets) to target different fish species, namely Pa Sa-I (mekongina erythropila) and Pa Phia (labeo chrysophekadion). Fish conservation zones have not been established here. However, due to traditional beliefs, no one fishes in parts of Veun Songkham where there are deep pools and a cave, the bottom of which tradition dictates dangerous spirits are placed.
4.2.2.2 Deep pools and other natural resources Chan et al. (2004) defined a deep pool as an area significantly deeper than surrounding areas which holds water in both the dry season and the wet season. Deep pools are also defined ecologically as being of significance in the conservation of a number of fish species. According to Viravong et al. (2004) the Mekong deep pools can be described as canyons, fissures or cracks in the bottom. From field observations, hydro-acoustic data and data from fish finders, deep pool morphology appears very different. In terms of the shape of the rocks, deep pools in the Khong district can be classified into three main types: flat, plateau and high-sharp pools.
Flat pools are characterised by flat rocks and sand in linear lines. The depth is the same across the pool. They can be found in rapid or keang areas. Fish feed from the open deep pools, not only on algae but also on small aquatic animal (eg zoo plankton).
Plateau pools consist of rock in the form of a plateau. The deep holes are wider when compared to high sharp pools. Fishermen name this area khanh hin. Some of these types of deep pools also have caves underwater.
High-sharp pools are defined as being long, narrow, deep holes formed when rocks split into two or more parts. Some of them form a deep gorge that the river flows through, and some may form an underground spring. Fishermen believe that most fish use the narrow deep rock
56 for shelter and to feed on the algae that grows in the rock. High-sharp pools account for more than 70 percent of pools in the Mekong River in Kong district territory.
The Mekong River in the southern part of the country, in particular the Champasack province, is different from the northern region in terms of both depth and width. In Khong district, seasonal changes in the Mekong River formed the four thousand islands that make Khong island different from any other place in the world. Wetlands in the Khong district are unique to the Mekong River. Because of seasonal changes in water volume during the wet and dry seasons, wetlands have been created that are home to rheophytic and amphibious plants. The Mekong River rises from June to September, and retracts in the dry season between November to April. According to Maxwell (2001), wetland areas are composed of complex channels, rapids and waterfalls with many sandbars and islands, most of which are submerged between May and October. Ban Don Houat and Hatxaykhoun have numerous wetland areas which are characterised by sandbars and shallow water with shrubs, rocky places and native trees like Tone Kai (phyllanthus jullienii). Ban Hat, on the other hand, has only deep pools and little sandbars in the river bank.
In principle, all land including rivers and aquatic resources, belong to the State and all Laotian citizens have a right to use them equally according to the law. The State authorities are responsible for approving an individual’s right to use or hold the land. However, in rural areas, traditional and customary rights are commonly found and, whilst not usually existing in written form, they are recognised and respected by all.
Traditionally, fisheries resources in Khong district, like other resources (forestry and non- timber products etc), are defined as common property. Fishermen can fish in fishing grounds in other village territories, but they have to respect the rule of the host village. For example, the restriction of some fishing gear and forbidding of fishing in FCZs in Khong Island. The exception is traditional fishing, lee and tone, near to Khone falls where the place of setting lee belongs to individual families or is known as traditional custody.
Fishing grounds are normally very close to the village, with the depth varying depending on the geographical conditions of each village. For instance, the Mekong River in Ban Done Hout in the dry season is shallow, ranging from three to seven metres. The bottom of the
57 pools here are composed of small stones, rocks and sand. The fishing grounds in Ban Hatxaykhoun and Ban Hat have depths ranging from 7 to 22m and 20 to 38m (Figure 7.2) respectively. The bottom of the pools here are characterised by caves, big rocks and sand. Due to a variety of geographical characteristics, these deep pools serve as feeding areas, refuges and spawning habitat for many fish species. Rapids, where water flows fast, are rich in oxygen, and are the preferred spawning ground of some fish species.
4.2.2.3 The importance fishing grounds The importance of fishing grounds, in term of species and abundance, was captured by GPS and imported to Arc view 9.0 for data analysis. The advantage of using GPS for data capture, is that GPS provides an accurate position. GPS satellites transmit data that indicates location and current time (Thurston et al. 2003). However, the accuracy of the GPS location depends on the quality of the GPS receiver. The Garmin 76 employed in this research is accurate to three metres.
The fishing grounds in Ban Don Houat, Hatxaykhoun and Hat are presented in Figure 4.2- 4.4. These maps were exported from GIS. In Arc GIS, each layer consists of a theme and attribute (graphic map and table) that link the two components together (Figure 4.1). Each layer is associated with attribute data or tables that are used for spatial analysis. Spatial analysis is one of the most important advantages of GIS. It allows interpretation of data in the form of a map, with different colours and symbols, and is easy to understand when compared to textures and table formats. When we have a map of the environment and important fishing habitats, as well as fishing methods and practices, we can overlay these features and link fish species and abundance onto the map. These basic maps can be used for monitoring the brood stock or helping to identify the location of the study for future research in fisheries assessment.
When working with a GIS digital map, spatial phenomena needs to be delineated and classified in preparation for input into a data table. Spatial phenomena may produce multiple data, but not all of it can be included in a database as the data would be infinite. The manipulation of data depends on the attributes that are recorded, or the objects that are defined (Schuurman 2004). Visualising GIS results is vulnerable to the vagaries of the digital environment, and must be consistent with human capacity for perception. For
58 example, in this study area only a limited number of fishing grounds can be displayed otherwise the map becomes overcrowded. On a larger scale many attributes can be combined. Visualising GIS has a limited capacity to deal with the small scale, but has the potential, at a large scale, to accommodate a greater number of attributes.
It is clear that the distance between deep pools or fishing grounds in each village is not great (Figure 4.2-4.4). The point that represents each deep pool location, is the deepest area of the pool. The total areas are also small, ranging from 600 to 1000 square metres. These areas are difficult to identify without the guidance of local people, and the borders between each deep pool are invisible. However, local fishermen use their local knowledge to divide each pool via underwater stone or tree shrub.
Fishing grounds shown on the map indicate only the location of the pools, or general information about the position of the pools. However, there are many ways to analyse and visualise by using overlays or displaying data by different methods such as feature, categories, quantities, charts and multiple attributes. Further analysis of this data will be presented in Chapter VII.
4.2.3 Summary GIS based maps of deep pools and fish habitats gathered from field surveys, highlight the potential and possibility to integrate various knowledge information systems. The spatial data in a GIS database which includes maps and attribute tables, makes it easy to edit, update, process and present information in many ways. Single and multiple analyses can be done with ArcGIS to visualise deep pools, FCZ species and gear uses.
GIS maps are appropriate for data storage, data capturing, data analysis and representation, As a communication tool, it may be limited to local communities in rural areas of Lao PDR who understand the map. The information from field surveys suggests local communities have difficulty identifying the location of their village on the map, due to unfamiliarity with mapping symbols, and illiteracy. However, at provincial and national levels, GIS maps provide a good tool for identifying aquatic resources and enhancing communication among scientists or outsiders who are not familiar with the location. While the deep pool and fish habitat maps do not exist in the form of a topographical map, this information can be included in wetland and land use maps for management and planning.
59 Figure 4.1: Layers and its attribute display in Arc GIS 9.0
Figure 4.2: Digital map of fishing grounds in Ban Don Houat
60 Figure 4.3: Digital map of fishing grounds in Ban Hatxaykhoun
Figure 4.4: Digital map of fishing grounds in Ban Hat
61 4.3 Community knowledge
4.3.1 Mental mapping 4.3.1.1 Geographical knowledge Mental mapping was used in this research as a way of understanding aquatic resources and environmental conditions across three villages. It attempts to investigate how fishermen and local communities can use maps to present their perceptions and knowledge of the environment. This knowledge, including its acquisition, storage and retrieval, is called spatial cognition. As Golledge et al. (2004) stated, spatial cognition is the way people think about space and the way they encode, store and internally manipulate data to spatially relevant information that can be used in exploiting and solving problems. Traditional people use indigenous knowledge to represent the spatial dimension of important geographic features on the landscape (Calamia 1999). For a long time, hand-drawn or mental maps have been used to define boundaries of homes, as well as depict the location of important resource zones and sacred sites. The term mental map as used in this research, refers to a map of a place, fishing grounds or deep pools drawn by hand by a group of people in target villages.
Mapping is not new for people in remote areas of Lao PDR, especially in the Khong district. It has been employed in many research activities, such as land classification and forest allocation. GIS databases can easily be updated, and linked to other information, and they can present the information in a map which is easy to understand. Land classification and forest protected area maps in Lao PDR are a good example of the use of GIS and Remote Sensing in the management process. However, this is the first time it has been applied to the aquatic environment in the Khong district. Mental mapping was used as a tool, in conjunction with other techniques, to highlight and promote community forestry in the management and planning process. These techniques are called participatory mapping or participatory GIS (Quan et al. 2001).
4.3.1.2 Preparing materials and meetings There are many sizes and colours of blank paper to choose from, depending on the purpose of the mapping, and the details you want to show on the map. The large size is considered important. In this research, white colour paper, size 80x100 cm was chosen. To avoid tearing, the paper should not be too thin. Different colours pens are also necessary. Black,
62 red and blue pens are at least needed, preferably permanent markers in case of rain. In tropical countries like Lao PDR, it is essential to protect the map from rain and water. When travelling by boat, a plastic cylinder to contain the maps in a waterproof condition is recommended.
Appointments were made two days before researchers come to the village. They were organised through local district officers, who informed the village headman of the purpose of the research and asked permission for researchers to interview villagers. A request was made to form a group of representatives from the village. This group included the village headman, elderly people and expert fishermen, totalling about 6 people per group. The mapping exercise focused on the fishing grounds, but as not all fishermen knew every fishing ground in their village, fishing grounds were sometimes incorrectly represented or omitted from the maps. For this reason, we tried to work with village heads, to select expert fishermen who had at least 20 years experience in fishing. The meeting place was normally the temple or village head’s house. If a table was available, it was used, but most meetings took place on the floor.
4.3.1.3 Drawing a map General information about the village, such as a population size, number of households, and number of fishermen, was asked. Mapping started at the end of the discussion, when researchers had gained a broad idea of village resources from the group discussion. In the early stages, fishermen were asked to draw a map on blank paper, with no topographic maps available to them as reference. It is quite difficult to draw a map, but after discussions, the village head assigned one person to start drawing the map and other people to provide information for the map after the initial outline had been drawn. As a first step, the respondents were asked to draw sketch maps that showed significant features of their village and its water resources (Figure 4.5-4.7) including well known land marks, temples, and FCZs. This step is very important because it allows fishermen to imagine the distances between objects. This was followed by respondents adding basic infrastructure to their maps, like schools, rice meals, navigation stones etc.
As a second step, key informants were asked about the deep pools and fishing grounds of their village. This step was undertaken by the expert fishermen. Symbols were discussed to
63 look for the best representation for deep pools. Instead of using a point, they decided to use a circle to visualise the fishing grounds and deep pools. It is impossible to draw the exact shape and geographical condition onto the map due to a lack of knowledge of symbolic systems. However, these characteristics were recorded separately in the form of tabulation. The depth of each deep pool was estimated according to the local measurement unit, in this case they used wa (the length of a persons arm).
It was difficult to identify all fishing grounds in each village, due to the geographical condition of rivers and varieties of fishing gear that allow fishermen to go fishing over entire rivers. However, the most important fishing grounds and deep pools for each village in terms of abundance of species and high catch, were included on the maps. The depth of the pool was recalled from past fishing experiences. Normally fishermen used bamboo branches to measure and converted to wa.
Thirdly, fishermen showed the use of fishing gear in different fishing grounds and seasons on the maps. Commonly, drift gill nets and hooks were used in deep water, while cast nets, surface gill nets and lines were used in the shallow water (or keang). The names of fishing gear were put on the map along the river near to the fishing ground. There were no differences between species appearing in the fishing grounds of each village. It is quite difficult for villagers to classify fish according to deep pools, as they do not allow fishing in FCZs and fish move around between shallow and deep water. However, some species were clearly identified as living in shallow or deep water. This information was recorded separately and referenced to the maps.
Finally, the mental maps were cross-checked with the individual fishermen’s interview. Some fishing grounds were added or edited to ensure the maps were logical and represented all important natural resources in each village.
In general, fishermen were knowledgeable about their environments in all three villages. They knew exactly where the border of their village was, including land and water borders. In the rural areas of Lao PDR (excluding the big cities) there are no official signs indicating borders. The borders of each village are always associated with local historical and cultural systems and refer to the name of a tree, small stream or rock. However, the Land and Forest
64 Allocation Program was implemented in Champasack province in the 1990s and it defines land for each village and its resources within cartographically defined borders. In some cases, these boundaries enclose village territories and include water bodies and aquatic resources (Tubtim et al. 2004).
4.3.2 Geographical references 4.3.2.1 Place and location From a community viewpoint, a place is something that answers the question ‘what and where?’. It is quite different from the geographical concept that defines place as a position on the earth’s surface recorded in terms of latitude and longitude (Chapman 1977). This research, focuses on the places (or point) of fish habitats and deep pools. The places are presented as different symbols on the map. Fishermen commonly used a circle around the name of the pools, but the size of the circle is not related to the actual size.
The most common phrase expressed during the mapping exercise, when asked about place was: you nan dai,you nii dai (‘it is located here or over there’). When the place referred to was uncertain, villagers always referred it to a place that was well known, places that were associated with the tradition and culture of their village such as big trees, rapids, temples, or navigation stones.
Locations of fishing grounds and deep pools were presented well on the mental maps. In Ban Don Houat most of the fishing grounds are named after ancient peoples with traditional loves, stories and spirit. Ten fishing grounds were named on the map, they were: Keang Nang Kaison, Keang Thao Dam, Keang Kangoi, Keang Nangnon, Keang Noi, Keang Nok Oho, Keang Kok Tah, Keang Ton, Keang Donefai and Veun Don Tapea. According to fishermen, most fishing grounds are rapids with the bottom of the pool composed of narrow rock and sand. Fish species are similar but fishing gear changes depending on the season. In the dry season, for example, gill nets, cast nets, hook and lines are the main fishing gear used, whereas lops (traditional fishing gear made by bamboo with small holes) and lines are used in the wet season.
Ban Hatxaykhoun shares fishing grounds, and its border with Ban Houay Deua. Here the names of the fishing grounds are linked to the spirit and geographical characteristics of each
65 of the deep pools. Five important fishing grounds were mentioned: Khoum Don Phii, Veun Tong, Keang Khan Yang, Keng Houa Done Samlan, Keang Khan Hinhak.
Ban Hat is located on the mainland and shares its border and fishing ground with Ban Na. Seven fishing grounds were reported, the name of each deep pool referring to characteristics of the deep pool: Veun Kok Tanh, Veun Inthanin, Veun Kong Phou, Veun Hin Soung, Veun Song Kham, Veun Nasao and Veun Sanla
4.3.2.2 Distance and depth In mental mapping the distances between particular locations are inaccurate. The information from the three villages shows that distance always refer to the time of travelling between the village to the fishing ground, rather then the length in kilometres or miles. The fishermen know how long it takes to go from the village to each fishing ground by boat, they then covert that to another unit. Here we can see that the knowledge of fishermen is based on their observations and experiences in everyday life.
The local measurement units used are wa, kam, and pia (instead of metres, kilogram or litres). When asked the depth of deep pools they always responded using wa (one wa equals 1.5 m), or the length of bamboo branch. There was not a significant difference from the actual depth as indicated by the fish finder (Table 4.1).
4.3.2.3 Community knowledge of deep pools During discussions, fishermen characterised the fishing grounds according to their indigenous knowledge and the geographic features of each fishing ground. Several local names for fishing grounds were mentioned, these fishing grounds are known as good habitats for many fish species. Common local names are described below:
Keang is a rapid that consists of rocks of different shapes in shallow water. In the dry season, most of the rock is exposed whereas in the wet season they are invisible and remain in the bottom. In the dry season fishermen have observed that shrimps, snails and water insects live in keang, as well as algae and other aquatic plants. The species that use keang as a feeding ground include Pa Phone (cirrhinus microlepis), Pa Pia (labeo chrysophekadion),
66 and Pa Tong (chitala blanci). Fishermen use hai (cast nets) and bet (hooks) to catch fish in these places.
Thum is a cave, which is found on land and underwater. Thums are composed of big stones with holes inside. Some have spring water and other water types flowing quickly in a spherical pattern. It is quite dangerous to fish in thums and only expert fishermen who know the characteristics of the water flow can fish in these areas. Cast nets, gill nets and hooks are the main gear used in thums. Fishermen believe that some species like Pa Njon (pangasius pleurotaenia) and Pakouang (boesemania microlepis) use these areas for shelter in the dry season.
Vang is a large area of deep water. The bottom is dominated by rock and sand. Fishermen believe that vangs are the most important dry season habitat for many species such as Panang (pangasiidae family) and Paket (cyprinidae family). As a result of the abundance of fish in these areas, vang is often used as the name of fish conservation areas, called vang sagnone.
Veun is whirlpool similar to vang, but water flows are slow compared to vang.
Khoum is a rocky area with a depth hole in the center and a normally small area span of 2 x 3m wide.
Khanh hin is similar to the keang and is made up of rock lying in a linear shape at the bottom of the water.
Boung are shallow areas compared to others types of fishing grounds. These areas are characterised by rock, and mixed with shrubs and native trees. The native tree Ko Kia or phyllanthus jullienii beille (euphorbiaceae) is commonly found in these areas.
All local names above describe the deep areas of the Mekong River, in English we use the term ‘deep pool’.
67 4.3.2.4 Fishing ground and method Fishing grounds in the study villages are different in terms of depth and geographical characteristics (as detailed above). Fishermen select fishing gear in accordance with these characteristics. In general, there are more than 10 types of traditional fishing gear used in the study areas. Most types have been developed according to target species and seasonal change. Cast nets, gill nets (drift and surface gill nets), hook and lines are commonly used in the dry season, while traps (toum, chan, lop, xa,) are used in the wet season.
In general, selecting a fishing method is dependent on the geographical condition of the fishing habitat, the depth of water and water flows. In Ban Hat, for example, there is a lot of algae which makes it difficult to use cast nets, so only drift gillnets and long lines are used. In contrast, the river at Ban Don Houat is quite shallow and characterised by rapids, so here cast nets are commonly used. This is similar to Ban Hatxaykhoun, where fishing grounds are sometimes shallow and sometimes deep, but with little algae, so surface gill nets and cast nets are used.
Traditional fishing gear like cast nets that were made from native trees, no longer exist. Traditional cast nets were difficult to make and at least 10 or 11 months were needed to complete one set. Cast nets were used to catch big fish, as the nets sink slowly and small fish have time to escape. Today high-tech fishing gear is used, due to the availability of materials such as nylon. Ready-to-use cast nets and gill nets in different sizes are available making them an easy choice.
Teuk tong is the only traditional fishing gear still found in Ban Hat. This gear requires depth and a slow water flow. It can be found only in Ban Hat where the water depth and flow are not too strong. It is normally used in veun and requires experience and skill to operate. Today only a few people know how to use this fishing gear.
4.3.3 Summary Mental maps show the way local fishermen perceive and express spatial location. It has proved to be a good method to collect indigenous knowledge on fisheries. The information shown on the maps details deep pools and important habitat and fishing grounds which most villages depend on. Much additional information can be recoded from the mapping process,
68 namely gear uses, species distribution and traditional management systems. This information can be linked with quantitative information to form new knowledge resource bases that can be used for monitoring and management.
Mental maps can be seen to be an appropriate tool for communicating with local fishermen. When asking about place, location and traditional management systems, fishermen were able to explain clearly through mental maps. Mental maps not only provide the location of deep pools with well-known local names, but also provide simple ways of visualising and labelling this information so that it is easily understand. Mental maps dealing with aquatic environments have a potential use in traditional fisheries co-management in identifying protected areas and fishing grounds, as well as in monitoring rare species.
4.4 Comparative discussion
In general all maps are graphical representations of data and its spatial relationship. This data is associated with where and what, location and data, spatial distribution and attributes (ESRI 2005). The spatial location of deep pools and villages were similar in both mental mapping and GPS based mapping (Figure 4.2-4.7). When we see these maps, we can imagine where the villages are and where the fishing grounds are located. Although the distances and boundaries on the mental map may not be accurate when compared to digital maps, it is not necessarily important as we are working with local communities who have their own traditional management system. They can exploit resources everywhere and the border is not an issue in these areas.
Deep pools and their characteristics are shown in both maps. The unit may be different, but when we convert to the common use unit, the depths of pools are almost the same. Wa represents the traditional unit of measurement of depth. It is important to have a clear picture of this unit - it is referred to as the length of a persons arm yet not every person has arms of the same length. In this case, fishermen agree that one wa is approximately 1.5m. This was acceptable to all villagers.
