Table of Contents: Lecture 1 – Founding 2-3 Lecture 2 – Government 3-4 Lecture 3 – Conflict of Orders 4-5 Lecture 4 – Dignitas + Gloria = Auctoritas 5-6 Lecture 5 – Military 6-7 Lecture 6 – 1st Punic War 7-8 Lecture 7 – 2nd Punic War 8-9 Lecture 8 – 2nd Punic War (cont.) 9-10 Lecture 9 – Rome becomes Number 1 10-11 Lecture 10 – Roman Revolution 11-12 Lecture 11 – Civil War 12-13 Lecture 12 – 1st Triumvirate 14-15 Lecture 13 – Gallic War 15-16 Lecture 14 – 1st Triumvirate Breaks Apart 16-17 Lecture 15 – Civil War #2 and the Ides of March 17-18 Lecture 16 – The Roman Empire 18-20

Appendix I – Liberators’ War 20-22 Appendix II – Final War of the Roman Republic 22-24 Lecture 1 – Founding

Important Terms Trojan War: ~1200 BC Alba Longa: Trojan Settler’s city Tiber Rome: 753 BC Etruscans: 616 – 509 BC Tarquinius Superbus Tarquin Lucretia L. Junius : 509 BC Republic: 509 – 31 BC

Lecture: Founding of Rome The story starts with Aeneas, a member of the Trojan Anchises Aphrodite royalty, and whose mother is Aphrodite (Goddess of Love). During the fall of Troy, ~1184 BC, Aeneas is commanded by the gods to flee, for he is destined to become king of the Trojan people and establish a great empire. He escapes from the Greeks with a small Aeneas group of other Trojans, and begins sailing around the (~300 Years) Mediterranean. Aeneas and his fleet eventually make landfall at , where he has an affair with the Carthaginian Queen, Dido. Dido wanted the Trojans to settle in her land but Mercury Numiter Amulius (Messenger God) reminds Aeneas of his journey and his purpose, and so Aeneas leaves. When Dido learns of this, she uttered a curse that would forever pit Carthage against Aeneas and his descendents (Rome), and then commits suicide. Aeneas makes landfall in Latium, Rhea Silvia Mars where he is well received by the king and marries his daughter, Lavinia.

Romulus Remus ~300 years after the Trojan War, Aeneas’s descendent, Numiter, is king. Amulius, Numiter’s brother, rises in revolt and takes over as king. Amulius fears a prophecy that if Numiter’s daughter, Rhea Silvia, had any children they would take over the kingdom. Amulius imprisons Rhea Silvia, during which time Mars “visits” her. Later, Rhea Silvia gives birth to twins. After learning of this, Amulius places the twins in a wicker basket in the Tiber. The twins, Romulus and Remus, wash ashore and are discovered by a she-wolf who nurtures them. They are discovered and taken in by an old shepherd couple. 20 years later Romulus and Remus have grown up, and find out their true heritage. They go back to Alba Longa, kill Amulius, free Rhea Silvia and return Numiter from exile. Romulus and Remus want to start their own, new city, where they washed ashore as children. They split up and build separate cities on different hills. One day, Remus went to see Romulus. Romulus was building a wall, which Remus makes fun of and jumps over it. Romulus stabs Remus to death, and says “this will happen to anyone who goes against my city”.

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The Legend Broken Down  Romans felt culturally deficient to the Greeks, which is why they are descendants of the Trojans  Romans are directed by Gods, which makes them the chosen people  Father of the founder of Rome is the Mars (God of War), and so they are war-like  Romulus kills his brother, which shows that Rome comes before all else

The City of Rome  Rome was founded 753 BC based on archeological evidence  The Location was chosen well:  Inexhaustible supply of fresh water  Area around Rome provides a large quantity of food  Famous 7 hills provided defense from attack  Centrally located in Italy and the Mediterranean

Rome Rome was initially a monarchy of which Romulus was the first of Rome’s 7 kings. In 616 BC Etruscans conquer Rome, causing the last 3 Roman Kings to be Etruscan. The Etruscans were more advanced, which allowed Rome to grow dramatically under their rule. Etruscans also taught the Romans, Polis (Greek invention of City-States), which was a big impact on how they governed and fought wars.

The last of the Roman Kings was Tarquinius Superbus (The Proud), who was a tyrant. Tarquinius’ son, Tarquin, caused a revolt by raping a Roman girl, Lucretia. She told her family about it then committed suicide. Her uncle, L. Junius Brutus, uses this to lead a rebellion in 509 BC and Rome regains independence. Rome comes to the conclusion that power corrupts, and so establishes a new type of government called the Roman Republic, which lasts from 509 – 31 BC, during which most of the Roman territory was conquered.

Lecture 2 - Government

Government Rome’s government was based on the Polis (Greek City-state idea) where the government is not run by king or but by an assembly of citizens. The Roman assembly, called Centurion Assembly, made all crucial decisions about Rome (e.g. go to war and election of all city officials). All male Romans were allowed to participate in the Centurion Assembly. However, this method was not very democratic, as it was rigged for the wealthy. Each male citizen was assigned to one of these centuries, or groups, based on wealth, with an unequal number of citizens in each century. The Centurion Assembly was divided into 193 centuries. There were 98 centuries for the wealthy, but only 95 centuries for the other 95% of the population. Everyone in a century would meet to vote on an issue. The majority opinion of each century would count as 1 of the 193 votes in the Centurion Assembly.

