THE MANAGEMENT OF FOOTBALL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES IN GAUTENG
by
MANDY-LEE SOLOMON
SHORT DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
MAGISTER COMMERCII
in
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
in the
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
Supervisor: PROF C. SINGH
JANUARY 2008
ABSTRACT
South Africa are the proud hosts of the FIFA 2010 Football World Cup™, and deservedly so. A significant effort has been placed in winning the bid and continues this continues to be the situation as construction and infrastructure are being put in place for event. Time is fast becoming limited, now with just less than three years to go, proper development is essential. Outside the rush and pressure to be ready for this event and the economic benefits that that are attached, the opportunity exists to divert some of that momentum into something that will last way beyond 2010 – sustainable youth development programmes and football clubs. This entails that grassroots development and youth football development programs are structured and sustainable in order for well-rounded, well-developed players to graduate from it for many years to come.
This study set out to ascertain the extent to which business management principles are applied in the management of football, as well as to explore the availability and applicability of policies and programmes provided by government and the national federation. The exact population size was extremely challenging to determine, largely due to insufficient and non-centralised record keeping by national and regional administrators. A sample size of 30 (n=30) that was geographically representative of Gauteng, was drawn. Researcher-administered interviews, with questionnaires, were used in the investigation.
Meaningful insight was provided in the fact that only 33% of the respondents were aware of the White Paper on Sport and Recreation South Africa and indicated that there was a degree of alignment to it. The study highlighted the fact that while this document, and other policies regulating and supporting sport and sport development nationally are available, the respondents indicated a general lack of knowledge of these tools made available by the South African Department for Sport and Recreation and its partners. The National Federation, SAFA, devote little effort to football development programmes and while strides are being made in this regard, the increments of success are very small and potential benefits do not materialise. One further aspect concluded from the study was the lack of a clear understanding of what sport development, and football in particular, encompasses, and thus what a development programme should include. Current football programmes were found to be lacking with regard to the holistic development of players, as well as coaches, administrators and officials, in areas that extend beyond the tactical and technical aspects of football.
Keywords: management; business management; football clubs; development programmes; development clubs; academies Declaration of original work
I, Mandy-lee Solomon, declare that this dissertation is my own unaided work. Any assistance that I have received has been duly acknowledged in the dissertation. It is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Commerce at the University of Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination at this or at any other University.
………………………………… …………………………. (NAME) (DATE) (Day, Month, Year)
Acknowledgements
I would like to express gratitude toward the following individuals and institutions:
My study leader, Prof Paul Singh, for the leadership and guidance he provided throughout my studies. He demonstrated great patience and motivation especially at the toughest of times.
Mr. Chris Fortuin, Mr Zunaid Mall and all the other football administrators who assisted me throughout my research.
The respondents from the various clubs for assisting in my data collection.
My friends and family for the motivation and patience provided throughout the duration of this study.
ANNEXURE A: EXAMPLE OF QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN RESEARCHER- ADMINISTERED INTERVIEW
Dear Sir/Madam
I am currently undertaking research regarding the ‘Management of Football Development Programmes in Gauteng’. The purpose of this research is to establish the important components of the management of football development programmes and the level of success attained by the development programme. South Africa hosting the 2010 FIFA World Cup™, exorbitant sums of investment in stadia, football development programmes on the increase, and significant amounts of resources into football countrywide has lead to widespread interest in football and in particular, Football Development Programmes. However, information regarding the structure of football development programmes in Gauteng, in particular, the management of the programmes, the level of success attained and a best practice model is limited.
It is envisaged that the results of this survey will lead to a better understanding of the current practice within football development programmes in Gauteng and a formulation of a good practice model.
It would be greatly appreciated if you, as a development officer of the Football Development Programme, would kindly complete the attached questionnaire. Your input is very valuable. The input gathered from your responses will be used for research purposes only. Your responses are confidential and voluntary. The questionnaire should take no longer than 20 minutes to complete, while the potential impact of your participation will last much longer, in the further development of football within Gauteng, and South Africa.
Kindly complete the questionnaire with me, the interviewer. Please remember that the quality of the research product and its contribution is largely dependent on the quality of the information received.
I thank you for taking the time to complete this questionnaire.
Yours faithfully
______Mandy-Lee Solomon Prof. C. Singh ______For office use only
Region number: Questionnaire number:
ANNEXURE B
1. For how long (in completed years) has your development programme been operational?
0 (less than 1 – 3 years 4 – 6 years 7 – 9 years ≥ 10 years 1 year)
2. Which of the following age groups does your programme cater for (mark all appropriate groups)?
□ 7 – 12 years □ 13 - 15 years □ 16 - 19 years □ 20 - 21 years □ Older than 21 years
3. Approximately how many players in each of the following age groups currently form part of your football development programme?
Age group No. of players 7 – 12 years 13 – 15 years 16 – 19 years 20 – 21 years Older than 21 years Reserve league players
4. To what extent is a clear path for development available for players in your development programme?
To no extent To some extent To a large extent Totally
5. For what percentage of the development players are clear development plans currently established?
0% 1 – 25% 26 – 50% 51 – 75% 76 – 99% 100%
6. Approximately what percentage of players entering your football development programme, also completes the development programme?
0% 1 – 25% 26 – 75% 76 - 99% 100%
7. Approximately what percentage of players entering your football development structure, have been promoted to the first team of any premier league football club, either South African or International in the last 2 football seasons?
0% 1 – 25% 26 – 75% 76 - 99% 100%
8. In which of the following leagues does your football development programme play in (Mark all applicable)?
Yes Premier Soccer league Mvela league Vodacom league (second division) Castle league (third division) Regional leagues Local leagues Other
If ‘other’ has been selected, please provide details: ______
9. How many of the players of your football development structure have been selected for any of the following teams in the last year?
Number of Total number of players national caps Under 20 (Ama gita) Under 23 (Ama glug glug Bafana Bafana (SA National Team )
10. Which of the following roles, and associated functions, are filled within your football development programme? If your answer is Yes, please indicate the number of persons in that role/
No Yes No. of persons in this role Coach(es) Goalkeeper coach(es) Biokineticist / Physiotherapist / Physical Trainer Team manager(s) Welfare worker and/or psychologist Education Officer Club owner(s) Administration Support function
11. For which of the following roles is there a training and development plan in place (mark all applicable)?
Role Yes Senior management Coaching staff Administrative staff Support staff (e.g. kit assistant)
12. Please indicate how many coaches of each of the following types in your development programme have the qualifications indicated in the table below.
SAFA SAFA SAFA SAFA UEFA B UEFA FUTURO Other 0 1 2 3 Pro A Head Coach(es)
Coach(es) Goalkeeper Coach(es) Other
If ‘other’ has been selected, please provide details: ______
13. a) Does your development programme or football club have a Workplace Skills Plan in place?
YES NO DO NOT KNOW
b) If yes, has the plan been implemented?
YES NO DO NOT KNOW
c) If yes, what was the last date on which the Workplace Skills Plan was reviewed?
18 – 24 months < 6 months ago 6 – 12 months ago DO NOT KNOW ago
14. To which of the following facilities does your football development programme have access?
Yes Training fields Playing grounds Change rooms Cafeteria / Tuckshop Parking Residences for players Residences for coaches and/or admin staff Recreation (e.g. pool table, etc)
15. Is there a documented structure for the football development programme?
YES NO DO NOT KNOW
If yes,
• Has it been adapted from an existing model (e.g. UEFA, FIFA, AJAX)?
YES NO DO NOT KNOW
If yes, briefly discuss the model: ______
16. Which of the following management levels exist within the football development programme (mark all appropriate)?
Top management Middle management First-line management
17. a) How often do the roles of individuals change within your development programme, e.g. the coach becomes the team manager?
Never Rarely Sometimes Often / Very often
b) What are the criteria for role changes and/or promotions? ______
18. a) Has your football development programme developed a football development strategy?
YES NO DO NOT KNOW
b) If yes, is the strategy aligned to the South Africa White Paper on Sport and Recreation?
YES NO DO NOT KNOW
c) Has the football development strategy been adopted / implemented?
YES NO DO NOT KNOW
d) If yes, at what stage of implementation is the football development strategy?
Initial Sustainability Exploration Full operation implementation (post 2 – 4 years)
19. Does the development programme have a formal budgeting process in place?
YES NO DO NOT KNOW
If yes, please provide some details: ______
20. With which one, if any, of the following official associations or organizations has your development programme formed partnerships (mark all applicable)?
Type of organization Where applicable Tertiary Education institution Primary or Secondary educational institution International Football Federation National football federation (SAFA) Premier Soccer league (PSL) club Other soccer clubs NPO’s and Charities Other (specify):
21. Is your football development structure currently involved in any initiatives to improve the development of women football in South Africa?
YES NO DO NOT KNOW
If yes, please provide some details: ______
22. In which of the following social mobilisation or raising awareness of global issues initiatives is your football development programme involved in?
Yes HIV / AIDS Drug abuse Alcohol abuse Promoting women in football Women and child abuse Continuous involvement with the media Community involvement – arena for social interaction Poverty alleviation initiatives
If yes, please provide some details: ______23. Which of the following lifeskills programmes are in place?
YES Health and fitness Social interaction Education – study skills Discipline Care and welfare Self management Time management Financial management Other (specify):
Thank you for your participation in this survey.
If you are aware of any other football development programmes in you region, kindly provide their contact details: ______
Table of Contents Chapter ONE ...... 5 Introduction and Background ...... 5 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ...... 5 1.2 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS ...... 14 1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY ...... 15 1.4 LIMITATIONS ...... 17 1.5 SUMMARY ...... 17 Chapter TWO ...... 19 Literature Review ...... 19 2.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 19 2.2 SPORT FOR DEVELOPMENT...... 20 2.3 SPORT DEVELOPMENT ...... 22 2.4 PLAYER DEVELOPMENT ...... 26 2.4.1 Development of elite performance ...... 27 2.4.2 Gilrls’ / women’s football ...... 28 2.5 CLUB DEVELOPMENT ...... 30 2.6 FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT ...... 36 2.7 FACILITY DEVELOPMENT ...... 38 2.8 EDUCATION AND TRAINING ...... 39 2.9 MASS PARTICIPATION DEVELOPMENT ...... 44 2.9.1 Players ...... 44 2.9.2 Volunteers ...... 45 2.10 SOCIETY AND ISSUES OF GLOBAL SIGNIFICANCE ...... 45 2.11 SUMMARY ...... 46 Chapter THREE ...... 48 Research Methodology ...... 48 3.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 48 3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 49 3.3 CHOICE OF METHODOLOGY AND RATIONALE ...... 49 3.3.1 Questionnaire...... 50 3.3.2 Interview ...... 50 3.3.3 Sampling ...... 51 3.4 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS ...... 53 3.4.1 Interview ...... 53 3.4.2 Questionnaire...... 54 3.5 DATA COLLECTION ...... 54 3.6 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ...... 55 3.6.1 Reliability ...... 55 3.6.2 Validity ...... 55 3.6.3 Sensitivity ...... 56 3.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ...... 56 3.8 SUMMARY ...... 57 Chapter FOUR ...... 59 Results and discussion ...... 59 4.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 59 4.2 ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS ...... 60 4.3 POLICIES AS FORMULATED BY THE SRSA ON SPORT AND DEVELOPMENT ...... 63 4.4 PLAYER DEVELOPMENT AND CAREER PATHING ...... 65 4.5 COACH AND STAFF DEVELOPMENT ...... 68 4.6 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY ...... 69 1
4.7 SUMMARY ...... 71 Chapter FIVE ...... 73 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 73 5.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 73 5.2 CONCLUSION...... 73 5.2.1 The role of national federations and lead agencies in facilitating sustainable implementation of sport development ...... 74 5.2.2 Football development ...... 74 5.2.3 The management of general sport programmes in contrast to the management of sport development programmes...... 75 5.2.4 Scope and representation of national frameworks in football development programmes ...... 75 5.2.5 Measures of success ...... 76 5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 76 5.3.1 Training ...... 76 5.3.2 Developing the game and the stakeholders ...... 77 5.3.3 Management and corporate governance ...... 77 5.3.4 National and International support is available...... 78 5.3.5 A broader scope of success ...... 78 5.4 SUMMARY ...... 79 List of References ...... 81 Annexures ...... 88
2
Table of Figures Figure 1: The Sport Development Continuum ...... 9 Figure 2: Protea Mmuso Components and levels ...... 12 Figure 3: Levels of business operations indicating management levels ...... 36 Figure 4: Practical Leadership Development Model ...... 43
3
List of Tables Table 1: Education and training framework for sport and recreation ...... 41 Table 2: Workplace skills plan ...... 60 Table 3: Access to Facilities ...... 61 Table 4: Levels of management ...... 62 Table 5: Formal budgeting process ...... 62 Table 6: Football development strategy ...... 63 Table 7: Strategy aligned to White Paper on Sport ...... 63 Table 8: Partnerships with organisations ...... 64 Table 9: Pathway for development ...... 65 Table 10: Players that have a development plan ...... 66 Table 11: Age-groups catered for per football club ...... 67
4
Chapter ONE
Introduction and Background
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY On May 5, 2004 South Africa won the right to host the 2010 FIFA Football World Cup™. The implications of winning this bid are immense and so are the responsibilities, privileges and opportunities for all South Africans. The 2010 FIFA World Cup™ offers an unprecedented opportunity to explore the power of sport and build sustainable development programmes and sport organisations. The FIFA World Cup is usually referred to as the Soccer World Cup or the Football World Cup. It is an international football competition participated in by the national football teams of the member countries of the Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA). FIFA is football’s global governing body, and it hosts this tournament every four years.
Well-structured and stable sport organisations are required to drive sport programmes in the direction that increases the likelihood of producing high calibre players. This will be the end product and will capitalise on hosting this event in 2010. This will be one way in which South Africa will fully realise the potential benefits of hosting this event. The 2010 World Cup holds possibilities for substantial financial investment for South Africa, from domestic investors and abroad. In an economic impact assessment conducted by Grant Thornton Kessel Feinstein (Thornton, 2003), the direct expenditure of the 2010 FIFA World Cup™ in South Africa is R12,7 billion. Direct expenditure refers to those expenditures that would not happen in the absence of the event. Based on assumptions provided by FIFA and The South African 2010 Football World Cup Bid Company, it has been calculated that upgrades to stadia are estimated to be to the value of R1.8 billion and infrastructure upgrades to the value of R500 million. This holds enormous potential for sport, with South African football having the most to gain. Being the biggest organisational event that South Africa has ever undertaken (Durand, 2006:11), the various South African government departments have been involved in the planning and execution from an early stage. Government intends using the 2010 FIFA World Cup™ to boost economic growth 5 and increase employment. It has been estimated that the overall economic benefit (Thornton, 2003) will be R21,3 billion to the GDP of South Africa; with the creation of 159 000 annual jobs contributing R7.2 billion to government in taxes. It is thus essential that even in the planning stages, funds attracted should be responsibly utilised in special ventures and sports programmes that are sustainable beyond 2010, for all stakeholders of sport, i.e. the players, administrators and associations.
