BULETIN PSIKOLOGI FAKULTAS PSIKOLOGI UNIVERSITAS GADJAH MADA VOLUME 17, NO. 2, 2009: 66 – 89 ISSN: 0854‐7108 GOAL CONSTRUCTS IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR Rahmat Hidayat1 Fakultas Psikologi Universitas Gadjah Mada E‐mail: r.hidayat @ugm.ac.id Why1 do consumers do what they do? performance proficiencies that one wishes A general agreement among researchers, as to attain (Latham & Locke, 2006). apparent for example in the volumes of Goals have been studied in many areas Ratneshwar, Mick, and Huffman (2000) and of consumer behaviour. For example, Ratneshwar and Mick (2005), is that research has been done on the importance consumer behaviour is goal‐directed. Goal of goals in the purchases of durables is an internal representation of desired (Katona, 1975), and in the marketing of states (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Bandura, nondurables, services, and ideas or persons 2001; Schiffman & Kanuk, 2004). Consumer (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 1999). Situational and goals are often expressed in the language of personal goals, and goal orientations have consumer as something that is needed, been studied in relation to category repre‐ wanted, desired, enthused by, or valued. sentations (e.g., Barsalou, 1991; Consumers often say that their goals are to Ratneshwar, Barsalou, Pechman, & Moore, satisfy what they need, want, or desire. In 2001), judgment of store reputation (Lee & addition, they may say that their goal is to Shavitt, 2006), product evaluation achieve certain level of possession or (Chernev, 2004), consumers’ experience certain kinds of identity or lifestyle. Thus (Novak, Hoffman, & Duhachek, 2003), consumers are said to having needs, wants, perception of salesperson influence desires, motives, and values. Other aspects of strategies (Mallalieu, 2006), and preference consumer goal includes the mental for the status quo (Chernev, 2004). Goals processes whereby goals are set (Latham & are also studied extensively from the Locke, 1991), hierarchical organization of perspectives of cognition, motivation, goals (e.g., Gutman, 1982; Huffman, personality, and social psychology (e.g., Ratneshwar, & Mick, 2001), general orien‐ Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Pervin, 1989; tations in motivational behavior (Higgins, Oettingen & Gollwitzer, 2003; Oettingen, 1997, 1998), intentions to realize the desired Pak, & Schnetter, 2001). states (Antonides & Van Raaij, 1998), levels The extensive studies have resulted in of self‐efficacy (Bandura, 1986), and numerous conceptualisations of consumer goals. In one hand this has brought advan‐ ces in the understandings of consumer behaviour. The down side is that there are 1 Tulisan ini merupakan bagian dari sebuah disertasi too many answers and perspectives yang diajukan penulis untuk mendapatkan gelar PhD dari Universitas Tilburg, Belanda. available in the recent literature, for even a Korespondensi terkait dengan tulisan ini harap simple question such as the kinds of goals dialamatkan pada Rahmat Hidayat, Fakultas that become active in consumer decision Psikologi, Universitas Gadjah Mada University, Jl. making. Therefore concerns regarding how Humaiora No. 1, Bulaksumur, Indonesia, 55281. consumer goals are related to each other, Email: r.hidayat @ugm.ac.id 66 BULETIN PSIKOLOGI GOAL CONSTRUCTS IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR and how they are organized in the mental the subsequent processes of goal‐pursuit systems of the consumer, have become a behaviour. Bagozzi and Dholakia (1999) focal point in recent consumer behaviour offer a goal‐setting and goal‐pursuit studies. With this development in sight, the framework that comprehensively addresses objective of this paper is to review the these concerns, Figure 1. An alternative literature of consumer goal, particularly in view is offered in Huffman, Ratneshwar, terms of goal setting, organization and and Mick (2000), which will be discussed in structural properties, and conceptual section 3.4. organisation of consumer goals. With regard to goal setting, goals might be latent in the cognitive‐affective 1. Goal setting in the context of goal system of the consumer, it might be “sold” pursuit behaviour to a consumer by persuasion of advertising or peers (Austin & Vancouver, 1996), or it Several questions arise regarding the might be constructed by the consumer in processes by which goals are formed and the decision‐making situation (Bettman, represented in the processing systems of Luce, & Payne, 1998). Therefore a goal consumer behaviour. An important part setting, or goal establishment in Austin and concerns the processes by which intentions Vancouver (1996), involves a decision‐ to pursue goals are formed. From a self‐ making process in which the task of the regulatory perspective, the question consumer is to select goal content and