City Officials All city offices were held for 1 year, with the (City Officials) exception of Senators. Each office had specific jobs 2 Consuls (Co-Presidents) responsibilities, and was made with checks and balances. (Courts) There was no payment for services as an official, and it was (Made sure roads, etc. were built) impossible to get elected without the support of the Senate wealthy, and be wealthy. In addition, candidates for higher (Treasury)

Page 3 of 24 offices also needed to be famous to have a chance of winning. After election to office the official became a senator for life, with about 300 senators at any one time. The senate ran Rome and controlled all other branches, with important posts going to Senators, including officers and commanders in Rome’s army. The senate can’t technically pass anything without Centurion Assembly, but senators controlled the Centurion Assembly, as only city officials could call for an assembly, speak at it, or sanction a vote.

Society: There were 2 social classes the patricians, and the . The patricians were the wealthiest 5%, while the plebeians were the other 95%. At the beginning, patricians and plebeians could not marry, and only patricians were eligible to hold office. Plebeians don’t like this and demand political, social reform.

Lecture 3 – Conflict of Orders

Important Terms Conflict of the Orders: 494 – 287 BC 1st Secession: 494 BC / Decemvirate: 451 – 449 BC XII Tables Appius Claudius Crassus Vergina L. Verginius 2nd Secession Lex Sextia – Licinia: 367 BC Lex Hortensia: 287 BC

Conflict of Orders Plebeians want to make changes, starting in 494 BC and continuing to 287 BC, called the Conflict of Orders. They do this to gain more social and political rights, and in the end they gain rights, and Rome becomes more democratic. There were two reasons they were successful. The first was that some plebeians became incredibly wealthy, but despite their economic success, they were second class citizens (because they were plebeian), and were not allowed to hold office, be a senator, or marry a . These rich plebeians became leaders in the plebeian cause. The second factor was that some plebeians gained some money (middle-class). Rome’s military was like a Greek Polis, in that it didn’t provide armor, weapons, or supplies to its soldiers. The advent of iron made things cheaper but still needed to be middle class to afford military equipment. Due to plebeians gaining money and the cost of equipment going down, more and more plebeians were in the army until they were the vast majority. They defended the city and expanded Rome’s power, but were still second class citizens.

In 494 BC plebeians are upset, because they aren’t eligible for political office, or senate, and no one was looking out for the average plebeian. There was also debt-bondage, where if you couldn’t pay your loans you could be sold into slavery. Consuls tried to keep focus off internal problems by starting wars, but the plebeians inside and outside the army finally got fed up, left Rome, and went on strike. The strike was the main weapon against patricians, and due to the strike there was now no one to defend the city, and the economy ground to a halt. This is known as the 1st Succession. This caused the patricians to grant concessions, right before a revolt breaks out. The 1st Succession gained the plebeians

Page 4 of 24 a new city official and a new assembly for themselves. The official was a called , initially 2, eventually goes to 10. They served for 1 year, but unlike other officials, Tribunes had to be plebeians and were elected by Tribal Assembly. The tribune main function was to look out for plebeian interests. Eventually they gained power of veto. Tribunes didn’t need majority to veto laws, every tribune had right of veto. They were also in charge of the new Tribal Assembly, which was initially only made up of plebeians. The Tribal Assembly was created to give the plebeians a voice and allow them to govern their own affairs, but they will eventually gain more power.

In 451 BC plebeians are upset again, this time about , because it wasn’t written anywhere. Essentially the law was whatever the patrician office holders said, and the officials could do whatever they wanted. A board of 10 men, the Decemvirate, was appointed to in scribe Rome’s laws. They were elected and given complete authority. They created the XII Tables, but don’t show them to anyone and didn’t want to give up power. Things came to a head when Appius Claudius Crassus tries to kidnap a plebian girl, Vergina, whose father was L. Verginius. Verginius is unable to stop Crassus, so kills his daughter. He then goes to the army, upset, and fires up soldiers for what would become the 2nd Secession. This caused the removal of the Decemvirate from power, Crassus is killed, and the XII Tables to be published. The XII Tables stated that all people are equal under law. Lex Sextia – Licinia is a new law that said that all plebeians are eligible for all offices in Rome. Also intermarriage was approved so that plebeians and patricians could marry, with the status of the children being based on the father’s status. In 287 BC Lex Hortensia is passed, by this law most of the power of the state was given to the Tribal Assembly. This made it so that for anything to become law it had to be approved by them. The Centurion Assembly is still there, with the ability to elect officials with the exception of Tribune. By 287 BC, Rome is much more democratic.

After 287 BC, there is a development of a new ruling class, made up of patricians and wealthy plebeians. Rome has now become the ruling class vs. poor citizens. The Tribal Assembly wasn’t helpful to the poor in this as the tribunes control the Tribal Assembly. The tribunes were wealthy plebeians, and they didn’t want to do anything that the senate didn’t approve of. This meant that Rome is still run by the senate.

Lecture 4 - Dignitas + Gloria = Auctoritas

Dignitas + Gloria = Auctoritas Roman nobles controlled Rome through the Senate. Early on they were patricians, but later wealthy plebeians joined them. These nobles wanted to acquire as much political power as possible.

Political power was determined by Dignitas + Gloria = Auctoritas (Dignity + Glory = Authority). All nobles inherited certain amount of Dignitas form ancestors. Dignitas was social standing, and was based on what your ancestors had done for Rome, e.g. what offices they held, what laws they passed, what buildings they had built for Rome, and what had they done militarily. Family history was so important that they spent time recalling it, especially at funerals. When famous Romans died, there was a public funeral in the forum. A relative of the deceased would get on stage and give a speech about the person and family. The family would hire actors to represent dead family members, wearing correct togas: Consul’s toga had purple stripe, and Victory toga was a gold stripe. Actors would wear wax masks of dead ancestors that were made when the ancestor was still alive. Nobles would keep these wax masks in their atriums with plaques below about that family member’s political and military success. They used these plaques to remind others of the family’s Dignitas as well as to inspire young nobles. This impressed upon the young nobles that they had to follow the family path and at least maintain the

Page 5 of 24 family Dignitas. In order to increase Dignitas, nobles had to work their way up the political ladder, Cursus Honorum. This was tough to do as there were a lot of noble families trying to do the same thing. Becoming Consul gained some political glory, but nobles wanted to be Consul in order to lead the army into battle. If everything went as planned they would win the war, get the plunder, gain Gloria, and get a military parade called a Triumph.

