BULETIN PSIKOLOGI FAKULTAS PSIKOLOGI UNIVERSITAS GADJAH MADA VOLUME 17, NO. 2, 2009: 66 – 89 ISSN: 0854‐7108 CONSTRUCTS IN

Rahmat Hidayat1

Fakultas Psikologi Universitas Gadjah Mada E‐mail: r.hidayat @ugm.ac.id

Why1 do consumers do what they do? performance proficiencies that one wishes A general agreement among researchers, as to attain (Latham & Locke, 2006). apparent for example in the volumes of have been studied in many areas Ratneshwar, Mick, and Huffman (2000) and of consumer behaviour. For example, Ratneshwar and Mick (2005), is that research has been done on the importance consumer behaviour is goal‐directed. Goal of goals in the purchases of durables is an internal representation of desired (Katona, 1975), and in the marketing of states (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Bandura, nondurables, services, and ideas or persons 2001; Schiffman & Kanuk, 2004). Consumer (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 1999). Situational and goals are often expressed in the language of personal goals, and goal orientations have consumer as something that is needed, been studied in relation to category repre‐ wanted, desired, enthused by, or valued. sentations (e.g., Barsalou, 1991; Consumers often say that their goals are to Ratneshwar, Barsalou, Pechman, & Moore, satisfy what they need, want, or desire. In 2001), judgment of store reputation (Lee & addition, they may say that their goal is to Shavitt, 2006), product evaluation achieve certain level of possession or (Chernev, 2004), consumers’ experience certain kinds of identity or lifestyle. Thus (Novak, Hoffman, & Duhachek, 2003), consumers are said to having needs, wants, of salesperson influence desires, motives, and values. Other aspects of strategies (Mallalieu, 2006), and preference consumer goal includes the mental for the status quo (Chernev, 2004). Goals processes whereby goals are set (Latham & are also studied extensively from the Locke, 1991), hierarchical organization of perspectives of cognition, , goals (e.g., Gutman, 1982; Huffman, personality, and social psychology (e.g., Ratneshwar, & Mick, 2001), general orien‐ Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Pervin, 1989; tations in motivational behavior (Higgins, Oettingen & Gollwitzer, 2003; Oettingen, 1997, 1998), intentions to realize the desired Pak, & Schnetter, 2001). states (Antonides & Van Raaij, 1998), levels The extensive studies have resulted in of self‐efficacy (Bandura, 1986), and numerous conceptualisations of consumer goals. In one hand this has brought advan‐ ces in the understandings of consumer behaviour. The down side is that there are 1 Tulisan ini merupakan bagian dari sebuah disertasi too many answers and perspectives yang diajukan penulis untuk mendapatkan gelar PhD dari Universitas Tilburg, Belanda. available in the recent literature, for even a Korespondensi terkait dengan tulisan ini harap simple question such as the kinds of goals dialamatkan pada Rahmat Hidayat, Fakultas that become active in consumer decision Psikologi, Universitas Gadjah Mada University, Jl. making. Therefore concerns regarding how Humaiora No. 1, Bulaksumur, Indonesia, 55281. consumer goals are related to each other, Email: r.hidayat @ugm.ac.id

66 BULETIN PSIKOLOGI GOAL CONSTRUCTS IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR and how they are organized in the mental the subsequent processes of goal‐pursuit systems of the consumer, have become a behaviour. Bagozzi and Dholakia (1999) focal point in recent consumer behaviour offer a goal‐setting and goal‐pursuit studies. With this development in sight, the framework that comprehensively addresses objective of this paper is to review the these concerns, Figure 1. An alternative literature of consumer goal, particularly in view is offered in Huffman, Ratneshwar, terms of , organization and and Mick (2000), which will be discussed in structural properties, and conceptual section 3.4. organisation of consumer goals. With regard to goal setting, goals might be latent in the cognitive‐affective 1. Goal setting in the context of goal system of the consumer, it might be “sold” pursuit behaviour to a consumer by persuasion of advertising or peers (Austin & Vancouver, 1996), or it Several questions arise regarding the might be constructed by the consumer in processes by which goals are formed and the decision‐making situation (Bettman, represented in the processing systems of Luce, & Payne, 1998). Therefore a goal consumer behaviour. An important part setting, or goal establishment in Austin and concerns the processes by which intentions Vancouver (1996), involves a decision‐ to pursue goals are formed. From a self‐ making process in which the task of the regulatory perspective, the question consumer is to select goal content and concerns the way goal‐driven actions are develop its dimensions. It concerns the initiated and evaluated, and how outcomes, question of “What are the goals I can consequences, or benefits of the act are pursue, and why do I want or not want to evaluated. Finally, questions can be pursue them?” In the generic level, a goal addressed at the ways in which goal‐ setting process may become active because pursuit processes are monitored, and how of an external stimulus that presents outcome evaluations provide feedbacks in opportunities or imposes imperatives. An

Figure 1. Goal setting and goal pursuit (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 1999, p. 20)

BULETIN PSIKOLOGI 67 HIDAYAT important case of external stimulus is rally people strive to bring their current concerned with income change, be it an actual state into line with related end state increase or decrease. Increase of income they value. Thus, the goal serves as a moti‐ presents opportunities, whereas decrease of vational factor in goal pursuit (Higgins, income presents imperatives and limi‐ 1989; Kruglanski et al., 2002). tations. Consequently people are more Goal pursuits are activated in one of willing to spend on durables when they three ways (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 1999). The perceive there are increases in the income, first way concerns automatic processes, and more cautious when they perceive where consumer behaviours are not decreases (Katona, 1975). Income changes preceded by a deliberate process of goal provide either opportunities or impose setting and goal pursuit. Automatic goal imperatives. pursuits may be implicit in habitual goal‐ Apart from external factors, Bagozzi directed consumer behaviour. Never‐ and Dholakia (1999) also mention internal theless, they argue that an automatic pro‐ conditions as a factor of goal setting. It cess may originate in a prior deliberative concerns with such situations as when the processing, or learning shaped by classical consumer constructs a goal schema or or operant conditioning. This notion is chooses from among self‐generated alter‐ supported in Oettingen et al. (2006), which natives. The hierarchy of needs (Maslow, assume goals are mental representations 1954) demonstrates the influence of internal that can be activated by features of the conditions in goal setting. The deprivation contexts in which those goals have been of biological needs makes goals such as the pursued regularly and consistently in the provision of food, rest or sex salient. The past. A different way to explain automatic same mechanism explains goal setting process is offered by Austin and Vancouver processes concerning the other levels of (1996), which conceives goals as inherent human needs, such as the deprivation of and simply lying dormant, waiting for safety needs when biological needs are activation. Thus, goal‐setting processes can fulfilled, and the deprivation of be conceived as either a change in difficulty belongingness and love when biological, level from zero, a change in importance physiological, and safety needs are level from zero, an increase in activation satisfied. More on the hierarchy of needs strength in a network, or a conversion of a will be discussed in section 2. need into a goal. Oetingen et al. (2006) The activation of a goal makes the illustrates this process as follows. If a discrepancy between the actual and the person is accustomed to use parties as a desired states becomes more transparent way to make impressions on people, the (e.g., Higgins, 1987; Pham & Higgins, 2005). goals of impressing others will become Self‐discrepancies between an actual and a automatically active upon entering a party. desired state affect on the emotional state of Once activated in the non‐conscious the individual. For example, a discrepancy manner, in other words the activation between actual state and what people strength has been increased from zero, perceive as their obligations or respon‐ Oetingen et al. explains that the mental sibilities is associated with the vulnerability representation of the goal would operate in to agitation‐related , such as fear, the same way as when it is consciously worry, and tensions (Higgins, Bond, Klein, activated. & Strauman, 1986; Higgins, 1989). Natu‐