South African football has advanced, through the decades, to become one of the key national sporting codes. According to a survey conducted in November 2006, there are approximately 1.8 million registered players and large audiences of television viewers and spectators are attracted, on a weekly basis, throughout the South African football season (Markinor, 2007). More than a third of South African adults with telephones (36%) prefer watching football compared to other sport. South African football has progressed a long way from the days in which it was home to the ‘whites-only’ football league, Football Association of South Africa (FASA), the SA Indian Football Association (SAIFA), the SA Bantu Football Association (SABFA) and the SA Coloured Football Association (SACFA). Because of this arrangement South Africa was suspended twice and then expelled from FIFA. On December 8, 1991, the four historically divided and entirely separate bodies in South African football were united and the South African Football Association was founded, which was then re- admitted as a FIFA member in 1992. According to the FIFA rankings, the South African men’s national football team is currently ranked 83rd in the world and 17th in Africa; this is the lowest that South Africa has been ranked in the last 13 years. In 1996, South Africa was 16th on the FIFA rankings. The women’s national team is ranked 73rd. The teams of the member nations of FIFA are ranked based on their game results with rankings based on performance in the last four-year period. The rankings are used by FIFA to rank the progression and current ability of the national football team.
The South African Football Association (SAFA) recently (August 2007) publicised its structure with a new Communications and Media Directorate (SAFA, 2007). SAFA has six associate members: School Sports Association of South Africa, South African Student Sports Union (SASSU), South African Football Coaches Association (SAFCA), South African Football Medical Association (SAFMA) and the Premier Soccer League (PSL). There are regional divisions that have been created in line
6 with provincial boundaries. The major leagues within SAFA are the First Division (that used to be the Mvela league), the Second Division that is also known as the Vodacom league (Vodacom is the major sponsor) and the Third Division that is also known as the Castle league. There is a women’s football committee but no women’s league exists nationally. There are national initiatives currently undertaken by ex- and current women football players, which will be discussed in Chapter 2. There are 4 senior national teams: Senior men (Bafana Bafana), Under 23 (Olympic team), Under 20 (Amajita) and Senior women (Banyana Banyana).
The World Football Governing Body, Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) emphasises the need for football associations to have proper communication and good media relations and provides practical examples of marketing and event organisation (FIFA, 2007). It provides detailed explanations on how best to structure associations in terms of methods of planning and financial control. This supports football development efforts from within South Africa on a global scale. With the support from the world football governing body and the national sports governing body to pursue development goals, the tools are at the disposal of national football structures to be used, to ensure an increased chance at successful and sustainable programmes.
Society depends on organisations to meet the varied needs of its members. These organisations include private businesses, government organisations and non-profit organisations. Common to all of these is the objective of reaching predetermined goals as efficiently as possible. For private businesses, efficiency means profits through maximum output and minimal input. For government and sport organisations, efficiency is the measurement of performance and minimal wastage of resources. The White Paper on Sport and Recreation (Government, 2002) states that the foundation of a culture of sport and recreation in South Africa can only be laid with a commitment from government and non-governmental organisations such as sport federations and private business (the private sector), with the overall responsibility tasked to Sport and Recreation South Africa (SRSA). The policy document highlights the lack of a strategic vision and policy for the development of sport and recreation.
Priority One of the White Paper states the ‘contractual obligations of lead agencies of South African sport’, amongst which the role of National Federations is discussed
7
(Government, 2002). The roles of the National Federations, such as the South African Football Association (SAFA) include: the implementation of government policy on sport and recreation at all levels; their core business ought to be principal delivery agents for their respective sport discipline, with guidelines on the execution provided and the proactive promotion of their respective sport to ensure participation representative of the South African population, amongst other roles. National Federations thus have a vital role to play in terms of the promotion and representation of their sport as well as the responsibility of ensuring that the objectives of the SRSA and National government are reached and should thus not be left up to local clubs, regardless of certain club-programme successes.
The fundamental objectives of the Ministry and SRSA in Priority Four of the White Paper on Sport and Recreation focus on the primary areas of (i) recreation and (ii) development sport. The SRSA ensures the development of programmes in talent identification, skills acquisition and the creation of an environment for a high- performance sport niche. Government has set objectives to motivate the public – youth and adults – to become physically active. It is up to the National Federations and other lead agencies to deliver these objectives, through programmes, to the public. The White Paper goes as far as providing a sport development plan that revolves around four key areas: physical education, youth and junior sport, tertiary sport and National Federations. Vast opportunities for development exist within tertiary sport. However, integration into National Federations is needed (Government, 2002). The sport development plan provides an opportunity to National Federation members to acquire skills and identify talent at ‘opportune’ times in an individual’s life. The plan accords special emphasis on certain interest groups, of which the participation and role of women in sport is paramount. National Federations are very often faced with a lack of the essential resources required for the development and implementation of a sport development plan. This study addresses the aspects of managing football development programmes where National Federations, such as SAFA, can leverage off the framework as laid down in the White Paper on Sport and Recreation possibly through a formal strategic partnership that may be beneficial to the development of football within South Africa.
Priority Three of the White Paper on Sport and Recreation, South Africa (Government, 2002), focuses on the human resources required for the effective
8 management of sport and recreation. The development of human resources is prioritised and spans a continuum, i.e. for an official, administrator, coach, facility manager, until a level of excellence is attained. The SRSA is developing initiatives that focus on increased inclusion, accreditation and training of volunteers to support this priority.
EXCELLENCE
PERFORMANCE
PARTICIPATION
FOUNDATION
Figure 1: The Sport Development Continuum (Source: Sport and Recreation South Africa, 2002. White Paper for Sport and Recreation)
At a foundation level, people participate in activities mainly for interaction, for socialising with other participants and the encouragement and learning experience. Emphasis is on developing the basic competencies and capabilities of the individual. Involvement is mostly casual and informal and can be regarded as recreational (Green, 2005). The base being the broadest part of the continuum, constitutes the masses that participate at this level as well as the wealth of talent that can be identified competing here. The upward arrow from the foundation level is significant in that it is a point of entry for participants into the sport development system. School level football, and other sport, is mostly at this level. A study conducted by Green (2005) explores the pyramid model of sport development and provides critique on the
9 underlying assumptions of this model. This study also provides tasks deemed necessary for an effective pyramid model or sport development continuum (refer to Chapter 2 for more detail).
Individuals who acquire the necessary competencies and capabilities at the foundation level have the option of progressing to the higher level of the continuum. At the participation level, activities are more formalised and leaders and instructors are identified to facilitate participation. Community club football and other sporting codes function on a participation level. At this level, individuals may develop a thorough enjoyment of the activity possibly due to the perceived benefits derived: physical ability, social interaction, enjoyment or so on. At this point, it may be a negative experience where the intensity of training required or level of competitiveness is not enjoyed. In this case, the individual would opt out of progressing up the pyramid and remain in the participation level or even drop back into foundation level, where the perceived benefits are satisfying. Alternatively, interest and commitment grow as an individual may demonstrate a higher degree of talent, have access to resources such as finances, time, family support and a structure for development and is then able to progress along the continuum to a performance level.
The performance level of the sport development continuum is characterised by high performance. Practice sessions become mandatory and coaches command discipline on and off the field. Fitness is crucial in an environment that depends on well-prepared players or athletes and their team members. FIFA describes the development of football over the last few years as ‘faster, stronger, higher, more technical’ (FIFA, 2003:1). For this reason, leagues such as the Professional Soccer League (PSL) ought to demand a high level of physical, mental and emotional demands from players to compete at this level for a sustained period and possibly progress to elite performance at an international level.
It is significant that there are downward arrows in the sport development continuum. This indicates the move from elite performance to participation to foundation levels. While it is natural that elite or high levels of participation cannot be maintained indefinitely and sometimes does end prematurely, it is beneficial to sport that these people be are retained within the development continuum. People ‘sliding’ down the
10 continuum hold a wealth of higher-level experience, knowledge, skills and networks that are of value to the development continuum. Direct participation in the game may not always be possible, but assistance rendered in other ways such as public relations, fund-raisers, officiating, coaching clinics and administration prove invaluable and personally rewarding to the individual.
Development extends to sport administrators, officials and coaches. While their primary roles may be to administrate, officiate or coach, the importance of their personal development as well as continued synchronisation with global developments of their sporting code should be clearly understood. According to Noakes (2006:2), South African local ‘coaches remain ignorant of the modern realities of what it takes to be one of the best coaches’. He comments that the same applies to administrators in that they are not exposed to the workings of international organisations, and this puts into question whether there can be a sound foundation for future success. It may not be direct exposure to the workings of international organisations, but rather the principles that the successful organisations adhere to such as continuous development in order to provide the organisation with a particular basket of talent and skills.
The sport development continuum extends to the development of human resources in sport, i.e. the foundation level of the sport development continuum includes administrators, coaches, managers, officials and participants - with graduation towards excellence for all. Again, a framework is provided for increased effective management practices in sport development.
In an address at a National Symposium (Stretch, 1993), Sam Ramsamy (President of the National Olympic Committee of South Africa at the time), spoke about sport development. He stated that development is always in the shape of a pyramid, the base is where the input and feedback enter the system, and the pinnacle is the elite, high performance athletes who should be seen at world championships.
In line with the framework of the sport development continuum is “Protea Mmuso” (Hendricks, Hollander , Scully and White, 1996). It was a programme of the National Sports Council of South Africa (NSC). The programme called Protea Mmuso no longer exists, however, there is still a training programme for the development of
11 administrators, coaches and technical officials. Similar to the ‘graduation up a pyramid’ of the sport development continuum, sport leaders are exposed to training relevant to their level of entry (existing skills and knowledge) and progress from fundamental skills training to more specialised training programmes.
Technical Administrators Coaches Officials 4 Excellence
3 Competition
2 Participation
1 Participation
SL Foundation
Protea Mmuso Participation Educational Levels Pathway
Figure 2: Protea Mmuso Components and levels (Source: Sports Leader Manual, 1996)
On the principle of more specialised training programmes, the higher one moves up the pyramid, separate training programmes are run to provide expert skills and knowledge. This gives National Federations the opportunity to include sport specific competencies to programmes run successfully by others, such as countries, federations or clubs.
The SRSA provides a skills programme for Sports Leaders that is accredited by the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA). The programme of short courses helps to develop skills pertaining to sport management and leadership. It is aimed at enhancing the skills of individuals involved in sport in the different categories, i.e. administrators, coaches, managers and technical officials (Frank, 2006). While this is primarily focused on the provision of grassroots skills, it empowers individuals and
12 can be considered a worth while contribution to the development of sport in South Africa. Furthermore, SRSA has initiated a schools sports coaches’ programme, aimed at significantly increasing the number of qualified sport coaches, especially in the previously disadvantaged areas of the country. In view of the abovementioned accredited programmes which are available, the South African government through SRSA is facilitating the process of sport development. The number of individuals who have enlisted on these courses and further studies are required to establish the success of these initiatives. Volunteers traditionally managed sport, and often these volunteers were not trained to manage sport professionally. According to Gouws (1997:218), knowledge of the management process and the application of specific sport management principles are vital. The fundamental management principles must be supplemented with information management, decision-making, communication and negotiation: The programmes as set out by SRSA, help develop skills pertaining to sport management and leadership.
Youth sports are intended as an educational medium. It is made available for the development of physical and psychological characteristics considered necessary in children. Raalte and Brewer (1997:301) view this sport environment as a ‘microcosm’ of society in which children learn and are faced with situations that they need to be able to cope with later in life. The distinction between developmental and professional is made clear in that professional models of sport are explicitly for commercial gain. The goals of professional sport are to entertain, and make money.
The integral link between sport and human development is that sport participation prepares children for later adult roles. The US Department of Health and Human Services released a document on the benefits and trends of sport. The document highlights the promotion of social wellbeing through sport. Furthermore, the demands of a sport activity, especially one with the characteristics of football, foster teamwork, self-discipline and sportsmanship. In a study conducted for the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), Pate (1996) found that high levels of physical activity could be associated with healthier eating habits and the decreased use of tobacco, marijuana and cocaine. Sport teaches young people how to live by rules, work hard to achieve goals and interact with others. Building on this, the South African White Paper on Sport and Recreation (Government, 2002) documents studies that show that sport presents a child with life skills that are unsurpassed by any other activity as
13 well as evidence that demonstrates improved scholastic performance as a result of increased physical activity. Burnett (1997) cites aspects such as nurturing a positive self-concept, open interaction and relationships with teachers, acceptance of the peer group of the same and opposite sex, the experience of success and learning of socially acceptable values as a result of participation in physical activity. There is thus evidence that affirms the value of sport to an individual, as well as society and a country, South Africa as being the case in point. With the recognition of sport and physical activity as positive contributor to society, the importance of effective management and sustainability of sport programmes is better understood.
1.2 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS Sport and sports are very often used interchangeably. According to Parkhouse (2001:4) it appears that sports are singular in nature and refer to the various ‘codes’ or disciplines such as netball, hockey, cricket or badminton. Sport is more all- inclusive; it is the collective noun for the broad sport industry, consisting of people, Sport activities, organisations, facilities, sporting goods, sport tourism, sport marketing and sponsorships. The United Nations (2006) defines ‘sport’ broadly to incorporate all forms of physical activity that contribute to physical fitness, mental well being and social integration such as play, recreation, organised, casual or competitive sport and indigenous games and sports.