All senators were not of equal power. Their power was dependent on the amount of Auctoritas they had. In order to maintain the Auctoritas System there needs to be a lot of wars, to make sure there was always Gloria to be gained. This is seen in that Rome was at war for all but 2 years, which is unparalleled, and made Rome good at starting wars.

Roman Names  Praenomen – First name  Nomen – Clan name  – Last names  Agnomen – Nicknames

There were only 17 different first names that were common. If someone had only 2 names they were not part of the nobility. Agnomens were usually good, e.g. conquered a territory by battle. Girls had 1 name, which was the feminine version of the father’s Nomen. If father and son had the same name they were: elder, or junior. If 3 or more shared the same name they were 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.

Lecture 5 - Military

Military Rome conquered all of Italy by 264 BC. Rome allowed conquered people to be equal Roman citizens, allowing them to participate in Roman politics, and be protected by Roman laws. This inclusion filled the army with new Romans that were loyal, and allows the army to expand drastically. However, Rome makes half of Italy into Socii (Allies of Rome), who were allowed to run their own internal affairs, but paid taxes, served in the army, were not Roman citizens. This also made them more loyal than average subjects, because they believed that one day they would gain Roman citizenship.

By 264 BC all Italy had to contribute to Rome’s Army, totaling about 500,000 soldiers. This was bigger than any army west of India. No one in Mediterranean Sea could compete with Rome’s manpower. This overwhelming manpower allowed them to win all their wars, even though Rome was technologically inferior to their enemies. Leaders lead armies to disasters, but Rome had enough manpower to keep fighting until they won.

The Roman Legion consisted of 6000 men, mostly infantry, with a small amount of cavalry.  Roman soldier was called a Miles wore iron armor, carried a short javelin and a short sword, called a Gladius.  Centurions formed the “backbone of Roman Army”, and were average citizens who worked their way up. Centurions were ranked, and were often invited to give advice to the commander.  Quaestors were in charge of money and supplies.  Legates were friends of the commander.

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 Naval Ships were called Quinqueremes. Most people on the ship rowed, not many marines on board.  Romans always made proper camp after marching, and always the same way. Same soldier in same spot every time.  Romans eventually will learn to do relays, to get fresh troops to the front. Link:(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gbSa9ZvSMaQ)  End of republic army turns professional.

Basic Battle Tactics  The tactic for land battles was to break the enemy formation. This tactic worked because the Roman disciple was so harsh, allowing them to hold when the enemy wouldn’t.  The tactic for sea battles was to ram front of their ship into side of an enemy ship, making a hole that would cause them to sink.

Lecture 6 – 1st Punic War

Important Terms Dido Carthage: 814 BC Messena: 264 BC 1st Punic War: 264 - 241 BC Corvus M. Atilius Regulus: 256-255 BC Tunis: 255 BC Drepanum: 249 BC Aegates Islands: 241 BC Polybius: 200 - 118 BC

Carthage Recap: Queen Dido was building Carthage when Aeneas was on his trip to Italy. Dido and Aeneas fell in love. Aeneas forgets about his trip, but is soon forced by the gods to continue. Dido commits suicide by burning herself alive, but before hand predicts the .

Carthage, meaning “New City”, was founded around 814 BC by Phoenicians fleeing from the Assyrians. Carthage’s wealth was based on trade, and used this wealth to finance a large empire, with the biggest and best navy, made up of more than 200 Quinqueremes. Carthage’s government was a Polis, politically similar to Rome’s. However, Carthaginians didn’t serve in the army, except when the city was under attack. Normally they used professional mercenaries, with Carthaginian commanders.

1st Punic War Rome and Carthage were friends early on, as the only cared about the Italian peninsula, there was no conflict of interest with Carthage. In 264 BC, Rome was one of five great powers in the Mediterranean: Rome, Macedonia, Ptolemy (Egypt), Seleucid Empire, and Carthage.

In 264 BC Rome gets involved in foreign war with one of these great powers, Carthage. The spark of war was Carthaginians taking control of Messena on Sicily. Rome decides this is a big problem, because if Carthage could conquer Messena they could conquer all of Sicily, and become a bigger power

Page 7 of 24 and larger threat. In 264 BC, Rome sends ultimatum to Carthage (short and sweet), “Get out of Messena”. Carthage says no, so Rome declares war, and this begins the 1st Punic War.

Biggest war in Ancient History:  Longest war (24 years)  Number of soldiers involved (100,000s)  Most deaths (100,000s)  Largest number of naval warships (100s of Quinqueremes)

Rome had a good army, while Carthage had a good navy. During the first years Rome wins land battles but couldn’t take coastal towns, due to the Carthaginian Navy, causing Rome to build a navy. Rome develops the Corvus, used to create a bridge between ships, which evens the naval odds. There were 7 major sea battles, Rome wins 6 of them. The first 5 wins were due to Corvus. In 256 BC, Rome achieved naval supremacy, and made a new plan to invade North . Marcus Atilius Regulus led the invasion to within eyesight of Carthage. The Battle of Tunis was fought 50 miles from Carthage, and ended with Regulus being captured and his army being wiped out. Carthage wins the battle due to better cavalry and war elephants (200). Regulus dies in captivity, and because of his defeat Rome doesn’t want to invade North Africa again. In 249 BC Rome suffers naval defeat at battle of Drepanum. Romans believed this was because the gods weren’t with them. The war is at a stalemate between 249 – 241 BC. Rome makes a new navy, and in 241 BC there is the decisive battle of the Aegates Islands. Roman Navy destroyed the Carthaginian navy forcing Carthage to sue for peace. In 241 BC Sicily becomes a Rome’s first overseas province, but treats them badly, like servants.