Mental maps can be used as a communication tool between village communities. It is an excellent visualisation method when used at village level. Mental maps have been used to
69 describe places, and the environment of certain habitats within the villages. They can help outsiders who are not familiar with the area, to understand the village and its resources. In addition, mental maps also provide the location of specific places and their associated characteristics. As Dudycha (2003) states, mental maps may be incomplete and subject to distortion, but they provide the basis for environmental decision-making and can also be used as navigation aids in familiar environments. More importantly, in mental mapping the attributes of the features on the maps are sometimes invisible, but fishermen can explain the type and abundance of species, and the management systems in place. These attributes can classify one or many features, and sometimes are not necessarily related to the maps. Characteristics of mental maps cannot be found in cartesian or paper maps, which usually show only one attribute, or you only see what’s on the map. Information about geographical characteristics of deep pools and fish species associated with each deep pool that was gathered from the mental mapping process, can be incorporated with GIS for further analysis.
The disadvantages of mental mapping are related to the representation of two dimensional maps and difficulties with analysis. Unlike GIS maps, mental maps do not systematically use symbols and with no systematic coordination system can be difficult to change. Mental mapping is suitable for small areas and can provide the answer ‘where and what?’ but is difficult to update and analyse
Whilst GIS has the capacity to interpret and analyse data, mental maps can support more local knowledge. For example, mental maps can show the local name of deep pools which have been categorised by local fishermen to classify the depth and topography as well as abundance of fish. This can then be visualised and analysed in GIS. It may give a broad overview of fishing grounds and fish resources in certain areas that can be applied for monitoring and management at the national and local levels.
Understanding of natural resources to outsiders and villagers is quite the same. Perhaps researchers base their knowledge on topography maps and secondary data from reports and field interviews, while local communities base their knowledge on day-to-day experiences and observation of the environment with some experiences transferred from generation to generation.
70 It is seen that local communities know more details about their resources than is shown on topographic maps, or than researchers do. For instance, if we compare the geographic characteristics of fishing grounds in mental mapping, and GPS based maps they might have the same shape and location, but the communities have defined deep pools locally as Keang, Khoum, Vang, Veun, Khan Hin, and Boung, while scientific knowledge knows these simply as deep pools, disregarding the fact that the indigenous names for deep pools are associated with fish species and fishing gear used in each fishing ground in different seasons.
In Ban Don Houat, most deep pools are shallow and consist of small rocks and sand as shown by the fish finder. This correlates with reports from fishermen describing these areas as keang with rocks and a strong water flow. Hatxaykhoun and Hat villages had a mix between rock and deep hold that communities call Khan Hin, Veun, Vang and Khoum.
The geographical and biological features of deep pools and fish species are an important component of the aquatic resources. It has been said that if we want to manage the environment we have to understand its characteristics. In this case, GIS can manipulate this information to maps and visualise the pattern of change over time.
4.5 Conclusion
Community and scientific based knowledge play an important role in natural resource management. They not only provide general information about fishing grounds and deep pools but also more detail about their geography and fisheries resources in the area.
GIS functions can be classified into visualising and analysing. In terms of visualising, or representing information, it is difficult to deal with the small scale because of the limited area available to visualise the details of locations, but it is very good for data analysis. However, mental maps have the potential to work in small, specific areas where unlimited resources can be put in. Attributes or additional information associated with every point or polygon can be recorded and although not necessarily visualised in the map, local fishermen can provide further explanation. Although, with mental maps, the ability to analyse is limited.
71 While GIS maps are appropriate on a large scale at national levels for planning and management, mental mapping has some potential for small-scale management where complete accuracy is not important. This study shows that both mental and GIS maps have different advantages and disadvantages, but if we combine them together, it may be possible to bridge these limitations and make a powerful map that can be used as a management tool at all levels.
72 Table 4.1: Deep pools and their characteristics
Description Depth Depth Geographical Fishing gear used (Wa) (m) condition Ban Don Houat 1. Keang Nang Kaison 3 4 Small stones & Gill net , cast net sand 2. Keang thao dam 3 4 Small stones & Hook and lines sand 3. Keang Kangoi, 3 Small stones & Gill net , cast net sand 4. Keang Nangnon 3 4 Small stones & Gill net , cast net sand 5. Keang noi 3 4 Small stones & Gill net , cast net sand 6. Veun nok Oho 4 5 Small stones & Gill net , cast net sand 7. Keang kokthane 3 4 Small stones & Cast net sand 8. Keang ton, 3 4 Small stones & Gill net , cast net sand 9. Keang donefai 3 4 Small stones & Cast net sand 10. Veun don tapea 3 4 Small stones & Hook and lines sand 11. Veun nong hai (FCZ, 1993) 5 7 Rock Ban Hatxaykhoun 1 Khoum Done Phi 14 21 Small stones & Gill net & cast net sand Hook and lines 2. Veun Tong 6 9 Small stones & Gill net & cast net sand 3. Keang Khanhyang, 5 8 Stone Cast net 4. Keang Houa done samlan, 5 7 Stone Cast net 5. Keang khan hinhak 5 8 Stones Gill net & cast net 6. Vang Done Sam Lanh (FCZ, 1996) 15 22 Stones & sand Ban Hat 1.Veun Kok tanh, 21 30 Sand Gill net 2.Vang Inthanin, 21 30 Rock Gill net, Hook and lines 3.Vang Kong Phou, 24 37 Rock and sand Gill net 4.Veun Hin Soung, 24 37 Rock Gill net, Hook and lines 5.Veun Songkham 24 38 Rock with caves Gill net, Hook and lines 6.Veun Nasaotanh 13 20 Rock & sand Gill net 7.Veun Sanla 13 20 Rock & sand Gill net
73 Keang Tone Keangphia
Veun don tapia
Temple Village Rice field
School
FCZ Village
Rice field Keang Ai Dam
Keang Khan kok tanh Keang Nang Kaison Keang Noi Keang Nang none
Veun Nok Oho
Figure 4.5: Mental Map of Don Houat
74 Ban Nokok
Ban Veun Kao Ban Na
Vang Kongphou Veun Nasaotan
School Veun Sanla
Vang Inthanin Veun Hinsoung
Veun Songkham
Veun Kongtanh
Temple Rice field
School
Figure 4.6: Mental Map of Ban Hat
75 Khong Island
Keang Khanyang Veun Tong
Khoum Don Phi Don samlanh Island
Keang houadon samlanh
Vang Donsamlanh (FCZ)
Keang khanhinhak
Temple School
Figure 4.7: Mental Map of Ban Hatxaykhoun
76 Chapter V: Fish species and abundance
5.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses fisheries resources with a focus on fish species and abundance. The Catch per Unit of Effort (CPUE) is reviewed and used as a scientific tool to explain changing numbers in fish species. Local ecological knowledge is used to determine the perceptions of communities of their own fisheries resources. Finally, a comparative discussion is entered into that seeks to explain the similarities, strengths and weaknesses of these two knowledge systems, and the potential for integration in order to enhance sustainable management of fisheries resources.
5.2 Scientific Knowledge: Catch per Unit of Effort
5.2.1 CPUE study in the Khong district
CPUE is defined as ‘the catch of fish, in number or weight, taken by a defined unit of fishing effort and the fishing effort is defined as the total fishing gear in use for a specified period of time’ (Ricker 1975; sited by Coenen et al.1998). Whilst there are many methods used to collect fisheries data. CPUE is seen as particularly suitable for gathering data on fish migration, fish abundance as well as fish composition and fish species in specific areas. CPUE is commonly used in fisheries research in the Mekong River, particularly in the Khong district (Singhanouvong et al. 1996a; Baird et al. 1999a; Noraseng et al. 2001). The advantages of CPUE are its low cost-effectiveness and ease of use, with minimal requirements for high-tech equipment or intensive training (Cowx 1995). It is also environmentally friendly when compared with fish tagging and poisoning methods. In addition, CPUE methods are considered suitable for use in large rivers like the Mekong River, where alternative sampling methods are impractical (Baird et al. 1999a). The disadvantages of CPUE concern gear selection, the sampling site, standardisation, and knowledge of measurement and data recording. CPUE data is also subject to a number of biases associated with data recording and duplicate recollection (Cowx 1995).
If CPUE data is systematically collected, it can provide a relative index of the changes in fish abundance from one year to another. It is a method whereby the user can easily monitor sharp declines or increases in fish abundance. If large changes are taking place, then there may be the need for management intervention. CPUE is a simple method that can be used to
77 identify major changes in fish abundance from one year to the next. It is not, however, useful for gaining an estimation of household catch (Terry Warren personal communication 2005).
CPUE provides a relative estimate of fish population numbers over time, as well as providing information about the quality of fish being caught by individual fishermen (LARReC 2004). It is commonly used for monitoring temporal trends in the abundance of fish. It is a very effective tool for identifying periods of fish migration - the CPUE sharply increases when migratory fish are passing through an area and rapidly decreases when the fish migration stops. In addition, it easily identifies and targets the most important species caught over the whole year.
Basic fish landing data constitute one type of fisheries dependent information which can evaluate the status of fish production. If this data is combined with CPUE data, then it can give a better understanding not only of production figures, but also biology and information concerning the whole lifecycle of fish. When dealing with fish abundance and assessments of fisheries trends, CPUE is an effective tool and has been widely used not only in the Mekong region but also around the world (Coenen et al. 1998; Jutagate et al. 2005, Baird et al.1996a; Warren et al. 1998; Singhanouvong et al. 1996b). Marine commercial fisheries have used CPUE as an indicator of fish stock levels when monitoring salmon and tuna. Artisanal fisheries also use CPUE to monitor the abundance of fish during migration periods (Singhanouvong et al. 1996a), to assess the abundance of fish in fish conservation zones (Baird et al. 1999a) and to study the impacts of dams on upstream and downstream fisheries (Jutagate et al. 2005; Warren 2004).
The method used (as in the fishing gear selected) for CPUE data collection differs depending on the geographical location of rivers and the target species. In the Mekong River and its tributaries fishing methods may vary. For example, at least 30 different types of fishing gear are used at Khong Island. The most commonly used equipment is gill nets, cast nets, hooks and lines. In Lao PDR, the fishing gear most commonly used for CPUE data collection is gill nets (Khong Island, Xedon River, Xebangfai, Nam Theun II). Similar fishing gear is used for CPUE data collection in the Mun river, where gill nets are used. In this case, the resultant data is used to evaluate the impact of dams to fisheries resources as a result of the Thai government agreeing to open all sluice gates in 2001 (Jutagate et al. 2005).
78 CPUE data is normally calculated at number of fish (or weight) per net, per effort, per hour/day. A statistical analysis, one-way ANOVA test is used to detect changes in means, so that CPUE data can be compared between any one month in a year, with the same month in any other year (Warren 2004).
In the early 1990s, there were two different approaches to fisheries data collection in Khong Island aimed at understanding the importance of fisheries and finding the most sound fisheries management solutions. There were long debates about the best methods for obtaining fisheries information. The Government believed that only a conventional scientific approach with a systematic data collection methodology could provide the information needed for planning and management of fisheries resources at specific localities. Local communities, on the other hand, thought that indigenous knowledge should be used to enhance the management of natural resources via established fish conservation zones. Scientists ignored the local knowledge approach and claimed that it was based on an assumption, observation, and unsystematic data collection. At a result, in 1994, the Department of Livestock and Fishery (DLF) (formerly known as the Department of Livestock and Veterinary Services) undertook CPUE data collection, while local communities used indigenous knowledge to establish fish conservation zones aimed at protecting fish for future generations.
After several years, the concept of FCZs became widely accepted by local communities in Khong Island. More and more villages volunteered to join the FCZ project, and as they did so, became convinced that FCZs were effective. More fish were reported in FCZs and deep pools, than elsewhere, especially rare species like boesemania microlepis which was difficult to find before FCZs were established, but which are now found in both large and small sizes. Local District Agriculture and Forestry Officers acknowledged this evidence and recognised the value of indigenous knowledge. Scientists at both provincial and national levels changed their views and decided to scientifically assess and evaluate the effectiveness of FCZs. In 2000, a total of 27 FCZs across 21 villages in the Khong district were surveyed by LARReC with the aim of gathering anecdotal information from villagers on FCZs and their functions, and to seek the possibility of obtaining comparative quantitative data at selected sites. Results indicated that eight deep pools were located close to similar sites where no FCZs existed. Five sites were selected for CPUE data collection. These sites included the study villages of Ban Don Houat and Hatxaykhoun.
79 Four experienced fishermen were selected from each village to participate in the study. The study was designed to have two fishermen fish around the perimeter of the FCZ, and another two around the perimeter of the reference site. The project provided new gill nets in mesh sizes of 5,7,10 and 12 cm, forms on CPUE data collection and instructions. Fishermen were asked to record data on overnight fish catches bi-weekly between November 2000 to April 2001, November to December 2002 and January to March 2003.
Other CPUE studies were conducted in Ban Hat and Hoo Som Yai to investigate the annual fish migration through Khong island in different seasons. CPUE surveys in Ban Hat were conducted in the dry season where upstream migration took place from the middle of February each year, while Hoo Som Yai CPUE data collection took place during May to June when wet season downstream migration occurred.
This research will focus on CPUE data collection across three villages: Ban Don Houat, Hatxaykhoun and Hat.
5.2.2 Understanding the migration process
Fish migration plays a very important role in the river ecology of most tropical river systems. The scientific reason for fish migration is the need for fish to reach spawning grounds, or find fertile feeding habitats for juveniles (MRC 2002a). According to Northcote (1984), fish undertake migration in order to place themselves in the optimum habitats in which to carry out specific lifecycle functions. In most cases this involves survival, growth and reproduction which are spatially, seasonally and onto genetically separated (Singhanouvong et al. 1996a). In some cases ‘the migration can take place to several thousand kilometres’ (Barthem and Goulding 1997, cited by Poulson et al. 2001). Fish migration in the Khong District can be classified as either longitudinal or lateral migration.
These migrations take place in association with changes in the hydrology of water, namely volume, flow and temperature. Fish adapt to the particular hydrological conditions of the river they inhabit (MRC 2002a). In the Mekong River, the lifecycles of many fish species are adapted to ensure that juvenile fish are brought into the rich, productive, feeding areas of the floodplains at the onset of the flood season. Because there is such a vast diversity of fish species in the Mekong River reflecting different biologies and ecologies, fish movements
80 might appear to be mixed. For example, specific species migrating at different times, or at the same time for different purposes. The migration take place in both the wet and dry seasons. Reproductive migration (or downstream migration) takes place in the wet season, non-reproductive migration (nursery and refuges) or upstream migration takes place in the dry season (LARReC 2004).
Essentially, these migrations are adaptations to life in running water. Within each river system, fish have adapted to the particular hydrological conditions associated with that river. For example, in a tropical floodplain river like the Mekong, the lifecycles of many fish species are adapted to ensure that the newly hatched fish larvae and juveniles are brought into the highly productive floodplain areas at the onset of the flood season (MRC 2002a).
Reproductive migration is difficult to observe in the wet season due to the high turbidity and volume of water. However, it can be noted by observing the physical condition of the fish, particularly females which are ready to release eggs. Non-productive migration in the dry season can be easily identified by observing the total catch which will be dominated by adult or fingerling fish, and brood stock in the normal condition. Most of the downstream movement can be observed in the lower Khone falls, while the upstream movement can be found across all areas of the Khong district.
5.2.3 Upstream migration
CPUE study of fish migration in Ban Hat CPUE data collection on upstream movement in Ban Hat took place during the new moon, which coincided with the Chinese New Year celebration (CNY) in 1994. Samples were collected over 24 days in 1994 and over a subsequent 14 days between 1995 and 2004 (Singhanouvong et al. 1996a). Gill nets were used as the standard fishing method, and teen expert fishermen were randomly selected for data recoding. Migratory activities were measured using the CPUE as an index of intensity, every two or three days over the CNY period. CPUE data was recorded in terms of number of fish (N.100m2Net-1Hour-1) and weight (g.100m2Net-1Hour-1) (Sighanouvong et al. 1996a).
81 The CPUE study in Ban Hat showed that nine migratory species (Table 5.1) passed through Ban Hat during the dry season (January to March). This movement was predominantly of adult and non-reproductive fish. It is believed that this migration is for the purpose of finding refuge. Data from the CPUE, as well as direct observation, indicates that the movement of fish is probably associated with hydrology and water volume. The mean CPUE data in 1996 and 2002 was significantly different from the other years. The CPUE data alone cannot explain why fish levels peaked during those years, but one possibility may be the big flood which occurred during those years and the subsequent abundance of food resources, leading to optimum conditions for fish reproduction and production.
160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 CPUE ( kg/per 100m2Net/day) 0 1994 1996 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Year
Figure 5.1: CPUE data in Ban Hat (1994-2004) (Data source: LARReC 2004)
The CPUE data from Bat Hat suggests that overall fish abundance from 1994 to 2004 was stable with an average mean CPUE of 23,65kg /100m2net/day, ranging from 11 to 35kg /100m2net/day (Figure 5.1). Three species predominated in number and weight: S. bandanesis, S. stejnegeri and M. erythrospila (56.76%, 24.12%, and 9.61% respectively).
82 Table 5.1: Some parameters of the migratory species found in Ban Hat (January –March) (Source: Singhanouvong et al. 1996a)
Mean Mean Total Migration Spawning No Species name body Length (month) (month) weight (g) (cm) Up Down stream stream 1 Bangana behri 275.1 55-60 12,3-4 6-7 6-7 2 Cirrhinus microlepis 130 65-70 12-3 6-7 6-7 3 Cirrhinus molitorella 257.3 50-55 12-2 NA 6-7-8 4 Gyrinocheilus pennocki 67.7 30 12, 3-4 NA 6 5 Labeo erythropterus 236.2 70-75 12, 3-4 6-7-8 6-7 6 Scaphognathops 72 25-30 12-3 NA 6-7 bandanesis 7 Sacaphognathops 111.2 19.9 12-3 NA 12-2 stejnegeri 8 Hypsibarbus malcolmi 146.4 40-45 12, 3-4 NA 12-2 9 Mekongina erythrospila 155.5 30 12,3-4 5-6 6-7
The CPUE data from Ban Hat showed that there was no clear overall trend in fish abundance. Baseline data on fish migration and biology gathered from this study can be used for further research into improving and enhancing fisheries resources in the Mekong River as a whole, and particularly in Khong Island. Continuous data collection by the CPUE in the Khong District is important for further monitoring and planning programmes.
It is clear that migration routes are influenced by fluctuations in water levels. In the dry season, peak migrations take place when the water is receding. When water levels increase, the numbers of fish decrease. This process repeats again depending on the water volume. Data from Ban Hat correlates with data from the survey on fish migration in the Lower Mekong Basin, suggesting that the peak period for fish migration is with certain changes in water levels both in the dry and wet season (Poulson et al. 2002). There was a large fish migration in the dry season when water was receding. There was also a peak period of movement in the wet season during a time of rising water levels.
The lunar cycle is another factor which influences migration activities. The CPUE studies clearly show that upstream migration of small cyprinid fish past Hat village, is linked to the
83 moon and in particular to the new moon lunar phase (Figure 5.2). This migration takes place between the new moon and the first quarter lunar phase of the first and second lunar cycle following the annual winter solstice in late December (LARReC 2004). No scientific evidence is available to explain why a large school of fish migrate and pass through Khong Island around the time of the new moon lunar phase when nights are dark, but this may involve an adaptation to prevent them from being seen by predators (Warren et al. 1998).
0.9 10
0.8 Mean CPUE 8 0.7 Relative Water Depth
0.6 6
0.5 4 0.4 sq.m/NEt/Hr) 0.3 2 Relative Water Depth (m) 0.2
Mean CPUE (Number of Fish per 100 0 0.1
0 -2 N -3-2-1NM1234578101215 M-4 Day before and after new moon
Figure 5.2: Mean CPUE during CNY and relative water depths in Ban Hat (Data source: LARReC 2004)
5.2.4 Relative index of fish abundance and fish species
CPUE study of fish abundance in Ban Don Houat As mentioned early in this chapter, the purpose of the CPUE study in Ban Don Houat and Hatxaykhoun was to evaluate the effectiveness of FCZs by looking at qualitative data and comparing FCZs with reference sites (RFSs). Results of CPUE studies in Ban Don Houat between 2000 and 2003 show that there was no significant difference between the FCZs and RFSs in fish abundance. They were 95% similar. The minimum mean CPUE in FCZs was 1.31kg/net/night and maximum was 3.05kg/net/night. In RFSs, the mean CPUE ranged from 0.81 to 4.89kg/net/night (Figure 5.3). There were fluctuations, however, between the mean
84 CPUE in FCZs and the RFSs. Mean CPUE in the reference site intensified during the beginning of the study, but declined between February 2001 and December 2002. It increased again at the end of the study period. A similar result was also found in Ban Thakham, where no significant differences were found between FCZs and RFSs (LARReC 2003).
