circumstances were they sent from Solidi in and Monetary Constantinople? Who carried them to the Far East and for what Culture along the Silk Road purpose? How did the con- temporary Chinese treat these Lin Ying exotics? Zhongshan University, From 1959 to 1977 Xia Nai , China published on these finds three articles in which he examined the chronology and epigraphy of these In the summer of 1953, a group from a seventh-century hoard, the coins and discussed their of archaeologists from the Shanxi others are all from tombs. The significance for studying Byzantine Institute of Historical Relics and tomb occupants who once owned relations with China in the early Archaeology arrived at Dizangwan, these coins were of various middle ages [Xia Nai 1959; 1961; a small village near Xianyang city, social classes, ranging from a 1977]. In 1988, the Japanese where they excavated the tomb of princess of the Rouran (Juan-Juan) scholar Otani Nakao examined for Dugu Luo (534-599), a high official qaghanate and leader of the and China the burial in the Sui period (581-618). The Central Asian immigrant com- custom of the obolus, that is, the yellow soil yielded a small gold coin munity to a small landlord or coin in the mouth of the deceased [Fig. 1], quite different in wealthy citizen. Their chronology [Otani Nakao 1990]. Whereas Xia

Fig. 2. Kaiyuan tongbao, Chinese Fig. 1. Solidus of Justin II unearthed at Dizhangwan. coin of the Tang period. appearance from ancient Chinese concentrates in the period of Nai had concluded that the burial coins [Fig. 2]. When it was sent to Northern Dynasties, the Sui and custom of the obolus, which Beijing the following year to display early Tang, i.e. from the late sixth prevailed from the Han to the Tang in a national exhibition of newly century to the first half of the periods in Turfan, , had discovered artifacts, the noted eighth century. These Byzantine originated in inner China, Otani archaeologist and historian Xia Nai gold coins have already raised a argued that it came from Central identified it as a solidus of series of questions deserving Asia. The discussion of these coins Byzantine emperor Justin II (565- further exploration. Under what continued in the 1990s when 578). Although some evidence of Byzantine coins and their imitations had been unearthed in Xinjiang in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries [Thierry and Morrisson 1994, pp. 110-111], the discovery in 1953 was the first such in central China. Since the discovery of that solidus of Justin II nearly fifty Byzantine gold coins and their imitations have been recovered or collected in China. They are distributed from Liaoning, across Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Gansu, Henan and provinces, to Xinjiang, roughly forming a crescent in north China Fig. 3. Map showing geographical distribution of Byzantine gold coins [Fig. 3]. Except for one gold coin across northern China. © Lin Ying.