Roman peace terms on Carthage:  Can’t have a navy  Huge fine  Kicked out of Sicily

Lecture 7 – 2nd Punic War

Important Terms Corsica / Sardinia: 238 BC Hamilcar Barca: 237 BC : 221 BC Saguntum: 218BC 2nd Punic War: 218-202 BC Ticinus / Trebia: 218 BC Gaius Flaminus: 217 BC Trasimeno Gaius Lucius Aemilus Paullus Cannae: 216 BC

3 years after the end of 1st Punic War, Rome captures Corsica and Sardinia, both long held Carthaginian territories. Rome gives no justifications for their actions. Carthage complains, but Rome wants another war. Carthage doesn’t want a war so they back down. This exchange confirms to Carthage that there will be another war with Rome. In 237 BC, Carthage sends Hamilcar Barca to

Page 8 of 24 conquer Spain. Spain had gold, silver, and iron that Carthage could use against Rome. Hamilcar Barca, Barca means lightning, came from one of the most powerful Carthaginian families. He is considered to be the best general on either side of the 1st Punic War. Carthage conquers Spain under Hamilcar and his son Hannibal.

In 221 BC, Hannibal is 25 years old, and his only goal is to destroy Rome. At 9, when his father went to Spain, he begged to go but before his father agreed he made Hannibal swear to spend his entire life trying to destroy Rome.

During that time Rome was busy with other wars, but in 218 BC Rome finished with the other wars and saw Carthage becoming a powerful again. Rome decided they need to stop Carthage and start to look for an excuse to start a war. In 218 BC they got their excuse, a Spanish town, Sagentum, begged Rome for help from Carthage. Romans saw their opportunity and sent a message to Hannibal that told him not to attack, as Sagentum is a long time ally of Rome. Hannibal knew if he backed down he was going to continue getting ultimatums, and so captured Saguntum, starting the 2nd Punic War.

Rome thought the war would be over quickly, as they controlled the seas, and had overwhelming numbers. Rome raised 2 armies, one for each consul, one to Spain, one to Carthage. Hannibal believed he had better infantry than the Romans, because they were professionals, with bigger and better cavalry. He was also a great general, due his time in Spain, the superior of any Roman general. He was right. Hannibal didn’t wait to be attacked, instead heads to Italy. He believed that the Romans would revolt after losing a few battles, but this failed because of the Roman system in Italy. This system allows Rome to keep fighting after sustaining large losses.

Hannibal took his army into Italy, arriving with 25,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry, and 40 elephants. This caused Rome to recall its armies. Hannibal fought two separate battles, at Ticinius River and Trebia River. Hannibal won both battles, killing 30,000 Roman soldiers, however the Romans don’t defect. In 217 BC, Rome raised another army, under Gaius Flaminius, not a noble, but a “new man”. Flaminius was a good politician but a bad general. He found Hannibal’s trail but didn’t know where he was. Hannibal set a trap at Lake Tresimeno. Flaminius fell into the trap killing most of the Romans, 30,000, along with Flaminius. In less than a year Hannibal fought 3 battles and killed 65,000 soldiers. In 216 BC, Rome raised another army under Gaius Terentius Varro, and Lucius Aemilius Paullus. Army contained 86,000 men outnumbering Hannibal 2:1. The two armies meet at Cannae. Hannibal employed a double envelopment, killing 80,000 Romans and Lucius Aemilius Paullus.

Lecture 8 – 2nd Punic War (cont.)

Important Terms Quintus Fabius Maximus: 216 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio: 210 – 206 BC Consul: 205 BC Zama: 202 BC

Hannibal’s main goal of breaking the Romans didn’t happen due to the Roman Government. After Cannae, Quintus Fabius Maximus put forth a new strategy, to avoid another battle with Hannibal. Fabius believed time was on Rome’s side, and must not give Hannibal another big victory. Rome raised 250,000 soldiers, and divided them into smaller armies. One army followed Hannibal around, with instructions to not fight Hannibal under any circumstances. Another army would reconquer the Socii

Page 9 of 24 that had defected. Other armies would attack the Carthaginians in Spain, and Sicily. This strategy slowly turned the tide to Romans. Hannibal couldn’t protect the rebellious Roman states. After 10 years of Fabius’ policy most rebel states had been punished and no big battles with Hannibal. There was a need for a big battle to end the war. However, Rome needed a good enough general to face Hannibal.

That general was Publius Cornelius Scipio. Scipio came from a noble patrician father who had been Consul in 218 BC and was defeated at Ticinius River. Scipio had been at Ticinus River and Cannae, and was sent to Spain. In 4 years he conquered Spain and drove the Carthaginians out. In 206 BC, Spain became a Roman province, and would remain so for the next 6 centuries. Scipio became a great general by copying Hannibal and made his soldiers professionals. In 205 BC, Scipio was elected Consul of Rome, and ordered to attack Carthage and North Africa. This forces the Carthaginian government to recall Hannibal. In 202 BC, the battle of Zama, Scipio defeats Hannibal. Scipio wins because he was a good general, his soldiers were professional, and the defection of the Carthaginian cavalry. Carthage got their cavalry from Namibia, as Namibia had great cavalry. Carthage after one big loss had to surrender. Rome imposes harsh peace terms.