6 FCZ 5 Rerefence site t
4
3
2 Mean CPUEMean kg/net/nigh 1
0 Jan 2001 Jan 2002 Jan 2003 Mar 2003 Mar 2001 Nov 2000 Feb 2001 Nov 2001 Feb 2002 Nov 2002 Feb 2003 Dec 2000 Dec 2001 Dec 2002 April 2001
Figure 5.3: Mean CPUE in FCZs vs. mean CPUE in RFSs (Ban Don Houat) (Data source: LARReC 2003)
In Ban Don Houat’s case, the CPUE data could not determine fish abundance in FCZs and RFSs. The mean CPUE data (Figure 5.3) suggests that CPUE cannot be used as a quantitative method to measure biomass at selected localities per se (LARReC 2004) but it can be used to assess relative abundance of fish. CPUE data can illustrate the abundance of fish at certain times of the year and information about species during these times. The important species recognised in Ban Don Houat during the study period from November 2000 to March 2003 were: pangasius macronema, labeo chrysophekadion, hemibagrus spp, and cosmochilus harmandi with total weights of 89.2kg, 76.7kg, 53.1kg and 53kg respectively.
85 Limitations of the study included physical differences between the FCZs and RFSs, and differences in fishing experiences between selected fishermen who fished at the respective sites. Others limitations centred on fish eating habits and behaviour, and according to field observation, in some cases catches in shallow water were higher then those in deep waters. This may highlight differences in fish habits between deep and shallow areas, fish using deep water for refuge and shallow water for feeding.
CPUE study of fish abundance in Ban Hatxaykhoun The objective and methodology of the CPUE study in Ban Hatxaykhoun was the same method as that used in Ban Don Houat, and the results are similar. Mean CPUE between 2000 and 2003 in FCZ was 2.15 kg/net/night and 2.17kg/net/night for the RFS. The maximum CPUE in FCZs and RFSs was the same 3kg/net/night, while the minimum CPUE was 0.99kg/net/night and 1.20kg/net/night for FCZs and RFS respectively.
The most abundant fish species (by weight) found in FCZ and RFS were: pangasius spp (23%), pangasius bocourti (20%), micronema spp (15%) labeo chrysophekadion (13%), hemisilurus mekongensis (12%) and pangasius conchophilus (10%). The CPUE data in Ban Hatxaykhoun provides not only an index of the relative abundance of different fish species, but also has the potential to be used, in conjunction with other methods, to identify species and their relative weight and size.
CPUE data of FCZ and RFS in Ban Hatxaykhoun cannot alone determine the differences in fish abundance between the two sites due to the complexities of the pools themselves, the selection of fishing gear, and the experience of fisherman in operating different size fishing gear. The CPUE study in the other villages of Ban Phimanphon and Nang Kouat show impressive results between FCZ and RFS: 5.44kg/net/night and 1.21kg/net/night in FCZs and reference sites in Phimanphon during the first year of the study and 7.58 and 1.78kg/net/night for FCZs and reference sites in the third year study in Ban Nang Khouat. The statistical parameter, however, in ONE-WAY ANOVA suggested there were no significant differences between the two sites (LARReC 2003). This is due to the large differences between the maximum and minimum CPUE data recorded (maximum 20.1 and minimum 1.2kg/net/night). In addition, the non-significant differences between the two sites were caused by large variations in standard deviation from the FCZ site.
86 Data record errors may be one problem with the CPUE study, as not all fishermen were interested in the study. When I tried to investigate understanding of the CPUE data collection during my field research, none of the fishermen knew the purpose of the CPUE study, and they only referred to the need of Sounkang (National Government Institute) as to why the data was being collected. Perhaps, LARReC/NAFRI decided on the CPUE study without any participation from the local community. Fishermen were encouraged to participate in the study by being given free gill nets.
The limitations of the study, and the complexity of the Mekong River environment which changes year-to-year and the unpredictability of flood fish production and patterns makes solid evidence hard to come by. However, anecdotal evidence has shown that there are some positive changes in fisheries patterns, as fishermen talk of more fish surfacing in FCZs and the areas nearby, than there were previously.
In Khong Island, a hydro-acoustic method was combined with CPUE data collection, to investigate the number and size of fish stock living in deep pools. CPUE can be a cost effective tool when combined with sophisticated methods of application like the hydro- acoustic method. The combined methods can provide supplementary information about fish biology including reproduction and species distribution. Further discussion on the use of hydro-acoustic equipment to assess fish stock is presented in chapter VI.
87 3.5 FCZ 3 Rerefence site t
2.5
2
1.5
1 Mean CPUE kg/net/nigh Mean 0.5
0 Jan 2003 Jan Jan 2002 Jan Jan 2001 Jan Mar 2003 Nov 2002 Mar 2001 Nov 2001 Nov 2000 Feb 2003 Feb 2002 Feb 2001 Dec 2002 Dec 2001 Dec 2000 April 2001
Figure 5.4: Mean CPUE in FCZ vs. mean CPUE in the reference site in Ban Hatxaykhoun (Data source: LARReC 2003)
Fish species Scientific knowledge about fish species is based on data from CPUE studies during the fish migration period or main fishing season. It is seen that species estimations from CPUE are lower than estimations reported by fishermen during the fishing period (February each year). The species reported by both SK and IK were consistent across all three villages (Table 5.1) but the number of species reported using IK data was greater than SK claimed. This maybe explained as CPUE data collection relied on limited type of fishing gear and thus not all species were caught. The method also targets commercial and large species. IK data, however, includes the catch from all types of fishing gear plus observations from fishermen, the markets and from others.
5.2.5 National fisheries statistics
In Lao PDR, the fisheries statistics system is a subsystem of the agricultural statistics system, and is used by different statistical agencies. Government agencies directly involved in the generation of fisheries statistics include: the Division of Statistics of the Planning Department, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, the Department of Livestock and Fisheries, the Living Aquatic Resource Research Center of National Agriculture and
88 Forestry Institute, the Provincial Livestock and Fishery Sections, and the District Livestock and Fishery Units.
Production figures for capture fisheries are based on the sampling data of the yields per unit area across several types of aquatic environments. Data on capture fisheries is mainly taken from fish landing sites such as Nam Ngum Reservoir and Nakasang Village on Khong Island. The information on aquaculture is also obtained from data collection at private and household farms.
Statistics on fish production in Lao PDR are not available or, if available, is not accurate. Fish production figures for inland fisheries are calculated by sampling the yield per unit of a particular type of water body and then multiplying this by the water area (Souvannaphan et al. 2003). The data on small-scale or part-time fisheries, which account for more then 70 % of fisheries in the country, is not included in official fisheries statistics, because small-scale fisheries are mainly for subsistence. There is no systematic data collection system and the collection of such data in relation to small-scale fisheries is considered costly. As a result, estimations of fish production vary according to approach. In 2000, DLF estimated that capture fisheries production in the country was 71,316 tonnes/year, while MRC’s estimation, based on a sampling survey in Luangprabang Province, came up with a total production of 500,000 tonnes/year. The difference in fisheries statistics between those collected on the national level and those collected by the MRC, have occurred in all the Lower Mekong River Basin countries. Estimates of the total production from the Mekong River is up from about one million tonnes in 2000 to three million tonnes in 2003. Fluctuating figures have generated confusion for both researchers and decision-makers. Not only have fish production numbers changed, but fish taxonomy has also changed. For example, the scientific name of the fish species Pa Pia (known in the past as morulius chrysophekadion) is now labeo chrysophekadion.
Based on CPUE data, and limited fisheries statistics, scientists at provincial and national levels who rely on conventional research methods, have concluded that fisheries production in the Khong district is unchanged although there may be a slight declining trend in some species, particularly the larger ones.
89 Table 5.2: Fish species from CPUE vs. species from IK
No Species name CPUE IK DH HK HT DH HK HT 1 Bangana behri Yes Yes 2 Belodontichthys truncatus No No No Yes Yes Yes 2 Boesemania microlepis Yes No Yes Yes 4 Chitala blanci No Yes No Yes Yes Yes 5 Chitala ornate No Yes 6 Cirrhinus microlepis Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 7 Cirrhinus molitorella No Yes Yes Yes 8 Cosmocheilus harmandi No No No Yes Yes Yes 9 Cyclocheilichthys enoplos No Yes 10 Cyprinus carpio Yes Yes 11 Gyrhinocheilus spp No Yes Yes Yes 12 Hampala macrolepidota Yes Yes 13 Helicophagus waandersii No Yes No Yes Yes Yes 14 Hemibagrus spilopterus Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes 15 Hemibagrus wyckii No No Yes Yes 16 Hemibagrus wyckioides No Yes 17 Hemisilurus mekongensis Yes No Yes Yes 18 Hypsibarbus malcolmi Yes Yes Yes Yes 19 Labeo erythropterrus Yes Yes 20 Labeo spp Yes Yes Yes Yes 21 Labiobarbus lineata No Yes 22 Labiobarbus spp No Yes 23 Mekongina erythrospila Yes Yes Yes Yes 24 Micronema apogon Yes Yes 25 Micronema bleekeri No Yes 26 Micronema spp Yes No No Yes Yes Yes 27 Notopterus notopterus No No Yes Yes 28 Osteochilus hasseltii No Yes 29 Pangasius conchophilus No Yes Yes Yes 30 Pangasius macronema Yes Yes 31 Pangasius spp Yes No Yes Yes 32 Pristolepis fasciata No Yes 33 Probarbus jullieni No Yes 34 Puntioplites falcifer Yes No Yes Yes 35 Puntius spp No No Yes Yes 36 Scaphiodonichthys acanthopterus No Yes 37 Scaphognathops spp Yes Yes 38 Wallago attu No Yes DH- Don Houat village HK- Hatxaykhoun village HT- Hat village
90 5.2.6 Summary
CPUE is one of many alternative methods used to study fish biology, abundance and fish migration patterns across species. CPUE data collection in Ban Hat provides a relative index of fish abundance during the main upstream migration period that occurs during the dry season each year. The data illustrates that fish patterns in the past ten years are stable with no significant decline. CPUE data can be used as an indicator to monitor fisheries for long-term planning.
CPUE qualitative data alone, however, cannot always determine fish abundance in specific localities, due to the complexity of the environment, species diversify and behaviour, and standards of fishing gear and fishing experiences. The CPUE data from FCZs and RFSs in Ban Don Houat and Hatxaykhoun do not show significant differences. However, it is necessary to combine CPUE data with indigenous knowledge of species and behaviour, and do not use not only one fishing method to catch fish. The participation of local fishermen in identifying information needs and the planning, implementing, analysis and sharing of results is important.
91 5.3 Community knowledge: Fishermen knowledge of fish species and abundance
5.3.1 Perceptions of fish abundance
5.3.1.1 Fishermen knowledge of hydrological changes and lunar phases In the rural areas of Lao PDR, people use a lunar calendar. It is about one month ahead of the Western calendar. Fishermen around the world believe that the peak period for fish, or large numbers of fish to migrate, is associated with the tides and lunar cycles (deBruyn et al. 2001; Dedual et al. 1999; Krumme et al. 2003; Sugeha et al. 2001). In Khong Island, fishermen report that important fish migrations take place during January to March or between the end and start of the moon in the lunar calendar.
In general, changes in water temperature, quality, and quantity are linked with fish migrations - necessary for the reproduction and lifecycle of fish. In Khong Island, local fishermen believe that winds, crown skies, reduced or increased water flows, and changes in water temperature are indicators of fish migration and abundance. They are also aware of the influence lunar cycles have in creating an abundance of fish. According to interviews with experienced fishermen in the study village, fish movement is significantly linked to water volumes. In the dry season, fish migration increases when the water volumes decrease, whereas in the wet season fish migration decreases when the water volume rises. This knowledge of environmental changes and subsequent changes in the abundance of fish has been gathered via observation over time and passed down from generation to generation.
Fishermen in Ban Don Houat have observed the movement of Pa Soi in the dry season, coincides with the new moon in February each year. Some fish species are affected by water temperature. For example, Ban Hatxaykhoun fishermen have reported that many Pa Nang Deng (hemisilurus mekongensis) are found in the dry season (particularly during the Lao PDR New Year in April), when the water is warm. Most fish species found at this time inhabit the deep pools. They swim in the deep waters during the day and hunt at night for food and oxygen. Not only are inland fisheries influenced by lunar phases and water temperatures. Marine fisheries fishermen have also experienced that the peak periods of catch in tuna and salmon are associated with the lunar cycle and changes in water volume (Fleming et al. 2002; Ponce-Diazet et al. 2003). Traditionally, fishermen believe that in the
92 beginning of the wet season, or at the first rains, fish get together and play in the new water before spreading out to small streams and floodplains for spawning. This evidence has been supported by a study of fish migration in the Mekong River by the Assessment of the Mekong Fisheries Project. It found that during the period when the waters are rising, fish moved to the floodplains for spawning and feeding (MRC 2002a).
5.3.1.2 Fishermen knowledge of fish habits and behaviours The Mekong River in Khong Island is a complex ecosystem in which is found a rich variety of food for fish. Food sources include plankton, zooplankton, tree leaves/flowers, and algae. By observing changes in these resources, fishermen know where fish are abundant. Fish species have different eating habits. For example, fishermen in Ban Don Houat have observed that pa pai eat tone kum leaves. If the young leaf of these trees has a small cut then there is a large abundance of pa pia in the area. Similar observations have been made in Ban Hatxaykhoun and Ban Hat, where fishermen have observed that the fish were eating algae off the rock. If algae on the rock are less then usual, it means there are a lot of fish living near these areas and thus it is a good spot for fishing. According to fishermen, fish who eat algae include: Pa Soi, Pa Pawn, Pa Pak, Pa Po, Pa Ke and Pa Soua (henicorhynchus siamensis, cirrhinus microlepis, hypsibarbus spp., pangasius conchophilus, pangasius bocourti, pangasius elongatus).
The ease of catching fish is another indicator for measuring fish abundance in FCZs and deep pools. Fishermen know that if the catch increases, for whatever reason, then the fish are in abundance in their river. The amount of fish sold in the market also points to fish abundance. Fishermen in Ban Hat said that fish are like people - they move around, play in the water and jump up and down at different times of the day. A good time to observe fish movements is the early morning or late evening, when fish move to the surface of the water for oxygen. They jump and move very strongly and make a noise that you can see and hear. This is also seen in Ban Don Houat, where fishermen have observed fish in the fish conservation zones coming to the surface of the water. These are mainly Pa Gnone (pangasius pleurotaemia)
Knowledge of fish behaviour and eating habits is an essential part of selecting a fishing ground and thus the size of the fish catch for people living in Khong Island. Each fish
93 species has its own biological characteristic, different living and eating places and food. Some of the important habitats of specific species were described in chapter IV.
The following is a summary of local knowledge (reported by fishermen in Ban Don Houat, Hatxaykhoun and Hat) identifying the habitats and fishing gear used to target different fish species: - Pa Pawn (cirrhinus microlepis) lives in riffle, rock, and sandy water and feeds on algae found on rocks in shallow water. Gill nets, cast nets, hooks and lines are the main fishing method. - Pa Pia (labeo chrysophekadion) inhabits Kun Hin and eats algae. Fishermen use cast nets and gill nets to catch this species. - Pa Eun (probarbus jullieni) live in deep pools with strong water flow. Small craft, snails and shrimp are their main food. Fishermen use hooks to target this big fish. - Pa Gnone (pangasius pleurotaemia) live in deep pools. Algae and flowers are their main food. Fishermen use gill nets and cast nets to catch this species. -Pa Kuang (boesemania microlepis) live in deep pools. They eat small fish (eg henicorhynchus siamensis) and earthworms. Gill nets are used to catch them. -Pa Wa Na Nor (bangana behri) is found in riffle, slow deep reaches habitat; They eat aquatic chlorophytes and plant material. The main fishing gear used to catch them are gill nets and cast nets. -Pa Keng (cirrhinus molitorella) lives in rapids, slow deep reaches, and eats aquatic chlorophytes and plant material. The main fishing gear used to catch them are gill nets and cast nets. -Pa Pak (hypsibarbus spp.) live in rapids and deep slow reaches. They eat aquatic chlorophytes and plant material. The main fishing gears used to catch them are gill nets and cast nets. -Pa Sa-I (mekongina erythrospila) live in slower deeper reaches, eating aquatic chlorophytes and plant material. Gill nets are used to catch them. -Pa Ko (gyrinocheilus pennocki) live in riffle and rapids deep pools. They eat aquatic chlorophytes. Cast nets and gill nets are used to catch them. -Pa Pien (Scaphognathops spp.) live in deep slow reaches, eating aquatic chlorophytes. Gill nets are used to catch them.
94 Based on data from field interviews and field observations, more than 50 species are caught in the study areas (Table 5.3). Fishermen believe, however, that more than 200 species inhabit the Mekong River in the Khong Island territory. These fish include small un- economic species living in rice fields and small streams namely: Pa Kat, Pa Mat, Pa Pao, Pa Sieu, and Pa Tithin (betta splendens, trichopsis vittata, monotreta suvatti, esomus longimanus, homaloptera annamitica).
5.3.2 Perceptions of species and catches 5.3.2.1 The appearance of rare species Fishermen in the study villages (both with and without fish conservation zones) have come to the conclusion that their local knowledge management based systems are effective fisheries management systems. The introduction of fish conservation zones, and the enforcement of village fisheries regulations, maximise fish reproduction in the area. There has been the re-occurrence of some species which were previously in decline. For instance, many juvenile Pa Kuang appeared in 2004. Pa Kuang use deep pools as a spawning ground and refuge in the dry season. The catch of Pa Pia the whole year round, is another reason for fishermen to acknowledge the successful management of their resources.
Fishermen know that the successful management of fisheries in Khong Island requires the cooperation of all the villages who benefit from the Mekong River. Fish do not spend all their time in a specific location, but instead move up and down the river depending on seasonal change. Fishermen believe that fish conservation zones are the only the place that fish will stay. Fish use the deep water to shelter from fishermen, but they will move out to feed or spawn in the shallow water, where fishermen can catch them. Some escape and use deep pools as a refuge. Fishermen also believe that there is one species of big brood stock that lead all fish to specific deep pools. In Ban Hatxaykhoun, fishermen believe that the abundance of fish depends on the big fish, as this fish knows and will guide other fish to these places every year. If this fish is caught, there may be fewer fish in future in these areas. Fishermen in Ban Hat believe that their deep pools are looked after by a ghost or spirit: chao vang. If fishermen do not fish where the spirit exists, this spirit will call fish to the deep pools. In contrast, if someone fishes in this area, the ghost spirit will hide fish in deep holes that are out of reach of the fishermen. The abundance of fish in Ban Don Houat is linked with cultural and historical events, and it is known as a good fishing spot in the Khong district, especially in the dry season when the migration of Pa Soi (henicorhynchus
95 siamensis) takes place. Fishermen in the neighbouring villages gather together to catch Pa Soi which is used to make padeak (fermented fish).