68 BULETIN PSIKOLOGI GOAL CONSTRUCTS IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

The second way pertains to impulsive berative volitional process. “How can I acts. These involve some awakening of a achieve my goal?” It concerns with when, need or desire that quickly becomes a goal where, how, and how long should the to be achieved through minimal goal‐ consumer commit the act. The next stage of directed activities. Such goals arise automa‐ consumer goal pursuit behaviour is action tically because of biological, emotional, initiation and control, in which the act of moral, or ethical forces. These goals are pursuing the goal is evaluated and non‐conscious, but they are not necessarily adjustment to the course of goal pursuit is produced by habitually learned responses made. The outcome of the behaviour is to environment, such as in the auto‐motive evaluated in the next stage, i.e., to what model (Bargh, 1990). Other sources are goal degree has the consumer achieved or failed pursuits that were previously withdrawn to achieve his or her goals. How the con‐ or interrupted. Moskowitz, Li, and Kirk sumer feels as a consequence of attainment (2004) explain how preconscious cognitive or failure in the goal pursuit becomes the processes implement goal pursuit despite feedback reaction to the further goal setting the conscious withdrawal from the current processes in similar situations. goal pursuit. Such implicit volitional pro‐ cesses correspond with the so‐called 2. Organization of consumer goals Zeigarnik effect in which the cognitive system continues to engage in goal‐relevant Consumers live with a great number of processes despite the fact that they have goals that they want or feel compelled to been consciously disrupted (Zeigarnik, fulfil. To be able to function effectively, 1927). multiple goals must be organized in certain Finally, consumer behaviours are voli‐ fashion (Richins, 2005). Most of the recent tional acts. These pertain to the processes of theoretical conceptions regarding the orga‐ consumer behaviour through goal nization of consumer goals have been intention. “What is it for which I strive?” developed from cognitive psychology. In Goal intentions can be characterized as this approach, goals are related to either as specific acts as end performances knowledge structure. Following Barsalou (“I intend to buy a Sony DVD player (1991), knowledge in the cognitive system tonight”) or as particular outcomes to be is represented in categories. There are two achieved through the execution of an ways that categories originate, namely instrumental act (“I intend to lose two exemplar learning and conceptual combi‐ kilograms”). Volitional processes are also nation. Exemplar learning is central in the concerned with implementation intention, processes of acquiring taxonomic know‐ in which some conditional intention is ledge about the world as it exists. It is stated. That is, a consumer may intend to relatively passive, bottom‐up, and an perform a goal‐directed behaviour (e.g., automatic process. In contrast, goal‐derived execute an instrumental act) given that categories arise through conceptual future contingencies occur. “I intend to do combination by manipulation of existing X when situation Y is encountered.” knowledge in memory. Barsalou (1991) rephrases as follows: Figure 1 also summarises the goal‐ pursuit behaviours, with feedback loops to “By deliberately manipulating knowledge goal setting. In action planning, the through reasoning, people produce new consumer elaborates further on the deli‐ categories that serve their goals … concep‐

BULETIN PSIKOLOGI 69 HIDAYAT

tual combination often produces idealized among the motives” (p. 915). Based on knowledge about how the world should be some anthropological and psychological … rather than … about how it is” (p. 4). studies, they further argue that schemas Further, he argues that goals and their can be represented in hierarchical struc‐ attributes are presented in frames, which he tures. A central position in a hierarchical defines as flexible, loosely organized bodies structure of motives in goal‐setting is focal of knowledge. An example is illustrated in goals, which signify the question of, What is Bagozzi and Dholakia (1999). A frame for a it for which I strive? A focal goal can be vacation goal may consist of the vacation related to reasons for acting and depicted category and its connections to five attri‐ through a three‐tiered hierarchy. Below the butes, namely locations, temporal para‐ focal goals are subordinate goals, or meters, activities, objects, and actors. Each sometimes called as instrumental goals, of these attributes, in turn, might be which constitute the means for achieving connected to clusters of more specific attri‐ the focal goal and answering the question butes which are concerned with specific of, How can I achieve that for which I activities, such as departure, duration, strive? At the top of the hierarchy are return, and schedule are types of temporal superordinate motives, which answer the parameters, and preparations, travel, and question, Why do I want to achieve that for entertainment. The specific attributes which I strive? The relationship between further might be composed of subtypes superordinate and subordinate motives such as major travel (transcontinental with focal goals signifies that “a person’s flight), minor travel (taxi from airport to focal goal in any situation is explained by hotel), and arrangements at location (e.g., his or her superordinate motives and is reserving a seat on a tour bus) which are achieved through implementation of subor‐ the subtypes of travel. Such frames are dinate goals.” The simplified form of such useful in planning goals and knowing how schema is shown in the left hand side of other goals and constraints promote Figure 2. planning. In the context of planning A hierarchical representation of goal vacation, for example, such background schema may represent the means‐end goals as “maximize relaxation and framework of consumer behaviour educational value” guide the selection of (Gutman, 1997). The right hand side of exemplars for a frame instantiation. Within Figure 2, as adapted from Canova, Rattazzi, a particular frame, certain attributes also and Webley (2005), illustrates the means‐ constrain the range of other attributes. end framework of hierarchical structure of Thus, a needed departure of July for a goals in the context of the goals of saving. snow‐skiing vacation requires a ski resort Notice that the focal goal, i.e., “accumu‐ in the southern hemisphere. lating savings”, is connected with two Closely related to the cognitive psycho‐ subordinate goals or action goals (Gutman, logical conception is the hierarchical 1997), namely putting money in a saving representation of motives in goal setting account and participating in a pension plan. (Bagozzi, Bergami, & Leone, 2003), which Likewise, three superordinate goals are proposes that motives in goal setting, as connected with the focal goal, namely an opposed to goal striving, can be repre‐ assured retirement situation, to avoid debt, sented in schemas. A schema pertains to “a and to increase or maintain self‐esteem. set of motives and perceived relationships