© 2005 Lin Ying 16 François Thierry and Cecile intermediate links between had entered the heartland of China Morrisson published a detailed Constantinople and Chang’an that from the mid-sixth century to the catalogue of 27 specimens of solidi one can sort out the channels for early seventh century. It is possible and their imitations so far the eastward flow of solidi and thus that the qaghans of the Rouran and unearthed in China [Thierry and understand the role of solidi and Turks obtained these solidi as Morrisson 1994]. In contrast to the their imitations in China. diplomatic gifts from Roman thousands of Sasanian coins caesars and then sent them to According to the scholarship so excavated in China, the finds of Chinese emperors to show the far published, the Byzantine gold Byzantine gold coins are limited. hegemony of steppe people in coins and their imitations in China Given this fact, they concluded that Eurasia. fall roughly into three categories: the presence of the solidus in China might not indicate a direct and (1) official solidi struck in The imitations of solidi in the frequent connection between the Constantinople, bearing clear second group embrace a variety of Byzantine Empire and China, but images and legends and specimens. The initial discoveries instead an uncertain relationship. weighing 4.5 grams; of such were by Sven Hedin in Since their article of 1994, (2) imitations of solidi Khotan in 1896 [Montell 1938, pp. additional Byzantine coins and resembling the real ones in 94-95] and by Aurel Stein in the studies of them have been weight and image, whose Astana Cemetary in the Turfan published in Chinese, among them prototypes thus can be estab- region in 1915, where the two the monograph by the present lished; author [Lin Ying 2004]. (3) gold bracteates, In general, before the 1980s, struck on a very most scholars considered these thin flan finds as evidence for the frequent (unstamped connection between Byzantium metal disk) or and China, which could further be with only one associated with the seven visits of die, weighing Fulin (Rum) emissaries recorded in less than 2 Tang literature. After the 1980s, grams, and more and more researchers tended unlikely to have Fig. 5. Imitation of a solidus of Leo I, to connect these gold coins not had a monetary found in Huangzhou. with official embassies but rather function. with the prosperous international trade along Silk Road. In their The first group of coins, i.e. examples were used as oboli in the opinion, it was possibly Sogdians, official solidi, were all buried in mouths of the deceased [Stein rather than Byzantines, who graves from 575 CE (the seventh 1916, p. 205; Thierry and carried these coins to China in year of the Wuping period, Morrission 1994, p. 111; Wang exchange for silk. Clearly the finds Northern Qi Dynasty) to 621 CE 2002, pp. 72, 339; Wang 2004, p. in China are not isolated and can (the fourth year of the Wude 29, fig. 7]. The imitations range be connected with the events along period, ). Each grave from the barbarized rough contains more than imitations that follow the official one solidus, the solidi in weight and size to greatest number so counterfeits that look quite “real” far recovered being but can be easily recognized by the five specimens their reduced weight and diameter found in the tomb of [Fig. 5]. These finds have raised Tian Hong [Fig. 4; most interesting questions about see also Juliano and the craftsmanship and usage. In Lerner 2001, pp. order to answer these questions, 282-285]. The they need to be compared with owners of these coins similar finds along the entire Silk Fig. 4. Gold solidus of Justin I and Justinian II, 527 were either the Road, from Central Asia, the CE, found in tomb of Tian Hong (d. 575) at Guyuan. emperor’s trusted western steppe, and the eastern Photograph © Luo Feng, used with permission. officials or relatives Mediterranean. the Silk Road in early medieval of the royal family. Furthermore, times. The route by which they the fact that most of the finds are The bracteates of the third traveled to China began in the in tombs located in the group date from the mid-sixth Byzantine Empire. However, it is contemporary political center century to the mid-eighth century only by examining the various indicates that Byzantine gold coins (from late Northern Qi to the mid-

17 version of a (the Western Region, a term Byzantine ruler’s generally denoting countries west portrait also left of Ancient China) continued to its traces in arouse interest in China in Chinese sources of succeeding periods. For example, the Tang period. the Jiu Tangshu, the standard history of Tang written in the tenth If the official century, describes coin from solidi were carried Nepala (today, Nepal): into China as The state of Nepala is in the Fig. 6. Gold bracteate (imitation of a Byzantine solidus), diplomatic west of Tibet…They use copper found in tomb of Shi Suoyan (d. 656; buried 664), near presents and the coins. The frontal image of the Guyuan. Photograph © Luo Yeng, used with permission. bracteates coin is a human figure, while imitating solidi the image on the back side Tang). Hedin found two in Khotan were used for burial offerings by depicts a horse or cattle. The and Stein one at Astana [British Sogdians, how then did people in coin is not pierced [on the Museum n.d.], which is also the the Far East respond to these small central field like Chinese coin]. location of several other such finds. “gold pieces” over a thousand Down to the eleventh century, Indeed, most of the bracteates years ago? What idea did they the account of western coins can have been discovered in Turfan convey to the Chinese people at also be seen in the official history: tombs in Xinjiang and in the that time? graveyard of the Shi family in The coin of Fulin [possibly Guyuan, Ningxia province [Fig. 6; It is notable that most of the referring to the Byzantine see also Juliano and Lerner, 2001, gold coins are pierced once or Empire or the principality pp. 287-288]. They are similar to twice, indicating that they were established by the Seljuk Turks] the bracteates from Sogdiana in once used as pendants of a is made of gold and silver. The weight, size and type [Naymark, necklace or sewn onto clothing coin is not pierced [on the 2001, pp. 99-120; Lin Ying, [Fig.4 above]. The locations of the central field]. On the frontal 2003b]. Moreover, most of the small holes indicate that owners of side is carved the image of Mile tomb occupants in China proper these coins wanted to show the Buddha [possibly a misun- seem to have had a close viewer the obverse, i.e. the frontal derstanding for a picture of relationship with Sogdians. Some side depicting the Byzantine Jesus]. On the back side is coins are directly from the tombs emperor . carved the name of the king. The common people are strictly of Sogdian descendants, while The portrait of the ruler on prohibited by law to produce others were unearthed in the areas western coins had already been coins. where there were flourishing noticed by Chinese as early as the Sogdian communities in the Tang Former Han period. Shiji, the first Thus many Chinese notes period. Possibly the Sogdians in standard history written ca. 100 about the image of western coins their mercantile context treated BCE by Sima Qian, records: remind us of the story which was coins in a way different from the widely known along the Silk Road Chinese. As a result, Sogdian An-xi [the Parthian Empire] is concerning four heavenly sons, descendants in China, though thousands of li to the west of understood to be the emperors having lived for generations in an Da-rou-zhi [the Great Yuezhi— who ruled the world together. The agricultural society, still demanded Bactria]…Silver coins are used East was ruled by the emperor of western gold coins to express their in this country and own concept of a prosperous life. bear the portrait The seventh century witnessed the of the ruling king. zenith of Sogdian culture in its After the death of homeland and was a time of king, the coins are increasing knowledge and re-minted in order admiration of Byzantium in to depict the Sogdiana. This could have caused portrait of the new the Sogdians to imitate the solidus king [Fig. 7] for decorative purposes and funeral [author’s tr., offerings. It is interesting to note modified with ref. that Sogdians may have based to Watson 1993, Fig. 7. Silver drachm of Parthian ruler Artabanus I (ca. their imaginative depictions of a Vol. II, p. 235]. 127-124 BCE). Photograph © Bob Rives, used with Roman Caesar on the repre- permission. For an extensive selection of Parthian coins, sentation of the Byzantine emperor The images on visit .