Table 5.3: The important fish species caught in study areas (Reported by fishermen) No Scientific name* Lao name Fishing gear used 1 Anguilla marmorata Pa Lay Fai Fa 100kg Caught in Don Houat 2 Bagarius yarrelli Pa Kae Khoua long line/ cast net 3 Bangana behri Pa Wananor gill net, cast net, Xone and 4 Belodontichthys truncatus Pa Kob cast net 5 Boesemania microlepis Pa Kuang max size 5 kg, gill net 6 Catlocarpio siamensis Pa Kaho gill net and big net (nam) 7 Chitala blanci Pa Tonglie long line and gill net 8 Chitala ornata Pa Tongdao long line and gill net 9 Cirrhinus microlepis Pa Pawn gill net cast net xone and trap 10 Cirrhinus molitorella Pa Keng cast net 11 Cosmochilus harmandi Pa Makban gill net 12 Crossochelus oblongus Pa Tokhoi gill net 13 Cyclocheilichthys enoplos Pa Chok cast net and long line 14 Cyprinus carpio Pa Nai cast net/long line 15 Dasyatis laosensis Pa Fa hook and line 16 Datnioides Pa Seua gill net, long line 17 Gyrinocheilus pennocki Pa Ko cast net 18 Hampala macrolepidota Pa soud cast net 19 Helicophagus waandersii Pa Nou gill net cast net 20 Hemibagrus filamentus Pa Kotluang cast net/long line 21 Hemibagrus wyckii Pa Kotdam cast net/long line 22 Hemibagrus wyckioides Pa Kung cast net/long line 23 Hemisilurus mekongensis Pa Nangdeng 1kg is max weight caught with 24 Henicorhynchus siamensis Pa Soi gill net, Toum lanh 25 Himantura chaophraya Pa Fai hook, line 26 Hypsibarbus lagleri Pa Pakmorn gill net, cast net 27 Hypsibarbus malcolmi Pa Paknuat gill net, max size 2 kg 28 Hypsibarbus wetmorei Pa Paktonglam cast net 29 Kryptopterus micronema Pa Nangkao cast net 30 Kryptopterus sp. PA Pearkai gill net 31 Labeo chrysophekadion Pa Pia cast net and gill net 32 Labeo erythropterus Pa Wasuang cast net 33 Labiobarbus lineata Pa Kilam gill net, cast net
96 34 Lobocheilus melanotaenia Pa Kiangkanglai gill net, cast net 35 Mekongina erythrospila Pa Sa- i adult size 200 g Caught 36 Micronema bleekeri Pa Nang gill net 37 Micronema apogon Pa Nangngeun gill net, cast net 38 Notopterus notopterus Pa Tongna cast net 39 Ompok bimaculatus Pa Seum gill net, cast net 40 Osteochilus hasseltii Pa Itai gill net cast net 41 Osteochilus melanopleura Pa Nokkao cast net 42 Pangasius bocourti Pa Kai max size 1.5 kg, cast net 43 Pangasius conchophilus Pa Pok cast net, gill net 44 Pangasius elongatus Pa cast net, gill net, chan trap 45 Pangasius krempfi Pa Souamakmai cast net 46 Pangasius larnaudii Pa Houmat max size 1 kg 47 Pangasius macronema Pa Nyawn caught with gill net 48 Pangasius pleurotaenia Pa cast net 49 Pangasius sanitwongsei Pa Leum juveniles, cast net 50 Pangasius siamensis Pa Nyawn cast net, gill net 51 Paralaubuca typus Pa Tab gill net, cast net 52 Pristolepis fasciata Pa Gah cast net/long line 53 Probarbus jullieni Pa Euntadeng caught one fish weighing 37 54 Puntioplites falcifer Pa Sakang cast net 55 Scaphognathops Pa Piankao gill net/cast net 56 Scaphognathops stejnegeri Pa Piansibsam cast net 57 Tenualosa thibaudeaui Pa Makphang cast net and lob trap 58 Wallago attu Pa Kao hook-line, cast net, gill net 59 Wallago leeri Pa Khoun juveniles/ cast net * Scientific name are based on MRC Mekong Fish Data Base 2003
Apart from the small cyprinids species, a Pa Fa (himantura chaophraya) weighing 100 kg was caught in 2004, and two more in January 2005. This has made local fishermen in Ban Don Houat think that it is their fish conservation zones which have allowed the Pa Fa to appear again after many years when it was not seen. Fishermen in Ban Hat and Hatxaykhoun support the comments and beliefs about fish abundance and local management systems of fishermen from Ban Don Houat. They strongly believe that practices such as the ban on hitting the water to scare fish to gill nets; the ban on spearing big fish in deep pools and the ban on blocking streams, has led to greater fish abundance year round.
97 It can be argued that the local community viewpoint on fish abundance, is based on evidence that they observe in everyday life. This may differ from scientific or research perspectives that rely on time series data or sophisticated conventional methods that take a long time and even then may be inconclusive. Fishermen base their knowledge on what they catch every day, on seeing what other fishermen in their area catch, and on hearing what other communities are saying about their fisheries status. This information is enough for them to come to conclusions about the abundance of their fisheries resources. Communicating and exchanging information with other villages and observing fish in the market are other factors that fishermen use to support their conclusions.
5.3.2.2 Total fish catch in the main fishing season The abundance of fish in the years 1996 and 2002 was unusual. No scientific information is available to explain why these specific years yielded such a high catch compared with the catch for an average year (Figure 5.1). Fishermen in the study villages regard the high catch as a natural phenomenon that cannot be predicted or explained, but they do assume it is linked to their traditional fisheries management systems in particularly FCZs.
According to the fishermen in Ban Don Houat, the high peak catch is associated with the cycle of the seasons in Lao PDR, which they call ‘fon ma tam ladukan’ (the rain is coming on time). If the rain is delayed or comes early, it will have a negative impact on fish reproduction and production. Fish need enough food and good water conditions for maximum growth and production rates. Inundated forest or wetland becomes a vast productive feeding and nursing habitat for fish and other aquatic animals.
Local fishermen are concerned with fish abundance only when it translates into actual catch and most of them is small sizes. These fish play an important part of their daily life, not only by providing animal protein for subsistence, but also by providing surplus food (ie fermented fish) when they cannot fish. Vast numbers of cyprinids are caught every year, and fishermen believe that these fish are still in abundance and, in fact, increasing in numbers. Similar situations have been reported in Cambodia, where thousands of kilograms or more of fish are caught every year in Dai fisheries, but the production is still stable every year or even increases in some years (Lieng et al. 1995; Hortle et al. 2005). Overall fish composition of the catch, however, shows that medium to large size fish have decreased, with small fish dominating the catch. Fishermen in the study villages attest to the fact that high value fish
98 are rare and difficult to catch. This is especially the case with probarbus jullieni and wallago leeri which used to be caught with weights of up to 100kg. Today only fish of 5 to 10 kg can be seen.
5.3.3 Summary Local fishermen use indigenous knowledge to observe their fisheries resources. The abundance of fish is associated with environmental changes (eg water volume and colours, and the lunar cycle). In the dry season, for instance, many fish are caught when water volumes decrease and not many fish are found when the water levels increase or are fluctuating. This knowledge allows fishermen to prepare and target different species in the fish migration period between January and April each year.
Fishermen’s knowledge of species and behaviour are another important factor when finding new fishing spots. At least fifty-nine species have been reported by fishermen as being found in the study villages. Each species has different habitat and behaviours. For example, some prefer to stay in deep pools to eat algae, while others inhabit keang and eat aquatic animals (eg shrimps and water insects). This knowledge is essential not only for fishermen in catching fish, but also for the management and monitoring of important or rare species of the Mekong River.
Perceptions of fish abundance are based on the catch, on the observation of fish surfacing in FCZs, and on the appearance of rare species. Fishermen argue that the ease of catching fish, and increases in both species and production, is partly a result of the implementation of traditional management systems or FCZs, that allow fish to escape from fishermen and shelter in FCZs, allowing fish to maximise reproduction and increase in number.
5.4 Comparative discussion
There are different systems used for measuring the abundance of fish in the Khong district. Scientific based systems rely on statistical data and the CPUE. Conventional methods of estimation carefully look at the many factors that may impact on fish abundance in the long- term. They look at the whole picture rather than specific species. Local communities, in contrast, base estimates of fish abundance on existing information available through every day catch and observation of the movement of fish in their deep pools and fish conservation zones. Local communities feel fish are abundant in the Mekong. However, scientific data
99 cannot confirm the abundance of fish in FCZs, due to inadequate information on existing data. Fishermen draw their own conclusions about fish abundance in their villages and believe that the fish conservation zones play an important role in increasing fish populations the abundance of fish species.
Failure to accurately predict fish stock in European countries in the 1990s by conventional scientific methods, damaged fish stock and confused planners, decision-makers and commercial marine fishermen. Different outcomes from scientific data, such as taxonomy and production information in the Lower Mekong River Basin (LMRB) are also a problem. For example, the estimated fish production between 2000 and 2003 of the LMRB, as undertaken by MRCs, is threefold that of scientific official estimates. Changing the taxonomy of fish species from a well-known taxonomy also reflects issues with poor fisheries planning and management in the Mekong River. Looking at the role of local indigenous knowledge, alongside scientific knowledge systems in fisheries management of natural resources, could be a means of overcoming problems of inaccurate estimates.
Overall understanding of fish migration and the relationship between migration and hydrological changes (water quality, quantity, temperature and lunar phases) does not differ significantly between scientific and local perceptions. In the dry season, a peak period of upstream movement occurs when the water starts retracting. The downstream movement in the wet season intensifies when water levels increase. CPUE measurements can provide data on relative abundance of fish, and long-term trends. If the index appears negative, then management or mitigation systems may need to be put in place, for example, restricting fishing in certain areas, or restricting some types of fishing gear. Local perceptions of fish habits and behaviour is a valuable source of information for fisheries management. Knowing fish movements and specific characteristics of different species is an advantage for local fishermen in catching and using their resources. This information is not only vital for local communities themselves, but it can also support scientific data on the biology and taxonomy of fish and the need for protection or enhancement of fisheries resources. Most CPUE and other biological data is still in the form of technical reports. These reports are often located with the user, and only limited information is returned back to local communities.
The lunar cycle influences fish movements and production. This has been acknowledged both by scientific and local knowledge systems. There is worldwide evidence to support a
100 peak period of fish associated with lunar phases, both in marine and inland fisheries. Fish production in Khong Island is linked to the Cambodian Great Lake floodplain - an important spawning and feeding ground for many major fish species in the Mekong River. Fisheries production in the Khong district is also slightly dependent upon the migration route between Stuntreng and Hang Khone village, Lao PDR. Fishermen know that upstream migration takes place on Cambodian floodplains during a lunar cycle. After a few days, fish reach the Lao PDR side and continue to migrate up to Ban Hat.
There is no statistical evidence to support declines in fish production. Local fishermen focus on the migratory species that they consume everyday, or the catch from the high season. Most of these fish are small in size and are uneconomic species. Fishermen use this evidence to conclude the abundance of fish in their area. They feel that fish abundance is not in decline, although there is a change in composition, with fewer medium to large size fish and more small size fish. Scientific data, however, based on limited information, cannot support these claims.
Traditional management systems and FCZs are the main factors that fishermen believe have increased fish numbers in the Khong Island district since 2002. No one factor, however, can be solely responsible especially when knowledge of the complex eco-system and environmental dynamic of the Mekong is limited. It is important to look at the interaction between several factors (Baird et al. 2005). With no scientific evidence available to explain if or why fish production is stable, other factors may need to be considered. For example, flooding in major tributaries in Lao PDR and Cambodia, and a reduction of illegal fishing gear in Cambodia may have a positive impact on fish reproduction and production.
It is not surprising that local fishermen know of more fish species then those detected through CPUE data collection. The list of important fish species gathered from fishermen interviewed and CPUE data did, however, coincide. Apart from knowledge of species, indigenous knowledge also provides qualitative information on fish habits and behaviours that is often not known by scientists. Data from CPUE studies, and local knowledge from fishermen, needs to be combined in order to achieve effective monitoring, planning and management of local resources.
101 5.5 Conclusion Inland capture fisheries are different from marine fisheries not only in terms of fish species but also fishing methods. Mekong River fisheries use more than one hundred fishing methods and target more than one thousand fish species. Because of these complexities, it is difficult to obtain accurate fisheries statistics. In most cases, fisheries statistics are based on limited landing sites and do not cover the catch from small-scale fisheries, which are mainly subsistence fisheries, yet account for a large percentage of fish production.
Changes in fish stock, both in species and production, are associated with many factors including national and regional water development activities. More effort is needed to deal with existing fisheries information by reviewing and defining the information needed. Working closely with local communities and trusted data sources, and exchanging information with relevant stakeholders is important.
CPUE data provides an index of fish abundance at a specific time and is valuable for long- term monitoring of fisheries trends, while local knowledge on eating habits, behaviour and the distribution of a species across different habitats, can support research on fish stock and taxonomy of important species. In the long-term, basic information gathered from local fishermen should be linked with CPUE data to monitor feeding and spawning habitats of fish.
Small increases of some fish species have been found in Khong Island. Local communities respond to this as an indicator of fish abundance. A scientific viewpoint acknowledges this change and is trying to look at the cause. Local communities and scientists are aware of the reduction in large fish numbers, especially high value fish; it is believed that these fish are using deep pools as an important habitat. In order to increase the production of large size fish, there is a need to protect their habitat and prohibit the use of destructive fishing gear. This action has already begun to be implemented in the Khong District, in particular in the villages that currently have fish conservation zones.
102 Chapter VI: Deep pools and fish stocks
6.1 Introduction
This chapter looks at deep pools and fish stock. Hydro-acoustic survey data is analysed as a scientific tool to determine the role of deep pools on fish stock. Local ecological knowledge is used to investigate the perception of communities about the relationship between deep pools and fish stock. A comparative discussion is provided to look at the differences and similarities between these two knowledge systems and the potential for combining these systems for effective fisheries management.
6.2 Scientific knowledge: Hydro-acoustic systems
6.2.1. Theoretical principles of hydro-acoustic systems
Hydro-acoustic surveys are a research methodology which was introduced to Lao PDR in 2001 for the study of deep pools and fish stock assessment in the Mekong River. The survey technique involves using a Simrad EK 60 scientific echo-sounder system to detect fish stock, and the river bottom condition. In general, an acoustic system typically consists of transmitter, receiver and signal processor (Figure 6.1). Acoustics are often referred to as ‘sonar’, when sonar is directed downward it is called ‘echo-sounding’. Sonar is an active method in that it uses the reflection of a projected sound wave, whereas the passive method involves simply listening for sounds. Acoustic equipment sends electrical energy from the transmitter which is converted into acoustic energy by an underwater transducer (Simrad 2003). This energy is projected into the water and reflected by fish, plankton and the bottom substrate. The returning reflected energy is converted back into electrical energy by the transducer and outputted as an echo (Hedgepeth et al. 1996). Active echo-sounders generate short bursts (or pings) of high frequency sound. These bursts are emitted into the water by the transducer. Between each emission, the echo-sounder switches into receiving mode, the transducer functions as a hydrophone, and the returned echoes are recorded (Balk et al. 2000).
In a split-beam echo-sounder, the returned sound intensity is measured by four separate elements in the transducer. These elements are arranged in a geometrical pattern so that the echo from a target with an off-axis position will reach different elements with different phases. The four signals are amplified separately, and passed onto a phase detector, and an
103 amplitude detector (Balk 2001). In the phase detector, the signals are compared, and the target’s angular positions are extracted. In the amplitude detector, the four signals are combined, and the modulated amplitude signal detected. The signal is then compensated for transmission loss. Presenting the amplitude signal from subsequent pings as columns in a diagram provides an echogram. Here, the vertical axis represents the distance from the transducer (range) while the horizontal axis represents the time.
The output from the amplitude and phase detectors is also used as input to the single echo detector. This detector applies a set of echo criteria to detect echoes from single targets, and to reject background reverberation and multiple echoes. Accepted echoes are beam patterns compensated according to their off-axis positions in the beam. The single echoes can be plotted in echograms and in two- or three-dimensional position diagrams (Balk et al. 2000).
Figure 6.1: Basic components of acoustic system (Adapted from Simrad EK 60)
Single Echo Detection (SED) is an important element in an estimation of the total number of fish per hectare. The detected single echoes are used to gather the size distribution. The total abundance is obtained by scaling this distribution with the result from the echo integration (Nakken et al. 1997). A SED algorithm calculates the number and distribution of single echoes (single organisms) detected in the echogram and their respective reflection energy
104 equal target strength. The SED is raised by the total Sa/ha into an estimate of the total number of fish per hectare.
Target Strength (TS) is an important factor in estimating fish size from echo-sounder data. It is used to scale the integrator output into quantities of fish (Marclenne et al. 1992). It also provides an estimation of fish abundance for different species, although the target strength size and relationship has to be established empirically (Nakken et al. 1997). This relationship is expressed by the formula: TS=m log L+b where TS is the target strength of fish in decibels (dB), L is the fish length and m and b are linear regression coefficients. Total biomass index estimation (sa/ha) is the average total energy (with a lower limit threshold of – 60 dB) reflected per hectare within the pelagic layer, and is proportional to the total biomass in the area of all organisms of more than 3cm.
The air filled swimbladder is reflected in the echo-sounder signal. The size of the swimbladder can be used to determine the target strength of a fish. Species with small, or no swimbladders, will be interpreted as smaller then their actual size (Kolding 2002). This presents a significant problem in the use of hydro-acoustic surveys in the Mekong River, where these is a high diversity of fish species and swimbladder are very different, particularly among the pangasius species.
Estimates of fish abundance can be obtained by counting echoes from individual fish (echo- counter) or by summing strength of the echo-integration (Maclennan et al. 1992). These two methods can also be combined, by distributing the echoes from single fish (single traces) relative to the total amount received by echo-integration, to obtain relative estimates of the total fish densities per unit areas (Kolding 2002). All calculations and estimates of fish abundance (number of fish/ha) are computed by the hydro-acoustic programme. However, the analysis requirements need to be initially set up by the operator. For example, we can set the programme to estimate all objects (fish) located from 1 to 11 metres below the surface of the water, yet 10cm above the bottom, to detect and count objects larger than plankton about (-60db). The programme will then automatically provide a result through calculation and estimation.
105 Two steps are involved in the calculation of abundance: 1. Estimation of the whole number of fish in a particular deep pool (total number of fish/ha). 2. Estimation of the number of fish in different parts (or layers) of the water column.
Hydro-acoustic methods of study and analysis can only estimate the abundance (number of fish/ha) of fish in their habitats. However, the size of the fish (in length) can be converted from decibel (-db) into length using decibel-length relationship formulas (equation) or graphs (Figure 6.2).
A general TS - Lenght relationship
500
TS = 20 log L - 66 dB 450
TS = 20 log L - 67 dB 400
TS = 20 log L - 68 dB 350 Love's formula: TS = 19.1*Log10(L)+0.9*Log10(Lambda)-23.9 300
250 Length (cm) 200
150
100
50
0 -60 -57 -54 -51 -48 -45 -42 -39 -36 -33 -30 -27 -24 -21 -18 -15 TS (dB) Figure 6.2: Relationship between mean target strength and fish size (Source: Viravong et al. 2004)
6.2.2 The use of hydro-acoustic systems
Most fisheries research in hydro-acoustic systems, has been employed in the marine environment where water conditions are clear, currents are moderate, and fish species are easily identified through direct observation and video recording (Balk 2001). There is little information and experience worldwide in the use of acoustics equipment in tropical rivers. This method was tested as a pilot study in the Mekong River in southern Lao PDR during the 2002 dry season. The study concluded that it was possible to use hydro-acoustic survey techniques in the Mekong River and that they provide useful information on fish stock and migration habits (Kolding 2002). It was recommended that there be further development of
106 the methodology to apply to as many different environments and situations as possible, including shallow and deep water, strong currents, whirlpools, and sandy and rocky bottoms. Following these recommendations, during October 2003 and February 2004, hydro-acoustic surveys were conducted in the Mekong River at Khong District, Lao PDR and Strung Treng, Cambodia. These sites have different water environments (water flow and turbidity) and complex fish species (in terms of size and species distribution). Despite the limitations of the method, it was proved that eco-sounders ‘EK 60’ were suitable for the Mekong environment, at least in the dry season with moderate currents. The method is also non-destructive or disruptive and does not harm fish and other aquatic animals (Viravong et al. 2004). It is also possible to cover a large area within a limited time period.
In general, echo-sounder EK 60, provides information on the number and size of fish converted to yield in unit per hectare. It also provides information on fish behaviors, for example, whether the fish are schooling or moving up and down individually, the shape of schools, migration speed, etc. Geographical characteristics of the river, especially the bottom condition, can also obtained by using hydro-acoustic systems.
6.2.3 Deep pools study in the Khong District The importance of deep pools in the Mekong River as seasonal feeding, spawning and refuge habitats has recently been scientifically recognized. In 2001, the Technical Advisory body of the MRC fisheries programme, made a review of existing deep pools in the Mekong and their function (Poulson et al. 2001). The review showed that knowledge of the importance of deep pools and their functions is limited. The Siphandon area is one of the most well known areas in terms of fisheries ecology and it supports an abundance of deep pools. The review concluded that deep pools may provide an opportunity for future fisheries monitoring in the Mekong River. Thus there is a need to identify important deep pool indicators used to monitor environmental health and the Mekong fisheries status. Local fishermen have reported the importance of FCZs in the Khong Island district, as critical fisheries brood stock habitat.
In 2003-2004, in order to determine the function of deep pools, fish abundance and stock, LARReC in co-operation with the INCO-DEV ‘Knowfish’ project and the Inland Fisheries Research and Development Institute (Cambodia) decided to conduct hydro-acoustic surveys in the Khong district (Lao PDR) and Stung Teng province (Cambodia). The objective of the
107 surveys was to improve understanding of ecological functioning, and determine the significance of deep pools to fish species in the Mekong River. It was also to gain knowledge about fish species composition, brood stock, abundance, and migratory habits in the deep pools during the dry and wet season. In the 2003 survey, a SIMRAD EY 500 echo- sounder and a transducer operating at 70 kHz was used. In the 2004 survey, a SIMRAD EK60 echo-sounder with an ER 60 transducer at 120 kHz were used. The acoustic equipment was installed on local boats with a cruising speed of 3-5 knots. The split beam transducer was mounted on a fixed structure on the fore-port side of the boats at a depth of 0.1-0.3m below the water surface. Echo recording started at 1 m from the transducer, i.e 1.3m below the surface. The echo-sounder was connected to a laptop linked with a Garmin GPS and running Windows XP and ER 60 software for recording acoustic data and Sonar 4 for data analysis. At each survey, three files were sampled at ten minutes intervals.