Roman peace terms on Carthage:  Big tax to Rome  Carthage lose most of its territory  Namibians get their independence, for their service  Carthaginians can’t fight a war without Rome’s approval

In 202 BC, the end of the 2nd Punic War was a dramatic turning point. Carthage was only state to give Rome a good fight. Even though they won, Rome was terrified about how well Hannibal had done. This caused a new excuse for going to war “attack now in their country or later in Italy”. Scipio is given the nickname “Africanus”, and had more military glory than any other Roman ever. Scipio had more authority than any other Roman ever. Scipio was the most powerful person in Rome for 10 years. Other Roman senators want glory and so start another war, a year later.

Lecture 9 – Rome becomes Number 1

Important Terms Rome #1: 202 – 146 BC Perseus: 168 BC Pydna Lucius Aemilius Paullus Antiochus IV – Seleucid Ptolemy V – Egypt Gaius Popillius Laenas Marcus Porcius Cato 3rd Punic War: 149-146 BC

In 168 BC, Rome is at war with the kingdom of Macedonia (Greek Kingdom), home of Alexander the Great. The ruler was Perseus, who didn’t want to fight a war with Rome. He knew he was weaker than Rome, as his father had already lost 2 wars to Rome. After Hannibal, Rome was afraid of other kingdoms becoming a threat, and so forces Perseus into the 3rd Macedonian War. The roman legion was

Page 10 of 24 superior to the Macedonian Phalanx. There was only 1 big battle, at Pydna. Rome won and Macedonia had to surrender. Rome ended the kingdom of Macedonia.

L. Aemilius Paullus, the general at Pydna, whose father was the general at Cannae, went back to Rome and celebrated the greatest triumph ever seen, taking 3 days. Paullus had the captured Perseus walk in the parade. Perseus was strangled after the parade. That same year, the king of Seleucid Empire, Antiochus IV invaded Egypt and drove out Ptolemy V, the king of Egypt. It looked like the Seleucid Empire was going to absorb Egypt. Rome didn’t want this because Seleucid was already powerful. Rome sent an ambassador to Egypt to meet with Antiochus IV. The ambassador was Gaius Popillius Laenas, who gave Antiochus IV an ultimatum, “Get out of Egypt”. Antiochus IV said he needed to think about it. Laenas drew a circle around him and said he needs an answer before he leaves it. Antiochus left Egypt, and Ptolemy V was reinstated.

Carthage had survived the 2nd Punic War, but was now weak, but still very wealthy. Some Romans thought Carthage could recover and take revenge. Old Senator (age 90), Marcus Porcius Cato, was afraid of this, and wanted Rome to attack Carthage now. Whenever Cato made a speech he ended with “Carthage should be destroyed”. The Romans found their excuse in 149 BC, when Carthage attacked an enemy without Rome’s approval. Rome told the Carthaginians to give armor and weapons or there will be war, Carthage complied. Rome then asked for the catapults, Carthage complied again. Rome then told them to abandon city and move, Carthage doesn’t. Rome declared war, and began the 3rd Punic war. The siege of Carthage took 3 years, but in 146 BC Romans break in and Carthage is captured. 300,000 people lived in Carthage before the war but only 50,000 after the war. The remaining 50,000 people become slaves. Romans set fire to city, tore it down brick by brick, salted the fields and cursed the site. By 146 BC, no state could challenge Roman power, which lasts for another 600 years. Romans begin to fight amongst themselves.

Lecture 10 – Roman Revolution

Important Terms Roman Revolution: 133 – 31 BC Publius Villius Tappulus: 198 BC Gaius Laelius Titus Quinctius Flamininus Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus: 133 BC Pergamum Publius Cornelius Nasica

The Roman Revolution began in 133 BC, and lasted just over 100 years. The period was marked with violence and bloodshed that would bring down the Republic. Before 133 BC, the senate had intense competition over 3 things: election to office, policy and who received important military commands.

In 198 BC Rome was at war with Phillip II of Macedonia. Publius Villius Tappulus was sent out to fight Phillip but couldn’t do it in the time frame. He debated whether or not he should go ( get an extra year to finish a war). He decided against it so it was between the Consuls Gaius Laelius and Titus Quinctius Flamininus. Flamininus got the war, defeated Phillip, and gained military glory. This was important because before 133 BC, Roman senators accepted defeat, and didn’t do anything illegal, unprecedented, or violent to stop a political defeat.

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That began to change in 133 BC. There was so much power and money that some senators became corrupted and were willing to do anything to reverse or stop a political defeat. Some senators were even willing to start civil wars rather than accept defeat. In 133 BC Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, a noble plebian, was elected as a Tribune. Both his father and grandfather had been consul, and his father on mother’s side was Publius Scipio Africanus. After he took office, he noticed serious problems, two of which he would try and solve. One problem was for the first time in Roman history, Rome was having trouble getting enough soldiers for the army. Most of Roman soldiers used to be farmers, but by 133 BC the number of small farmers had declined drastically. The second problem was the large number of poor people in Rome. Many of the poor were farmers who had to leave their farms. Gracchus went to the senate with an idea to take all the land in Italy owned by the state and give it to the poor, solving both problems. There was an intense debate but the senate rejects the idea, because some of the senators were using the land illegally. After the debate Gracchus did something unprecedented, and went to the Tribal Assembly. He did this to avoid a political defeat and because it was for the good of Rome. The Tribal Assembly passed the law, and was the first time the power of the people through the Tribal Assembly had been expressed against the senate. This showed that Rome didn’t need the senate to run Rome.