70 BULETIN PSIKOLOGI GOAL CONSTRUCTS IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

The hierarchical structure of consumer structure of consumer goals has been goals has been conceived in terms of studied at the level of intermediate goals means‐end chain (Gutman, 1982, 1997). (Pieters, Baumgartner, & Allen, 1995; Products are equipped with attributes. The Canova, Rattazzi, & Webley, 2005). These consumption of product attributes pro‐ studies confirmed the hierarchical structure duces consequences, namely the benefits of focal goals. that consumers obtain from consumption. Another theory that depicts the The significance of the consequence is cognitive‐motivational structure of goals is determined by its subjective value. Thus, the goal system theory (Kruglanski et al., consumption represents hierarchical 2002). A goal system is defined as a mental structure that consists of Attribute – representation of motivational networks Consequence – Values. The hierarchical composed of interconnected goals and

General Representation of Self‐esteem Goal Hierarchy

“Why do I want Superordinate to achieve that Assured To avoid goals for which I retirement debt strive?”

Goal: Focal “What is it for Accumulate goals which I strive?” savings

Subordinate “How can I Saving Pension goals achieve that for account plan which I strive?”

Figure 2. The three‐tiered goal hierarchy as adapted from Bagozzi and Dholakia (1999, p. 24) and Canova, Rattazi, and Webley (2005)

Goal 1

Subgoal 1 Subgoal 3 Subgoal 2

Means 1 Means 6

Means 2 Means 5 Means 3 Means 4

Figure 3. A system of goals and means (Kruglanski et al., 2002, p. 334)

BULETIN PSIKOLOGI 71 HIDAYAT means, as visualized in Figure 3. Thus, goal resources, which means that allocation to systems consist of mentally represented one goal implies a reduction to other goals. networks wherein goals may be cognitively associated to their corresponding means of 3. Goal Content attainment and to alternative goals as well. The associative network of the mental Contents of consumer goal systems can representation of goals means that the be specified into need, want, and desire as activation of one goal may either activate or one category, and motive and value in other inhibit another goal. Two properties of goal categories. In addition, consumer goals can system can be derived, namely the struc‐ be characterised in terms of thematic tural and allocational properties. In similarities and motivational orientations. structural terms, functional relationships To get a broader insight regarding the moti‐ between goals might be characterized as vational factors of consumer behaviour, all either facilitatory or inhibitory. Facilitatory of these motivational constructs will be pertains to the activation of a goal thus reviewed in this section. facilitating the activation of another goal. In the hierarchical schema, it appears in the 3.1. Needs, wants, and desires vertical relationship. In contrast, inhibitory relationship implies that the activation of Need and want are among the most one goal inhibits the other, as apparent common English words involving inten‐ from the horizontal relationship between tions or desires (Wilensky, 1978). Desire goals. expresses stronger volitional aspects of the behaviour (Belk, Ger, & Askegaard, 2000), Furthermore, interactions between and value pertains to something that is goals can be characterised in terms of their relatively everlasting (Rokeach, 1973). form and their strength. Two forms of Unlike need, motive, value, and goal which between‐goal interactions are multifinality have been regarded as important constructs and equifinality. Equifinality is signified in psychology, want and desire have been when two or more goals are connected as relatively ignored in the literature of origin with one end‐goal. In contrast, human behaviour. multifinality is signified when one goal serves, as origin of, two or more goals, as Needs are often distinguished from the destination. The strength of intercon‐ other motivational factors on the bases that nection is not independent of form, because a need signifies some biological drives such the uniqueness of the interactions deter‐ as hunger, aggression, or sex. For example, mines the strength of connection. Newton (1994) defines drive as a “state of Connections between goals are stronger arousal resulting from a biological (or, when there is no other goal associated, occasionally, psychological) need.” More either as origin or destination. The smaller specifically, Neufeldt & Guralnik (1988) the equifinality and multifinality, the states that the noun of need is used to refer: stronger the association between two goals. (1) necessity or obligation created by some Regarding the allocational property, a situation; (2) in terms that reflect a major characteristic of goal systems is the condition of lacking of something useful, restricted nature of mental resources to be required, or desired; (3) in terms of objects distributed among goals. One principle that that are useful, required, or desired but are applies is the ‘constant sum’ of the mental in short supply; (4) a condition in which there is a deficiency of something, or one

72 BULETIN PSIKOLOGI GOAL CONSTRUCTS IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR requiring relief or supply. While Newton bases for moving into the higher level, (1994) defines needs in relations to: (a) a namely safety needs. It consists of needs motivational state resulting from depri‐ such as protection, security, order, law vation of something that an organism limits, and stability. Belonging and love requires for survival, (b) the deprivation is needs become important biological, physio‐ mostly associated with a biological requi‐ logical, and safety needs are met satisfac‐ rement. Newton (1994) emphasizes that torily. Family life, affection, relationship, need can also be used to signify deprivation workgroup, and other social relationship of a psychological or emotional nature, become important to the individual. In such as need for achievement (McClelland, turn, these needs provide the bases for 1961). In this sense, needs are similar to esteem needs, such as the needs of achie‐ drives. vement, status, responsibility, and repu‐ Schiffman and Kanuk (2004) specify tation. The highest need of the hierarchy is the typology of needs that includes innate concerned with self‐actualisation. Indivi‐ needs and acquired needs. Innate needs duals who achieve this stage are focused on pertain to physiological or biogenic needs, personal growth and fulfilment. Concep‐ that is, it includes needs for things such as tually, each need is mutually exclusive. food, water, air, clothing, shelter and sex. However, no need is ever satisfied comple‐ Because they are essential in sustaining tely, hence there are always some overlaps biological life, biogenic needs are consi‐ between each level. dered primary needs. Acquired needs may Wants are often distinguished from include needs for self‐esteem, prestige, needs and other constructs of motivational affection, power, and learning. Acquired factors on the basis that what is wanted is needs are generally psychological (i.e., to satisfy psychological drives. In ordinary psychogenic). They are considered secon‐ language, it manifests in an expression such dary needs. They arise because of the as “I know I need a new car, but I will consequence of individual’s subjective ultimately buy the one I want!” (Brooks, psychological state and the individual’s 2001). In Webster’s New World Dictionary relationships with others. Murray (1939) want is defined as: (1) to feel a need or a proposes an extensive list of psychogenic desire for, wish for; (2) to wish, need, crave, needs, e.g., needs associated with inanimate demand, or desire; (3) to feel inclined, wish, objects, needs that reflect ambition, power, like; (4) to be deficient by the absence of accomplishment, and prestige, needs some part or thing, or to feel or have a concerned with human power, sadomaso‐ need; (5) to be lacking or absent, as a part of chistic needs, needs concerned with thing necessary to completeness (Neufeldt affection between people, and needs & Guralnik, 1988). concerned with social intercourse (the Wilensky (1978) explains the diffe‐ needs to ask and tell). rences between need and want from the Several theories, most notably perspectives of linguistics and cognitive or Abraham Maslow, conceive needs as natural language processor. He states that hierarchically organized, as shown in there are two intentional factors underlying Figure 4. At the bottom of the hierarchy are the definition of need and want. The first biological and physiological needs such as factor is goal which he refers to as a mental air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, and state that leads to actions mediated by sleep. The satisfaction of these needs is the thought. The other factor is concerned with