Sport for development and Sport Development: Sport for development (also Development through Sport or Sport-based development) utilises sport, an element of civil society, as an active and committed force in the global partnership for development. Sport is used as a catalyst for economic development, i.e. to reach the Millennium Development Goals of the UN (United Nations, 2006) and includes the promotion of health, communication, the empowerment of women and enhancing social integration and community development. Sport is used as an economic vehicle in view of its capacity to create activity, jobs and wealth. The costs associated with the benefits and challenges of sport development programmes have escalated, with funding agencies and governments increasingly investing millions of dollars in sport development programmes in developing countries across the globe (United Nations, 2006). This has particularly escalated since the United Nations proclaimed 2007 as the International Year for Sport and Physical Education. The African Union (AU) has
14 declared 2007 as the AU International Year of Football (IYoAF). The IYoAF has prioritised 4 areas for 2007: (1) development of African football, (2) communication, (3) capacity building and Human Resource Development and (4) gender mainstreaming. Strategic objectives have been identified for each of the 4 priority areas. The development of African football aims to promote football in schools, to have football stars as mentors and champions of football youth, and to leverage existing initiatives such as the 2010 FIFA Football world Cup™. Communication and marketing of football is envisaged to establish a link with existing initiatives for revival of African pride to promote football, fighting malaria, polio and drug-abuse through sport, and advertise the IYoAF and the 2010 FIFA World Cup™ using all forms of media. Capacity building will kick-off with a feasibility study for a Sport Academy supported by sport champions and a volunteer programme focusing on youth to further leverage the 2010 FIFA World Cup™. Gender mainstreaming will explore best practices that promote the participation of women in sport amongst other activities.
Sport development (Smith, 2005:55) is the process of setting up opportunities, processes, systems and structures to enable and encourage sport participation. It is aimed at the participation of all groups in all areas within a region or country, in sport for recreational purposes or to improve performance to whatever level they desire. According to Green (2005), sport development has the objective of increasing the number of active participants in a sport and enhancing the quality of performances in sport. Sport development thus accommodates development of sport for the realisation of elite performance and participation of the masses where value can be attained through participation itself.
1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY The main aim of the study is to analyse the management of football development programmes in Gauteng. The South African government, through the SRSA and the South African Sports Commission (SASC) have formulated policies on sport and development, within the South African context. Given the applicability of these frameworks to South African football, this study aims to analyse the implementation and effectiveness of the SRSA frameworks in football development programmes.
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It is hypothesized that there could be marked gaps in the management of the development programmes, as compared to the models of general business management available. Upon rejection or acceptance of these as gaps in management as a hypothesis, the study will be conducted to ascertain the effectiveness of management of football development programmes in the South African context. Numerous football clubs have a ‘development programme’ in place. This study is thus a medium to evaluate the management (i.e. the utilisation of resources invested) and the degree of development (as defined herein). Through the evaluation of the management of current club / programme structures and functions, areas of strengths and weaknesses in management can be identified. This research sets out to indicate that the White Paper on Sport and Recreation, South Africa, can be used to implement sustainable, integrated management programmes, at least in part, to all aspects of football development countrywide.
A football development programme progresses through stages in much the same way as other organisations. Once the concept of the development plan has been drafted and approved by sponsors and founders, a football development plan becomes necessary. The football development plan must have been drafted, adopted and implemented; and this requires planning. The White Paper on Sport and Recreation provides a development plan focusing on the four areas of physical education, youth and junior sport, tertiary sport and national sport, all areas to be included in the development of the game of football. Development of players, coaching and support staff is necessary for quality sport management services/experiences, sustainability and objective-driven sport organisations. FIFA (FIFA, 2003:11) emphasises that football development programmes do not compromise on allowing the personality of players (e.g. general intelligence and social interaction) to develop to the full in the pursuit of moulding professional players. Quality of coaching and instruction is emphasised aligned to the development of coaches and improving of staff structures, conditions of coaching and training programmes. Developing administration and management components thus cannot be neglected for both it’s support functions and strategic objectives.
The sub-problems of the study include: Investigation into the role of National Federations and other lead agencies of South African sport to facilitate sustainable implementation of sport development, with sport
16 for development as a contextual subject to understanding the global significance of sport. Ascertaining what is sports development and what is football development. Determining what the characteristics of managing development sport programmes are and whether there is a distinction between this and the management of general sport programmes. Determining the scope of football development programmes in Gauteng, and the extent to which this is representative of national frameworks for football development programmes. The study aims to include football development programmes affiliated, and not affiliated to the South African professional football leagues (PSL). Considering regarding when development programmes can be considered a success – what are the measures of success and how are they different to the success measures of any other sport programme.
1.4 LIMITATIONS The availability of data on programmes currently operational as well as programmes that have not been successful. Information will be required regarding the management of the failed programme, in an attempt to evaluate the programme within the national frameworks provided. Apprehension to disclose accurate information may limit the research project. There are cultural / societal barriers that may influence the understanding of the research project – its aims and objectives – and thus the information made available. Not all programmes are comparatively structured. Not all teams make provision for more than only the improvement of football skills and abilities, or have been operational for at least one season.
1.5 SUMMARY According to literature, the 2010 FIFA World Cup™ is a mega event and demands the contribution of various professionals, experts, communities and organisations. Considering the implications this event holds in terms of interest generated and raising the profile of South Africa, together with the tourism and direct foreign
17 investment, a strong governing body is required to drive the planning and integrate the key role players and processes.
The outcome of this research project can contribute towards a structured path for youth development programmes to follow through the continuum from football at a foundational level to a level of excellence.
The research project aims to empower the coaches, referees and administrators, with some knowledge of how the management of this lucrative market could be managed more effectively. As major stakeholders, they may be directed to first empower themselves adequately and then redesign their programmes according to the proposed national best practice (i.e as guidelines presented in SRSA documents such as the White Paper on Sport and Recreation).
The structure of sport in South Africa consists of 2 macro-bodies: South African Sport Confederation and Olympic Committee (SASCOC) and Sport and Recreation South Africa (SRSA). SASCOC is responsible for elite sport and the management of Team South Africa. SRSA is the national department of sport and recreation and is responsible for mass participation in sport. Education and training, school sport and the 2010 FIFA Football World Cup project is managed by this body. The structure of the South African sports bodies, SRSA and SASCOC (also the umbrella body for federations) – and the levels of sports for which each are responsible re-iterates the necessity for an integrated approach to football development nationally. For effective football development to take place, and to be sustained, elite and mass participation of football must be managed and coordinated as a feeder and recipient (respectively) of one another.
The combined benefits would impact positively on the broader South African population in terms of a more effective, developmental national sport federation, skills development and job creation and ripple effects into the South African economy.
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Chapter TWO
Literature Review
2.1 INTRODUCTION South Africans experienced one of the country's proudest sporting moments when Bafana Bafana won the Africa Cup of Nations on its home ground in 1996, especially after having failed to qualify for the previous competition in 1994. Football is intensely followed, and if the increasing number of South African players signed by European clubs is anything to go by, then the quality of the local game should be expected to be improving continuously. Sport scheduler (Anon, 2007b) provides a list of players based at European clubs. With a list of 35 players provided, the largest number of these players (9) is based in England. Players with the most Bafana Bafana caps are Siyabonga Nomvete in Denmark (with 69 caps), Benni McCarthy in England at the time (with 65 caps), Sibusiso Zuma in Germany (with 57 caps), and Delron Buckley in Switzerland (with 65 caps). It is beyond the scope of this study to ascertain which development structures all these players have progressed through, at what stage of their careers or ages they acquired contracts abroad, and provide comment in a meaningful way.
Fundamental to any sport development plan, is the aim of increasing opportunities in sport at all levels, where more people are more active more often. Sport and physical education play an important role in human development. By their very nature, sport and physical education are about participation, inclusion and a sense of belonging. According to Coakley (2007), sport brings individuals and communities together, highlighting commonalties and bridging cultural differences. Sport development can be seen as the business of building sporting communities, of producing elite performers and securing mass participation, at local, national and international levels, and of players, coaches, administrators and officials. According to the English Football Association (Atkinson, 2001b), it is important that all stakeholders are consulted to devise and develop a football development strategy. Through an extensive consultative process, a sound infrastructure can ensure effective implementation.
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Trends in football development are toward the involvement of all stakeholders as a strategic measure (Atkinson, 2001b) in the entire football development programme. With a more inclusive programme, it becomes necessary for services and interventions that are provided, to be critically examined and justified. Account needs to be provided in a critical way for costs incurred and benefits gained. To validate programmes, it needs to demonstrate its contribution to society and the added value in return for the resources invested in its provision. Sport England Chairman, Mr Trevor Brooking (Atkinson, 2001b), proposes the measuring of impact to services within each community where public programmes are rolled out to demonstrate the perceived value, efficiency and cost effectiveness. He advocates this method as adding more value since it goes beyond the capturing of inputs and collection of outputs as local authorities are accustomed to. With exorbitant amounts of investment in football currently, it becomes essential that strict control measures be in place. FIFA and The South African 2010 Football World Cup Bid Company (Thornton, 2003) have provided estimates that upgrades to stadia are to the value of R1.8 billion and infrastructure upgrades to the value of R500 million. The exorbitant figures serve as an indicator of the values invested and thus the importance to monitor how well any sport programme, with the potential to attract large investments, is performing over time. Larger investments necessitate monitoring the effectiveness, efficiency and achievement of objectives. Performance indicators in place facilitate the timeous identification of areas in need of improvement. These performance indicators can also demonstrate the contribution of sport in its widest sense and the good practice that exists among sport providers.
The United Nations considers finances and resources to sport as a priority. While being in agreement with the notion that sport is essential to human development, the UN recognises that it contributes to economic development through the manufacturing of sporting goods, sport events, sport-related services and the media. The UN uses sport as a tool for development and peace, and builds on the growing interest in the world of sport through United Nations activities, such as the use of sport to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s), (United Nations, 2003).
2.2 SPORT FOR DEVELOPMENT The UN asserts that human development is a process of enlarging people's choices and increasing the opportunities available to all members of society. Emphasis is 20 placed on increasing opportunities for the current generation as well as generations to come. According to the UN, UNICEF and FIFA development objectives, common ideals that drive business for these governing bodies amount to the indispensable resource of human capabilities that are necessary to promote long and healthy lives, to be knowledgeable, to have access to the resources needed for a decent standard of living and to have the opportunity to participate in the life of a community. Sport can directly help build these capabilities. Sport and physical education provide a forum to learn skills such as discipline, confidence and leadership and it teaches principles such as tolerance, cooperation and respect. The United Nations recognised this – sport as a powerful and cost-effective way to advance the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) – through the internationally agreed set of development targets aimed at fighting a host of socio-economic ills (United Nations, 2003).
The use of sport as a vehicle for global development is not new to UNICEF. Since July 2002, the UN has been promoting the systematic and coherent use of sport in development and peace activities. UNICEF has been mobilising governments to develop comprehensive strategies ensuring the right of every child to play, as called for in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNICEF, 2003). Sport for development has been considered as a new strategic approach for social mobilisation and to raise awareness around global issues such as health, education, youth support, peace and HIV/AIDS as broad concepts, specific to different countries. For the above situations, UNICEF participates in a variety of global sport for development initiatives. In Africa, at the Feyenoord Football Academy in Ghana, adolescents are equipped through training and education material around HIV/AIDS including the coping strategies and the prevention methods. The players are then able to facilitate peer education sessions, community forums where fans can be reached and are also better able to cope with peer pressure and emotional stresses. In line with the UNICEF strategic direction, young people involved in initiatives such as this are able to choose healthy lifestyles with more confidence, making a positive contribution in the communities they live and play football in.
It is not only countries that get involved in UNICEF Sport for Development initiatives, or any other global charity. The English premier league football club, Manchester United also showed their support. In 2005 the club re-newed a partnership by
21 pledging a four-year commitment to the United Nation Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Sport for Development. The club funded programmes around the world with the essential tools to play a range of team sports to highlight a particular global plight, such as human trafficking. Since the ‘United for UNICEF’ partnership started in 1999, Manchester United raised over £1.5 million for UNICEF, directly helping over 1.5 million children (Anon, 2005b). Arsenal Football Club is involved in national sports- based social inclusion schemes and has developed projects for disadvantaged children from the local community in which the club is based in the Islington area of London (Anon, 2005a).
International football governing body, FIFA, plays a major role in raising awareness of children’s rights at football global events and assists in getting its two hundred and five football associations to support UNICEF programmes. In 2003, FIFA donated 'Sports-in-a-Box' kits to 11 countries in support of girls' education programmes and to encourage girls' access to play sport. In 2004, FIFA donated 'Sports-in-a-Box' kits to 12 countries affected by conflict in an effort to promote the use of football as a tool in peace-building efforts, helping to restore ‘normalcy’ among children and bringing communities together to promote tolerance and peace. The 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany was dedicated to "A Perfect Match for Children" and focused on the plight of children affected by conflict.
The benefits of sport, and other physical activities, can be enjoyed not only by the participant but also throughout society. These benefits are felt especially when sport is consistently promoted in a strategic and coherent way. United Nations agencies are convinced that sport can be used effectively as an instrument to drive development and peace through equity-driven and culturally relevant programmes.
2.3 SPORT DEVELOPMENT The primary link between sport and human development is the legitimacy that sport participation prepares youth for later adult roles. The US Department of Health and Human Services released a document on the benefits and trends of sport (Pate, 1996). Sport teaches young people how to live by rules, work hard to achieve goals and interact with others. Louw (1995:522) observes that active participation in early adulthood is replaced by more passive participation in adulthood. Individuals
22 participate more as spectators as more strenuous sport is replaced by less strenuous activities through to middle age.
Youth sports are intended as an educational medium. Singh (2006), states that youth sport should be about development as children place the highest value on the fun they derive through participation. It should thus be made available for the development of physical and psychological characteristics considered necessary in children. Raalte and Brewer (1997:301) view this sport environment as a ‘microcosm’ of society in which children learn and are faced with situations that they need to be able to cope with later in life. Sport and physical education teach the fundamental value of effort and how to manage essential steps in life such as victory or defeat. At the same time, physical education classes are often the first ones to be reduced or cancelled in schools in hard economic times, conflict or under the pressure from other academic fields. In view of the importance placed on school and on sport, further distinctions can be made. Singh (2006) observes that youth sport agencies are not of the same standard as the educational system. Instructors (educators) in the school system are qualified and meet the minimum requirements as set out by the Department of Education, such as a degree in education and in-service training. In youth sport, it is a common occurrence for instructors (coaches and administrators) who are neither trained to teach the sport, nor to work with youth. This is a serious concern due to the fact that so much emphasis is placed on sport and the benefits to be derived from it. By not regulating the minimum standards required for coaching for all levels of sport, a positively assertive force such as sport is left to chance.
The distinction between developmental and professional is clarified in that professional models of sport are explicitly for commercial gain. The goals of professional sport are to entertain and make money.
The nature of the sport system strongly determines the effect sport has on individuals. If it is structured in a manner that allows young people to master their skills and have fun, it is more likely that participation will be more long-term and psychosocial benefits can be gained. At each progressive level of competition, the less gifted children are deselected or drop out due to a lack of ability. Depending on at which stage of development this takes place, the effects could be crucial. For example, as children reach late adolescence the primary developmental task shifts
23 from developing a sense of industry (work/effort) to a need to establish a sense of identity. Sportsmen between the ages of seventeen to twenty-three years (Raalte & Brewer, 1997:319) face developmental tasks that concern identity and establishing intimate relationships. At the English Arsenal Academy (Anon, 2005a) results are not the primary objective for the under-eighteens. The club’s primary concern for this age group still, is player development. The Arsenal Academy is responsible for the development of players between the ages of nine and eighteen. Throughout this period their primary aim is to produce footballers ready to establish themselves in their club or national team.