During 133 BC Gracchus continued to make laws. During that year, the King of Pergamum died and in his will gave Pergamum to Rome. Rome needed to decide if they would accept and then what to do with it. Gracchus, ignoring the senate, said to accept Pergamum and use the money to finance farmers. This makes the senate mad. The senate’s final straw was when Gracchus said he was going to run for reelection. Reelection to Tribune wasn’t illegal but it was unprecedented. The senate was terrified that it was becoming obsolete. Gracchus’ enemies were going crazy, especially Publius Cornelius Nasica, his most bitter enemy even thought they were cousins. Nasica was mad because he lost land and also that Gracchus might be reelected. Nasica declared that Gracchus was going to destroy the republic and asked who would come with him to stop Gracchus. On the way, they meet with armed followers, before they club Gracchus to death. No one was tried for the murder, because senate controlled the courts.

This was what made 133 BC so important:  Gracchus didn’t accept defeat  Demonstrated power of Tribune and Tribal Assembly  Senators didn’t accept defeat and resorted to violence

Lecture 11 – Civil War

Important Terms Gaius Marius: 107 BC Cimbri and Teutones: 104 - 100 BC Lucius Cornelius : 88 BC Mithraidates VI of Pontus Publius Sulpicius Rufus Marians: 87 - 83 BC Civil War #1: 83 – 82BC Dictatorship: 82 - 79 BC Spartacus: 73-71 BC : 70 BC Gnaeus Magnus

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Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla had a rivalry. 107 BC, Marius is elected Consul and assigned a good war to fight in Africa, against King Jugurtha. Unfortunately for him, he couldn’t find enough soldiers for his army. So Marius announced that he would allow any Roman citizen to join the army and the government would provide armor, supplies. Marius didn’t meet opposition from the senate, even though they didn’t think it would work well. The senate didn’t think the poor had enough of a stake in battle to fight well. However, Marius was able to raise a huge army, and showed in battle that the poor fought as well as the rich. Marius was a good general and trained his soldiers well, allowing him to win the war with King Jugurtha after which he was sent against the Cimbri and Teutones tribes invading Italy. Marius defeated them and in 100 BC, he and his army came back to Rome huge heroes. Marius didn’t want the army to just be released, so went to the senate and asked them to give his men land for fighting well. The senate denied the request, so Marius went to a tribune and got the tribune to propose it to the people. The Tribal Assembly passes the law, and in doing so Marius created the tool that will bring down the Roman Republic. Soldiers were now more loyal to the general than to the state.

In 88 BC, Sulla was elected Consul, and given a good war to fight against Mithridates VI of Pontus. However, before Sulla went, Marius decided he needed 1 last great military victory, and he should be the commander against Mithridates. Marius went to a Tribune, Publius Sulpicius Rufus, to have the people transfer command from Sulla to himself. The Tribal Assembly voted to give command to Marius. After that however Sulla went to the army and got on the camp , started crying, tearing his toga, and saying “look what they have done”. After this the army said that they would stand by Sulla. Sulla took the army to Rome and in 88 BC, Sulla was the first general to march an army against Rome and capture it. After he captured the city, Sulla started killing his political enemies, that he could get a hold of, including Rufus. He then returned command against Mithridates to himself, and headed east. After Sulla left Marius returned and went around Italy recruiting his old soldiers. In 87 BC, Marius captured Rome, with his army of his old soldiers, and killed his political enemies. Shortly after Marius died, but his supporters, the Marians, continue to run Rome, as they still control the army.

83 BC, Sulla defeated Mithridates, and headed back to Italy. His return started Civil War #1. After Sulla won the civil war, he started Rome’s first reign of terror, where he killed all his enemies along with random rich people so he could pay his soldiers. Sulla started passing laws to reform the Roman state. The main goal was to put the senate firmly back in charge. One such law was that Tribunes can’t propose anything to Tribal Assembly that wasn’t first approved by the senate. Sulla also limited the power of senators in charge of armies, by making it so they couldn’t control armies for more than 1 year. Sulla was first dictator from 82 – 79 BC, when he retired, returning power to the state. Sulla died the next year, and wrote his own epitaph which read, “no friend has ever helped me and no enemy has ever harmed me, I haven’t repaid in full.”

The problem was Sulla’s example. Rebellion of Spartacus showed that the reforms didn’t work. Spartacus was a slave trained to be a . In 73 BC he escaped and put together an army of runaway slaves. At the time 20% of Italy’s population was slaves. Between 73 – 71 BC, Spartacus was able to defeat the Roman armies he faced. In 71 BC, Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey Magnus defeat Spartacus’ army. Crassus and Pompey both had armies and took advantage of it by marching to Rome, and camping outside of the wall. They tell the people they want to be Consul, which the people accept. This clearly demonstrated that by 70 BC, Sulla’s laws didn’t work. As Consuls, Crassus and Pompey repeal Sulla’s laws.

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Lecture 12 – 1st Triumvirate

Important Terms Marcus Licinius Crassus: 70 BC Gnaeus Pompey Magnus Far East: 67-62 BC Cilician Pirates Mithridates VI 1st Triumvirate: 60 BC Gaius Consul: 59 BC Lex Vatinia

In 67 BC, the Tribal Assembly gave Pompey an unlimited command, where he could raise as many soldiers, and as many ships for a navy as he wanted, as well as making all other Roman governors and officers his subordinates. This was done so that he could attack the Cilician pirates.