BULETIN PSIKOLOGI 73 HIDAYAT sources or reasons that cause that goal to A closely related word to need and want come into being. Further, the sources are is desire. Belk, Ger, and Askegaard (2000) divided into two types. The first source is illustrate the context of desire in consumer plan source which refers to a goal aimed at behaviour as follows: fulfilling a precondition for a plan for “We say in English that we burn and another goal. To illustrate, having some are aflame with desire; we are pierced savings may be instrumental to the plan of by or riddled with desire; we are sick or enjoying retirement. The second source is ache with desire; we are tortured, thematic source. A thematic source is a goal tormented, and racked by desire; we are that arises because of certain basic possessed, seized, ravished, and over‐ tendencies or naturally default conditions come by desire; we are mad, crazy, to be satisfied. For example, hunger is a insane, giddy, blinded, or delirious with natural drive for people to satisfy. Thus, desire; we are enraptured, enchanted, thematic categories of the sources or suffused, and enveloped by desire; our reasons of goals can consist of themes such desire is fierce, hot, intense, passionate, as PRESERVATION (gives rise to the goal incandescent, and irresistible; and we of saving one’s life if an event occurred pine, languish, waste away, or die of which threatened it), ENJOYMENT (to get unfulfilled desire.” (p. 99). pleasure), and OBLIGATION (gives rise to To understand the motivational a goal of complying some social contract). distinctiveness of desire, they suggested to Based on these factors, Wilensky defines substitute desire with need or want in these need and want as follow: metaphors. They concluded: “NEED: “A needs X” is used when: (a) “Needs are anticipated, controlled, X is an essentially unique precondition denied, postponed, prioritised, planned for a plan for a goal of A’s, or (b) X is for, addressed, satisfied, fulfilled, and an essentially unique action that would gratified through logical instrumental result in a goal of A’s. processes. Desires, on the other hand, “WANT: “A wants X” is used when A are overpowering; something we give in has X as a goal, and the source of X is to; something that takes control of us other than a PRESERVATION or and totally dominates our thoughts, OBLIGATION theme. feelings, and actions. Desire awakens, In other words, Wilensky (1978) high‐ seizes, teases, titillates, and arouses. ….” lights instrumentality in terms of preser‐ (p. 99). vation and obligation as a factor that In general they concluded that need is distinguishes need from want. Toward this perceived to originate internally, whereas end, need is applied when the thing needed desire externally; need pushes, whereas is a goal as an inference, that is, a goal that desire pulls; need is rational in the sense of is not stated, for it is a condition to satisfy being based on a certain rationalized another goal. Whereas want is applied explanation, whereas desire is emotional. when what is wanted is a part of the With regards to this analysis, we believe meaning of the word, need and want can be that desire as Belk, Ger, and Askegaard differentiated based on the relative strength (2000) conceived, is the extreme form of with which a desire is expressed. When want. Although they implicitly conceived need is used, the expressed desire carries need and want as similar constructs, we more force than when want is used. believe that they are distinct constructs.

74 BULETIN PSIKOLOGI GOAL CONSTRUCTS IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

However, the push‐and‐pull dimension precautionary motive, (2) to provide for the might apply to need and want, in which anticipated future relationship between want is located in the pull side. income and needs – the foresight motive, (3) to enjoy interest – the calculation motive, (4) 3.2. Motives to enjoy a gradually improving expenditure – the improvement motive, (5) to enjoy a sense Whereas needs and wants are driven of independence and power to do things – by biological or psychological factors, the independence motive, (6) to secure a masse motives are referred to as socially or de manouvre to carry out speculative cognitively driven behaviours. Gollwitzer, business projects – the enterprise motive, (6) Delius, and Oettingen (2000) suggest that to bequeath a fortune – the pride motive, and motives can be divided into three sets of (8) to satisfy pure miserliness – the avarice phenomena, namely the selection of a motive. certain course of action, the energizing of Keynes’ conception of saving motives the implied behaviours, and the regulation has inspired further works on the field. of these behaviours. Nevertheless, they also Browning and Lusardi (1996) added one use motives to refer to biological drives. type of saving motive to the list, namely They argue that to the extent that modern down‐payment motive. From empirical psychology has come to accept that all studies of household savings in the US in psychological processes are due ultimately 1960s, Katona (1975) distinguished the to physiological activity, the division bet‐ saving motives into six types, namely for ween needs and motives on the bases of emergencies (such as ill‐health, unemploy‐ physiological or cognitive factors is some‐ ment), to have funds in reserve for what arbitrary. necessities (buffer), for retirement or old The construct of motives is more age, for children’s needs, to buy a house or prominent in economics and consumer durable goods and for holidays. Nijkamp, behaviour studies, as compared to the Gianotten, and Van Raaij (2002) found that construct of needs, and desires. Economic there was more than one type of precau‐ theories of saving, such as Keynes (1936/ tionary motive. A precautionary motive can 1964), Duesenberry (1949), and Modigliani be distinguished into preparedness to and Brumberg (1954) are based on certain unforeseen expenditures and irregular assumptions regarding saving motives. In income. The latter type of precautionary comparison, studies and theories regarding motive is particularly applicable to business spending motives largely originate from people, and similar to the foresight motive the discipline of consumer behaviour. The of Keynes (1936/1964). construct of spending motives in this disci‐ Built on a different conception of pline has been discussed extensively. This income, Duesenberry (1949) proposed section attempts to review the constructs of social‐oriented saving motives. Income is saving and spending motives from both not a factor of saving in the absolute sense disciplines. as in Keynes theory. Rather, social compa‐ rison or social reference determines Saving motives consumption standards of individuals and Keynes (1936/1964) distinguishes eight households, and thus their saving. Another saving motives: (1) to build up a reserve economic theory that is based on an against unforeseen contingencies – the assumption of motives in saving and