The Australian Government has an international relations department responsible for managing sport and development. Southern Africa is one of the regions in which this department offers programmes (Australian Sports Commission, 2007). The focus of these programmes is sport development, sport education, disability sport and facilities management. The premise is that the combined benefits impact positively on the broader South African population in terms of more sustainable national sport federations, skills development and job creation, with ripple effects into the South African economy.
Strategically, to expand and strengthen football development significantly, individual development plans must be aligned to National strategy programmes such as the White Paper on Sport and Recreation (Government ,1998, revised 2002). In the case of the Irish cities Dumfries and Galloway (Atkinson, 2001a), a Football Development Plan has been formulated which relates to the Leisure and Sport Strategy for Dumfries and Galloway, as well as Scotland’s National Strategy. The partnerships between local and national programmes ensure a clear structure and vision for the sport, which aims to increase opportunities to engage in the sport at all levels. By combining the efforts of sport bodies at all levels, the demand for the game can be fully met in most communities and the best provision of football participation is provided for a prolonged duration.
In a study conducted by Green (2005), undertaken due to the ongoing concern that sport development poses to policy makers and sport managers worldwide, it was highlighted that sport development lacks a theoretical framework and thus impedes the progress of sport development research. The study conducted by Green (2005),
24 emphasises that the objectives of sport development – increased participation and enhanced performances – are the foundation principles of the pyramid analogy of sport development. To establish these foundations, three tasks are required to be in place to ensure effective sport development.
Firstly, athlete recruitment is necessary. This is how athletes initially get involved in a sport. It considers the influence on the decision to participate, the factors that weigh into the decision and how organisations can use the information to attract more participants. Opportunities for participation must be available to create a demand for participants; some infrastructure must be in place to increase participation numbers. Green (2005) refers to the impact of how relatively high ratios of opportunities to participate will increase athlete commitment. Recruitment marks the start of a process by which athletes are retained or lost, which is strongly influenced by motivation and socialisation into the sport and team subculture.
The second task required is optimal retention rates. Retention is underpinned by socialisation, motivation and commitment. When value can be derived from participation – from motives that include social interaction, skills development and play – the chances that an athlete will continue will increase. A sport development programme must thus cater for the range of levels of participation the continuum for sport development considers. Kozlik, 1960 (in Green, 2005) offers caution to the expectation that benefits of participation are learned and valued as a result of mere exposure to sport. He has shown that benefits need to be taught and experienced. If this view is to be adopted, then programme implementation plays a bigger role.
The third task, as suggested by Green (2005), is athlete advancement. The pyramid model of sport prescribes that athletes should progress to more advanced levels of training and competing. Bigger clubs, or more structured and very often older clubs, have teams that are more advanced and can thus facilitate this movement. Green states that movement up the pyramid is not automatic, even when skill permits. It is the psychological and socialisation factors present that influence this movement to a large extent, as well as the procedures that are in place to identify when individuals are ready. Procedures include club/federation infrastructure and social support amongst other measures. The combination of skill, readiness to move up and the socialisation influences, that is very often referred to as the ‘lucky break’ athletes get,
25 that place them in an opportune position where they secure a lucrative contract in a progressive league. Linkages, or partnerships assist in the move to compete at more competitive levels within a sporting code. These partnerships could be between first and second division football clubs, or secondary and tertiary educational institutions. These partnerships must be deliberate and strategic to the players’ careers.
2.4 PLAYER DEVELOPMENT The objectives of a Football Development plan, according to the Scottish regions of Dumfries and Galloway (Atkinson, 2001a) are guided by a second overriding principle of ‘providing support in order for people to recognise and reach their full football potential’. In the plan, the Scottish Football Association identifies the importance of ensuring the continued participation and development of the twelve to eighteen-year-old age groups. Due to a variety of factors that influence young people in these formative years of their development cycle, it becomes critical to the future success of the sport that there is a structured football programme available which targets this particular age group. Green (2005) emphasises that if the pyramid analogy to sport development is applied, then the objective of sport development programmes would have to be to recruit people (particularly children / adolescents) into sport. A percentage of these people, presumably those with superior talent, must then be developed to produce a higher calibre of performers. Green suggests that a primary goal should be to develop a deep pool of athletes from which a group of elite athletes can develop. This study also states that it is often due to a lack of any sustained or empirical integrity that sport development programmes fail or are short- lived.
Orlando Pirates, a Premier Soccer League club, that was established in 1937 (Anon, 2007a), initiated an Orlando Pirates football development programme. The primary objective of the programme is to develop talented South African youth to play in the Orlando Pirates first team and the National football squad. The programme emphasises the importance of a well-rounded individual with personal, social, academic and spiritual development to complement his football talents. Until the age of 14 years (the programme caters for boys from the age of twelve), technical development is fundamental. Thereafter, physical and technical development of players becomes the focus as teamwork is introduced and players become familiar with a style of play ‘unique to Orlando Pirates’. The model and style of play of AJAX 26
Amsterdam is similarly used as a guiding principle in AJAX Amsterdam Development as well as AJAX Cape Town (Kormelink and Seeverens, 1997). As these authors described of Van Gaal, it is the whole approach which is best understood through first-hand experience that is attributable to the success of AJAX.
The holistic development of players at the Orlando Pirates Development Programme is managed by specialist coaches (e.g. goalkeeper coaches), a medical team and skills development assessors. In order to assess the integrity of a sport development programme, the role of scientific, pertinent technical databases in player development must be emphasised. A solid base of scientific knowledge would be beneficial to a process of mapping and managing the progress of players. Data on players’ performance, especially national team players in every category, as well as intermittent assessments and continuous outlines of support programmes for all elite players, should be readily available at national federations such as the South African Football Association (SAFA).
2.4.1 Development of elite performance According to the Sport Development Continuum (See figure 1 of Chapter 1), a broad base of participation is necessary to produce sufficient athletes capable, and willing, to progress successfully to higher levels of competition. The model assumes that inexhaustible community-based development programmes are in place to recruit athletes from all market segments and with varying motives, into the foundational and participation levels of the continuum at least. Green (2005) warns against the assumption that movement up the pyramid is automatic. There are factors that hinder or facilitate advancement regardless of an athlete’s skills, which must be considered. These factors include matters relating to finances, identification (the trial or try-out process), transition and adjustment amongst others, as the study identified in the case of Volleyball Development of USA.
In South Africa, the South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee (SASCOC) is the controlling body for all high performance sport. Registered as a Section 21 company, the main objective of this company is to develop high performance sport in South Africa, football being included by implication. In close collaboration with the national federations such as SAFA, significant strides can be anticipated with regard to personal and team potentials being realised. In view of the
27 potential benefits to be anticipated with combined efforts of SAFA and SASCOC, it should be noted that SASCOC is the controlling body for the control and delivery of Team South Africa at all multi-sport international games. FIFA and Conferation Africane de Africaine (CAF) facilitate the staging of high performance football at tournaments such as the FIFA World Cup and Africa Cup of Nations, while FIFA is also the regulatory body in relation to CAF (CAF, 2006). The benefits of SASCOC can thus be deemed as limited in the case of the development of elite football performance, in that football tournaments and programmes of highest priority are administered by the world and African continent football governing bodies.
The Football Association (FA) of England has shown its commitment to player development in full-time education through the Active Sports programme. Through this programme the FA aims to develop and support existing and new, innovative programmes in educational institutions to develop young talent outside the structures provided by professional clubs, academies and centres of excellence. Education is a major component of the pioneering Diambars Football Academy (Morgan, 2007a). French footballer, Patrick Viera, launched an academy in Senegal four years ago, and plans on making South Africa home to the second academy. Viera plans to use the momentum of the FIFA 2010 World Cup™ as an ‘instrument to advance education and promote social and human development’. At Diambars in Senegal, and it would be the policy for other Diambars academies in Africa, seventy percent of their time is spent on education. Viera believes that by focusing on education the exploitation of young players can be prevented. The purpose of the strong focus on education is further reiterated in the need for something which players can depend on in the event that their goal of playing professional football does not materialise even after attending the academy.
2.4.2 Gilrls’ / women’s football One of the fundamental bases for organisations such as UNICEF using sport as a vehicle to achieve its objectives, is the values identified as being inherent in the participation of sport. The values and benefits derived from sport include cooperation, improved self-esteem, social skills and respect for their bodies and respect for others (SAFA, 2007). With these benefits as a background, sport can be viewed as a useful mechanism to engage girls and assist them in realising their maximum physical potential and social capabilities. In a further attempt to promote gender equality and
28 the rights of girls and women, UNICEF has embarked on a joint project with FIFA called ‘Girls for Goals’. Education is a key component of this project, as a means to educate and empower girls to reach the objectives of UNICEF that includes eradication of abuse, poverty, exploitation, hunger, disease and violence. In a conference held in May 2007 (FIFA, 2007), FIFA made an appeal to CAF to focus some of its efforts towards the growth of female football on the African continent. FIFA also used the opportunity to extend assistance to the continent in this regard. It is thus clear that international organisations recognise and show a level of commitment to the development of women’s football.
In South Africa there is no national women’s football league. There are however, Women’s regional leagues in the fifty-two SAFA regions. In the 2006/2007 season there were sixteen clubs per region (SAFA, 2007). The 2007/2008 season saw the start of the Women’s Provincial Leagues. The Provincial League includes the two best clubs from the nine provinces and is the platform for playoffs of the National Women’s Club title, sponsored by Vodacom. Strides are being made in terms of improving the game of women’s football with regard to structuring and growth in numbers. In an interview conducted with Ms. Gloria Brown1 it was indicated that insufficient funding is a continuous challenge. One other challenge women’s football administrators are faced with is the retention rates, as many girls are lost after the building stage, eleven or twelve – fifteen years of age. FIFA (FIFA, 2003) refers to this as the ‘age of pre-training/pre-development’. By age fifteen years, basic training and initiation of children to the game has taken place. In many instances girls only return, or start playing for the first time, at age eighteen or nineteen years at which stage a significant amount of performance training should have taken place already. This has been identified as a challenge to the sustainability of women’s football, and measures are being sought to address this.
The FA (Atkinson, 2001b) has advanced in developing girls in full-time education through the Women’s Football Academies in colleges of further education. They have established a network of 45 Women’s Football Academies for females aged sixteen - nineteen in full-time education through the Women’s Premier League Clubs and The English Colleges Football Association. There is also continued work on the
1 Interview conducted with Ms Gloria Brown, ex-player and women’s football administrator on 2007-09-11 29 development of an International Development Centre for the most talented 16 years and older female players. This is conducted in partnership with Loughborough University.
2.5 CLUB DEVELOPMENT Football, and other sport clubs, form a vital part of community sport. It is a forum for interaction between parents, children, coaching and technical staff in a non- intimidating and ‘fun’ environment. Successful sport development within a community is strongly dependent on strong local club structures. National football federations can utilise local clubs as vehicles to deliver coaching resources, development workshops and internship programmes. Local clubs are also in a position to facilitate a smooth transition for youth who show particular sporting potential from a school environment to continued development. As a key component of its vision, the FA (Atkinson, 2001b) proposes quality club structures to be the ‘hub’ of the community. They emphasise a network of multi-team community clubs with good social, playing and training facilities. Clubs are commissioned to cater for boys and girls, men and women from mini football through to veterans. Key to club structures of the FA are links with professional clubs. Within a South African context, this would imply that community football clubs such as Robertsham Callies or Florida Albion gain support for their programmes and clarify pathways between participation and excellence through links with PSL teams such as Silver Stars or Bidvest Witwatersrand.
The Ajax brand is an exemplary club development example within the European Football league and worldwide. Organisations have associated themselves with the brand name of Ajax through advertising, skyboxes and Ajax travel and events special offers. The local Ajax Amsterdam has the Amsterdam Arena that is home to the senior squad and an Amsterdam youth Arena (De Toekomst) with separate parking and other facilities.
The FA has developed a workshop and Club Development Manual to put standards in place that club structures must achieve. The manual assists clubs in the development and action-planning phases of the role clubs have to play in the national football development programme, to all levels of the sport development continuum. In South Africa, the White Paper on Sport and Recreation does provide pertinent information regarding mass participation and elite performance. However, the White 30
Paper on Sport and Recreation (with SRSA as the custodians) and SAFA provides no documented requirements for club structures on their roles in terms of a national football development programme. This results in a potential gap or misalignment of goals between regional/provincial leagues, i.e. clubs, and national football development strategies at various levels of the sports development continuum.
In 1994 Transnet sponsored the SA Soccer Academy (initially sponsored by the SAB) initiative as a step towards preparing the best talent for high performance football (Charnas, Dumitru and Jeevanantham, year unknown). There was a national performance centre equipped with effective training solutions for South African Youth, together with satellite centres in Cape Town, Durban, Port Elizabeth and Umtata. In 1998 Transnet closed down the satellite centres and re-opened a Sport School of Excellence in Johannesburg under the auspices of SAFA. This school combined coaching facilities with a school for secondary education (SAFA, 2007). The staff comprised schoolteachers, coaches and ancillary staff, for whom no job roles and responsibilities are defined in the available literature. Charnas, et al (year unknown) comments on the hi-tech methodologies applied at the school that were specifically designed for the school and identified by experts from Africa, France, Brazil, Germany and England as ‘an excellent pioneer concept’. Aspects considered specifically for the school, and South African Youth in particular included; the ‘unique predispositions for ball skills, body size/limitations, nutrition, game mentality and living/social conditions’. The rate of success – number of players for professional clubs, members of youth and senior national teams – could not be sustained, with insufficient funds being one of the contributing factors but also the dwindling of the ‘exemplary training standards’ present at the institution of the school.
Resources are the base elements utilised to produce products and services efficiently. Resources come from within society. In other words, they come from society, and are utilised to meet society’s particular needs. These are human resources (people), capital resources (money), physical resources (raw materials) and information resources (knowledge) (Smit & Cronje, 2002). Bateman and Snell (2004:224) also list non-financial resources that are ‘other’ people – for example, networks of people, top management teams, advisory boards and partners. Resources are rarely available in abundance and it is thus necessary that it is carefully selected and combined in the correct quantities to achieve organisational
31 goals. An ad hoc approach to this will not suffice. Resources are to be utilised through a managed process of planning and executing activities to ensure the successful attainment of organisational goals thereby satisfying the needs of society.