This research will focus mainly on data recorded by the Laos survey, although some data from the Cambodian survey will also be used for reference. The hydro-acoustic study was conducted by LARReC capture fisheries unit during 2003-2004. The researcher had a chance to join the hydro-acoustic survey in 2004 as part of a scoping study. Twenty one deep pools along the Mekong River, Khong district were surveyed. The research study villages were included in these deep pool surveys. Due to the limitations of the acoustic equipment, including limited accuracy in shallow water, strong currents and high algae concentrations, not all deep pool data can be analysed.
It has been estimated that more than 160 deep pools exist in the Lower Mekong River Basin. In Cambodia, about 97 deep pools were recently identified by interviewing local fishermen (Chan et al. 2004). In the Mekong River in Lao PDR (Khong Island) about 70 pools have been estimated (Poulsen et al. 2002). Deep pools in other parts of the Mekong have not been systematically surveyed.
Deep pools also serve to clean sediment from the upper part of the river into the lower parts of the river in Cambodia and further along to the Mekong Delta before the Mekong reaches the China Sea in Vietnam (Poulson et al. 2002). This cleaning process is a natural one and is highly dependent on deep pools, especially areas of rapids where water current plays an important role in silting sediment. The natural dynamics of the river system is creates pools that, in time, silt up before new ones are created (Viravong et al. 2005). However, water
108 development, in particular hydropower development, may speed up this process dramatically, as has already happened in Nam Theun (Warren 1999) and the Sesan (MRC 2005) following the construction of hydropower dams. Other human activities that impact upon these natural processes, include the navigation project in the northern province of Lao PDR which involves the direct filling of deep pools with boulders and rocks, leading to changes in water flow. The removal of rapids and dredging of the river bottom may also have negative impacts on deep pools. Deforestation is another factor that leads to increased erosion and sedimentation, potentially influencing deep pool morphology. There is a need to conserve and provide more in-depth research on the morphology and dynamics of deep pools for better planning and sustainable use of aquatic resources in the Mekong River.
6.2.4 Fish densities and behaviours Geographical characteristics of the conditions of the river floor, seem to be a vital factor in determining the number of fish in deep pools. Data from the surveys illustrates that some of the fish in deep pools clearly prefer to position themselves in the vicinity of serrated rocks with steep, almost vertical sides, where the current is obstructed (Viravong et al. 2004). Fish may also save a lot of energy in the quiet water, and benefit from drifting food objects that concentrate in the whirlpools. Some fish seem to prefer the deepest holes, where the recorded densities were very high, while others were found in the open water of the pools.
Fish densities can be estimated by Single Echo Detection (SED) which is also linked to relative size or target strength. The mean total fish number in the deep pools in the study villages was 63,000 fish/ha (Figure 6.3). In general the fish densities in the deep pools of Ban Hatxaykhoun were more than 30,000 fish/ha and up to 150,000 fish/ha in Ban Hat.
The mean sa (area back scattering coefficient) or biomass index was 377sa/ha (Figure 6.4), with a minimum of 128sa/ha (Vang Nonghai, Done Houat village) and maximum 600sa/ha (Khoum Done Phi, Ban Hatxaykhoun ). It is interesting to note that in Khoum Done Phi the density (fish/ha) was low but biomass index (sa/ha) was high, while in Veun Songkham the fish density was high but biomass index was low. This can be explained as there are larger fish in Khoum Done Phi than Veun Songkham and at the time of the hydro-acoustic survey, fishermen reported that upstream migration took place in Ban Hat (Veun Songkham) and most of the fish caught were of small to medium size.
109 180000 38m 160000 140000 120000 100000 80000 22m # fish/ha 60000 21m 40000 20000 7m 0 Vang Nonghai Koum Done Phi Vang Done Veun (FCZ) Samlanh (FCZ) Songkham
Figure 6.3: Total fish densities (fish /ha) in deep pools and FCZs. Number above bar indicates the depth of pools.
(Source: LARReC 2005)
Based on limited hydro-acoustic data and field observations, it can be seen that abundance of fish is associated with the depth of the pools. The number of fish intensifies with a depth of 20 to 38m and decreases when pool depth is greater than 40m. Similar figures highlighting the relationship between fish abundance and depth were found in deep pools in Bokeo province, upper Mekong River (Viravong 2005) and Cambodian deep pools.
Data from field surveys and observations indicates that fish are staying in different places within deep pools. Some prefer open water near the surface, others prefer to be near the bottom in crevices, and others close to steep banks sheltered from the current (Viravong et al. 2004). These three different behaviours are likely the result of different species or groups of fish inhabiting different layers of the pools, or may represent the feeding behaviours of different species where some species benefit in surface water, while others prefer the bottom of the pools. Another, possibility may lie in the migration patterns of groups of fish. Perhaps the group in the surface water were migrating and the group remaining at the bottom were resting after long distance migration.
110 700 21m 600 38m 500 400 22m 300
200 7m 100
Fish biomass index(Sa/ha) 0 Vang Nong Khom Done Veun Done Veun Hai (FCZ) Phi Samlan Songkham (FCZ)
Figure 6.4: Total fish biomass (Sa /ha) in deep pools and FCZs. Number above bars indicates the depth of pools. (Source: LARReC 2005)
6.2.5 Fish stock and size composition The results show that several individual fish in the pools, according to their target strength, were very big (-18 dB), with an estimated size of up to one to two metres in length (Khoum Done Phi and Veun Songkham). However, most of the fish in deep pools in the wet season appeared to be rather small sizes or adult fish. It is possible that deep pool habitats serve as nurseries to some species. There were relatively significant differences between the October- November 2003 and the February-March 2004 surveys. On average, more larger fish were recorded in 2004 than 2003. This maybe explained by the migration pattern between low and high water periods.
The diagrams from the hydro-acoustic survey show that large individual fish are present in the deepest water. From the target strength distribution in Ban Don Houat, Hatxaykhoun and Hat (Figure 6.5-6.7), large fish were found in the deepest pools. In depths between 1-11m about 3-5% of the individual traces were more than –32dB or more than 50cm of the total length (see Figure 6.4 for the conversion). In Khoum Don Phi the percentages of large fish increased at a depth of 11-21m up to 12%, and 8% in Vang Don Samlan (Figure 6.6 and 6.7) and about 8% in depths of 31-41m at Veun Songkham (Figure 6.9).
111 During the hydro-acoustic study, traditional fishing gear such as teuk tong and fyke nets were used to catch fish in deep areas where hydro-acoustic results indicated high densities of fish in terms of number and size. Due to the intense growth of filamentous algae and narrow pools, only two fish were caught in several attempts. However, the CPUE data test confirmed the large, medium and small species found in deep pools. The size composition was relatively uniform among the different fishing gear used, and some fish of more than 50cm in length were caught.
Data from hydro-acoustic and CPUE surveys show that four fish species inhabit deep pools, namely: micronema apogon, hemisilurus mekongensis, boesemania microlepis and helicophagus waandersii.
These results show that deep pools serve as a habitat for small and medium fish. These fish prefer to stay in different places in the pools. Large fish (brood stock) increase significantly in the deepest water of the deep pools and FCZs. However, the hydro-acoustic data cannot identify the species composition and whether these fish are using deep pools at all times of their life or only sometimes, when they need food, or to shelter from fishermen, or rest from long distance migration before continuing up the Mekong. The study of fish behavior and biology is needed and in particular should focus on the species using deep pools, as well as deep pool morphology. There is a need to continue monitoring using hydro-acoustic data at different times of the year in some deep pools in the Khong District. This will produce time series data needed for management and long term planning.
112 Vang Nonghai 1-11 m
50 40 30 20 10
Number of fish (%) 0 -60 -50 -44 -41 -38 -35 -32 -29 -26 -23 -20 -17 -14 TS (dB)
Figure 6.5: Relationship between depth and target strength (dB) in FCZs in Ban Don Houat. (Source: LARReC 2005)
Vang Done samlan 1-11 m Vang Done samlan 11-21 m
50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Number of fish (%) -60 -50 -44 -41 -38 -35 -32 -29 -26 -23 -20 -17 Number of fish (%) -60 -44 -38 -32 -26 -20 -14 -8 TS (dB) TS (dB)
Figure 6.6: Relationship between depth and target strength (dB) in FCZs in Ban Hatxaykhoun (Source: LARReC 2005)
Khoum Done Phi 1-11 m Khoum Done Phi 11-21 m 40 30 30 20 20 10 10
Number of fish (%) 0 0 Number of fish (%) -60 -44 -38 -32 -26 -20 -14 -60-44-38-32-26-20-14-8 TS (dB) TS (dB)
Figure 6.7: Relationship between depth and target strength (dB) in Khoum Done Phi, Ban Hatxaykhoun. (Source: LARReC 2005)
113 Veun Songkham 11-21 m Veun Songkham 1-11 m
40 40 30 20 20 (%) 10 0 0 Number of fish
-60 -44 -38 -32 -26 -20 -14 Number of fish (%) -60 -44 -38 -32 -26 -20 -14 -8 TS (dB) TS (dB)
Figure 6.8: Relationship between depth and target strength (dB) in Veun Songkham (1-11 and 11-21m), Ban Hat deep pool. (Source: LARReC 2005)
Veun Songkham 21-31 m Veun Songkham 31-41 m
40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Number of fish (%) -60 -44 -38 -32 -26 -20 -14 -8 Number of fish (%) -60 -44 -38 -32 -26 -20 -14 -8 TS (dB) TS (dB)
Figure 6.9: Relationship between depth and target strength (dB) in Veun Songkham (21-31 and 31-41m), Ban Hat deep pool. (Source: LARReC 2005)
6.2.6 Summary
Hydro-acoustic studies are new to the Mekong River, beginning only a few years ago. It would be premature at this stage to draw any firm conclusions as to outcomes in terms of data gathering and its effectiveness in monitoring the Mekong fisheries. Limitations remain the high cost of equipment and the lack of capacity to operate it. The echo sound EK 60 costs more than A$50,000. It is very hard for government agencies in developing countries to afford costs like these. Hydro-acoustic equipment, like other machines, needs a certain skill level and experience to operate. Both short-term training and long-term academic study are needed.
Hydro-acoustic studies can provide information on fish numbers, abundance and size, but species information is hard to obtain. As mentioned above, the size of the fish reflected in
114 the echo sounder is dependent on the size of the swimbladder. It is very easy to determine species and size in the marine environment when the water is clear with few species, but very difficult to identify in the Mekong river, even in the dry season when water is shallow and less turbid. There is a need for more in-depth study on fish taxonomy, in particular fish anatomy, to identify a swimbladder that can be used as standard for each species.
Despite the limitations of hydro-acoustic surveys, the method does provide a new alternative research method that is cost effective in terms of time and acceptable to all stakeholders. Not only can hydro-acoustic surveys cover large areas in a short time, but the method is also environmental friendly and does not negatively impact upon aquatic animals. The data is associated with GPS making it easy to convert and display as maps. It’s possible to map critical fish habitats where rare species are found, or the need to conserve certain habitat for brood stock management.
Results from the present investigation show that hydro-acoustic systems can provide fish densities, biomass indexes and species composition, as well as geographical characteristics of deep pools. In addition, an echo-sounder reveals a lot of information about fish behaviour: whether the fish school or swim around individually, the shape of the schools, the depth at which the fish is found, migration activity and migration speed, etc. When the equipment is connected with a GPS, it is possible to map all the information gathered in GIS and thus combine it with other biological or fisheries information, such as fish consumption or migration data.
6.3 Community knowledge: Fish conservation zones
6.3.1 The importance of deep pools for fish stock
Traditionally and historically the importance of deep pools as habitat for fish stock is well known among the people living on the Mekong River bank, in particular fishermen in Khong Island. Deep pools are widely defined by local names in Laos such as: Khoum, Veun, Vang, and Keang (as detailed in chapter IV). The common term for water consisting of a deep hole, is Vang Nam Leuk. Deep pools are always associated with traditional spiritual and cultural beliefs. Some deep pools are believed to have a chao vang (a god spirit) to protect the area. Deep pools are also named according to the abundance of certain fish species, especially in the Great Falls area where the name of fish are used to describe each deep pools: Vang Pa
115 Kuang (boesemania microlepis pool), Boung Pa Leum (pangaius sanitwongsei pool), Khoum Pa Eun (probarbus jullieni) (Poulson et al. 2002).
According to information gathered during field surveys, fishermen in all three villages report that fish, including large ones (fish stock), are using deep pools as feeding and spawning habitat. Most fish were caught in deep pools and ranged from small species (henicorhynchus siamensis) about 5cm in length (or 10g of weight), to large species (probarbus jullieni) 1m in length (or up to 70kg in weight). Due to restrictions on fishing in some deep pools (as they serve as fish conservation zones or no fishing areas), fish can move around the river including into shallow areas. It is difficult for fishermen to identify the fish that use deep pools, because they can catch fish everywhere, both in shallow and deep water.
Baird et al (1999a) studied local indigenous knowledge of fish species using FCZs, by interviewing expert fishermen in 21 villages. He found six species inhabited deep pools associated with FCZs: micronema micronema, micronema apogon, hemisiluris mekongensis, pangasius conchophilus, boesemania microlepis and cyclocheilichthys enoplos. Poulson et al (2002) used participatory interview methods to collect local knowledge from fishermen in the Lower Mekong River Countries (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam) and found 53 species (Table 6.1) use deep pools during at least part of their lifecycle (spawning, refuge, or migration).
Fishermen in the study villages noticed that there was a link between deep pools and fish stock. They provided evidence that large fish were usually caught in the deepest water. In Veun Songkham (Ban Hat), fishermen reported that more than 50% of the total fish caught by tuk tong and drift gill nets were big fish, with a total length of more than 50cm. In Ban Hatxaykhoun, large fish weighing 5kg (Bangana behri) were caught in Khoum Done Phi. Significant numbers of big fish were also caught in Ban Don Houat.
By observing and understanding fish behaviour associated with specific deep pools, fishermen in the study village used varieties of fishing methods to target different species in deep pools. However, not all fishermen knew the good fishing grounds or levels of abundance of fish in their deep pools. The name of fishing gear was used to indicate expert fishermen who would target different species. For example, a Seo San Mong expert used gill nets, Seo San Hair expert used cast nets and a Seo San Bed expert used long lines. These
116 experts normally focus on large fish or brood stock. In order to catch Pa Pawn for instance, fishermen use gill nets and hooks in the shallow water where the river bed consists of rocks and sands. There is no need to use an earworm, just the new hook that will reflect waves will attract fish.
6.3.2 Deep pools as recreational and cultural resources
Deep pools play an important role not only for fisheries but also for traditional, cultural and recreational activities. Fishermen in the study area believe that good ghosts and spirits live in deep pools protecting them from bad spirits. When someone is sick, for whatever reason, the shaman or Mo Phi will perform a ceremony to ask the god to help the weak survive an illness. The shaman will consult a spirit to the river and ask that his or her body be washed in the deep pool to get rid of their weakness. It is believed that by doing this, physical and mental illness will be cleared from the body and they will receive good health and happiness.
There are many activities associated with deep pools, in particular the celebration at the end of the rice harvest period - the boat racing festival in November; and Lao PDR New Year in April. The boat racing festival is normally conducted in the main river where the water is deep without many rocks. In Ban Hat, both boat racing and Lao PDR New Year are always organised at deep pools to celebrate and show solidarity and friendship among the villagers and allow villagers to discuss and exchange fishing experiences and other news from their villages. This social activity is important for local communities because everybody gets together, especially family and friends who have been away from home. It can be said that deep pools are vital for local communities whose livelihood is dependent upon aquatic resources. Deep pools provide not only aquatic animals for subsistence and income, but also recreational, traditional, cultural, social and economic activities.
6.3.3 Deep pools and fisheries management in Ban Don Houat
6.3.3.1 Fish conservation zones Fish conservation zones are defined as ‘fish sanctuaries or no-fishing zones that operate year around or part of the year, and are initiated and managed by communities while being approved by local movement’ (Baird et al. 2005:443). The decline of important fish species in the dry season) and awareness of the importance of fisheries resources to the livelihood of the local communities, made fishermen in Ban Don Houat think about the conservation of
117 Table 6.1: Fish species using deep pools as a habitat (Reported by fishermen) (Source: Poulson et al. 2002)
No Species Lao name No Species Lao name 1 Chitala ornate ¯¾ªº¤-©¾¸ 28 Botia modesta ¯¾-¹´ø 2 Helicophagus waandersii ¯¾ÎɾÎø 29 Cirrhinus microlepis ¯¾²º
3 Paralaubuca typus ¯¾-Áª® 30 Cosmochilus harmandi ¯¾-Â¥¡-
4 Wallago attu ¯¾£É¾¸ 31 Hemibagrus nemurus ¯¾¡ö©-À¹ìõº¤
5 Mastacembelus armatus ¯¾¹ì¾©-©¿ 32 Pangasius sanitwongsei ¯¾-Àìó´
6 Micronema sp ¯¾ ¾¤ 33 Pangasius siamensis ¯¾¨º -¹ìñ¤-¡‰¤
7 Puntioplites falcifer ¯¾¦½¡¾¤ 34 Wallago leeri ¯¾£ø
8 Labeo chrysophekadion ¯¾À²˜¨©¿ 35 Hypsibarbus malcolmi ¯¾¯¾¡-θ©
9 Bagarius yarelli ¯¾-Á¢É-£¸¾¨ 36 Pangasius kunyit ¯¾¨º -¹ö¸-´ö
10 Pangasius macronema ¯¾¨º 37 Tenualosa thibeaudeaui ¯¾-¹´¾¡-°¾¤
11 Pangasius polyuranodon ¯¾-§¸¾¨-¹¾¤-¹É¼ 38 Trichogaster trichopterus ¯¾¡½-À©ó-©
12 Probarbus jullieni ¯¾-Àºò -ª¾-Á©¤ 39 Bagarius bagarius ¯¾-Á¢É-¹ ø
13 Probarbus labeamajor ¯¾-Àºò -¢¾¸ 40 Bangana behri ¯¾¹¸È¾-¹ ɾ- ð
14 Cyclocheilichthys enoplos ¯¾¥º¡-¹ö¸-Á¹ì´ 41 Botia helodes ¯¾-Ïø-쾨
15 Hampala dispar ¯¾-¦ø©-¢É¾¤-¥Õ 42 Channa striata ¯¾£Ò
16 Hampala macrolepidota ¯¾-¦ø©-¢É¾¤-Á§¡ 43 Chitala lopis ¯¾ªº¤-©¿
17 Henicorhynchus siamensis ¯¾¦Éº¨¹ìñ¤Î¾´, 44 Cirrhinus molitorella ¯¾-Á¡¤-ù¨È Pangasianodon 18 ¯¾-§¸¾¨-Á¢É¸ 45 Hemibagrus wyckii ¯¾¡ö©-ÏÓ hypophthalmus 19 Pangasius conchophilus ¯¾À°½ 46 Laides sp. ¯¾¨º
20 Pangasius krempfi ¯¾§¸¾¨¢¾¸ 47 Lycothrissa crocodylus ¯¾¦½ ¾¡- ɺ¨
21 Pangasius pleurotaenia ¯¾¨º -êɺ¤-¡ö´ 48 Mekongina erythrospila ¯¾-¦½-ºó
22 Catlocarpio siamensis ¯¾¡½-¹ 49 Osphronemus exodon ¯¾-ÀϘ ¦ö®-¹ñ¡
23 Chitala blanchi ¯¾ªº¤-쾨 50 Osteocheilus hasselti ¯¾-ºó-Äê
24 Pangasius larnaudii ¯¾-¯ˆ¤ 51 Pristolepis fasciata ¯¾¡È¾
25 Barbonymus gonionotus ¯¾¯¾¡- ¾ 52 Puntioplites proctozysron ¯¾¦½¡¾¤-Á¹ìÉ
26 Notopterus notopterus ¯¾ªº¤ 53 Boesemania microlepis ¯¾¡¸¾¤
27 Pangasius bocourti ¯¾μ¾¤ fisheries resources in their village for future generations. At the same time, the promotion of fish conservation in the Khong district by NGOs was widely spread and accepted among the villages in Khong Island. The NGO project not only helped to facilitate meetings and formulate regulations, but also provided some funds for the villages that joined the project. These funds could be used as loans for buying rice and buffalos, as well as improving infrastructure in the village such as roads, schools etc. For example, Ban Don Houat received funds for building the local school.