concerns the way goal‐driven actions are develop its dimensions. It concerns the initiated and evaluated, and how outcomes, question of “What are the goals I can consequences, or benefits of the act are pursue, and why do I want or not want to evaluated. Finally, questions can be pursue them?” In the generic level, a goal addressed at the ways in which goal‐ setting process may become active because pursuit processes are monitored, and how of an external stimulus that presents outcome evaluations provide feedbacks in opportunities or imposes imperatives. An Figure 1. Goal setting and goal pursuit (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 1999, p. 20) BULETIN PSIKOLOGI 67 HIDAYAT important case of external stimulus is rally people strive to bring their current concerned with income change, be it an actual state into line with related end state increase or decrease. Increase of income they value. Thus, the goal serves as a moti‐ presents opportunities, whereas decrease of vational factor in goal pursuit (Higgins, income presents imperatives and limi‐ 1989; Kruglanski et al., 2002). tations. Consequently people are more Goal pursuits are activated in one of willing to spend on durables when they three ways (Bagozzi & Dholakia, 1999). The perceive there are increases in the income, first way concerns automatic processes, and more cautious when they perceive where consumer behaviours are not decreases (Katona, 1975). Income changes preceded by a deliberate process of goal provide either opportunities or impose setting and goal pursuit. Automatic goal imperatives. pursuits may be implicit in habitual goal‐ Apart from external factors, Bagozzi directed consumer behaviour. Never‐ and Dholakia (1999) also mention internal theless, they argue that an automatic pro‐ conditions as a factor of goal setting. It cess may originate in a prior deliberative concerns with such situations as when the processing, or learning shaped by classical consumer constructs a goal schema or or operant conditioning. This notion is chooses from among self‐generated alter‐ supported in Oettingen et al. (2006), which natives. The hierarchy of needs (Maslow, assume goals are mental representations 1954) demonstrates the influence of internal that can be activated by features of the conditions in goal setting. The deprivation contexts in which those goals have been of biological needs makes goals such as the pursued regularly and consistently in the provision of food, rest or sex salient. The past. A different way to explain automatic same mechanism explains goal setting process is offered by Austin and Vancouver processes concerning the other levels of (1996), which conceives goals as inherent human needs, such as the deprivation of and simply lying dormant, waiting for safety needs when biological needs are activation. Thus, goal‐setting processes can fulfilled, and the deprivation of be conceived as either a change in difficulty belongingness and love when biological, level from zero, a change in importance physiological, and safety needs are level from zero, an increase in activation satisfied. More on the hierarchy of needs strength in a network, or a conversion of a will be discussed in section 2. need into a goal. Oetingen et al. (2006) The activation of a goal makes the illustrates this process as follows. If a discrepancy between the actual and the person is accustomed to use parties as a desired states becomes more transparent way to make impressions on people, the (e.g., Higgins, 1987; Pham & Higgins, 2005). goals of impressing others will become Self‐discrepancies between an actual and a automatically active upon entering a party. desired state affect on the emotional state of Once activated in the non‐conscious the individual. For example, a discrepancy manner, in other words the activation between actual state and what people strength has been increased from zero, perceive as their obligations or respon‐ Oetingen et al. explains that the mental sibilities is associated with the vulnerability representation of the goal would operate in to agitation‐related emotions, such as fear, the same way as when it is consciously worry, and tensions (Higgins, Bond, Klein, activated. & Strauman, 1986; Higgins, 1989). Natu‐ 68 BULETIN PSIKOLOGI GOAL CONSTRUCTS IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR The second way pertains to impulsive berative volitional process. “How can I acts. These involve some awakening of a achieve my goal?” It concerns with when, need or desire that quickly becomes a goal where, how, and how long should the to be achieved through minimal goal‐ consumer commit the act. The next stage of directed activities. Such goals arise automa‐ consumer goal pursuit behaviour is action tically because of biological, emotional, initiation and control, in which the act of moral, or ethical forces. These goals are pursuing