One of the Strategic Thrusts of the SASC, now integrated into the SRSA, is to ‘ensure the provision of resources’ (SASC Strategic Framework, 2002). As one of the objectives, this organisation has set out to provide information, financial and logistical resources for the development of sports people. They believe that this can be made available through the creation of partnerships with sponsors, governments and the national lottery. A network of accredited service providers has been established. Thus National Federations and other football development structures can draw on these resources to advance and sustain their programmes.
Priorities five and six of the White Paper on Sport South Africa, emphasise sustainability and long-term development of sport. The mediums through which this is envisaged to happen is through integrated programmes for athletes from disadvantaged areas, and high performance programmes aimed at elite athletes in major competitions respectively.
Sport England provides an option for a sustainable ‘grass-roots sport’ programme. The Department of Culture, Media and Sport, through Sport England, funds a programme called Sportsmatch. Sportsmatch sponsors projects by matching a sponsor’s payment on pounds sterling to pounds sterling basis. From 1992 till 2001, 3 000 companies had sponsored grass-roots sport in 3 300 projects involving 12 million participants in 72 sports. Funds available for 2007/8 amount to £3.44m (Reynolds, 2007). The programme caters for weekly coaching sessions as well as training teachers to coach to ensure the on-going development of skills.
Sports development is progressive and forms part of all the levels of the continuum of sports development. That being said, progression from participation at a foundation level to a performance level does not simply occur. This progression has to be guided and managed in a way that ensures that should that be the goal, all efforts are put in to ensure that the progression takes place at the right time and the necessary skill, discipline and commitment are adequately developed to remain at the higher level, and possibly continue progressing to a level of excellence. A
32 strategy becomes necessary to ensure that logical and continuous development in sports participation takes place. The progression down the continuum, i.e. from competing at an elite level to a participation level, also has to be managed to ensure that the individual remains active within the sport to contribute experience and skills and does not exit the continuum. It is a function of top management to provide the overall direction in which the day-to-day training sessions and annual leagues and competitions are aimed to build-up towards.
Management is the process of working with people and resources to accomplish organisational goals (Bateman and Snell, 2004:14). It is a planned process with clearly defined goals and objectives. Managing the process requires the efforts of different individuals to coordinate efforts that if executed by one person, would be very difficult, if not impossible. Management is the systematic process of selecting, allocating, and deploying resources. Management entails efficiently and effectively conducting business, and relies on the fundamental principles of planning, organising, leading and controlling.
The above list is the central function of managers (Smit & Cronje, 2002; Bateman and Snell, 2004), accepted as expectations of management by various writers over many decades. Planning is the process by which it is decided beforehand how business would be conducted. It is determining what must be done, how, by when and by whom it must be completed. Organising is the continuous task of ensuring that subordinates do the work efficiently and effectively. Leading is influencing a group of people (colleagues/subordinates) to the extent that they voluntarily pursue objectives as set out by the organisation or the leader. Controlling is the final task of management. It is ensuring, constantly, that the organisation is on the right track to attain its goals. Performance is monitored and management can thus identify and rectify any deviations from the plan, or revise the goals and plans as necessary. The management function (plan, lead, organise, control) is performed in all organisations and at all levels. In performing these central functions, managers are classified according to their level in the organisation and by the specialist, or functional area of management for which they are responsible.
Sports management has emerged as an academic discipline with quality programmes at tertiary institutions (Gouws, 1997:243) and a professional occupation.
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Parkhouse (2001:3) distinguishes sport management from sport administration as being all-encompassing and representing a myriad of sports-related areas. Sport management is any combination of skills related to planning, organising, leading and controlling – the principles of general management – and may include accounting, marketing, economics and finance, and law, within an organisation or department with the primary product or service being related to sport. Furthermore, it is the study and practice relating to people, activities and businesses involved in producing, facilitating, promoting and organising any product associated to fitness, recreation or sport (Beech and Chadwick, 2004).
Everyone in directive positions within the enterprise is part of management who, within an organisation, can be differentiated according to the level of operations for which the manager is responsible. Management can be sub-divided into a few levels. Four levels of business operations most frequently found (Gouws, 1997; Smit & Cronje, 2002; Beech and Chadwick, 2004) are as follows:
Top-level (Strategic) Management: Top-level management usually consists of the board of directors, and the deputy executive managers who form a management committee. The final authority and responsibility of the organisation as well as its’ management lies with this relatively small group of management. Within the context of a football club, top management comprises of the club owner and other sponsors of the club.
The focuses of top-level management are the long-term issues of survival, growth and overall effectiveness. They are concerned with the environment external to the organisation and thus require conceptual and decision-making skills. Successful top- level managers, according to Bateman and Snell (2004), have a strong ability to identify and resolve problems for the organisation and its members. Within SAFA, as would be in FIFA, all levels of management should be evident since these are the governing bodies for South African football.
Middle Management: Middle management is from within specific departments within the organisation. The level of management is responsible for translating and implementing the policies and strategies as determined by top management. It is their primary concern to get the different functions of the company to work together.
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Middle management proceeds to breaking down the general goals and objectives into workable targets and plans that can be monitored day-to-day. Within a football club or programme, this level is largely dependent on the size of the club/programme. In larger or more established development programmes a development officer, education officer, medical officer and welfare officer or psychologist will perform with the tactical skills required. Their role within the organisation necessitates good people-skills: the ability to build interpersonal relationships and effective communication.
First-line Management: The supervisors or managers of subsections whose primary responsibilities rest on the daily activities of departments. They implement objectives of middle management through practicable detailed schemes and programmes. At this level of management, managers are essentially concerned with short-term planning and organising their divisions by motivating subordinates to accomplish day- to-day goals. They are concerned with completing the tasks. The success of the kit/equipment manager, all coaches, and team managers depend, to a large extent, on their ability to perform specialised tasks which usually involves predetermined methods or processes. Bateman and Snell (2004), emphasise technical ability as a prerequisite to success at this level of management.
Operational Activities: are undertaken by players, agents, volunteers and administrators. In support roles there are also caterers and event organisers.
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Top-level Management
Middle Management
First-line Management
Operational activities – players and other participants
Figure 3: Levels of business operations indicating management levels
2.6 FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT In addition to the fundamental functions of managers – planning, organising, leading and controlling – managers have other department specific tasks. The responsibilities and tasks of managers of these functional areas are specific to the department. For example, tasks specific to the function of human resources are appointment and development of personnel. The right people must be appointed and be provided with the right training. The finance department’s function is the acquisition, distribution and control of money to finance the activities of the organisation, and to purchase materials. Some other functions are research and development, marketing and procurement.
If development is to be sustained as an integral component of football, extensive research on a continuous basis is necessary. This research and development will ensure that the needs and expectations of all stakeholders are addressed and that
36 programmes are monitored and evaluated frequently. Ongoing research is also a good tool to ensure that as an organisation, football can stay abreast of best practice in the domains of sports science-based training schedules and management best practices.
The study of management is an important tool that enables possibilities which one would otherwise not have been aware of; and limits the costs related to trial and error significantly. For example, knowledge of the many different types of organisational structures place the manager in a better position to choose the most suitable structure, or how to best work within a particular structure. Management knowledge can be used at the disposal of the manager in more work situations. With the benefits and expanse of possibilities management offers as a science, its role in developmental football structures could prove vital to the level of results anticipated from such programmes.
The principles of management could be effectively applied to the management of football development programmes in South Africa. Management theory would thus be beneficial if applied at any level of competition as well as the federation, SAFA (South African Football Association). Different theories and approaches are available within management theory application. This would enter for the vast differences in resources and environments of all the clubs/programmes concerned. The principles of management make provision for effectively and efficiently managing an organisation across different disciplines, i.e. knowledge management; financial management; strategic management, operations management and so forth.
Sport management has emerged as an academic discipline with quality programmes at tertiary institutions (Gouws, 1997:243) and a professional occupation. Parks and Quarterman (2003) describes sport management as being all-encompassing and representing a spectrum of sport-related areas such as planning, organising, leading and control – the principles of general management – and may include accounting, marketing, economics and finance, law and sports science within any sport organisation or department. Furthermore, according to Parkhouse and Pitts (2003), it is the study and practice relating to people, activities and businesses involved in producing, facilitating, promoting and organising any product associated to fitness, recreation or sport.
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2.7 FACILITY DEVELOPMENT In view of developing the game of football, the need for facilities cannot be ignored. The availability, quality and accessibility of facilities have a vital role in determining people’s participation in the game. In research conducted by the FA of England it was found that there was a need for better pitches and facilities across England. There is a Football Facility Development Strategy 2003 – 2006 that is aligned to the national (English) Football Development Strategy for facility development and investment purposes. A Register of English Football Facilities (REFF) was established with regular audits in place (Wood, 2003). The role of the REFF in the national football development strategy is to identify the priorities for investments in football and also to maximise the investment through the development of partnerships with both the public and private sector.
Johannesburg has many recreation centres, swimming pools and other sporting facilities such as grassed and gravelled fields. These are all managed by the unicity’s Department of Sport and Recreation (City of Joburg, 2007). Sport and Recreation are responsible for the upkeep and maintenance of facilities, as well as policy formulation and the involvement of communities in facility development. While facilities are necessary and more modern facilities are ideal, plans must be put in place to ensure their optimum use. It is the function of Joburg Sport and Recreation to address issues of social upliftment through projects and functions, and also to involve communities, including outlying communities, in putting programmes in place. These plans are put in place to ensure that these facilities contribute to the strategic value and direction of a national development structure.
Sport and recreation are faced with certain challenges, while receiving limited assistance from SAFA and the PSL when matters relate to facilities utilised for football. The challenges include unequal access to facilities as the quality and service offering differs from areas from the outer city to the inner city. Other challenges relate to lack of information about communities and the users of the facilities, insufficient security to monitor facilities and inadequate maintenance budgets. The unicity recognises that partnerships are needed for the development of facilities and programmes and that formal links must be established with institutions at provincial and national levels. Plans and projects are underway for certain community centres and swimming pools. Partnerships may need to be initiated by the national
38 federations to ensure that facilities for the particular sports code, such as football, are developed and maintained.
2.8 EDUCATION AND TRAINING Coaches have tremendous power over the game of football, and this is understandably so. They determine to a large extent, the style of play to be employed, the players that get fielded and benched and the periodisation structure utilised weekly, seasonally and annually. It is thus imperative that coaches are grounded in the fundamentals of coaching. Quality coaching at school, local and national level is largely dependent on the qualifications of coaches. The Dumfries and Galloway Council attribute sustainable football development to a structured football coaches’ education programme. Two elements deemed to be very important to this council (being a fairly rural area) are firstly, that coach education programmes are developed in partnership with local clubs and sports councils, as well as educational bodies. Secondly, structured and comprehensive coaches education programmes are promoted to ensure that a constant process of recruitment can be maintained. In the case of the FA, the National Football Development Strategy for England has prioritised the need to develop innovative education programmes to support and develop young people, teachers, coaches, leaders and parents. The key issues they address include and are not limited to, improving the development of football through the education sector. In South Africa, development through the education sector is displayed through partnerships such as Orlando Pirates with Boston City Campus and in the past, Kaizer Chiefs with the Rand Afrikaans University.
In 1998 the government of the Republic of South Africa introduced the Skills Development Act (Government, 2006). One of the objectives of this Act is to ‘transform labour from a low skills base to one that is committed to high quality life long learning’. As part of the Skills Development plan, all sporting clubs and associations must register with the Tourism, Hospitality and Sport Education Authority (THETA, 2007). In direct compliance to this requirement, the PSL club, Orlando Pirates FC, boasts the club’s adherence to the Act and registration for the Skills Development Levy. According to the club’s official website (Anon, 2007a), a Workplace Skills Plan was submitted to THETA in May 2002. This is a
39 comprehensive plan addressing the skills needs of youth and senior players, management and staff, all as employees of the club.
The National Qualification Framework (NQF) table below tabulates the proposed structure and range of accredited qualifications within THETA (www.theta.org.za). This version, dated October 2005, has more non-existent qualifications than qualifications existent at the time. Sport and Recreation South Africa, much the same as the FA, has identified and addressed the need for appropriate and quality assured support, training and resources for school teachers, to overcome the obstacles that prevent the delivery of football in schools, such as limited knowledge of the game. This has been done through the School Sports Coaches’ Training Programme. This programme comprises short courses and is the first step towards building the Further Education and Training Certificate in Sport Coaching qualifications, at an NQF level 4 (Frank, 2006).
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Table 1: Education and training framework for sport and recreation
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Table 1 displays the existing and envisaged qualifications as it relates to different roles within a sport organisation. It demonstrates what the qualification for each, i.e. coaches, administrators, etc, at the different NQF levels are, or will be called. The Further Education and Training Certificate: Sports Administration, NQF Level 4, is designed to meet the needs of learners who are already employed or involved as volunteers in the sports industry. Furthermore, this qualification enables learners who want to enter the industry to develop careers in one or more of the related sub-fields. Since this certificate is part of an anticipated learning pathway it will allow employment mobility to persons operating within the context of the recreation or fitness field at a community level. By adopting the education and training framework nationally, volunteers can be occupationally directed and fast tracked into a pool of skilled, competent individuals to deliver a professional service to South African sport and football in particular.
The SASC provides a practical leadership development model that indicates credit and non-credit bearing education and training programmes in sport and recreation. The model also indicates what training is required at the different levels of the sport development continuum (see chapter 1, figure 1).
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HIGH PERFORMANCE
NATIONAL (Credit Bearing)
PROVINCIAL (Credit bearing training) NQF Entry
MASS PARTICIPATION (Non-credit bearing)
Figure 4: Practical Leadership Development Model for credit and non- credit bearing education programmes for sport and recreation (SASC Skills Programme, 2004)
The non-credit bearing training in the mass participation level requires education and training leadership development. This is training aligned at NQF level 4 and below and there is no NQF entry requirement. The courses include Sport and Recreation Leader, Generic Coaching Skills, Life Skills for Athletes, Indigenous Games leader and Volunteer Training. Credit bearing training starts at NQF level 4 but is mainly at NQF levels 5 and 6. There is an entry requirement to these courses and some courses bear more credits than others (Frank, 2006). For example, Sport and Recreation Administrator has 66 credits while Generic and Sport Specific coaching has 100 credits. Credits serve as entry to the learning/career path of the Sport and Recreation
43 Leadership development programmes. This is a useful guide to determine qualifications required for coaches and administrators at different levels in a club. The NQF framework also gives national federations and sport codes the opportunity to develop accredited courses specific to their sport.