BULETIN PSIKOLOGI 75 HIDAYAT consumption is the life‐cycle theory on content and organization of consump‐ (Modigliani & Brumberg, 1954). The theory tion motives. The types of consumption hypothesizes that people prefer a stable motives might be unlimited. Consumption level of consumption throughout the involves social, cultural, and economic lifetime, thus a stable standard of living. processes (Zukin & Maguire, 2004). Savings are used to smooth consumption Consumption motives potentially exist in over the stages of the life‐cycle in which all areas of human behaviour. The breadth income level varies. During the young age, of the area is evident in the involvement of when income is lower than the level of life‐ scientific endeavour in the domain of cycle income, people finance consumption humanities and social sciences (Campbell, through borrowing. During the peak of the 1991). Thus, every individual in every productive age, which normally is context can set specific consumption moti‐ approaching the retirement age, income is ves, resulting in idiosyncratic motives of generally higher than the level of life‐cycle consumption. A conceptual way to simplify income. During this period people consumption motives is by distinguishing accumulate savings. When the life‐cycle them according to some dimensions. Khan, reaches the retirement, during which Dhar and Wertenbroch (2005) distinguish people earn much less than the life‐cycle two theoretical approaches regarding income level, people finance their dimensions of consumption motivation: consumption from their savings. The same preference in the context of trade‐offs with type of assumption, i.e., consumption functional goals, and preference in the smoothing, is held by another theory, context of time inconsistency. namely the permanent income hypothesis Preference in the context of trade‐offs (Friedman, 1957). However, this theory with functional goals. This dimension can assumes a shorter time horizon, which be divided into hedonic and utilitarian approximately equals to three years. In motives (Hirscman & Holbrook, 1982; addition, this theory adds bequest motive Strahilevitz & Myers, 1998; Dhar & as an important motivational factors in Wertenbroch (2000). Hedonic consumption saving and consumption. captures multi‐sensory, fantasy and These views advocate saving motives emotive aspects of consumer’s consump‐ as a certain psychological construct in‐ tion experience with products (Hirschman herent in the mental system of an & Holbrook, 1982). It is related to people’s individual. In contrast, the behavioural life‐ fun, pleasure, and excitement, thus con‐ cycle hypothesis (Shefrin & Thaler, 1988) cerns products or services that are assumes that saving is a by product of some consumed for its experiential aspects mental processes which involves mental (Pham, 1998). It may include luxuries faculties such as planner and doer. In short, (Kivetz & Simonson, 2002) and products or this theory proposes that the construct of services that are considered affect‐rich saving motive consists of intrinsic (Rottenstreich & Hsee, 2001; Hsee & orientation toward future and self‐control Rottenstreich, 2004). The examples of against temptation of immediate gratifi‐ hedonic consumption are consumption of cation. flowers, designer clothes, music, sports cars, luxury watches, and chocolate. In Spending motives comparison, utilitarian motives concern the Extensive studies have been conducted consumption of something on the bases of

76 BULETIN PSIKOLOGI GOAL CONSTRUCTS IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR its instrumentality or functionality in impulsive decisions that are inclined achieving certain goals (Hirschman & toward immediate gratifications. In Holbrook, 1982). A utilitarian motive may contrast, cognition, and willpower bring pertain to necessity items, that is, items that consumer to preference over long‐term are indispensable for the preservation of a benefits. Next, shoulds vs. wants also signify minimum standard of living. Examples of conflicts between virtues and vices. A vice these motives include consumptions of concerns an affective want that is motivated microwaves, detergents, minivans, home by impulses. In the context of time security systems, and personal computers. preference, a vice may manifest in the Necessity items also include things such as preference of small but immediate hedonic food, clothing, and medical care. Such gratification to the larger gratification in the objects of consumption may be charac‐ future. The latter signifies virtue, which terized as affect‐poor goods (Rottenstreich reflects reasoned and cognitively preferred & Hsee, 2001; Hsee & Rottenstreich, 2004). choice option: larger but delayed conse‐ Whereas hedonic products or services may quences. Preference in the context of time‐ be chosen intuitively, probably through inconsistency may reflect a common liking or disliking, utilitarian or necessity tendency that what is gratifying now is not goods may be chosen through deliberate what is preferred for the future. Thaler & processes of decision making. In other Shefrin (1981) and Shefrin and Thaler (1988) words, hedonic versus utilitarian dimen‐ represent this dilemma in the eternal sions of consumption motives are related to conflict between the doer and the planner. dimensions that include affect‐rich vs. This representation reflects problems of affect‐poor (Rottenstreich & Hsee, 2001; self‐control of the consumer. Hsee & Rottenstreich, 2004), and experiential vs. instrumental (Pham, 1998). 3.3. Values Preference in the context of time‐ Another related construct of goals inconsistency. This dimension can be concerns values. Schwartz (1997) relates divided into motives of immediate pleasure values to what people believe are good or and longer‐term benefits. It is related to the bad, what people think should and should shoulds vs. the wants in the ordinary not be done, and what they hold to be language of the consumers. Shoulds signify desirable or undesirable. Similarly, needs, which may include requirements, Rokeach (1973, p. 5) defines a value as “an necessities, duty or obligation. While wants enduring belief that a specific mode of are associated with desire. Shoulds or needs conduct or end state of existence is are perceived to originate internally, personally or socially preferable to an whereas wants or desire originate externally. opposite or converse mode of conduct or Needs push, whereas desires pull. Needs are end state of existence.” A value is enduring, rational in the sense of being based on which implies stability, yet malleable over certain rational explanation, whereas desire certain conditions, which implies flexibility. is not rational. Thus wants vs. shoulds sig‐ A value refers to a mode of conduct or an nify conflicts between affective vs. cogni‐ end state of existence. The former signifies tive preferences, and desire vs. willpower instrumental values, whereas the latter (Hoch & Loewenstein, 1991), or hearth vs. signifies terminal values. However, they mind (Shiv, Fedorikhin & Nowlis, 2005). are not completely discrete entities. There is Affective, desire, and hearth lead to a functional relationship between instru‐