118 The main purpose of FCZs is to protect fish stock and rare species, as well as to ensure sustainable use of aquatic resources for future generations. In accordance with the geographical conditions of the village territories, and the use of indigenous knowledge to observe fish abundance in the dry season, Vang Nonghai was seen as the best deep pool for establishing a FCZ. In 1996, Vang Nonghai was officially declared a fish conservation zone, based on the Prime Minister’s Decree 118 on wildlife and aquatic animal conservation. The general rules were reviewed and village-fishing rules adopted. These were then approved by the local authority and the Provincial Agriculture and Forestry Office. The rules include prohibition of destructive fishing gear (eg poison, electric shocks and bombs) and a ban on fishing the FCZs the whole year around.
The FCZs committee consists of the village head, one older person representative, one representative from the village women’s union and youth organisations, and one military representative. Usually there is no official sign indicating the boundary of the FCZs, it is simply marked by a navigation stone. Fishermen in the area know where the border of the FCZs is. Fishermen who break the rules for the first time are judged at village level without penalty, but for second and third offences fishermen are sent to the district court. Fines of up to 200,000 Kip (A$20) may apply.
At the beginning, the local communities were only interested in protection of fisheries in the Mekong River. However, after seeing positive changes from implementing the FCZs (ie seeing more fish surfacing) the local community decided to apply the rule to other aquatic animals, and birds. The new rules included banning the collection of frogs from rice fields during the spawning season (wet season), allowing fishing only for subsistence during the dry season, and prohibiting fishing of juvenile frogs and fish in rice fields, particularly Pa Koo (channa striata). Hunting wild birds was also forbidden. As a result of these new rules, the number of frogs increased significantly and many wild birds can now be seen in the village forest. The village head mentions that this is one step in successful community management and that this benefits not only their own village, but also has the potential to attract tourism and others villagers.
There is no guard or police control on FCZs, but everyone in the village, including school children, watch the FCZs. If someone enters the FCZs, the villagers will call someone who has a boat to warn them to move from the FCZs. FCZs and conservation of aquatic animal is
119 included on the school curriculum. Children are aware of the importance of FCZs, and become actively involved in protecting their FCZs.
According to expert fishermen, fish come to their FCZs or deep pools at the end of the rainy season, when the water is hot and decreased in volume (dry season). Most fish leave this area when the water is cold and food is available to them outside of the pools (eg in floodplains, forests and wetlands). During the wet season of 2003, the villagers decided to fish the FCZs. 80kg of Pa Gnone were caught in 2003, and another 60kg were caught in 2004. Fishermen believe that not all fish in the FCZs can be harvested because the water flow is very strong and the bottoms of the pools consist of narrow rocks, making it difficult for fishermen to reach these places. In addition fishermen can fish only one to two times, after which fish will shelter in the deep and narrow areas. It is believed that fishing a FCZ once a year does not harm brood stock and that fish will still be abundant the following year. The money received from selling fish is used for improving school infrastructure and the village temple.
The FCZs in Ban Don Houat is an example of fisheries co-management, whereby the local community has the power to decide how to best manage their resources, by using their indigenous knowledge to establish and enforce rules for long-term sustainable management of fisheries resources. Perhaps, the role of local community in the beginning of the process should be one of problem-solving, rather then creating a management plan or participating in national planning processes.
In the past, the use of indigenous knowledge was mostly to exploit natural resources for subsistence and now IK is also applied to management and conservation. The idea of FCZs is not only to protect fish, but also concerns the traditions and culture of the community. For example, some fishermen enjoy listening to the sound of Pa Kouang in the spawning period, in particular before sunset and in the early morning. Pa Kouang make a strong sound, that many elderly fishermen explain as khuam oudom somboun or ‘indicator of a healthy environment’. They want to conserve this for their children to listen to and hope that it will attract other villagers and tourists to their village.
Fishermen in Ban Don Houat know and acknowledge the role of FCZs and deep pools is protecting fish, especially in the dry season when water volumes are low and many people are trying to fish.
120 6.3.3.2 Fishermen knowledge of fish stock Fishermen have observed that many fish species use FCZs as refuges or habitats in the dry season. They can be classified into two groups. The first group is the fish that stay in the pools permanently and do not migrate to other places. These species are known locally as Pa Ket Noi or ‘small-scale’ fish. They belong to the cyprinidae family. The second group is composed of species that migrate from other places, mainly Pa Bo Me Ket or scaleless fish including the pangasiidae family. The most common small fish found in the early part of the dry season is Pa Phia (labeo chrysophekadion), Pa Gnone (pangasius macronema) and Pa Soi (henicorhynchus siamensis).
Brood stock species that are believed to benefit from fish conservation zones are mainly sedentary species, along with some migratory species namely: chitala species (chitala ornate and chitala blanchi), boesemania microlepis, helicophagus waandersii, helicophagus leptorhynchus, belodontichthys truncates, helibagrus wyckioides, micronema apogon, pangasius macronema, cirrhinus miclolepis, bangana behri and probarbus jullieni. Fishermen reported that these species have been caught in the area near a FCZ. Most are very big in size, with an average weight of 5kg each. Recently himanture chaophraya, a rare species with a weight of 100kg has also been caught in the deep pools. Fishermen observed that P. macronema migrate from elsewhere, either Ban Hang Khon or Cambodia, to their FCZs and some stay in the deep pools for most of the dry season before return to spawn in the same place they came from, or continuing their migration up the Mekong river.
6.3.4 Deep pools and fisheries management in Ban Hatxaykhoun
6.3.4.1 Fish conservation zones Ban Hatxaykhoun is among the other villages that voluntarily established a fish conservation zone. In 1998, after joining a study tour of FCZs in Ban Hang Khone, village heads and elderly people from Ban Hatxaykhoun agreed to establish an FCZ in their deep pool. Vang Don Samlanh was officially announced as a fish conservation zone. As with other FCZs villages, general fishing rules were formed and fishing was banned in the dry season. In the case of Ban Hatxaykhoun, the management differed from Ban Don Houat and other FCZs villages, as the FCZs was closed only in the dry season between October and May. Fishermen explained that there was no need to ban fishing in the FCZs during the wet season as the water flows fast, there is a strong current, and the narrow rock in the FCZs makes it
121 impossible to put any fishing gear into these areas. Fishermen used only traps and long lines that they place near to riverbanks or in the flooded forest and shrublands.
The organisation and village rules for the FCZs are similar to those in Ban Don Houat. The village head is responsible for administration and implementation of the FCZs, including judging incidents and problem-solving during the implementation process. However, it appears that the awareness of fisheries conservation amongst villagers is unclear, or not well understood. In some cases, when we asked about the location of the fish conservation zone, some people did not know or did not want to tell us because they were afraid that the information may be different from the official information given by the village head. When asked about the purpose of the FCZs, some people responded that it was implemented in order to receive assistance from the project or it was simply a project activity. Others replied that it was a new management system to protect their resources.
The success of implementing FCZs is dependent on the traditions and socio-economic status of the village. Ban Hatxaykhoun is more developed when compared to Ban Don Houat. Ban Hatxaykhoun has infrastructure such as roads and electricity in place. The villagers have a variety of jobs, ranging from trade, taxi boat driver, and tour guides to house builders and small brick makers. Fishing is a common activity as a part-time job to provide fish for consumption and as additional income. The village management plan is focused on activities that directly contribute to village development, like taxation from trade and other services. Although, wild capture fisheries are important for the local people, only a little attention has been paid to it.
Most fishermen in Ban Hatxaykhoun believe that their FCZs serves as a habitat not only for brood stock, but also for juvenile and adult fish. They note that fish use more than one habitat for shelter, feeding or spawning. It has been observed that fish might stay in FCZs or deep pools in daytime when there are many predators including fishermen. Fish will move out to surrounding areas at night for feeding. For this reason, in the daytime it is quite difficult to catch fish (except during the migration period when most fish are caught during the day). Most fish are caught at night by using drift gill nets and long lines. According to fishermen, one of the best fishing spots is in shallow water near the FCZs.
122 6.3.4.2 Fishermen knowledge of fish stock The knowledge gained from long time observation through fishing activities means that experienced fishermen or expert fishermen know much about their fisheries status and the brood stock which exists in their fishing areas or deep pools. Fishermen in Ban Hatxaykhoun report that some of the larger fish do not stay in one place, but move across the river between deep pools and shallow areas. For example, Pa Nang Deng (hemisilurus mekongensis) stays in deep pools during the day, but leaves to look for food in shallow water at night. Other species like Pa Kouang (boesemania microlepis) and Pa Tong Dao (chitala ormate) inhabit only deep pools both as juvenile and brood stock. These fish can be caught only in deep waters by using long lines and drift nets.
Fish stocks are know to have directly benefited from the implementation of FCZs and deep pools. In Khoum Done Phi fishermen use long lines and drift gill nets to catch large fish in the deepest pools. Among the fish caught are: hemibagrus spilopterus weighing up to 12kg, and kruptoterus micronema weighing up to 10kg, and other pangasius species. Khoum Done Phi deep pool is one of the most important fishing grounds as fishermen can catch almost every species. It is especially well known as a place to catch large species. In the dry season, fishermen who used drift nets and long lines report that more than 60% of the total catch in Khoun Done Phi is large fish with total body lengths of 30-50cm (or more than 1kg in weight).
The most frequent species reported to be living in deep pools are: helicophagus waandersii, probarbus spp, bangana behri, cirrhinus microlepis, pangasius bocourti, chitala spp, and boesemania microlepis.
Fishermen assume that the deep pools and FCZs prevent fish from being caught they believe that in order to ensure sustainable use of fisheries resources, it is need to protect the brood stock and spawning grounds. As a result of prohibiting fishing in FCZs in the dry season and banning the use of destructive fishing gear, total catch has increased in the main fishing season and there has been the appearance of rare species. This has led fishermen to believe that FCZs and their traditional management systems help to prevent brood stock from being caught in the dry season, and they therefore have an opportunity to reproduce in the wet season.
123 6.3.5 Deep pools and fisheries management in Ban Hat
6.3.5.1 Deep pool management systems As mentioned earlier, Ban Hat territory consists of many deep pools of different shapes. They contain much algae in the dry season. Some deep pools are believed to have a ghost guarding the pool. Fish have many places to hide in the Ban Hat deep pools, which have underground caves and/or narrow rock at the bottom of the pools. For these reasons, local communities in Ban Hat decided not to establish a FCZs. Deep pools become good fishing spots for fishermen who live in Khong district who can benefit by fishing from the pools. However, the outside fishermen have to follow the fishing rules of the village. These include prohibiting the use of army bomb blast material; scaring fish towards fishing gear; and the use of chemical poisoning.
Deep pool management in Ban Hat is largely dependent on the traditional system where a set of rules have been put in place. Outsiders are allowed to use only the fishing gear that is commonly used in their deep pools. They do not allow the introduction or use of fishing gear that would negatively impact upon fish stocks and environment. This rule is not only fair for everyone, but also helps to manage and control the pools for sustainable exploitation. The village head believes that if all fishermen use the same fishing gear, the benefit is equal in terms of the right to access common property. Perhaps some people may catch more than others, but this because of their efforts and experience, thus they get more benefit from the resources.
Cultural and traditional beliefs also influence deep pool fisheries management in Ban Hat. In Ban Hat, like others villages, they believe in ghosts or dead spirits. They think that these spirits exist in some of the pools fishermen never place their fishing gear close to Vangsacsid. If someone did, he will be faced with a trouble or illness because the spirit is angry that the fishermen disturbed his territory. In addition, every full moon of the month, or Sin Sip Ha Kame, is a Buddhist day when no one is not allowed to make any noise or kill any animal. Fishermen do not fish on these day and do only minor activities like fixing gear or repairing boats. The elderly people use these days to go to the temple for medication. For this reason, fish are very abundant in the pools where fishermen believe ghosts or naga are living. This also influences the conservation of brood stock, as large fish inhabit the deep
124 pools where the bottom consists of deep holes or caves, that everyone respects and reserves for the spirits.
One expert fisherman in Ban Hat claimed that fish adapt to the environment like people do. Even though there is no FCZs in the village, fish can survive. They get away from fishing gear by using advantages of nature, such as hiding in narrow rocks and caves that are out of reach from fishing gear. In addition, slow water flow in some deep pools leads to intensive growth of algae in the dry season which also helps to protect fish. It is believed that the complexities and dynamic of nature are important factors influencing the survival of aquatic animals.
Fishermen argue that if fishermen maintain the traditional fishing system and use existing fishing gear (ie gill nets) in the main fishing season, it will not cause harm to the fish population. Although increasing numbers of fishermen, fishing gear and boats are of concern to government agencies who believe that these factors affect the decline of fisheries resources. The fishermen believe environmental changes, in particular changes in water volumes and flows, are what influences fish numbers. Fish need the right conditions to reproduce, and if, for example, there is a big flood, there will be greater fish abundance, if there is not a flood, fish numbers will be less.
Fishermen in Ban Hat claim that the numbers of fishermen are not increasing, in contrast, the numbers are in fact declining. Fishermen who have some skill yet do not catch enough fish for food and income, move to other jobs such as furniture making, brick making, and collecting and selling wood. On average, one person can earn 15,000 to 20,000 kip per day making bricks. That is enough to buy food for the family. They would have to catch about 5kg of Pa Phia to earn the same amount of money. Nonetheless, most fishermen who change jobs, return to fishing when upstream migration is taking place, or during the main fishing season.
6.3.5.2 Fisherman knowledge of fish stock Many fishermen in Ban Hat acknowledge that deep pools and FCZs in other villages influence fish stock in their deep pools and that their deep pools also directly and indirectly benefit other villages. This is because fishermen believe that fish move around different deep pools and FCZs for food and shelter. Fishermen in Ban Hat note that deep pools serve as dry
125 season refuge for many fish species. Starting at the end of the wet season in November, large fish and brood stock will guide juveniles and adult fish from small streams (Houa Nang Dam) and from Ban Hang Khone located downstream near Great Water Falls, to the deep pools. Not all fish stay there, however, with some continuing further upstream to Pakse. Most fish use deep pools for feeding in the dry season. Algae is the main food for fish in the dry season.
Many large fish have been reported to have been caught in the deep pools including micronema apogon, boesemania microlepis, chitala blanci, notopterus notopterus, hemibagrus spilopterus, hemisilurus mekonggensis, helicophagus waandersii, cyclocheilichthys enoplos and some pangasius spp. Fishermen believe that small fish also benefit from deep pools. They observe that large numbers of juveniles like boesemania microlepis and tenualosa thibaudeaui use deep pools as feeding habitats.
6.3.6 Summary
The Mekong River is considered very important to the people of the Khong Island district, who live and depend on the river. In particular, deep pools are important, known locally as the richest fisheries resources supplying animal protein for the local people. Fishermen have known for a long time that deep pools serve as fish habitats for many important fish species. They observe the movement of fish and know exactly what pools are preferred by individual species. This knowledge has been disseminated and translated amongst local communities via telling story and traditional songs yet has been overlooked by researchers and decision- makers in the past decade.
Fishermen can provide more knowledge of fish species which inhabit deep pools than scientific knowledge, but quantitative information about fish abundance is difficult to gain from fishermen. This information is better gained through scientific research methods like CPUE and hydro-acoustic surveys.
According to information from fishermen, deep pools not only serve as feeding and spawning habitats for many fish species, but also as good places to shelter from the waves created by motorboats and fishing gear. In Ban Don Houat and Hatxaykhoun, fishermen observed that there were many fish surfacing in FCZs especially in the early morning and evening.
126 Fishermen know that in order to manage fisheries resources it is important to protect or conserve deep pools. For this reason, local communities have established and selected deep pools as FCZs. In many villages where this has occurred, fishermen report that many fish species have benefited and the total fish catch has increased. FCZs are traditional fisheries management systems that many villages voluntary initiate as it is believed that by establishing FCZs, fish will have a place to stay and reproduce, and fishermen will benefit indirectly by catching more fish as well as protecting the rare species for the next generation.
6.4 Comparative discussion
Hydro-acoustic data shows that many fish species inhabit deep pools and that these fish stay in different locations within the pools (top, middle, or bottom). This is supported by reports from fishermen who, using indigenous knowledge, indicate that significant numbers of species have been caught in deep pools with different fishing gear. Deep pools have different shapes, although most of them consist of narrow rocks and holes that are home to many aquatic organisms and plants especially shrimps and algae that attract fish to stay and benefit from these food resources. Most fish stay in the deep pools during the day and move out at night. It is unclear whether the purpose of this movement is an adaptation by fish to avoid predators, or that the environment at night in terms of waves and less disturbance from motor boats maybe more suitable for them in terms of finding food. This evidence also correlates with hydro-acoustic data and indigenous knowledge whereby fishermen use gill nets and hooks to target fish at night.
The results show that the fish species found in deep pools indicated by hydro-acoustic data is supported by indigenous knowledge findings. There are two different fish groups that inhabit deep pools for at least one stage of their lifecycle. These groups are non-migratory and migratory species. Non-migratory species found in deep pools are boesemania microlepis, and chitala spp; while migratory species belong to the siluridae, sypridae, pangasiidae, bagridae, and notopteridae families. Only four species were identified by using hydro- acoustic and CPUE surveys, whereas 14 species were reported by fishermen as being found or caught in deep pools. It is not surprising that the number of species found by hydro- acoustic methods are fewer than species reported by fishermen. This is because the hydro- acoustic studies were conducted at specific times using limited fishing gear, while the reports from fishermen have been accumulated over a long time period and by using a variety of
127 fishing gear. However, these two knowledge systems support each other, and if we link them together we can see a greater diversity of deep pool species which may be used as an indicator to manage and monitor the aquatic health and fisheries of the deep pools.
This is the first time high fish densities and brood stock in deep pools have been correlated with findings from local knowledge systems. Hydro-acoustic data shows large quantities of fish found in the deep pools across small, medium and large sizes. The abundance of fish is seen to be dependent on the depth of pools. The numbers of fish intensified with a depth of 20 to 40m and declined with a depth of more than 40m. These figures were also found in the upper Mekong deep pools in Luangprabang province and Cambodia. In addition, some large fish were detected in the deepest pools at Veun Songkham and Khoum Done Phi with total lengths of more than two metres. Local fishermen acknowledge the abundance of fish in deep pools, but cannot provide patterns of fish at certain times. However, they can identify species and stock in deep pools, which is very difficult to identify in hydro-acoustic diagrams.
The quantitative information from hydro-acoustic surveys on fish stock and abundance provide scientific information on current fish status patterns that are necessary to predict future changes in fisheries trend to support the management and monitoring of fisheries in the Mekong River. However, this information alone cannot be used for management and monitoring due to limited information on the details of fish species. It should be combined with indigenous knowledge of species and behaviour, for a better understanding of fish behaviour and species in deep pools.
The limitation of local knowledge concerning deep pools and fish stock is that it can provide only qualitative information, not exact numbers and size of fish in each deep pool. However, fish behaviour and habitat, as well as the migration periods of different species, can be obtained from the local knowledge of fishermen. If we combine this information with hydro- acoustic data it will give us a more detailed overview of fish stock and density in deep pools and thus an indicator for monitoring fisheries in the Mekong River and in particular Khong Island.
Data on fish biomass and fish numbers can be supplemented with local knowledge and CPUE data to determine the species using deep pools. Hydro-acoustic data, if systematically
128 collected, can be used for fisheries management in the Mekong River where deep pools are a critical habitat for many species. For instance, hydro-acoustic data can highlight fisheries patterns in deep pools to explain fish increases or decreases and show any negative changes in certain years. The organisations concerned can then employ new management mechanisms to enhance and sustain these resources.
Fish conservation zones are a critical habitat for many fish species. The information from both indigenous and scientific knowledge supports this. Hydro-acoustic information shows that great numbers of fish and biomass have been found in FCZs in Vang Nonghai (Ban Don Houat) and Vang Done Samlanh (Ban Hatxaykhoun). Qualitative information from indigenous knowledge also indicates that many fish inhabit FCZs. Fishermen observe that many fish surface in FCZs and a large quantity of fish can be caught in the areas near FCZs. Ban Don Houat, highlights the abundance of fish in FCZs, where significant amounts of fish can be caught in FCZs via fishing only one time per year.