2.9 MASS PARTICIPATION DEVELOPMENT SRSA developed a mass participation directorate after investigating different models of sport and recreation (SRSA, n.d.). The aim was to investigate local and international models used to gain recognition in sport and recreation development. The main objective of mass participation is getting the masses to play without barriers relating to costs, racism and elitism in activities as well as the availability of equipment. A significant portion of the SRSA’s budget is allocated to the masses through programmes aimed at grass-roots participation and physical activity. The mass participation directorate uses foundation programmes, focus groups, behaviour modification programmes, national and provincial (home-based) programmes and competition – all in a manner that is mindful and educative regarding HIV/AIDS, as to realise the objectives as set out in the mass participation objectives (Durand, 2006).
The first overriding principle of the Dumfries and Galloway Football Development Plan (Atkinson, 2001b) ‘encourages people to be active and take part in sport’. This includes levels where high performance is not a primary goal. The FA (The FA Football Development Strategy, 2001-2006) advocates that higher education institutions provide extensive opportunities for involvement in football for males and females in every capacity, especially if they are in full-time education. Tertiary institutions such as technical colleges and universities together with clubs, are thus seen to have a fundamental role to play in maintaining participation levels in football beyond school.
2.9.1 Players Adults play football across South Africa, with National Masters (over thirty-five year-olds’) tournaments hosted in different provinces annually. Functioning
44 facilities, both indoors and outdoors, are thus essential to provide opportunities for structured or casual participation. It should also be appreciated that these adults have much skill and knowledge, which if retained within the game would be beneficial to the future of football. With some formal training, such as multi-level-courses offered by SAFA as the national federation, these adults with an apparent interest or passion for football can be retained as qualified and highly valued coaches, administrators or officials active in the development of football.
2.9.2 Volunteers Volunteers traditionally managed sport, and often these volunteers are not trained to manage sport professionally. According to Gouws (1997:218), knowledge of the management process and the application of specific sport management principles are vital. The fundamental management principles must be supplemented with information management, decision-making, communication and negotiation. In a study undertaken by the stakeholders of the England Football Association, the importance of volunteers was recognised. The FA identified the importance of having to recruit, retain and reward volunteers for the future development of football. To address this, the association has instituted bodies such as the Football Workforce (FwF), Junior Football Organisers Course for volunteers aged fourteen-eighteen years and Effective Football Club Administration (EFCA) courses to provide practical information and resources to support football clubs and associations around the issue of volunteers.
If mass participation of sport wants to include as many members of society in active involvement with sport, there are additional target groups that are to be considered. One such group is people with disability. As part of the masses, people with a disability are to be afforded suitable sporting opportunities.
2.10 SOCIETY AND ISSUES OF GLOBAL SIGNIFICANCE According to Coakley (2007), sports are tied to important ideas and beliefs in many societies, and cultures. It is connected with major spheres of life such
45 as family, religion, education, the economy and politics. During world games such as the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, the Tour de France and the FIFA Football World Cup, nations are gripped by the action associated with these games. Even when individuals do not usually have any interest in sport, the influence from relatives and friends can be significant, to a point where sport is included in their lives, sometimes only for the duration of a tournament. On this basis, from which the power and impact of sport on society is illustrated especially in international sports tournaments, this study recognises the significant social impact sport raises. Society abounds with drug and alcohol abuse, gangsterism, physical and emotional abuse, high illiteracy rates and the HIV/AIDS pandemic. It is the assumption of this study that by providing documented development plans for every player enrolled in a football development programme, a positive contribution to society can be made. While it is often very hard to predetermine a development path in football, and most other sports, due to the nature of sport and the uncertainty in terms of injuries, maximum development potential and selection by professional teams, it must be remembered that development encompasses education, social development and self-development (time management, stress management, etc) together with the technical, tactical, physical and psychological aspects of football (FIFA, 2003).
2.11 SUMMARY In this chapter, attention was paid to understanding the aspects that a football development programme should comprise, such as sports development, player development, coaches and staff development, facility development and mass participation.
The importance and function of these aspects in the development of football was explained. From the literature review it is clear that a plan for development is essential to ensure that the game of football grows and has a sustainable future. It is emphasised that a plan and a football development strategy are imperative in ensuring sustainable football development. Strategic steps are required to ensure systematically a solid base for
46 development, advocating life-long learning. Partnerships between local and national sporting must bodies being forged and strengthened.
This chapter also highlights that there are tools and programmes in place that support a development strategy at provincial and national level. A significant amount of this support is accessible from government organisations such as SRSA and from the international football federation, FIFA.
The next chapter will present on the research design and methodology of this study.
47 Chapter THREE
Research Methodology
3.1 INTRODUCTION The body of knowledge for business organisations, science and other disciplines requires continuous revision and updating. Relevant information can be gathered through systematic and organised investigation of the topic. According to the definition of research used by Aston Business School (Aston Business School, 2006) research is an original investigation to gain knowledge and understanding of a particular sector, i.e. where it leads to new or significantly improved insights. The value of research in the management of football development programmes can be derived in ascertaining the status quo of management practices and the gap that exists between this and other models of the management of football development and management principles.
Research provides information to potentially reduce uncertainty. Based on the nature of the football development situation in South Africa and the purpose of this study, descriptive research was the research method of choice. Descriptive research is a study of the status of a situation and its purpose is to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon. According to Zikmund (2003), descriptive research aims to determine the answers to who, what, when, where and how questions. Its value is based on the premise that problems can be solved and practices improved through objective and thorough description (Thomas & Nelson, 2001).
A general quandary has been identified in the football development programmes and football talent that is identified. Exploratory research was conducted to clarify ambiguous problems. According to Zikmund (2003), exploratory research aims to gain a clearer understanding of the dimensions of a problem. The information produced makes for more informed analysis of
48 the current practices in football development in Gauteng but further descriptive studies were conducted to determine a course of action. Exploratory research assisted in identifying some of the tools and management models available to effectively manage football development. Descriptive research was used to identify aspects that were lacking across the province, as well as the different models applied, or not applied, in the various football structures. Areas potentially lacking included a formal football development plan being in place; a development path mapped for players and staff; a budgeting process/system; use of the South African White Paper on Sport and Recreation and social mobilising or awareness initiatives to address the social ills in most South African communities such as drug and alcohol abuse and gender issues.
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN The survey is a widely used descriptive research method. A survey is generally broad in scope and by generating primary data, the researcher seeks to determine present practices (or opinions) of a specified population. The questionnaire, the Delphi method, the personal interview, and the normative survey are the main types of surveys (Thomas & Nelson, 2001; Zikmund, 2003).
In this study a researcher-administered survey was conducted. A structured questionnaire was used to guide interviews and to focus discussions.
3.3 CHOICE OF METHODOLOGY AND RATIONALE Research design is the format for investigation that specifies the methods and procedures for collecting and analysing necessary data. There are four basic research methods: surveys, experiments, secondary data studies and observation. Selection of the most appropriate method for collecting information largely depends on a selection of trade-offs - the objective of the research and the availability and cost of data sources – as each method has its own advantages and disadvantages.
49 Therefore, in this study qualitative data was collected through personal interviews with the sports development officers or managers with the use of a questionnaire.
3.3.1 Questionnaire The face-to-face interaction between a researcher and a respondent offers the increased advantage of the researcher obtaining complete and precise information (Zikmund, 2003). It also increases the likelihood that all items in the questionnaire are answered correctly. With the variation in respondent qualifications and scope of roles within the football development programmes in Gauteng, personal interviews were considered an appropriate research method.
3.3.2 Interview A personal interview is a form of direct communication in which an interviewer asks respondents questions in a one-on-one situation. This method allows for a two-way conversation between an interviewer and a respondent (Zikmund, 2003).
The decision to use personal interviews was based on the premise that the questionnaire is regarded as being holistic and relatively rigid. This enables the concepts in question and understanding of information received to be clarified. Interviews facilitate more probing and provide an opportunity to obtain clarity in a systematic manner, which results in more complete data being gathered. In some instances there was more than one respondent in the interview as one respondent could not adequately answer all the questions. When this approach was feasible, the researcher contacted other individuals in the same development structure telephonically, to provide the missing information. In forty-eight percent of the cases, where schedules did not permit, an electronic or facsimile questionnaire was made available. The questionnaire was returned and a telephonic discussion took place in which the researcher clarified answers received with the respondent.
50 3.3.3 Sampling The relevant population for this study was all football development clubs in Gauteng Province that formally participate in one or more existing football leagues. A population is any complete group of people, companies, hospitals, stores, students, sports federations and so forth, that share common characteristics (Zikmund, 2003). Owing to the low number of football programmes or clubs that have a stated mission of football development, the research population was extended to include community football structures (mass participation programmes), as well as football development structures where elite performance was the primary objective. Common to the entire sample was at least two scheduled training sessions and one game per week (in a league in which the team was formally registered) during competition period (or the in-season).
Sampling is a process that involves any procedure using a small number of items or parts of the whole population to make conclusions regarding the population. A sample is therefore a representative subset of a larger population. The purpose of sampling is to enable researchers to receive an indication of particular characteristics transferable to the entire population (Zikmund, 2003).
For this study the interviewees had to have a thorough understanding of the football structure, with a minimum of 5 years experience in football, as an administrator or coach (having played football professionally was considered an additional benefit). It was assumed that with a minimum of three years experience, the interviewees would possess sufficient knowledge of the subject matter of this study.
3.3.3.1 Sampling Method Probability sampling is a sampling technique that uses random selection. The selection method ensures that different units in the population have equal probabilities of being chosen (Zikmund, 2003). The different units in this study were the five geographical regions in Gauteng. This had been
51 determined according to the provincial demarcations utilised by the Department of Sport and Recreation. The South African Football Association utilises the same regional demarcation parameters.
Gauteng Province is divided into north (Tshwane), east (Ekhuruleni), south (Sedibeng), west (West Rand) and central regions. SAFA officials were contacted in each region and the study was explained to the officials. Contact details for all established clubs in the region were obtained, and recommendations from regional officials were added to the list.
For this study, quota sampling was used. Quota sampling ensures that certain characteristics of the sample population will be represented to the extent that the researcher desires (Zikmund, 2003). In every region data was compiled from 5 teams focusing on male football development. Data from one ladies team in each region was collected.
The sample was selected on this basis to ensure that all regions of Gauteng, with the variety in programme structures and facilities, could be representative of the province, as vast differences do exist across the more rural areas and the economic hubs of the province.
3.3.3.2 Sample Size Throughout the province, managers of football development, coaches of football development and football development club owners were interviewed. Researcher-administered surveys were conducted with respondents from a group of 30 development structures (N=30). Portfolios varied amongst this group. Most of the respondents consisted of head’s of football development, junior league head coaches, one club owner and, in some instances, the administrators. In total, thirty-three football officers were interviewed using the questionnaire. Every respondent played an integral role within the development structure. Interviews were then conducted using the questionnaire to ensure that all relevant issues were addressed.
52 3.4 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS Background knowledge gained from the literature review guided the development of the research instrument. The questionnaire contained 3 categories of questions, and these were (1) player development; (2) coach and support staff development, and (3) administration and management components.
3.4.1 Interview To effectively conduct an interview takes a great deal of preparation as common procedures had to be followed for all the interviews. The interview process was thoroughly rehearsed by the researcher. During the interview caution was exercised in adhering to the questionnaire so as not to inject personal bias into the conversation. It was also necessary to ensure that information regarding the current football club was provided for the purposes of the questionnaire and no inclusion of any previous experiences in other football development structures was involved. Comments and experiences from previous or other football clubs were noted outside of the requirements of the questionnaire. Initial contact was made with the interviewees and a verbal “cover letter” was presented to them telephonically.
A pilot study was conducted to make sure that the vocabulary used was appropriate and that the questions were equally meaningful, given the roles and experience of the different interviewees. The pilot study was conducted with a group of five respondents within the football fraternity who were not part of the original study, with the purpose of identifying and amending any problems that may have arisen due to uncertainty. Adequate time was given for completion of the questionnaire. The five respondents were considered to be knowledgeable in one or more than one aspect of football (i.e. coach, player, administrator, course trainer, etc.). The respondents had experience listed: one PSL football commentator, one retired professional player, one professional coach, one course trainer and administrator, and one education officer and representative of the football players’ association.
53 3.4.2 Questionnaire The questionnaire was designed with three categories of questions. The management of player development was assessed in terms of the availability of development plans for players, and the proportions of development players for which these plans were available. This category of the questionnaire also included social initiatives, initiatives for the development of women’s football and life skills training.
The second category of questions was coach and support staff development. The highest qualifications of coaches, career development plans for coaches and other staff, and compliance to the workplace skills plan was considered. The third category of questions addressed administration and management components. To assess this, it was deemed necessary to consider whether or not there was a budgeting process in place, an adopted strategic or operational plan, existing links with strategic partners for the means of football development and access to training and recreational facilities.
A provisional questionnaire was assessed for validity of content, and statistical aspects were adjusted. Thereafter, the pilot study was conducted, and the questionnaire was adjusted accordingly (see Appendix A for the final questionnaire).
The revised questionnaire was utilised in interviews with identified individuals from the selected development structures across Gauteng. All the respondents were offered access to a copy of the results of the study upon completion.
3.5 DATA COLLECTION The interview sessions were documented on the interview schedule. The data collected was labelled and categorised according to numbers allocated regionally across Gauteng.
54 3.6 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Zikmund (2003) lists three key criteria for evaluating measurements: reliability, validity and sensitivity.
3.6.1 Reliability Reliability is the degree to which the measures are free from error and therefore can yield consistent results. Imperfections in the measuring process that affect responses in different ways with each measure taken, such as when the respondent misunderstands the question, are the cause of low reliability. The same concept applies when a respondent understands the question but cannot respond with truthfulness, evident in situations where a respondent does not fully agree with the stance taken by the football club regarding a particular matter. Reliability of a study is the assurance that responses will be stable over time. Two dimensions underlie the concept of reliability: one is repeatability and the other is internal consistency (Zikmund, 2003).
Interviews were used to accompany the questionnaire as a measure of ensuring that questions were clearly understood. It was also a priority to the researcher to ensure that the purpose and value of the study was understood from the onset, to limit the effects of pessimistic attitudes that may have influenced responses and truthfulness.
3.6.2 Validity Validity is the ability of the measurement instrument to measure what it is supposed to measure (Zikmund, 2003). The pilot study was conducted with officials (managers, coaches, administrators, education officers) actively involved in the sustained development of football in Gauteng and South Africa. Through discussions held with these experts, it was agreed that the rating scales logically and accurately reflect what they assert to measure. In consultation with the Statistical Consultation Services of the University of Johannesburg (STATKON), construct validity was achieved by agreeing that the measure is consistent with the theoretical logic of the concepts.