BULETIN PSIKOLOGI 77 HIDAYAT mental and terminal values. According to their study, they compared the hierarchical Rokeach, human values are organized in order of the average value obtained from certain value systems. the representative and near representative Rokeach’s values can be classified into samples from 13 nations, and a sample that seven domains, namely pleasure, security, consists of school teachers in 56 nations and achievement, independence, maturity, college students in 54 nations. Results of conformism, and social. In comparison, the analysis exhibit a similar pattern in all Holbrook (1999) distinguishes consumer of the sample groups. Specifically, bene‐ values into three dimensions: whether self‐ volence, self‐direction, and universalism or other oriented, whether active (manipu‐ values are consistently most important, lating, operating) or reactive (appre‐ whereas power, tradition, and stimulation hending, appreciating, admiring), and values are least important. Values whether extrinsic (consumption in order to pertaining to security, conformity, achie‐ achieve other goals) or intrinsic (con‐ vement, and hedonism are in between the sumption that provides ends in itself). opposite group of values. Further, they Other related works in value systems found that value hierarchies of 83% of concerns dimensions of culture (e.g., samples correlate at least 0.80 with this Hofstede, 2001; Schwartz, 1994). pan‐cultural hierarchy. Value is highly cultural‐sensitive. 3.4. Thematic Goals Schwartz (1997) argues that the hearth of culture is formed by values. Much of what Needs, wants, desires, motives, and an individual believes as desirable or values are similar in the sense that they undesirable is shared with other people in represent single units of motivational their society. People of a society share the factors of consumer behaviour. Goal‐ experience of being exposed to similar pursuit behaviour often consists of several situations, experiencing similar opportu‐ motivational units (Kruglanski et al., 2002). nities, and being disciplined and rewarded Thus, it may encompass several needs, for the same action. Hence, much of values wants, desires, motives, and values. are shared with people of the same cultural Huffman, Ratneshwar, and Mick (2002) background. Similarity within a culture is label these as mid‐level goals. Social often interpreted as the bases of cross‐ cognitive literature contains concepts of cultural differences. Hofstede (1980, 1991) mid‐level goals such as current concern identified four basic dimensions of values (Klinger, 1975), personal striving (Emmons, which are different across cultures, namely 1986, 1989), life task (Cantor & Kihlstrom, power distance, individualism/collectivism, 1987), and personal project (Little, 1989) may masculinity/femininity, and uncertainty be considered as exemplars of consumers’ avoidance. In comparison, Schwartz (1992) goals. Huffman, Ratneshwar, and Mick suggests three dimensions of cultural (2000) propose a hierarchical model of values, namely conservatism vs. autonomy, goals that they say integrate some of these hierarchy vs. egalitarian, and mastery vs. constructs. harmony. In their model, consumer goals are Nevertheless, Schwartz and Bardi hierarchically structured, which implies (2001) found a widespread consensus that that the goals at the higher levels (as regarding the hierarchical order of values compared to the lower levels) are more across different cultural backgrounds. In abstract, more inclusive, and less mutable.

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The hierarchical structure of consumer alternatively. In contrast, feature prefe‐ goals consists of six discrete goals, namely rences are relatively objective and product‐ life themes and values, life projects, current referent, which is similar to the attribute in concerns, consumption intentions, benefits the means‐end chain framework. Never‐ sought, and feature preferences. These six theless, benefits sought and feature discrete goals can be classified according to preference signifies individual evaluation three states of existence, namely being, toward a course of action, which may doing, and having. In the goal‐pursuit influence certain type of goals at higher context, consumers acquire possessions to levels becoming more salient than the perform actions that move them closer to others. Benefits sought and feature prefe‐ realizing their values and ideal selves (Belk, rences are more closely related to the 1988). This model, along with some specific levels and choice of brands and adaptation to the generic context, will be product variants. discussed in this section. The hierarchical Consumption intentions capture structure of consumer goals is represented individuals’ aims and desires to engage in in Figure 3. particular ways of using their income. For example, a person’s aim to commute to work by public transport, or an employee intention to invest retirement savings in a mutual fund, or a habitual desire to drink a glass of wine with dinner. In the means‐end chain framework, current intentions can be Life compared to action goals or concrete goals, Themes & Values or action units of the personal striving approach (Emmons, 1989). In consumer behaviour at the generic allocation level, current intentions consist of saving and Co n ns tio spending intentions (Antonides & Van umption Inten Raaij, 1988; Lea, Tarpy & Webley, 1987). Current concerns consist of activities,

tasks, or quests in which an individual is Figure 4. Hierarchical model of consumer goals involved in short term (Huffman, (Huffman, Ratneshwar, & Mick, 2000, p. 14) Ratneshwar & Mick, 2000). In the personal Benefits sought refers to the conse‐ striving model (Emmons, 1989), this quences of consumption, and feature construct is similar to that of concern, preferences refer to the preferred product project or task. It is shorter in time‐ feature levels or values as stated in concrete orientation than life projects and represents physical or financial terms. Although tasks that need to be done by the similar, they are conceptually different, in individual. Along with life projects, this the sense that benefit sought is relatively goal can be subsumed under focal goals or more subjective and outcome‐referent. It is intermediate goals of the means‐end similar to the consequence in the means‐ framework (Pieters, Baumgartner & Allen, end chain framework (Gutman, 1982; 1995; Bagozzi, Bergami & Leone, 2003). In Reynolds & Gutman, 1988); therefore benefit the context of the life‐cycle, current and consequence will be used henceforth concerns may include the ongoing needs of