There are different perceptions of fisheries management systems in the Khong Island district. Government agencies are concerned with biodiversity conservation and declines in fish production. The cause of decreases in fish stock and production are usually thought to be a result of increasing numbers of fishermen and fishing effort, fishing equipment (fishing gears and boats), high market demand and the degradation of fish habitats. Local fishermen are concerned with sustainable use of resources for subsistence and enhancement through traditional management systems. Fish conservation zones are a good example of traditional management where local communities try to participate in management of fisheries resources with strong support from NGOs and local authorities. Fishermen believe that by using traditional fishing methods, prohibiting the use of destructive fishing gear and protecting the critical habitat of brood stock, this will enhance fish species and production.
The main issue for fisheries research (hydro-acoustic surveys) is the ownership of data and information, the benefits for the local community from this research, as well as the participation of fishermen in the planning process. The original idea of hydro-acoustic research came from regional interest in the function or importance of deep pools for fish species and abundance. There was little participation of local communities in the implementation process of selecting and understanding fish habitats. Most information was used at the national and regional levels, while local fishermen were little informed of the
129 outcomes and there were fewer benefits from the research. For long-term management and monitoring of Mekong fisheries, there is the need for cooperation and participation of all stakeholders, including local communities and fishermen, in the planning and implementation process, as well as information dissemination and sharing.
6.5 Conclusion
There is no doubt that deep pools constitute very important fish habitats, during both the dry and wet seasons. The results from both hydro-acoustic surveys and indigenous knowledge underline the role deep pools play, not only as an important habitat for commercially valuable fish, but also for small, non-commercial fish which are important sources of protein for local communities. The depth of water seems to be linked to the abundance of fish in the pools. Shallower pools are important as feeding and spawning grounds for many fish species. It should be noted that the dynamics of the system mean that fish stay in the pools for short periods during the migration period, only to continue to deeper areas after resting.
The data from hydro-acoustic surveys in study villages correlated with local expert fishermen reports regarding fish stock using deep pools as feeding, spawning and refuge habitats. Fishermen using traditional methods are not likely to damage fish stock. A complexity of deep pools that consist of narrow deep holes and sharp rock, and a lot of algae in the dry season will prevent fish from being caught via traditional gill nets. In Ban Hat, for example, there are no FCZs, but deep pools still have an abundance of fish and are a good fishing spot for fishermen in Khong Island. In addition, the abundance of fish depends on the geographical condition of deep pools, food supplies, and seasonal flooding. The abundance of fish in deep pools cannot be judged by one factor alone, other factors like seasonal flooding, rainfall, and food resources contribute greatly to fish reproduction and production.
Fishermen knowledge of deep pools and fish stock do not contradict results from hydro- acoustic data. Local fishermen have known for a long time that deep pools serve as feeding habitats for fish and are a good fishing spot for local fishermen. They know exactly what species can be caught in each deep pool and what kind of fishing gear is needed for different fish species. Knowledge about fish species in deep pools and fish behaviours can be supplemented by information obtained from hydro-acoustic surveys, to investigate different fish species in each deep pool. Furthermore, it can help to monitor rare species for effective planning of the use of aquatic resources in Khong Island.
130 Chapter VII: Synthesis and theoretical analysis
7.1. Introduction
The previous chapters of this thesis have presented the background, methods, and results of the fieldwork research. This chapter will discuss the synthesis of SK and IK through GIS. It will link results to theoretical analyses. The synthesis component of this chapter describes how GIS can integrate IK with SK both quantitative and qualitative information onto digital maps. This data can then be of benefit for resource users and planners in the monitoring and management of fisheries resources. The theoretical analysis section describes the effectiveness of co-management practices in Khong Island compared to other regions, and the need to integrate SK and IK for effective natural resources management. Using GIS as an analytical and communication tool is also discussed and the implications for assessing fish decline and abundance in the study area is presented.
7.2 Synthesis
7.2.1 Incorporating IK into GIS
The information ascertained from the case study shows that most indigenous knowledge is in the form of qualitative information - information such as fish habitats, fish species, gear use and environmental change. In order to use and link this information with scientific knowledge, the qualitative data needs to be converted to digital data. GIS serves as a tool to store IK and to visualise SK and IK in the form of maps which are user-friendly and can be easily understood by all.
Close et al. (2005) conceptualised a framework for the integration of scientific and local knowledge in marine resources management systems (Figure 7.1). In this case, GIS served as a spatial information translator for local and scientific knowledge, and unified this knowledge into a common representational and analysis environment to supplement the resources knowledge base. This framework presents an approach that can convert qualitative data through a GIS application, to quantitative information. This would then allow resource managers to use both scientific and indigenous knowledge to support decision-making and planning. This research attempts to use the same approach of incorporating indigenous and scientific knowledge via a GIS database allowing information to be mapped and analysed.
131 Figure 7.1: Conceptual framework for the integration of indigenous and scientific knowledge into resources management (Source: Close et al. 2005: 3)
There are many ways to input data into GIS, including digitising, scanning and direct data entry. This research uses the existing digitised map of rivers and land from the MRC as a base map. Deep pool locations based on GPS field survey data, and fish species distributions have been linked to the deep pools according to the information given by expert fishermen during interviews. When a base map has been created, attributes, such as attributes of different deep pools can then be added (Table 7.1). Each deep pool is given a code. Additional information can then be inputted directly, or a new table created and linked to the existing based on village and deep pool codes. Indigenous knowledge about deep pools (Chapter IV) is linked to deep pools located via GPS. Table 7.1 shows the geographical characteristics of the bottom condition of pools, fishing habitats, fishing gear used, and the depth of pools. General attributes of the village have been added including number of households, fisherman, and fishing boats.
A GIS database can be defined as a set of data which is related to specific locations or set of objects (Longley et al. 1999). In this case, researchers are looking at deep pool location and characteristics. This research uses the vector data series consisting of X and Y coordinates.
132 The boundary, or shape of the objects in the form of points, polygons and lines is used. For analysis purposes, all shape file data is converted to layers and saved in a GIS database (Table 7.2).
Table 7.1: The attribute table of deep pools (Showing the name of each deep pool and its code number)
Mental maps, as described in chapter IV, can be used separately or combined with GIS maps for further analysis. Since mental maps represent the knowledge of local communities, they are a very useful tool to use at village level, not only in terms of visualising information but also ownership of information. Local fishermen feel that their knowledge, which was often ignored in the past, now becomes important for the management of fisheries resources. Mental maps also have the potential to be used in a co-management process. These maps can be used to identify the critical habitat or preferred deep pools for different species in specific areas and used as a guide maps for visitors or outsiders who are not familiar with the village.
7.2.2 Presentation of results in GIS
7.2.2.1 Multiple representation and analysis tools Single and multiple layer functions in GIS provide a powerful tool for data previewing and analysis. Digital data stored in a GIS database can be analysed in many ways depending on the needs and objectives of the project. This research will demonstrate how SK and IK information can be linked using ArcMap (ArcGIS) spatial analysis functions. Figure 7.2 shows a map of Lao PDR and demonstrates the use of multiple previews and layers.
133 ArcMap provides an analysis function that can be used to focus on specific features of the map. The function ‘select by attributes’ has been used to select only Champasack province for further analysis in Figure 7.3. The ‘clip analysis’ function can also be employed to create new maps. In Figure 7.4, the input features of the polygon layer of Champasack province has been clipped with the river features to create a new Champasack map showing its riverine system. Further analysis will focus on the Khong district map as a base map to combine and analyse IK and SK through GIS (Figure 7.5).
Table 7.2: Layers and its features
Layer name Feature type Data source River Line Data from MRC Village Point Data from NAFRI Main road Line Data from NAFRI Stream Line Data from NAFRI Deep pool Point Data from Field survey FCZs Point Data from Field survey Fishing ground Polygon Data from Field survey Species distribution Point Data from Field survey Gear use Point Data from Field survey Rare species Point Data from Field survey
Figure 7.6 and 7.7 present a map of deep pools and important fishing ground, combining figures from the hydro-acoustic survey and information from indigenous knowledge on characteristics of the deep pools. The GPS location of each deep pool was collected and the bottom condition of the river gathered from the interviews. This information was linked to the GPS location attribute and displayed on the map. ArcGIS can combine multimedia information including voices, video script, images etc. (ESRI 2005) onto a map. Hyperlink functions can display pictures from the GIS database at a point or location that has been set in the map. Geographical characteristics of each deep pool, including the shape of pools, the depth and other morphological information can be shown. This maybe useful for researchers when studying fish habitats in different deep pools as it can help to specify the role of deep pools for different species. The common fishing areas of the study villages are shown in Figure 7.7
134 Creating buffer zones is another function that has been used to identify fishing grounds in study villages. A buffer in this research refers to an area drawn at a uniform distance around a feature (ESRI 2004) and it is not an area that server as a conservation zone. Buffers can be created by taking a constant distant from each point and displaying this as a new polygon data set or drawn as graphics on a map. In this case, the fishing grounds have been connected together based on information from interviews that common fishing areas in each village are about 100m from deep pools. When buffer zones have been created, four different fishing areas can be identified on the map (Figure 7.8).
Adding three layers together (rivers, fishing grounds, FCZs), provides general information about aquatic resources and traditional fisheries management systems in the study villages (Figure 7.10). In Ban Don Houat, fishing is prohibited the whole year around, in Ban Hatxaykhoun fishing is only not allowed in the dry season and in Ban Hat fishermen can access fishing grounds at any time.
A map of species distribution is shown in Figure 7.11. This map compares data on fish species collected from CPUE/hydro-acoustic surveys with reports from fishermen. It is clear that IK detects more species than CPUE and hydro-acoustic studies. This is because IK assess species information via long-term observation and multiple fishing gear use, whereas CPUE and hydro-acoustic data is based on limited timeframes and limited fishing gear use. However, these two knowledge systems are not contradictory. Although, only the distribution of species in the study villages is shown on the map, other information can be linked with the attribute table, for example the biological parameters (fish habitat, migration and spawning season) of fish. Rare species that have recently been found in the villages and that fisherman believe are appearing as a result of the FCZs, are shown in Figure 7.12. These fish are linked to the pool where there were caught and detailed information about these fish is also available in the attribute.
As mentioned in chapter IV, the type of fishing gear used, is dependent on the depth of pools and the bottom condition of pools. Common fishing gear types used in the dry season as reported by fisherman, is illustrated in Figure 7.9. It is clear from the map, that cast nets are used only in shallow water, while gill nets, hooks and lines are used in both shallow and deep waters. Other information such as fish densities, biomass and size of selected pools,
135 which might be useful for monitoring fish at provincial and national levels, is presented in Figures 7.13, 7.14 and 7.15.
7.2.2.2 Spatial analyst Spatial analyst in ArcGIS has many functions that can be used. In this research, however, only ‘inverse distance weighed’ (IDW) and raster calculations are used. This analysis tool is used to interpolate vector maps to raster maps to estimate the unknown depths in the study area (based on existing depths calculated by hydro-acoustic data), and raster calculation of habitat preferences of fish species according to depths. This map can be linked with IK information gathered from interviews, such as species information, and gear used at different depths.
Figure 7.16 shows the depth, in more detail, of Vang Nong Hai fish conservation zone. It combines SK and IK to show which species have been observed and caught at which depths. This map also shows the habitat preferences of importance species in the FCZ. Some species prefer to stay only in one habitat (chitala blanci, pangasius macronema, Boesemania micloepis) deeper than 6m, others have different habitat and mixed together cirrhinus microlepis, helicophagus waandersii (with depth 3-5m and 4-6m respectively). In Figure 7.18 shows fish density in difference depths (data from hydro-acoustic) with the common fishing ground that fishermen use to place their gill net (data estimated from GPS location) in Veun Songkham deep pool. These information might be used for stock enhancement, monitoring of endangered fish species and/or to estimate fish yield through calculations using fish density.
In ArcScene, raster data can be presented on 2D maps. Tasks are used to visualise deep pools to gain a better understanding of depths and shape of the pool. This map can also integrate species distribution and fishing gear used at different depths. A map of species distribution and gear use in Khoum Done Phi is presented in Figure 7.17.
7.2.3 Summary
It can be seen, that when IK is added into a GIS database, it can be analysed and visualised with other data without any problems. The maps of fishing grounds and deep pools shown in this research, have been designed from the qualitative information that fishermen have accumulated over time and which has been ignored in the past due to the lack of appropriate
136 methods to compile and display this information in a way that researchers and scientists can use. GIS can serve as an alternative option for data storage, analysis, and representation, that all stakeholders can use for fisheries management and monitoring in the Mekong River.
At the national level, GIS can serve as a tool to compile fisheries information from the northern, central and southern provinces, for long term monitoring. At a minimum, important deep pool or fishing ground information can be mapped. Other biological and geological information can then be added to the GIS database. This allows information to be interpreted in different ways according to the needs and objectives of a study.
A map of deep pools, fishing grounds and traditional management systems provides the base map of aquatic environments in the study villages. The location of pools, name of pools as well as FCZ locations, is not available on photographic maps. GIS maps present information from different knowledge systems, accumulated over a long time and used separately at different levels. The usefulness of CPUE data and the introduction of FCZs has long been debated. On the one hand, scientists believed that only quantitative data using scientific statistical methodologies could provide accurate information for management planning. They claimed indigenous knowledge was based on assumption and not systematic data recording, thus could not be used in planning and decision-making. On the other hand, local communities strongly believed that they could better use indigenous knowledge to manage their resources via establishing prohibited fishing areas and banning the use of destructive fishing gear. This research show that CPUE and FCZs information can be combined and use for further analysis in ArcGIS.
137 Figure 7.2: Multiple previews showing province layer and river layer
Figure 7.3: ‘Select by attribute’: Champasack province
138 Figure 7.4: Clip analysis tool: Champasack province layer and river
Figure 7.5: Multiple previews of the riverine system and the deep pools in the study areas
139 Figure 7.6: Combining SK and IK: Deep pools in the study area, including river bottom condition.
140 Figure 7.7: Combining SK and IK: Important fishing grounds in the study areas
141 Figure 7.8: Indigenous knowledge map: Common fishing areas
142 Figure 7.9: Indigenous knowledge map: Fishing gear used
143 Figure 7.10: Indigenous knowledge map: traditional management system
144 Figure 7.11: Species distribution: IK vs. SK (See Table 5.2 for details)
145 Figure 7.12: Indigenous knowledge map: the appearance of rare species
146 Figure 7.13: Fish biomass in selected deep pools Data from hydro-acoustic survey
147 Figure 7.14: Fish densities in selected deep pools Data from hydro-acoustic survey
148 Figure 7.15: The relationship between the depth of pools and the number of brood stock (large fish) in selected deep pools. Data from hydro- acoustic survey
149
Figure 7.16: Map of Done Houat and FCZ (top), species distribution in FCZ (left) and 2D map of Vang Nong Hai fish conservation zone (right).
150 Figure 7.17: (A) General overview map of Khoum Done Phi, (B) 2D map of Khoum Done Phi and (C) Fishing gear used at different depths and species caught (reported by fishermen) in Khoum Done Phi, Hatxaykhoun village
151 Figure 7.18: Fishing grounds in Hat village (right) and fish density in Veun Songkham (left) with common fishing areas are shown (reported by fishermen).
152 7.3 Theoretical analysis
7.3.1 Fisheries co-management The capture fishery in Khong district is based on small-scale fisheries, and in most cases fisheries management is based on traditional cultural belief systems. Fisheries community- based management, or ‘co-management’, refers to fish conservation zones which have emerged as a result of local communities feeling that their fisheries resources have changed and therefore there is the need for a new management system to enhance and sustain their resources for the next generation. Fisheries co-management in Khong Island is unique to the Mekong River. The management of fish conservation zones is concerned primarily with the long-term conservation of fish stock. The community does not directly benefit from this management technique, however indirect benefits include catching more fish and the re- appearance of rare species. Most co-management case studies in Africa use co-management mainly as a mechanism for conflict resolution rather then for achieving sustainability of natural resources (Sverdrup-Jensen et al. 1998), while in Japan marine fisheries co- management is concerned with fishing rights and licenses (Makino et al. 2005). Other co- management systems, such as those in Bangladesh and the Philippines, deal with the destruction of marine fisheries resources, illegal fishing activities, equal rights to access and direct benefits from using resources in sustainable ways (Ahmed et al.1997; Viswanatan et al. 2003).
This research has found that trust and respect between partners is the main key to success in co-management. These findings support a previous study of Asian co-management experiences (Pomeroy et al. 2003) which highlighted that no co-management arrangement can survive without a good relationship of trust and respect between the partners which is then developed and maintained. In the case studies used for this research, provincial officers had good communication and relationships with villagers. Researchers stayed in the village for a length of time to build up a relationship with the local people via participating in traditional activities, farming activities and observing the lifestyle and traditional culture of communities. This made the local people think that the researchers were members of the community, therefore, local fishermen were happy to openly discuss and express their viewpoint without fear of reprisal. While as outsiders, the researchers also respected and trusted the fisherman and believed that fisherman knew and understood their resources as well as anyone. Information about fishing grounds, spawning grounds, species distribution
153 and migration provided by fishermen was considered important, while at the same time, information from the hydro-acoustic surveys about fish abundance in each deep pools was distributed to village fishermen by the researchers and was also considered important. At the beginning, one of the research team did not want to share this information with fishermen, afraid that the fishermen would use the scientific information to target certain fish. However, the fishermen took no action, happy in the knowledge that many fish are in the deep pools, showing the effectiveness of their indigenous management techniques in preserving fish numbers. However, when the researchers tried to set a net in a place of fish abundance as shown by the hydro-acoustic study, only a few fish were caught. This may have been, however, due to the geographical condition of the pools. There was a lot of algae meaning fish had more space to escape from fishing gear. Apart from the results presented in this thesis the hydro acoustic data ware also analysed and compared with Cambodian Mekong Deep Pools, the details of deep pool survey can be obtained from Viravong et al. (2004) Deep Pool Survey 2003-2004.
Based on administrational classification of co-management (Raajaer Neilson et al. 1997), fisheries co-management in Khong district can be seen as cooperative, whereby government and local fishermen share in the decision-making. In this case, the management of FCZs is decided and implemented by local fishermen. The government is responsible for endorsement and enforcement of these rules only where the problem cannot be solved by local communities. Local communities have the power to use their own jurisdiction to judge people who break FCZ rules, as well as to decide how to protect FCZs and deep pools. The rules for FCZs are different in each village and depend on local community decision-making. In Ban Don Houat, for instance, the FCZ rules prohibit fishing all year round, while in Ban Hatxaykhoun fishing is only banned in the dry season.
The ownership of data and participation of local communities in research, remain the main issues in fisheries management in Khong Island. Research shows that most of the planning stages of CPUE and hydro-acoustic studies are conducted in the interests of researchers or project goals, rather then the needs and interests of local communities. Local communities are included only in the implementation process. Local communities often derive little benefit from the research with the results kept in offices and slow dissemination to the communities concerned. The co-management process should share equal responsibility and
154 benefits between government and resources users at all stages of the process, including decision making, planning, implementation and research finding (Jentoft et al. 1998).
7.3.2 The need for integration of SK and IK
This study confirms that fishermen’s indigenous knowledge of fisheries resources, and environmental changes are valuable resources that can be used for fisheries monitoring and management in the Khong district. Many researchers highlight the importance of IK in natural resources management. Some argue that qualitative information from indigenous knowledge can be used for long-term monitoring and understanding of ecosystem changes (Berkes et al. 2002). Others argue that fishermen’s knowledge of fish habitats, behaviours, and marine physical environments is vital information for short and long-term management and planning (Grant et al. 2003). In the case of the Khong Island fisheries, fishermen know where fish are, when they are there and what fishing gear is needed to target different species at different localities. In the past, IK has been used to exploit rather then to conserve natural resources. Today, however, due to changes in the market economic, the competitiveness of the fish catch among fishermen, and the use of fish not only for subsistence but also for income, IK is playing an increasingly important role in the sustainable management and monitoring of fisheries resources. For instance, selection of FCZ sites, in most cases, is based on IK. Most FCZs are located in deep pools where local people have observed a natural fish abundance. Village rules and regulations are also based on local experience and IK. For example, destructive fishing gear such bomb blasts and poisonings that will damage fish stocks are prohibited.
Worldwide experience shows that scientific knowledge alone is insufficient to deal with natural resource management and planning, whilst at the same time there is no evidence to show that local knowledge by itself can resolve problems and protect the environment for long-term sustainability either. In the Khong district, there are only a few SK data sets available to fishermen and local authorities to use for sustainable management planning. In the marine environment, much evidence has shown that biology and ecology information from scientific methods is inadequate to manage the marine environment. A good example of where SK has failed is the North Atlantic Cod fisheries’ collapse (Johannes et al. 2000). However, this study shows that in the Mekong River, where fish species diversify is high and the environment is complex, IK alone is insufficient to deal with fisheries management. There needs to be quantitative information used to support it. In this research, CPUE and
155 hydro-acoustic surveys have been shown to be good sources of information on the biomass index of fish abundance and fish size. This can complement indigenous knowledge on fish behaviours and species distribution. If fish stocks appear to be in decline, these two systems can be combined to identify the problem, determine the cause and suggest new management systems. Ogunbameru et al. (1996) claim that incorporating SK with IK overrides their individual strengths and weaknesses and provides better understanding of resources. While government agencies may benefit from traditional knowledge to provide more realistic evaluations of the environment, natural resources and production systems (IUCN 1996), others may use IK as the key to understanding details on fish lifecycles and biology (Poulson et al. 2002).