55 3.6.3 Sensitivity Sensitivity refers to the accurate measure of variability in responses: this is the ability of the instrument to discriminate choices. Zikmund (2003) notes the importance of the sensitivity of a scale, applicable when changes in choices or other hypothetical constructs are under investigation for “yes” or “no” responses. This normal dichotomous response category does not allow for the recording of subtle choice changes (Zikmund, 2003). For this study, sensitivity was increased by adding additional questions on certain matters, especially in situations where “yes” was selected.
3.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Research participation was requested, not voluntary. When research deals with humans, the researcher must be concerned about any circumstances in the research setting or activity that do not respect and protect all the participants, ensure a fair and just process, that obtain informed consent and anything else that could potentially harm the participant. Harm implies to frighten, embarrass, or negatively affect the participants (Thomas & Nelson, 2001). The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC, 2007) deems transparency and accountability as additional principles for ethical consideration.
Tuckman (in Thomas & Nelson, 2001) reviews the rights of participants that should be respected. These rights include: the right to privacy and non- participation; only information relating to the study at hand can be requested; respondents have the right to anonymity and confidentiality.
The main ethical issues that apply to this study relate to the respondents’ rights to be informed about the purpose of the research, the need for confidentiality, the need for honesty in collecting data, and the need for objectivity in reporting data. It was necessary to guard against political views and biases towards government initiatives, federation (SAFA) programmes and individual club agendas.
56 Ethical consideration was ensured by making initial contact through regional structures and regional football development offices. An introduction to the study was provided to every potential respondent followed by an information and consent letter. A request to participate in the study was then made. It was made clear that respondents could withdraw their participation from the study at any stage, without any consequences to themselves. There were incidences where respondents felt that the information required was beyond the scope of their knowledge in the football club or that their club could not sufficiently contribute to the purpose of the study. In these cases reasons were requested and noted.
3.8 SUMMARY This chapter addressed the methods used to conduct the study. Information was gathered from thirty football clubs using the questionnaire. Qualitative data was collected to gain a more comprehensive understanding of what guides management of the club; as well as the priority placed on the development of players, officials, administrators and facilities. The questionnaire contained 3 categories of questions with reference to player development; coach and support staff development, and administration and management components. The respondents were selected from football clubs with varying characteristics, i.e. formal football development structures which are feeders to PSL teams, clubs that are not direct feeders to any professional or semi-professional teams and community based football development programmes. This combination of respondents highlighted the differences in financial resources available, the level of education or training of the human capital, the degree of structure under which the programme operated and the extent to which the national assistance which is available to these football clubs are utilised.
More football clubs (a larger sample size) would have been more appropriate. It is however necessary to note that the sample selected was more representative of the regions across Gauteng than of the size, structure and management tools utilised. This was a quota sample in certain regards, but
57 projections beyond this specific sample could still be considered appropriate to the management of football development across Gauteng.
58 Chapter FOUR
Results and discussion
4.1 INTRODUCTION Football clubs in Gauteng and in South Africa are not functioning as effectively as can be expected. This in a country with the level and abundance of talent and a football following that Gauteng and South Africa has experience. In an article relating to the future needs of South African Football (The Football Institute, 1996) Ted Dumitru expressed his view regarding unstable development structures. Charnas, Dumitru and Jeevanantham (n.d.) state their view of SA football and attribute the struggles to technical incapability, underdeveloped youth, ignorance to professional input and one national team failure after the next. Jomo Sono and current national coach, Carlos Alberto Parre.ira reiterated this view (as cited in PSL, 2007) when they expressed views on the lack of quality and the size of the pool of youth from which talent for the national team could be sourced. The aim of this study was to analyse the management of football development programmes in Gauteng. The main objectives of the study were to (1) determine if there was an adopted management framework applied to the management of the football club; (2) bring to light the policies as formulated by the SRSA on sport and development specifically within the South African context; (3) to analyse the implementation and effectiveness of proposed SRSA frameworks in football development programme and (4) the extent to which development is planned and implemented for players, coaching staff and administrators. As stated in chapter one, a point of commencement for a development programme is a development plan. A plan that has been drafted, adopted and implemented at commencement of the programme is required.
The White Paper on Sport aims to aid national sports development initiatives significantly. Through this, the SRSA focuses on four key areas. While the four priority areas of physical education, youth and junior sport, tertiary sport
59 and national sport cannot be directly applied to football development clubs, the essence of what the White paper on Sport and Recreation captures is the imperative of having a documented development plan. Development of players, coaching and support staff is necessary for quality sport management, sustainability and objective-driven sport organisations. Administration and management components cannot be neglected neither for their support functions nor their strategic objectives.
4.2 ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS The percentages of football clubs that have a workplace skills plan in place are contained in Table 2.
Table 2: Workplace skills plan Workplace skills plan No. of clubs No. of clubs (%) Yes 4 13% No 23 77% Do not know 3 10%
It is alarming to note that 77% of the respondents have no workplace skills plan and no skills development strategy for employees of the football club. The clubs without a Workplace Skills Plan do not consider the development of individual staff members. There were a further 10% of the respondents who did not know whether there was a plan in place or not. For development to be sustainable, in a changing world economy and global marketplace, there are new methods and practices to be applied constantly in any business. It is also an important aspect of personal development of employees. Skills development in sports and recreation was introduced by the National Sports Council (NSC) and is in compliance with the National Skills Development Act, Accelerated and shared Growth Initiative for South Africa (ASGISA) and the SRSA. SRSA has made provision for an education and training sub-directorate. The skills development programmes of the Department of Sport and Recreation are aligned with the principles of Outcomes Based Education (OBE) and the National Qualifications Framework
60 (NQF) (SRSA, 2007). The programmes provide a learning path for administrators, leaders, managers, technical officials and coaches.
Table 3 contains the list of potential facilities football clubs may have access to and the percentage of respondents within each category
Table 3: Access to Facilities Facilities No. of clubs No. of clubs (%) Training fields 30 100% Playing grounds 29 97% Change rooms 26 87% Parking 26 87% Players’ residences 11 37% Staff residences 7 23% Recreational facilities 13 43%
It is not alarming to see that only 37% of the responding clubs have residences for players as most of the clubs participating in the study were not academies or schools of excellence. A large percentage was local/regional clubs that catered mainly for players from surrounding communities. There are only 43% of the responding clubs with recreational facilities and 87% with change rooms. The expectation is that all clubs have change rooms and that a bigger percentage would have access to recreational facilities, as one billiards table or one fooze-ball table constitutes recreation, which can make a significant contribution to the socialisation of children. Access to training and playing fields are relatively high with 100% and 97% respectively. In the one case where there were no playing grounds, the training grounds are used for training as well as playing matches, with no distinction made for preserving a ‘playing’ ground. While the scope of this study did not address ownership of the field and other facilities, any facilities whether owned or leased, are to be managed. The municipality owns most of these facilities as well as ensures their maintenance. Clubs do, however, have a role to play and for this reason
61 usage schedules require trained individuals to manage the availability of fields and educate the users.
Table 4: Levels of management Levels No. of clubs No. of clubs (%) Top management 13 43% Middle management 6 20% First-line management 13 43%
Table 5: Formal budgeting process
No. of clubs No. of clubs (%)
Yes 16 53%
No 12 40%
Do not know 2 7%
From table 4 it can be deduced that at least 80% of all the football clubs that had responded did not have all 3 levels of management in their organisational structure. From table 5, atleast 40% of the responding clubs had indicated that there is no formal budgeting process in place. The standard, as gauged by the interviews, seems to be that there is no request from management for annual budgets either. It is encouraging to note that 53% of the respondents were sure that there was a formal budgeting process. The implication of these results is that different levels of management have different roles and responsibilities within an organisation, and that, had their been a formal structure that guided operations within a club, a larger percentage of the respondents would have indicated that it was the situation. Budgets and financial planning is a significant aspect of management. It informs and influences decisions like how many players can be acquired and developed each season. It also provides guidelines as to whether alternatives for development should be investigated from a cost-sensitive perspective. Based on the results of this study, decisions to sign new players, acquiring other
62 resources and services from professionals such as Sport scientists, Psychologists and Nutritionists, are assumed to be made on an uninformed basis.
4.3 POLICIES AS FORMULATED BY THE SRSA ON SPORT AND DEVELOPMENT The percentage of clubs with a developed football structure is set out in Table 6 and Table 7 shows the percentage of ‘yes’ respondents to a development strategy in place and those that have aligned it to the South African White Paper on Sport and Recreation.
Table 6: Football development strategy No. of clubs No. of clubs (%) Yes 21 70% No 8 27% Do not know 1 3%
Table 7: Strategy aligned to White Paper on Sport No. of clubs No. of clubs (%) Yes 9 30% No 16 53% Do not know 5 17%
It is positive to note that at least 70% of the respondents have a football development strategy. A response rate of 27% for no strategy in place is reason for concern as there is no documented objective to share with all stakeholders of the football club.
Table 7 indicates that of the 70% of the respondents that answered yes there is a development strategy in place (n=30), 30% had indicated that the strategy document is aligned to the White Paper on Sport and Recreation. Most of the respondents (53%) had indicated no. During the interviews conducted, a significant number of the respondents enquired what the White Paper was,
63 and what the content and impact of this document is. The implication is that while the government is making concerted efforts to improve the participation of sport at all levels, there is a lack of knowledge about or understanding of the tools provided to assist the process of sport development.
The White Paper on Sport and Recreation is the primary policy document of the Department of Sport and Recreation. The Department drafted this document in response to having identified the lack of knowledge of officials at a decision-making level and the inefficiencies that this results in (SRSA, 1998). The White paper on Sport and Recreation outlines the roles and responsibilities of the different stakeholders in sport and recreation and stipulates the measures to get as large a percentage of the population to participate in sport as possible. The implications of aligning a club’s development strategy to the White Paper on Sport and Recreation is that increasing the levels of participation in football can be realised sooner. This can also raise the profile of football in view of conflicting priorities such as work and other sports codes. If the strategy is in place but not aligned to the White Paper on Sport and Recreation, potential support from National Government may be limited as the objectives may not correlate directly, with those indicated in The White Paper.
Partnerships with other organisations and institutions set out in Table 8.
Table 8: Partnerships with organisations Organisations No. of clubs No. of clubs (%) Tertiary education institutions 5 17% Primary / Secondary educational 5 17% institutions International Football Federations 1 3% Premier Soccer League (PSL) 11 37% Other football clubs 6 20% NPO’s and charities 1 3%
64 Partnerships with other organisations are not significant. Only 17% of the clubs had partnerships with tertiary institutions and primary and secondary educational institutions. The 3% for the International Football Federations and charities is dismissible in the case of clubs as this is a role SAFA are better positioned to facilitate. SAFA could act as an intermediary in decisions that need to be relayed, or benefits gained in initiatives embarked on with International Football Federations and charities. Partnerships with the PSL are only the case for 37% of the respondents. This is alarming as the PSL is the professional league of the country and could thus serve as an important step in the development process of high performance players, and also of coaches and support staff in some instances. Partnership with the mentioned institutions are very relevant and it is important to note that the White Paper on Sport and Recreation makes provision for the basis of participation that may come from these partnerships, and does not exclude any institution in its recommendations and guidelines.
4.4 PLAYER DEVELOPMENT AND CAREER PATHING The extent to which individual development plans are available as contained in Table 9 and the percentage of players with a development plan as contained in table 10.
Table 9: Pathway for development is available for players No. of clubs No. of clubs (%) To no extent 1 3% To some extent 16 53% To a large extent 10 33% Totally 3 10%
65 Table 10: Players that have a development plan No. of players (% of players) No. of clubs No. of clubs (%) 0% 2 7% 1 – 25% 14 47% 26 – 50% 5 17% 51 - 75% 3 10% 76 - 99% 3 10% 100% 3 105
There is only one club for which no paths for development are available for the players. This is a community-based club where the aim is to get as many people from the community involved as possible. This objective is necessary. It however, makes no allowance for potential star players to progress to higher performing clubs and leagues. Only 10% of the responding clubs indicated that a complete path for development has been developed. This is alarming, as 80% and 90% of the football clubs that participated in the study had catered for age groups 13-15years and 16-19 years respectively. These are developmental ages, stages at which the development measures that are taken are crucial for most players (FIFA, 2003). The percentages of the clubs that cater for the respective age-groups are indicated in Table 11.
FIFA (FIFA, 2003) emphasises that the game of football has developed in a way that requires a player to have perfect technique. High quality pre-training and training is ideal to improve on technical skills and develop strong points such as shooting or dribbling. Tactical awareness is important to assimilate instructions from the coach while it is still important to learn to adapt and react to tactical changes. It is very important to the development of every player that they become a complete, top-level sportsman. Individually, players need to be able to rely on their own power, recovery and mental strength. For this to take place, individual attention and planning may be necessary. It is necessary that competitions be planned ahead for players to participate in. Top-level football players should have a plan of national and international competitions envisaged for them to participate in. the African Cup of Nations organised by
66 the Confederation of African Football (CAF) and the youth World Championships for under-twenty and under-seventeen are two important international competitions to consider for this purpose.
Table 11: Age-groups catered for per football club Age group catered No. of clubs catering No. of clubs catering for for the age-groups for the age-groups (%) 7-12 years 19 63% 13-15 years 24 80% 16-19 years 27 90% 20-21 years 21 47% Older than 22 years 17 57%
More than the 63% of the responding clubs include programmes for age 7 – 12 years. Football at these ages is designed for basic training and initiation of children to the game. Play is important and coordination skills can be honed. FIFA (FIFA, 2003) defines the stage prior to thirteen years (8-12 years) as children’s football, a stage at which exploring and experimenting generally takes place. The development of basic motor functions and co-ordination should occur during this stage.
A significant proportion of the clubs (80%) caters for age thirteen to fifteen years. FIFA (see chapter 2) describes this as the ‘golden-age’ for the learning of technical skills, individual tactical awareness and fundamental principles of football. Up to the age of fifteen years training to build the player for the future takes place. This is a pre-training and development stage during which skills are consolidated and assimilated. Basic endurance and muscle strengthening (non-weight bearing) is developed. FIFA recommends that at least 50-60% of training time be spent on technical instruction and technical development.
It is positive to note that 90% of the responding clubs have the age group 16- 19 years in their club programmes. From age sixteen till eighteen/nineteen training and development take place. At this stage the aim is to get acquired skills and procedures to become automatic. Power, strength, speed and
67 football specific endurance is built on. This is the important age at which performance training should be focused on physical and tactical preparation and on players’ mental approach to the game. On observation, most South African footballers are not as physically developed as many of the international footballers. Elite, or top-level performance is trained at age 19 or 20 to 21 years. It addresses gaps found to be apparent on a physical, technical or mental level.