By 67 BC, Cilician had huge army and navy that they used to interrupt Roman trade. Pompey quickly showed himself to be a good general, crushing the Cilician pirates in 3 months. From this point on, piracy was no longer a problem. The Tribal Assembly then gave Pompey command to attack Mithridates VI, which he does ending the war quickly. Pompey brings the Seleucid Empire to an end, adding the territory to Rome. The areas were very wealthy, doubled Rome’s tax revenue. For his conquest of the Seleucid Empire, Pompey receives the nickname “Magnus”, the Great.

Pompey was in the east between 67 - 62 BC. After conquering the Seleucid Empire, he was on his way back, with a huge army and navy. Pompey was popular with both, as he had given money to his men. People in Italy were afraid Pompey might use his army and make himself dictator like Sulla, but when he got back to Italy he disbanded his army. He was not willing to do what Sulla did and seize Italy by force, and because of his great military glory he didn’t need to. When he got back to Rome, he told Senate he wanted 2 things, land for his soldiers and all arrangements in the east to be approved. Both were logical requests, but the senate denies his request. They didn’t like that Pompey had become so popular, and were going to bring him down a little bit, and so rejected his requests.

After this Pompey formed a political alliance known as the “1st Triumvirate” made up of Pompey, Crassus, and Gaius Julius Caesar. Pompey was the most popular general, and Crassus was the wealthiest man in Rome. Together they pull their resources to get Caesar elected Consul in 59 BC, as they believed he had the power to get things done. Caesar was able to trace his ancestry back to Aeneas. His family was Patrician, but despite their noble heritage, his family was relatively poor. Money was important to make it up political ladder. It’s possible that without Pompey and Crassus he might not have become Consul. Often when alliances took place, marriages would accompany them, and so Pompey married Julia, Caesar’s daughter. Pompey and Julia fell in love, and while they were married there was a good relationship between Pompey and Caesar.

After Caesar became Consul, he needed to pass things Pompey and Crassus wanted. Caesar used force in the forum to get his laws passed, by bringing armed support to the forum. He used force to take over any place a law or election would take place. He was able to seize the heart of Roman and pass all the laws they want passed. Pompey got land for his soldiers and arrangements in the east approved. Once Caesar satisfied Crassus and Pompey, he wanted a shot at political glory. Roman law

Page 14 of 24 stated that while in charge of army the commander was immune from trial. Late in 59 BC, Caesar gets a Tribune to pass Lex Vatinia. The law granted Caesar control of 2 Roman provinces for 5 years, southern France and northern Italy. Governors had absolute power in their provinces, and as governor Caesar would also be immune from trial. Every province had stationed soldiers to keep the provinces under control. Caesar had money and now, as governor, he had a big army that he will use to begin a long war that will bring him more money and glory.

Lecture 13 – Gallic War

Important Terms Gallic War: 58 - 50 BC Helvetii: 58 BC Ariovistus Rhine: 55 BC Britain: 55 – 54 BC : 52 BC Alesia Uxellodunum: 51 BC

Caesar had his command extended to 50 BC, and in 58 BC invaded Gaul, starting the Gallic War. Rome. Gaul was populated by many different tribes, most were Gauls, but there were others like Germans. Both Gauls and Germans were ancient enemies of Rome and excelled at war. These tribes were a continual menace to Rome, occasionally invading Italy. By this time the Gauls began to build cities, practice agriculture, manufacture goods, and engage in trade. However, the Gauls was not politically unified, but divided into smaller groups, which made it easier for Caesar to conquer them.

Caesar gets pretext for war from the Helvetii, however the war was still illegal. The Helvetii contained 350,000 people. Caesar said they migrated west and violated Roman territory. Caesar starts with 4 legions eventually goes to 10. Caesar follows the Helvetii, battles and defeats them. Caesar orders them to go back to where they came from. The 175,000 left after the battle obeyed the orders. Later that same year a German tribe, led by Ariovistus, goes west over the Rhine to conquer Gaul. Even though Rome was allied to them, Caesar attacked Ariovistus. Caesar defeated them and sent them back to Germany.

Starting in 58 BC Caesar began to conquer all of Gaul, and by 55 BC Gaul was seemingly conquered. Caesar’s enemies in Rome weren’t happy and accuse him of war crimes and unauthorized war. However the people were happy for the new territory and the end of a threat. Caesar also sent money back to Rome to build things and hold games. Caesar was winning Gloria, and in 55 and 54 BC Caesar launches more campaigns to gain more popularity:  55 BC, Caesar led the first Roman army across the Rhine and attacked the Germans at home, in Germany.  55 BC, Caesar landed, unprepared, on a beach in Britain. The landing was contested by British soldiers.  54 BC, Caesar attacked Britain again, this time with a bigger army. He defeated British tribes and fought to the Thames River, then left.

The Gauls weren’t happy, and 52 BC brought a major uprising. For the first time the Gallic tribes were united with 300,000 soldiers under Vercingetorix. 80,000 solders led Caesar to the town of Alesia

Page 15 of 24 and then encamped on top of the hill. Caesar couldn’t storm them, so he settled in for the siege, and built a wall to starve out the Gauls. The other 230,000 soldiers then headed to Alesia to trap Caesar and his army. Caesar realized this and built another wall outside of his other wall. This put Caesar in between the two Gallic forces. Caesar did this because he thought his army could hold out longer than the Gauls, and for 5 days the Gauls tried to break through Caesar’s defenses. Afterward the Gauls inside Alesia surrendered and the Gauls outside the city were defeated by Caesar. A few cities held out against the Romans, one of which was Uxellodunum, in 51 BC. The city was hard to attack, so Caesar dug under the city and diverted the water away from the city well causing the city to surrender.