18 China, the country of human Clearly, coins along Silk Road “Compass” search index, . elephants; the North was ruled by for political propaganda when they emperor of steppe empires, the bore the image of a ruler. They Cai Hongsheng 1998 country of horses; finally, the West thus became an expression of Cai Hongsheng. Tangdai jiuxinghu was ruled by Roman or Persian different cultures. From Con- yu tujue wenhua [Sogdians and emperors, whose dominions were stantinople to Chang’an, people of Turks in the Tang period]. Beijing, the country of treasures. The different ethnic groups once read 1998. earliest Chinese version is found these coins in their own manner, in Kang Tai’s Waiguo zhuan adding new content to them, and Coins of Central Asia n.d. (accounts of foreign countries, then transferred the coins and new “Coins of Central Asia” story was repeated in the travel solidi, the gold coins from notes of Buddhist monks, such as Byzantium, connect a cluster of Fitzwilliam Museum n.d. ’s Datang xiyu ji (an stories set in the Eurasian steppe account of the Western Region of and oasis caravan cities in Central “Between East and West: great Tang, written in 646 CE) and Asia. A thousand years later, it is Influence and Change in Coinage.” ’s Shijia fangzhi (a through these coins that we have Image of gold stater of Kushan Buddhist gazetteer, written in 658 an opportunity to relive the past ruler Huvishka riding an elephant CE). According to Tang Chinese prosperity along Silk Road and . on the palace mural of Kushania, Jiang Boqin 1996 a kingdom in Sogdiana. Later, the About the Author Arab geographers of the ninth and Jiang Boqin. Dunhuang Tulufan tenth centuries re-told the story in Lin Ying is Associate Professor in wenshu yu Sichouzhilu [The Silk a way that reflected the political the Department of History, Road and Documents from and cultural realities of their times. Zhongshan (Sun Yat-sen) Uni- Dunhuang and Turfan]. Beijing, versity, at Guangzhou, China. Her 1994. dissertation, “Fulin, the Ruler of It is interesting to note that the Treasure Country: Byzantium and Juliano and Lerner 2001 images of four heavenly sons can China in the Tang Period (618- Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. also be connected with the coins 907),” examines how Byzantine Lerner, eds. Monks and Merchants: recovered along the Silk Road. culture flowed into the Tang Empire Silk Road Treasures from During the first century CE when through nomadic people and . Gansu and the Kushans extended their control Central Asian merchants along the Ningxia, 4th-7th Century. New York: to the Ganges River and came Silk Road. She is interested in the Abrams; Asia Society, 2001. under the influence of Indian eastward spread of Roman and culture, Kushan gold coins Byzantine cultures through land Lin Ying 2003a represented the king sitting on an and maritime routes in the pre- Lin Ying. “Western Turks and elephant [see for example Islamic period. She may be Byzantine gold coins found in Fitzwilliam Museum n.d.]. Both in contacted at . 2003), online at . Central Asia in the seventh century, the image of a horse Alram 2001 Lin Ying 2003b appeared on Central Asian coins, Michael Alram. “Coins and the Silk Lin Ying, “Sogdians and the in the latter examples being Road.” In Juliano and Lerner 2001, Imitation of Byzantine Coins from featured on the obverse [Coins of pp. 271-291. Includes descriptive the Heartland of China,” Eran ud Central Asia n.d., “South Sogdiana” catalogue of coins. SS5-SS7]. Therefore, it seems Aneran: Studies presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of likely that Byzantine coins in early British Museum n.d. medieval China, with their image His 70th Birthday. Matteo of the Roman caesar, conveyed to “Gold imitation of a Byzantine coin Compareti, Paola Raffetta, Chinese people the image of the found in China” [=CM BM Stein, Gianroberto Scarcia, eds. Online at emperor of the treasure country IA.XII.c.1]. Locate by entering .