4.5 COACH AND STAFF DEVELOPMENT Development plans for coaches and staff are set out in Table 12 and qualifications of coaches is contained in Table 13.
Table 12: Percentage of staff with development plans Roles with plans in place No. of clubs No. of clubs (%) Senior management 4 13% Coaching staff 15 50% Administration staff 6 20% Support staff 5 17%
Table 13: Qualifications of coaches Qualifications of coaches No. of clubs No. of clubs (%) SAFA 0 7 23% SAFA 1 22 73% SAFA 2 15 50% SAFA 3 4 13% FUTURO 2 7% UEFA B Pro 0 0% UEFA A 2 7%
Only 50% of the responding clubs indicated that there were plans for the development of the coaching staff. While this is an important role and there are numerous coaching methodologies and principles to be exposed to and selected from, it requires combined efforts from a team of staff. With 50% of
68 the clubs not embarking on development of coaching staff and 80% not conducting development for management, the coaching and management practices being applied are not updated, stay either the same as was ‘inherited’ at the club or from experience and previous training. Important to note here are the levels at which coaches have qualified. At least 50% of the clubs have coaches qualified at a SAFA level 2. This is positive, considering the difficulty clubs express with obtaining enrolment in courses and also the non-completion of courses as an administrative problem. Only 13% of the responding clubs have indicated that coaches are acquiring a SAFA level 3 coaching certificate. This is the highest national football qualification. The complete SAFA level 3 coaching qualification course has not been provided as yet – many respondents have reported that coaches have started the course but not completed due to the course not being availed (thus not completely rolled-out).
4.6 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY The percentages of clubs involved in the stated social mobilisation and global awareness issues is contained in Table 14.
Table 14: Social mobilisation and global issues Initiatives No. of clubs No. of clubs (%) HIV/AIDS 5 17% Drug abuse 5 17% Alcohol abuse 1 3% Promoting women in football 14 47% Women and child abuse 11 37% Continuous media involvement 6 20% Community involvement 6 20% Poverty alleviation 1 3%
A very small percentage (17%) of the responding clubs are involved in HIV/AIDS and drug abuse initiatives. These are social elements that affect football players, as well as society. An even smaller number (1) of clubs are actively involved in addressing alcohol abuse through one or more initiatives,
69 solely or in conjunction with another organisation. This is alarming, since HIV/AIDS, drug and alcohol abuse are prevalent and is very often the reason players do not make it through development structures to become professional players. Women’s football is an area of interest for 43% of the respondents. It should be noted that involvement in the development of women’s football as indicated here mostly means that the football club has one or two women’s teams. There are no additional projects to fast track the development of women’s football. Becoming involved in the community, directly through supporting initiatives or indirectly through media updates is important for the socialisation of players into the community, and players acting as icons and role models, especially in the communities from which they come. South African media reported that SAFA officials and coaches were not aware of the extent to which drug-abuse occurs in South African Football (Mamabolo, 2002). This came to the fore after a self-confessed drug user and soccer player, Jabu Pule, reported that many other professional soccer players have the same habit. While this may have been reported almost five years ago, the respondents have not reported on any formal intervention programmes. Respondents have commented that the use of drugs by professional players may still be rife, with marijuana (dagga) being the most common drug used.
Only five clubs (17%) have an education and study skills programme in place. Health and fitness is a formal part of the programme in 33% of the clubs, and social interaction is a programme in 30% of the clubs. A significant degree of attention, in comparison to the other life-skills components, is given to discipline and care and welfare. Structured and prioritised life-skills programmes, amongst other aspects of development, are necessary to address the different problems and challenges faced at different stages of growth and development (Super Sport United, 2005, Kaizer Chiefs Youth Development, 2005, UPE-FCK Soccer School of Excellence, 2005). This may aid in ensuring that more players complete the entire development and ensure that they are prepared for the challenges that come with professional football.
70 Table 15: Lifeskills programmes in place Programmes No. of clubs No. of clubs (%) Health and fitness 10 33% Social interaction 9 30% Education and study skills 5 17% Discipline 8 27% Care and Welfare 8 27% Self-management 6 20% Time management 4 13% Financial management 2 7%
4.7 SUMMARY Chapter 4 described the results obtained from the researcher-administered surveys. Information was provided with regard to the management structure of the football clubs, as well as the adoption and implementation of government support, with the White paper on Sport and Recreation made available by SRSA.
A representative sample was obtained to make reliable comments on football development programmes in Gauteng. The development of the players, staff and the club were analysed. This was done to gain a more holistic indication of development at the football club. The awareness, adoption and implementation of policies developed by the SRSA and international football federation, FIFA, was analysed. This was included to determine the inclusion of sound aspects of development crucial to sport, and football in particular, and to obtain an indication of the likelihood for sustainability of the programme.
The findings will be discussed in chapter 5 of the study. Based on the discussion, recommendations will be made on how to ensure that football development programmes achieve the objectives of developing the game and developing the players to not only their highest level of performance, but also to play at a level where they derive the most enjoyment through their
71 participation in the game. Additional recommendations will be made with regard to how holistic football development programmes can contribute and improve society through the development of well-rounded, socially equipped, educated and skilled individuals.
72 Chapter FIVE
Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1 INTRODUCTION It was hypothesized that there could be marked gaps in the management of the development programmes, as compared to the models of business management in the corporate and public sector. The study was conducted to analyse the management of football development programmes in Gauteng, including determining whether or not there was a ‘development programme’ in place. The study set out to evaluate the management (i.e. degree of structuring of roles and levels of management) and the degree of development (as defined earlier).
5.2 CONCLUSION The study revealed that there are policies that are available to guide and sustain a football development programme. In view of the literature that has been reviewed, Government support is well documented. The literature review highlighted the common areas for consideration of a development programme as emphasised by different governing bodies such as UNICEF, the UN, FIFA, the Department Sport and Recreation of South Africa, SAFA, and the PSL. From the available literature, no solid grounds of association have been formed between these mentioned organisations or if these associations do exist nationally, it is not well-documented. It seems that the organisations have not realised that the overlapping of football programmes with social development objectives. Thus they have not been able to integrate programmes, not even in part, at a national and provincial level so as to leverage off one another.
It is the game of football, the football player and society that ultimately benefit from combined efforts. UNICEF and FIFA, on the other hand, have realised the benefits to be derived from partnership programmes.
73
5.2.1 The role of national federations and lead agencies in facilitating sustainable implementation of sport development The Government, legislators and sponsors of South African sport demonstrate heightened interest and recognition of the importance of sport and the impact it has on society, the economy and culture. In the light of the efforts through which this is demonstrated, football development programmes are not sufficiently aligned with the national federation, SAFA, and the South African lead agencies sufficiently. The role of SAFA and Government bodies such as SRSA and SASCOC are crucial to the coordination of sustainable football development programmes. Insufficient resources have been identified as an ongoing challenge, as the numbers of users require resources that exceed the resources available. The same can be said of situations where resources are made available but the need for additional resources does not seem to be satisfied.
5.2.2 Football development Football development is the process in which support is rendered in order for people to recognise and reach their full football potential. Effective and sustainable development programmes need to be implemented to nurture young talent throughout South Africa. Football development programmes, in much the same way as sport development, should include aspects of personal, academic, social and spiritual development as formal components of the process. Discipline and team work to be instilled in young players here to increase the chances of this mind-set continuing throughout their playing careers. The current Bafana Bafana coach, Carlo Alberto Parreira, has made mention on a number of occasions (Allie, 2007 and Morgan 2007b) of the lack of efficient structures and the poor level of organisation of junior national leagues. Another area that needs to be considered in the development of the game is that coaches are appropriately qualified as they could be for the levels at which they coach. Coaches of PSL teams should work towards obtaining international coaching licences (e.g. a UEFA B-licence) and in so
74 doing, are better able to keep abreast with the latest methods and techniques applied in football. These qualifications and components of football development programmes take time to be implemented and require continuous efforts to manage them well.
5.2.3 The management of general sport programmes in contrast to the management of sport development programmes The principles of management of general sport programmes are transferable to the management of sports development, specifically football development programmes, to a large extent. From the different theories and approaches of management, it can be expected that a management approach best suited to the differences in resources and environments of football clubs in Gauteng, can be selected and effectively applied. With the management of general sport programmes and sport development programmes, the disciplines of knowledge management, financial management, human resources and operations management are equally applicable. A distinction that can be made is that the aspect of career pathing and the development of all the staff – players, coaches, administrators and officials – is paramount to a sport development programme. Development programmes cannot only focus on the technical and tactical aspects of the game; there is a level of accountability towards stakeholders that a certain level of commitment to developmental aspects, as discussed in this study, is the platform of activities undertaken at the club.
5.2.4 Scope and representation of national frameworks in football development programmes The study indicated that there are several football development programmes in Gauteng. This study highlighted the fact that regardless of the level of participation of the club or the needs it aims to satisfy in the community, provision was made for the management of the club by the SRSA. A significant number of clubs had indicated that operations are based on a model or framework, but it was evident that not enough was known about the
75 model applied (given that care was exercised in the selection of the representative of the football club answering the questionnaire, to ensure a wide range of knowledge of the football club). The knowledge of national frameworks was very limited. The research indicated that a significant proportion of the clubs in the sample were not aware of these policies. In the event that there was an awareness of the frameworks, there was uncertainty regarding its relevance or applicability to their football development structure and operations. Affiliation to clubs in the PSL such as Orlando Pirates added little more than resources to the development programme.
5.2.5 Measures of success The measures of success are different for different football clubs in that the objectives of the club could be on a continuum anywhere between mass participation and elite/high performance. For most sport clubs, including community-based clubs, the primary measure of success is the number of participants (members), the number of leagues being participated in and the number of league titles that are won. The primary measurement of success for football development programmes is the number of players that progress to the first team, a PSL team (if the development programme is not under the auspices of a PSL team already), the district team, the national team or go to play abroad. No other measures of success of football development programmes were determined during the study, largely due to insufficient record keeping. Other measures of success could have included the number of players successful in the job market, the number of executive positions held in the corporate sector, with the record of social initiatives initiated and supported. These would all be direct measures of success of other aspects considered important in a development programme.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
5.3.1 Training In terms of the available policies and programmes, through the SRSA and SASCOC, significant guidelines can be accessed for the management of
76 football development programmes. However, more efficient ways of managing available resources can be taught to management and administrators from a national federation and at club level. In addition to training, there are resources available from different funding streams that, by knowing what the criterion of allocation is, may be obtained and optimally utilised. It is recommended that the national federation, SAFA, continue to facilitate the training courses but that these courses should be standardised and provided at regular intervals annually.
5.3.2 Developing the game and the stakeholders The study has identified a need for formal development plans to be put in place for coaches and administrators. In future, selection criteria must be drafted for every club prior to the recruitment of new coaches. Individual development plans are to be drafted in alignment with the overall strategic plan of the club. Football development should provide holistic programmes on a sustained basis for as long as it remains viable and the player can be seen to have ‘graduated’ from the development programme. Areas that consideration should be given to are: physical development, social development, emotional development, psychological development, educational development and life skills.
Depending on the level of coaching applied for, more individuals with didactic experience should be sought and recruited, especially in academies and centres of high performance, where coach to player contact time is limited by the pressures of performance.
5.3.3 Management and corporate governance Football clubs are organisations with football as the primary product. Being an organisation, structure and issues of governance, if attended to, can resolve a number of problems within the organisation. Different levels of management will perform different and very important roles. An additional reason for encouraging governance within a football club relates to the issue of limited resources. Better management of all resources will prove profitable to all
77 stakeholders in the long-term. The relevance of management principles (planning, leading, organising, control and structure) and good governance (accountability, responsibility, transparency, social responsibility, fairness and discipline) are as applicable to sport organisations as they are to common business enterprises.
A further recommendation in terms of management and corporate governance relates to the value of introducing an organisational culture. A culture of discipline instilled in all players, regardless of the league or level of competition in which they compete, must be instilled from the orientation stage. Youth players should understand what is expected of them at the time, as well as gain some insight into what will be expected of them should they be successful on the ‘planned’ pathway of development, i.e. progress to the first team.
5.3.4 National and International support is available FIFA, SAFA and government bodies such as SRSA and SASCOC provide crucial support to the provision of sustainable football development programmes. A significant proportion of work needs to be done in terms of awareness of support and policies available. Sustainable programmes are important and for this reason there are policies in place, as provided by SRSA and FIFA. It is a recommendation that an awareness drive is undertaken to inform all youth and football clubs undertaking development about the context and usability of policies and programmes.
5.3.5 A broader scope of success Results from the study indicated weak or non-existent partnerships with key organisations. To address this weakness, relations should be sought with primary, secondary and tertiary educational institutions, amongst other institutions. It may not be practical to structure the school day around football, as is practised in international football academies and development programmes. It will, however, prove useful to start-off with conducting regular physical assessments and the sharing of these results together with the
78 implications and plan for improvement. Furthermore, the educational institution must be informed of the players’ selection to the development programme and the implications thereof, relations for the players and staff with community leaders must be facilitated, professional services such as psychological interventions should ideally be made available and tools for social development must be integrated in the programme. These measures in place will facilitate the monitoring of success of individual development within a football development programme to a larger extent.
5.4 SUMMARY Football development programmes in Gauteng have much to achieve in terms of corporate governance and compliance with national policies and legislation. It is the recommendation of this study that these two elements be instituted as the foundation upon which agreement can be sought on technical and tactical issues.
It is important that some areas lacking in football development programmes across Gauteng were found. These areas, once identified, can be categorised from an informed platform. The opportunities for further studies are extensive. Considering the role of football in the culture and social structure of South Africa, and internationally, academically researched football development studies are scarce. This study has only introduced the aspects to be included in a football development programme; no specific solutions were provided beyond highlighting the availability of support offered in the form of policies, plans and principles (of management theory).
Potential research areas for the future include identifying a South African model of football development. A model unique to South Africa was applied by the SA Football Academy, of which reference is made herein, but no development programme or football club currently in operation can boast the same uniqueness. A potential research area exists in investigating a model that has to be proposed, tested, defined and adopted nationally. Opportunities for research also exist in the components necessary for the holistic
79 development of South African players on and off the field as South Africa has lost several talented players because of social pressures. Other areas of potential research for the future are investigating avenues for economic sustainability of football development programmes and the marketability of these structures.
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List of References
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87 Annexures
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