This study has found the main reason IK in the Khong district had been overlooked and ignored from mainstream planning and decision-making, was that IK, in most cases, is not written down, and not systematically collected or recorded. This limitation on IK is found the world over. Ways to include IK in mainstream planning is through systematic data collection and establishing global networks of indigenous knowledge resource centres (Warren 1992). The research found that a participatory approach via group interviews, field observations and mapping are suitable methods for collecting IK. Group interviews not only allow all fishermen to express their opinion, but that the information is also more accurate because it has been debated and exchanged amongst people in the group. Field observations aid researchers to gain a more in-depth understanding of the livelihood and culture of the community as well as providing first hand information about fisheries resources and its management.
Osseweijer (2003) argues that participatory mapping is a valuable tool but cannot be regarded as the ultimate tool to bring local and other managers together. In his study, the drawing of maps by an individual group caused friction amongst local people. In contrast, this research found that in Khong district, participatory mapping (or mental mapping) was not only a good starting point to encourage local communities to participate in the management and planning process, but also provided vital information on fisheries and aquatic resources (see chapter IV). Local fishermen visualise aquatic resources and management systems though mental maps. The mental maps are drawn on blank paper without any paper map references. They are easy for local fishermen to understand. Much information on species found, geographical characteristics of pools etc can be linked to the
156 maps. Some information may not be physically drawn on the map, making it seemingly invisible, however, in discussions with fishermen, they can provide the additional information not seen on the mental maps.
7.3.3 GIS as a tool for communication and visualisation
There is little information available on applying GIS to inland fisheries. Most research has been conducted in marine environments (Anuchiracheeva et al. 2003, Calamia 1999; Close et al. 2005). GIS studies in the marine environment have shown that GIS is suitable to deal with environmental management, especially in terms of visualising and analysing data. In inland aquatic environments, GIS plays an important part as a tool to integrate both quantitative (SK) and qualitative (IK) data and visualise this data in the form of digital maps. The advantage of GIS is that it can store, retrieve, display, link and analyse data and interpret this data into digital maps in ArcGIS which other software often has a limited function to deal with. Spatial data in GIS databases is associated with attributes that allow for easy updating and incorporation with other datasets. In this research, GIS has been used to combine SK and IK - spatial location from GPS and IK about deep pools and fish distribution has been linked together in the form of digital maps. By adding information on fishing grounds and FCZs, we can better understand the use of aquatic resources, such as where fishermen go fishing and where the closed zones (FCZs) are.
However, not all information can be usefully presented by maps. It depends on the need and purpose of the project. The outcome of this research, as presented in maps 7.5-7.18, can be used for management and monitoring purposes. This may help to identify the habitat of brood stocks of rare species and thus ways in which to enhance these species via protection of critical habitat and spawning times.
This study shows that mental and GPS based maps also have the potential to be used as a communication tool with local people, since large scale maps of the aquatic environment in Khong district are not available. These maps can also provide information to outsiders who are not familiar with the village territory and environment. When questions are asked concerning place and environmental change, using the maps to identify critical habitat and common fishing ground could be useful. GIS maps may also be used as a communication tool at the provincial and national levels. GIS maps can be used as an official base map and
157 combined with other sectors for sustainable planning and use of natural resources. These GIS maps also lend legitimacy to IK.
7.3.4 Implications of fish abundance and decline
Wild capture fisheries are the main source of food and income for poor people of the Mekong River Basin. This is particularly evident in Khong Island where more then half of the population are engaged in fisheries activities for both subsistence and additional income. Changes in fisheries production significantly affects local livelihoods, not only in terms of food security but also the social economy of rural areas where alternative resources and opportunities are not available.
Recently, poverty and biodiversity conservation issues have been widely promoted in developing countries, especially in Lao PDR where government priorities are focusing on eradicating poverty in rural areas. At the same time, NGOs and international organisations are promoting biodiversity conservation, emphasising protection rather then the sustainable use of resources. Despite the fact that wild capture fisheries have contributed more than 60% to the national economy; when addressing poverty alleviation and rural development preference is given to aquaculture. Wild capture fisheries are seen as being in decline (Bush 2005) with fishermen seen as the cause of degradation. In some cases, the decline in fish numbers is thought to be the result of global trends. Perhaps there is no scientific evidence to support the decline of fish production in the Mekong River but good conditions in terms of habitat and species still exist, and in some cases production is even increasing (Phonvisay 1997; Coats 2002; Welcomme 2002; Sverdup-Jensen 2002; Hortle et al. 2005).
Over the past decade, declines in fish stock and species in the Mekong River, in particular in Khong Island, became of increasing concern to local communities, and at the provincial, national and regional levels. Fewer fish were being caught and it was taking more effort to catch fish. Local communities were aware of these changes in fish production and tried to look for alternative management systems to sustain and enhance their fisheries resources. In responding to the changes, and in parallel with the promotion of co-management or empowering local communities to take responsibility for the management and decision- making of their resources, local communities began to use indigenous knowledge to initiate traditional management systems. These strategies included establishing fish conservation zones to protect fish stock, and banning the use of destructive fishing gear at fishing
158 grounds. Government agencies at provincial and national levels tried to look for alternative management and mitigation techniques by applying scientific methods for data collection and, at the same time, trying to encourage local communities in the planning and decision- making process via promoting indigenous knowledge and supporting traditional management systems. At the regional level, the MRC fisheries programme is focused on management at regional levels and is calling for cooperation amongst the Lower Mekong River countries to promote the sustainable use of aquatic resources. Trans-boundary research on wetlands and deep pools in the Mekong River between Lao PDR and Cambodia are examples of efforts being made to manage aquatic resources.
The increase in fish production in Khong Island in 2002 highlighted the effectiveness of traditional management systems. Local communities assumed the main reason for the increase in fish production and species was the introduction of FCZs which serve as a dry season deep water habitat for many species. Altogether, 25 fish species were report to have increased in number as a result of FCZs (Baird et al. 2005). However, the results from CPUE data testing in FCZs and references sites shows that there were no significant differences between FCZs and reference sites in terms of fish numbers and species. Looking at other factors, clarifying the types of fishing gear used and combining results with indigenous knowledge are seen to be an alternative method for assessing fisheries trends and production in Khong Island.
The experiences of the Mekong River countries shows that there are many factors which influence decline and increases in fish production - it is very difficult to predict these because of the complexity and uncertainty of the environment. In Cambodia for instance, catches from the Tonle Sap bagnet or dai fisheries have soared to more than 16,000 tonnes in 1994, almost three times the previous season's haul and the highest since systematic records have been kept (Hortle et al. 2005). The direct causes of this increased production are, however, unclear. Nonetheless, there are many factors which influence fish abundance, including flood levels, reductions in illegal fishing, and improved enforcement and management. In Khong Island, where aquatic environments are similar, the increase in fish production is partly as a result of FCZs and traditional management systems, and partly due to the great flood in the Mekong tributaries and wetlands that provided more food resources for fish who in turn maximised their production.
159 As mentioned earlier, there are many deep pools in Khong Island that act as feeding and spawning habitats for many fish species. These deep pools have different shapes with deep holes and caves and many aquatic plants that help to prevent fish from being caught with traditional fishing gear. There is a need to continue to ban the use of illegal fishing gear and to protect critical habitats in the dry season to enhance and sustain fisheries resources for future generations.
7.4 Conclusion
GIS is an alternative tool that can be applied to fisheries management for inland fisheries like the Mekong River. GIS has potential not only in terms of data storage and visualisation, but also as a tool to link SK and IK data into a scientific common use format. Most indigenous knowledge is qualitative data or informal information. When it is collected systematically, linked to GIS attributes and mapped, it makes it easier to understand and analyse. By integrating IK into a GIS framework it can be used as supplementary information to scientific knowledge for decision-making and planning of aquatic resources across different levels. When SK and IK are stored in GIS databases in digital formats, a variety of analysis can be done. Multiple layers or visualising and spatial analyst functions in ArcGIS are only a few examples of how GIS can help to visualise the digital location of deep pools from GPS data and qualitative information on fishing grounds, fishing gears and species distribution.
Fisheries co-management in Khong Island is still in the initial stages, with much more to be done to improve FCZs and traditional management systems in Khong Island. Fisheries monitoring and management should consider both IK and SK. Both direct and indirect factors, and quantitative and qualitative information, need to be used, rather then relying on one factor that may lead to misleading or inconclusive results.
160 Chapter VIII: Conclusions
8.1 Introduction This chapter presents a summary of the findings outlined in Chapters IV, V, VI, and VII. It focuses on the use of GPS vs. mental maps; CPUE vs. perceptions of fish species and abundance; and hydro-acoustic surveys vs. perception of deep pools and fish stock. The significance and implications of the research is discussed and, in accordance with the research objectives and questionnaires, final conclusions are drawn.
8.2 Research findings This study concludes that perceptions of local communities, versus those of scientists regarding spatial location of fisheries resources, are not contradictory. Mental maps can be used to illustrate how local communities use indigenous knowledge to describe and visualise fisheries resources (Chapter IV). Information on fish habitats, fishing gear use, and species caught, are vital for management and planning. Information on pools or locations as shown on mental maps, highlight not just one attribute, but many. Fishermen provide more information about the management and characteristics of pools, and fish stock migration periods across specific fishing habitats, than scientists. This information is not necessarily visible on mental maps, but fishermen can provide further verbal explanation about each location shown.
This research shows that mental mapping can be applied as a communication tool when asking local people about location or fishing habitats of their village during individual or group interviews. Fishermen quickly recognise places on the maps, despite the fact it may be the first time they have seen a mental map of their aquatic environment. Most of the villages, with or without fish conservation zones, do not have existing maps of their riverine system. Mental maps might be a first step towards mapping these resources - hand drawn pictures that can be used for local or small-scale management purposes.
This study shows that GPS is suitable for spatial data collection and that digital data can be transferred to GIS for further analysis. The spatial locations of deep pools and their characteristics in digital form can be used as base maps and linked to other quantitative and qualitative information. When combining GIS with local indigenous knowledge, a clear
161 picture becomes available of where FCZs and fishing grounds are located, what kind of fishing gear is used, and which species exist in each deep pool.
The study concludes that CPUE data can provide a long-term time series data, or index of fish abundance in specific areas. Fish abundance depends on seasonal migration at certain times. Fish abundance is linked to hydrological changes and lunar cycles. Based on the results from the CPUE data collection, and the limited information available, fisheries in the Khong Island district appear to be in a stable condition, although there is a declining trend in high value species due to high market demand and environmental changes. However, CPUE data alone cannot determine fish abundance in fish conservation zones and reference sites highlighted by the fact there were no significant differences in mean CPUE data collected between the two study sites (Chapter V). In the case of the study area, this may have been because of the complexity and unpredictability of the river; wide diversity in fish species and behaviours; as well as differences in the experience of fishermen; and geographical differences between Fish conservation zones and reference sites.
The study concludes that there is a gap between the findings of different scientists and that often the outcome of research differs at the national and regional levels. In this case, different figures in terms of fish production estimates; and changing taxonomy names, made it difficult to estimate the contribution of capture fisheries to the national economy and caused confusion with the scientific names for fish. There is a need to clarify and prioritise information needs at different levels, and call for the participation of the local community in research and planning for the sustainable use of aquatic resources.
The study concludes that fishermen‘s knowledge of fish abundance is based on observation of environmental change such as water colour and volume, as well as the occurrence of birds and the lunar cycle. Fishermen know when and where fish will appear, and what type of fishing gear can be used to catch them. They use this knowledge to exploit fisheries for subsistence and additional income.
The study concludes that deep pools and FCZs serve as habitats for many fish species, both in the dry and wet seasons. A significant future can be seen for FCZs, following the example of the success of the FCZ in Ban Don Houat, where many more fish have been caught since
162 its implementation. Hydro-acoustic data confirms and supports the findings of indigenous knowledge concerning the importance of deep pools and FCZs on fish stock (Chapter VI).
The study shows that FCZs and fisheries management at local levels are associated with traditional and cultural beliefs. In the case of Ban Don Houat and Hatxaykhoun, fishermen believe that fish conservation zones and some deep pools have dangerous spirits that may attack fishermen who break the rules or who use illegal fishing gear.
The study shows that GIS can be used to combine SK and IK data (Chapter VII) and then to visualise this information on maps, which can be used for fisheries management and monitoring at the small-scale or village level. At the national level, where there is the capacity and equipment available, GIS applications can be employed for data storage and analysis and applied to large-scale fisheries monitoring. However, GIS alone cannot determine the effectiveness of FCZs, as it is not equipped to understand the complexities of the aquatic environment or the social and traditional beliefs of communities.
8.3 Significance of research The results from the study highlight an alternative method of combining IK and SK systems for small-scale fisheries management. Since there are limited methods to deal with conservation and sustainable use of aquatic resources in Lao PDR, in particular in Khong Island, this study shows how to combine different knowledge systems into one common system that can be used at both community and national levels. The study demonstrates the basic steps needed to collect IK information, and attempts to understand the advantages and disadvantages with using IK to support scientific information for monitoring and management of fisheries resources.
The method of collecting IK through using the mental mapping technique (Chapter IV) may be applied to other communities to assist with understanding of the spatial location of aquatic environments. These maps can be used not only at village level for management purposes, but also at provincial and national levels where no other alternative to graphical representation is available. Mental maps show the location of fisheries resources such as fishing grounds, deep pools and FCZs, as well as providing information on important species, fishing gear use and the correlation between them. The relationship of these
163 components on the maps is important for monitoring and management processes. For instance, environmental change at each fishing ground may affect the total catch, or the use of high-tech fishing gear may lead to declines in fish stocks. When this information is presented on maps, the local community knows exactly where the main habitat is threatened and where new mitigation systems are needed. For those at provincial and national levels who are not familiar with village resources, mental maps become a good guide to using and understanding the aquatic resources of the village. When critical habitats are available on maps, it is quite easy to exploit traditional management systems or see environmental change.
GPS based maps of the deep pools use an X and Y coordinate system. When data is inputted into a GIS database, basic maps can be created and linked with other SK and IK information. A limitation of IK is that the qualitative data collected is difficult to integrate with SK. However, linking IK with spatial location on GPS based maps allows IK to be mapped and collated with other SK information (Chapter VII). LARReC may use this concept to create a GIS database and compile both SK and IK information for long-term monitoring of the Khong Island fisheries resources. When the GIS database has been created, analysis and mapping can be undertaken through the visualisation or overlay functions.
CPUE and hydro-acoustic data provides quantitative information on fish abundance and size distribution (Chapters V and VI). This data is important for long-term monitoring because it provides information about trends in fisheries. One of the methods used for data collection is time series data, or systematic data collection which takes place at the same time every year. Combining this information with IK allows for a more comprehensive understanding of fisheries resources in terms of ecology and biology, which is useful for management and planning processes. LARReC should apply CPUE and hydro-acoustic studies combined with IK in other provinces, especially in the northern part of the country where SK and IK data on fisheries resources is still limited and where the development of navigation projects might have negative impacts on fish habitats. Linking this information to a GIS database will provide a better understanding of current resources and will help to monitor the impact of human activities on deep pools and fish stock. However, ownership of the information is an issue that needs to be addressed by encouraging all stakeholders to participate in the planning process.
164 8.4 Implications of research Most of the fisheries management in rural areas of Lao PDR is based on traditional management systems whereby indigenous knowledge has been used to formulate village fishing rules and implement FCZs. As a result of the effectiveness of FCZs on increasing fish numbers and species still debated, researchers should look at the importance of FCZs to the livelihoods of communities and try to learn how to use indigenous knowledge to support scientific methods to gain a better understanding of aquatic resources and local fisheries management.
The study argued that indigenous knowledge could be combined with scientific information and used for fisheries management at different levels. In doing so, indigenous knowledge must be considered as important as scientific knowledge to the mainstream decision-making process. Scientists and researchers should respect and acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a valuable resource in the same way that indigenous people have trusted and acknowledged scientific information. However, it should be noted that indigenous knowledge is complementary to scientific knowledge, not a replacement for it (Johannes et al. 2000).
At the national level there is an over-emphasis on the needs and interests of regional activities rather than local needs. Fisheries development in Lao PDR relies on international development aid. Most international projects are concerned with regional or global issues, not local issues. As a result, there is no ownership of outcomes and inconsistent findings between communities at the provincial, national and regional levels. Therefore, LARReC should take local needs into account and work closely with local communities to identify their needs and encourage them to participate in planning, implementing and sharing research outcomes.
The results show that local communities face the responsibility for resource depletion. While the empowerment or responsibility between local communities and government is not clearly defined, local communities lack capacity and funds to deal with conflict over environmental issues. Since indigenous knowledge amongst fishermen is often related to fish caught and not the biology of the resources (Sverdrup-Jensen et al. 1999), it would be unfair to expect local fishermen to decide on methods to improve or recover fish stocks. Therefore,
165 NAFRI/LARReC should provide technical support and capacity building for local fishermen through training and study tours, as well as some financial support to ensure that they have the skills and power to deal with management requirements.
The question of ownership remains an issue in the development of research methods for fisheries data collection. CPUE and hydro-acoustic studies are dependent on design and data analysis from external experts or foreigners, who may take a long time for data analysis and/or the data may be different from the findings of local and national institutes. There is a need to find a new approach to fisheries research and development in Lao PDR. This should involve working closely with local communities and call for the participation of local communities and organisations in the planning, implementing and analysis process. In addition, capacity building at national, provincial, district and village levels is required, in particular with research planning and data analysis.
8.5 Further research As mentioned earlier, fisheries data in Lao PDR is still limited in terms of quantity and accuracy. But for management purposes, there needs to be accurate, up-to-date, time series data for effective fisheries monitoring of the Mekong River. For this reason, qualitative and quantitative CPUE data collection in southern Lao PDR and other parts of the country should be continued, and extended to the north province for monitoring fisheries trends along the Mekong River.
More in-depth research into hydro-acoustic surveys is needed, focusing particularly on analysing the existing data from deep pools in the Khong Island district. Since LARReC has hydro-acoustic equipment, it should be possible to employ this method in other parts of the Mekong River, including its important tributaries, in order to monitor fisheries trends for the future. Hydro-acoustic methods may provide new scientific data that can be applied not only to the monitoring of fish abundance and trends, but also for fisheries impact assessments such as the impact of dams and irrigation projects on fisheries.
Since the effectiveness of FCZs is still being debated, further research and analysis on the effectiveness of FCZs in the Khong district should be carried out. Combining CPUE with hydro-acoustic methods and indigenous knowledge is another option for investigating the
166 abundance of fish in FCZs. However, there is a need to improve methodologies and standardise fishing methods so that all species are included, in both the wet and dry seasons. In addition, the use of hydro-acoustic equipment can confirm the abundance of fish in different deep pools if the data continues to be collected systematically.
8.6 Conclusions Fisheries management in the Khong district is based on traditional management systems, whereby local communities use indigenous knowledge to manage and conserve fisheries resources. FCZs are an example of a traditional management system established by local fishermen, with strong support from NGOs. Village fishing rules have been implemented in order to protect and sustain the use of aquatic resources not only in FCZs, but also other fishing grounds. Banning fishing in FCZs during part or all of the year and prohibiting the use of destructive fishing gear in all fishing areas, are the main tools or regulations that local communities use to maintain their resources. The increase in fish catch and the reappearance of rare species in recent years has been reported as being a result of the creation of FCZs. However, there is no scientific information to support this claim. By observing fish surfacing in FCZs and the increased catch during the fishing season, fishermen believe that FCZs serve as a critical habitat for many of the Mekong fish species, including being a spawning ground for some important fish species. This argument has recently been acknowledged by scientists.
GIS and mental maps can be used to support each other and applied to fisheries management across different management levels. Mental maps can be seen to be suitable for communication and documentation of indigenous knowledge about place and the location of fishing grounds, as well as fishing practices and traditional management systems at the village level. In the Lao PDR context, GIS has the potential to be used for data analysis and communication at the national and regional levels, where there are the resources and capacity available to use it. As GIS has the capacity to integrate both quantitative and qualitative information (ie IK and SK), it becomes a very good method of compiling or representing knowledge on a map that can be easily understand by everyone. At the same time, it can be linked to other information and used for differences purposes ranging from guide maps to management and decision-making processes.
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