BULETIN PSIKOLOGI 79 HIDAYAT the family members, such as expenses for motives such as morality, freedom, trust, education, necessities for the household, honesty, and creativity. However, a small and health and safety requirements. percentage of the population is actually Life projects: Huffman, Ratneshwar achieving this stage. Instead, the lower and Mick (2000) explain that life projects levels of needs, particularly esteem, concern the construction and maintenance appears to reflect more of the consumer of key life roles and identities. Examples goal systems at the generic level. Studies in include being a responsible mother, a loyal saving motives identified self‐esteem and employee, or a successful teacher. self‐gratification on the top of the hierar‐ Compared to life themes and values, life chical structure (Canova, Rattazzi & projects are in flux over the life span. Webley, 2005). Ethical investing, such as in However, it still lasts longer than lower stocks of “green” companies (Lewis, 2001; level goals. Individuals are likely to Webley, Lewis & Mackenzie, 2001), may undergo major changes in their life projects reflect life themes and values of the upon embarking through a life transition, investor. such as marriage or divorce, getting children, career changes, and retirement. 3.5. Goal Orientations This construct is similar to the conception A recent approach to goal construct of personal strivings (Emmons, 1989). Life conceives goals not in terms of its contents projects represent superordinate abstract (e.g., Murray, 1939; Keynes, 1936/1964; qualities that render a cluster of goals Rokeach, 1973; Schwarz, 1997) or its functionally equivalent for an individual. hierarchical organization (e.g., Maslow, Examples include goals to become finan‐ 1954; Huffman, Ratneshwar, & Mick, 2001), cially independent from others, to provide but in terms of the motivational orientation. good education for children, or to acquire a This approach assumes that there is a decent standard of living. systematic direction in goal‐pursuit beha‐ Life themes and values represent the viour, in relation to the expected outcomes personal ideals of being that a consumer of the act. A widely accepted framework is wants to achieve or to preserve. Huffman, that people are motivated to approach Ratneshwar and Mick (2000) explain that expected pleasure and to avoid unexpected life themes and values represent core pain. This universal tendency signifies the conceptions of self and are thus central to hedonic principle of human behaviour, a maintaining the integrity of the self‐system. fact that has been understood since the time Life themes and values are the most stable of ancient Greeks, and has been the basic among other levels of goals, and highly motivational assumption of theories across accessible across a variety of circumstances. all areas of psychology. However, Higgins Life themes and values can be compared to (1997, 1998) argues that the hedonic superordinate goals (Taylor, Bagozzi, principle is not sufficient for explaining the Gaither & Jamerson, 2006), or terminal self‐regulation of motivational behaviour. values, that is, enduring beliefs that an end He proposed the regulatory focus theory state of existence is preferable to other that can be viewed as providing a refined possible end states (Rokeach, 1973). In account to the hedonic explanation of terms of the position in the hierarchy of human motivation. needs, Maslow (1954) proposed the need The basic tenet of regulatory focus for self‐actualization that represents theory is that pleasures, or desired end

80 BULETIN PSIKOLOGI GOAL CONSTRUCTS IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR states, and pains, or undesired end states, people expect or anticipate the consequences are regulated in substantially different or outcomes of their actions and adjust their strategic ways. Further, the theory postu‐ behaviours accordingly. This principle lates that there are major consequences of justifies the social‐cognitive perspective the distinctive regulatory orientations to that future state is represented in the mind pleasures and pains. Whereas hedonic determining present behaviour (Bandura, principle states that pleasure implies 2001). An anticipated consequence of an act approach self‐regulation and pain implies can be either positive (i.e., pleasure, avoidance self‐regulation, regulatory focus desirable, gains, etc.) or negative (i.e., pain, theory postulates that pleasures can be each undesirable, losses, etc.). Anticipated regulated through approach and avoidance consequences determine decision making, strategies, and the same strategies for self‐ as evident in the tendency of people to regulation in relation to pains. This means choose options that provide positive conse‐ that an individual self‐regulates his or her quences as compared to negative conse‐ behaviour to approach the attainment of a quences, higher positive consequences than desired end state or to avoid the failure of lower positive consequences, or lower attaining a desired end state. Similarly, negative consequences than higher nega‐ individuals may self‐regulate his or her tive consequences. behaviour in order to avoid an undesired The principle of regulatory anticipation end state, or to approach a condition that is robust in many theoretical and applied mismatches the undesired end state. domains. For example, the regulatory Another characteristic of the theory is that principle of anticipation is the cornerstone the approach and avoidance of self‐ of expected utility theory, which provides regulation can be associated with the pro‐ theoretical foundations for the discipline of motion and prevention focus, respectively. economics. In economic psychology studies An important facet of the theory is its such as by Katona (1975), the principles of proposition that promotion and prevention regulatory anticipation were used in ex‐ focus can be chronic self‐regulatory mecha‐ plaining financial behaviour of households. nisms that indicate individual differences, It was found that people are more willing or could be induced situationally. Regu‐ to spend their money when they anticipate latory focus has been applied extensively in positive macro‐economic and household consumer behaviour (e.g., Pham & Higgins, financial situations in the future. When the 2005; Zhou & Pham, 2004; Chernev, 2004b). anticipation is the opposite, people are less willing to spend, but more motivated to Regulatory focus theory save their money. At the macro‐economic level, the aggregate of individual consu‐ Regulatory focus theory is built on the mers’ regulatory anticipation can predict foundation of the hedonic principle. Pham recession (Ludvigson, 2004), output of an and Higgins (2005) explain that the hedonic economy in the next semester (Matsusaka principle can be viewed from three pers‐ & Sbordone, 1995), and household pectives, namely the principle of regulatory spending (Carrol, Fuhrer & Wilcox, 1994). anticipation, the principle of regulatory In investing behaviour, anticipations are reference, and the principle of regulatory often referred to as “hope” and “fear”. The focus. From the principle of regulatory fact that financial markets are often driven anticipation, people’s behaviour is based on by hope and fear (e.g., Cohen, 2001; their expectation or anticipation. That is,

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Warneryd, 2001) thus justifies the end states can be pursued either with importance of regulatory anticipation in the means that are approach‐oriented or with market. means that are avoidance‐oriented. For Nevertheless, it must be stressed that example, approach‐oriented means for anticipation is not a goal. Anticipation financial preparedness in retirement are indicates the point of reference toward strategies such as investing and pursuing which an individual aligns his or her higher income through success in career. In behaviour. Consequently self‐regulation contrast, avoidance‐oriented means for the can be viewed in terms of the principle of same goal might be controlling expenses or regulatory reference. That is, a regulatory refraining from unnecessary purchases. reference represents point of reference that Self‐regulation dominated by means that the person uses in self‐regulation. For signify approach orientation strategies are example, given an anticipation of financial known as promotion focus, whereas self‐ needs in retirement, self‐regulation can regulation dominated by means that signify operate either in reference to a desired end avoidance orientation is known as pre‐ state or in reference to an undesired end vention focus. Further, in conjunction with state. One may be hopeful of having the results observed in Higgins, Roney, enough money to enjoy hobbies and Crowe, and Hymes (1994), Higgins (1997) interests in retirement, whereas the other stated that: may be hopeful of avoiding inabilities to “Because a promotion focus involves cater for necessities in retirement. The sensitivity to positive outcomes (their former signifies an approach regulation to a presence and absence), an inclination to desired end state, whereas the latter approach matches to desired end states signifies an avoidance approach to an is the natural strategy for promotion undesired end state. Thus, approach and self‐regulation. In contrast, because a avoidance in regulatory reference is con‐ prevention focus involves a sensitivity ceptualised in terms of movement toward to negative outcomes (their absence desired end states (approach) or away from and presence), an inclination to avoid undesired end states (avoidance) (Pham & mis‐matches to desire end states is the Higgins, 2005). natural strategy for prevention self‐ Whereas regulatory anticipation regulation” (p. 1282). captures dimensions of outcomes (pleasure Promotion focus and prevention focus vs. pains, gains vs. losses, positive vs. can be distinguished in terms of needs that negative, enough vs. not enough, more vs. individuals seek to satisfy, standards, and less), and regulatory reference captures behavioural outcomes (Avnet & Higgins, dimensions movement with regards to 2006). In terms of needs, promotion focus reference point (approach vs. avoidance), satisfies needs for growth and develop‐ regulatory focus is conceptualised in terms ment, and needs arise from aspirations and of strategic means for self‐regulation. In accomplishment. In contrast, prevention other words, regulatory focus is concerned focus is suitable for fulfilling needs of with how people approach pleasure and safety and security, and needs emanating how people avoid pain in different ways from responsibilities and obligations. With and the motivational consequences that regard to standards that individuals aim to arise from the strategies they use (Higgins, align themselves, promotion focus suits 1997). Self‐regulation in referent to desired ideal self, a self‐concept that contains moti‐