19 Lin Ying 2004 Byzantines trouvées en Chine.” Xia Nai 1959 Lin Ying. Jinqian zhi lü: Cong Revue numismatique, 36 (1994): Xia Nai. “Xianyang Dizhangwan Junshitandingbao dao Chang’an 109-145 and Pl. XVI. Note: Suimu chutu de Dongluoma jinbi [Journey of solidi: from Thierry and Morrisson mis-date the [The Byzantine Solidus Found in Constantinople to Chang’an]. Hedin finds at Khotan to 1905; cf. the Sui Tomb at Dizhangwan, Beijing, 2004. Montell 1938: 94. Xianyang].” Kaogu xuebao, 25 (1959): 67-73. Luo Feng 2004 Wang 2002 Luo Feng. “Zhongguo jingnei faxian Helen Kay Wang. “Money on the Xia Nai 1961 de Dongluoma jinbi [Byzantine Silk Road: the evidence from Xia Nai. “Xi’an tumencun chutu de gold coins found in China].” In Eastern Central Asia to c. AD 800.” Baizhanting jinbi” [The Byzantine Hanhan zhijian: sichouzhilu yu Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Solidus Found in Tumen Village, xibei lishi kaog [Between Hu and University College, University of Xi’an].” Kaogu, 56 (1961): 446- Han: Silk Road and the History and London, 2002. [also, published 447. Archaeology in Northwest China]. under the same title, London: Beijing, 2004, pp. 113-155. British Museum Press, 2004]. Xia Nai 1977 Wang 2004 Xia Nai. “Zanhuang Li Xizong mu Montell 1938 chutu de Baizhanting jinbi.” [The Gösta Montell. “Sven Hedin’s Helen Wang. “How Much for a Byzantine Gold Coins Found in the Archaeological Collections from Camel? A New Understanding of Tomb of Li Xizong].” Kaogu, 153 Khotan, II.” Bulletin of the Museum Money on the Silk Road before AD (1977): 403-406. of Far Eastern Antiquities 800.” In Susan Whitfield, ed. The (Ostasiatiska Samlingarna) Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Zhang Zhongshan 1999 Stockholm. No. 10 (1938): 83-113 Faith. Chicago: Serindia, 2004, pp. Zhang Zhongshan et al. eds. and 10 plates. 24-33. Zhongguo sichouzhilu huobi [Coins Watson 1993 and the Silk Road in China]. Naymark 2001 Lanzhou, 1999. Aleksandr Naymark. “Sogdiana, Its Burton Watson, tr. Records of the Christians and Byzantium: A Study Grand Historian, by Sima Qian. 2 of Artistic and Cultural Connections vols., rev. ed. New York: Columbia in Late Antiquity and Early Middle University Press, 1993. Ages.” Unpublished Ph.D. dis- sertation, Indiana University, 2001.

Otani Nakao 1990 Otani Nakao. “Guangyu sizhe kouzhong hanbi de xisu [The burial custom of placing coin in the mouth of the deceased].” Renwen zazhi, 73 (1991): 80-86; 81(1993): 81- 87 (translation from article published in Japanese in Toyama Daigaku jinbu gakubu kiyô 13.1).

Pelliot 1923 Paul Pelliot. “La théorie des quatre fils du Ciel.” Toung Pao, 22 (1923): 97-125.

Stein 1916 Aurel Stein. “A Third Journey of Exploration in Central Asia, 1913- 1916.” The Geographical Journal, 48/3 (1916): 193-229.

Thierry and Morrisson 1994 François Thierry and Cecile

Morrisson. “Sur les monnaies Photograph © Daniel C. 1996 Waugh The Cathedral of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, built under Justinian I.

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