82 BULETIN PSIKOLOGI GOAL CONSTRUCTS IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR vational ideas related to ideals, aspirations, Regulatory focus theory has received a ambitions, and desires. Prevention focus wide acceptance from researchers of suits ought self, a self‐concept that contains consumer behaviour. Zhou and Pham motivational ideas related to obligations, (2004) demonstrate that financial products responsibilities, and duties. Regarding the are associated with promotion and pre‐ behavioural outcomes of self‐regulation, vention focus, and subsequently influence promotion focus is aimed at the presence of investing goals. Hamilton and Biehal (2005) positive outcomes by ensuring the presence show that promotion and prevention focus of hits and the absence of errors of omission, moderate the effects of self‐view (i.e., whereas prevention focus is oriented independent or inter‐dependent self‐view) toward the absence of negative outcomes on risk preferences. Chernev (2004b) shows by ensuring the presence of correct rejections that preference for the status quo is a and the absence of errors of commissions. function of goal orientation and can be Table 1 summarizes the basic tenets of independent of loss‐aversion. In particular, regulatory focus theory. preference for the status quo are more pronounced for prevention‐focused than

Table 1. Summary of basic tenets of regulatory focus theory

Consequence of PLEASURE PAIN act Hedonic principle Approach pleasure Avoid pain Regulatory Approach in anticipated pleasure Avoidance in anticipated pain anticipation Regulatory Approach regulation in reference to Avoidance regulation in reference to reference desired end states undesired end states Success: presence Failure: absence Success: absence Failure: presence of of desired end of desired end of undesired end undesired end state state (pleasure) state (pleasure) state (pain) (pain) Approach Avoid Approach Avoid Regulatory focus Promotion means Prevention means (Higgins, 1997, Sensitivity to presence or absence of Sensitivity to absence or presence of 1998) positive outcomes negative outcomes Strategically approach matches to Strategically avoid mismatches to desired end states (and mismatches desired end states (and matches to to undesired end states) undesired end states) Approach as strategic means Avoidance as strategic means Insure Hits and insure against Errors Insure Correct Rejections and insure of Omission against Errors of Commission Openness to change Preference for stability Needs dimension The needs that individuals seek to satisfy Growth and development, Safety and security, responsibilities, aspirations, accomplishment obligations Standards dimension The standards that individuals aim to align themselves Ideal self Ought self Behavioural The presence of positive outcomes The absence of negative outcomes by outcomes dm by ensuring the presence of hits and ensuring the presence of correct rejections the absence of errors of omission and the absence of errors of commissions

BULETIN PSIKOLOGI 83 HIDAYAT for promotion‐focused individuals. Louro, adequately examined. A generic goal Pieters, and Zeelenberg (2005) identified system may comprise of consumer goals at that self‐regulatory goals moderate the these more specific levels. Even if much of impact of pride on repurchase intentions. consumer goals at the more specific levels Bosmans and Baumgartner (2005) show the are known already, how they are organized moderating effect of regulatory focus and how the organisational properties conditions on the influence of emotions on influence decision making regarding product evaluations. Avnet and Higgins allocations of consumer resources are (2006) demonstrate that the fit between awaiting for further examinations. regulatory focus and the manner of Considering the strategic consequences of a people’s engagement affects value in generic decision, studies into this area are consumer choices and opinions. potentially very valuable. Finally, studies into determinants of 4. Conclusion and implications consumer goals have not conducted in a comprehensive fashion. Such a study is The objective of this paper is to review highly valued, because determinants of the literature of consumer goal. Accor‐ consumer goals are the foundations of goal‐ dingly, several constructs of consumer setting, of which it is merely assumed in the goals have been described based on the recent theories such as the Bagozzi and available literature. Research into goals in Dholaia’s (1999) framework of consumer consumer behaviour has been based on the goal setting in the context goal‐pursuit assumption of goal‐directed behaviour. The behaviour. There are several studies on formation and the self‐regulation of goal‐ determinants of consumer goals at specific directed consumer behaviour can be contexts. In addition, theories such as explained in terms of the goal setting and Maslow (1954) and Hofstede (2001) offer goal pursuit framework. Multiple goals comprehensive conceptual frameworks for may become active at the moment of understanding the determinants of consumer decision making. To facilitate an consumer goals. It is still an expectation effective functioning, goals are assumed to that a study will apply the comprehensive be organized in certain structural fashion. framework in the generic contexts of The structure embodies goal systems, and consumer behaviour. comprises of different contents of goals. The needs, wants, desires, motives and References values may become parts of a consumer goal system. In addition, diverse goals Antonides, G., & Van Raaij, W.F. (1998). might be characteristics in terms of Consumer behaviour: A European thematic goals and goal orientation. perspective. Chichester, UK: John Wiley Toward this end, two basic comments & Sons. can be put forward. The first concerns the Avnet, T., & Higgins, E.T. (2006). How impression that the literature has focused, regulatory fit affects values in at least as far as the present review, on consumer choices and opinions? consumer goals at the modal and specific Journal of Marketing Research, 43, 1‐10. levels of consumer decision making. In Bagozzi, R.P., Bergami, M., & Leone, L. other words, goal systems at the generic (2003). Hierarchical representation of level of consumer behaviour have not been

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