During the Gallic War, Caesar estimatedly killed 1 million people, enslaved another 1 million, and as a result added Gaul to the Roman territories. After 8 years of campaigning Caesar was rich, a great general, Rome’s most popular general, and had a large group of loyal, well trained, and experienced soldiers. He was also a great propagandist, and wrote commentaries on the Gallic War. After each year’s campaigning he would write a chapter and send it to Rome. He also kept an eye on what was happening in Rome, and bribed many senators while away from Rome.

Lecture 14 – 1st Triumvirate Breaks Apart

Important Terms Publius Pulcher: 92 – 52 BC Lucius Licinius : 68 BC : 62 – 61 BC / : 58 BC : 57 BC Collegia Luca: 56 BC Julia: 54 BC Parthia Carrhae: 53 BC Marcus Porcius Cato: 52 BC Gaius Scribonius Curio: 50 BC Marcus Antonius: 49 BC

Publius Clodius Pulcher was born into the Claudius family, one of Rome’s most ancient and noble families, but despite coming from nobility the family was thought to be mavericks. Clodius was 1 of 6 children. The kids grew up wild after their father was killed on campaign.

Clodius soon demonstrated he would do anything to further his political career. In 68 BC he was army staff to Lucius Licinius Lucullus, his brother in law, who was leading an army against Mithraidates. Clodius was upset that he didn’t have an important military command and that the army was going east in worsening weather, so Clodius started a mutiny against Lucullus (there were 45 mutinies in last part of the Republic). This caused Lucullus to turn around and marched army west. Clodius got involved in Bona Dea (Good Goddess) scandal at Caesar’s house. Only women could take part in Bona Dea, but Clodius wanted to get in to seduce Caesar’s wife, so he dressed like a women and snuck into the house, but he was discovered and recognized. The Romans thought it was religious sacrilege. However, when Clodius was put on trial, he was acquitted, because Crassus bribed the jurors. Caesar didn’t testify against him and divorced Pompeia, because “Caesar’s wife must be above suspicion”. Clodius wanted to

Page 16 of 24 get back at his enemies, and the best way was to be a Tribune. Clodius was patrician and ineligible, so he had Caesar get him adopted into a plebian family. Once he was plebian he was elected to Tribune in 58 BC.

There were two different “parties” in Rome, the Populares and the Optimates. Populares tried to get power through the people, while Optimates tried to defend the power of senate and wealthier citizens. Clodius became a Populares and passed laws popular with the people. I.e. no religion in politics, free grain to poor and lame, legalized Collegia. Collegia were clubs: social, religious, and professional clubs. Members of the clubs were very loyal to Clodius, and were easy to mobilize when needed because they were well organized. In 57 BC Optimates organized their own street gangs, lead by Titus Annius Milo, who bought . A gang war started that lasted for 5 years. The gang war was so intense that in 53 BC there was no election because there was too much violence, and so 52 BC started with no officials. Clodius was killed by an Optimates’ gladiators and left on statue of Bona Dea. Milo was put on trial and found guilty of the murder. Marcus Porcius Cato wanted to put an end to the gang war for fear of a revolution, and so got Pompeii elected to Consul with no colleague. Pompeii brought soldiers into Rome and crushed the gang war, bringing peace to Rome.

56 BC Crassus, Pompeii, and Caesar held a conference in Luca. At the conference, it was decided that Caesar would get extra 5 years in Gaul, Pompeii would get Spain, and Crassus would go east to fight Parthia, but soon the alliance started to break apart. In 54 BC Caesar’s daughter and Pompeii’s wife, Julia died in child birth, removing the link between Pompeii and Caesar. In 53 BC Crassus died in the battle of Carrhae. Cato and Optimates used Pompeii to stop gang wars, hated Caesar, saw him as a problem, and were afraid he would follow in Sulla’s footsteps. They determined that Pompeii was the lesser of two evils. Cato and Optimates tried to get Pompeii on their side and away from Caesar. Finally Pompeii goes over to their side, because he didn’t want a rival, and agreed to help bring down Caesar. Senate meeting determined in 50 BC that Caesar’s command should be terminated. However before the vote, a tribune, Gaius Scribonius Curio, vetoed the vote, because Caesar had bribed him. He continued to veto the vote every time for the rest of the year. In 49 BC, there were new tribunes, so Cato and Optimates tried again. This time they were vetoed by Marcus Antonius (). The senate threw Mark Antony out of Rome and elected Pompeii in charge of the army.

Lecture 15 – Civil War #2 and the Ides of March

Important Terms Civil War #2: 49 – 45 BC Pharsalus: 48 BC Ptolemy XIII Caesarion Marcus Junius Brutus Ides: 3/15/44 BC

Caesar crossed the Rubicon River starting the 2nd Civil War. Caesar thought he had been forced into it by Pompeii. Most of the senate backed Pompeii, and expected Caesar to back down, because they had 4 armies while Caesar only had 1 army. When Caesar didn’t back down Pompeii and the senate were caught by surprise, and fled to , allowing Caesar to capture Rome without a fight. In 48 BC Caesar took his army from Italy to Greece, where the Battle of Pharsalus was fought. Pompeii had

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45,000 soldiers to Caesar’s 10 legions (22,000 soldiers). However Caesar was victorious, due to his soldiers’ experience.

Pompeii escaped to Egypt, an independent state ruled by Ptolemy XIII, descendant of the generals of Alexander the Great (300 years before). Ptolemy I took over Egypt after Alexander’s death. Ptolemy XIII knew how powerful Rome was, and had to stay on Rome’s good side, so they had no excuse for war. Ptolemy XIII had heard about the battle of Pharsalus and thought Caesar would now rule the Roman world. Ptolemy XIII wanted to get in good with Caesar, so when Pompeii arrived in Egypt, as he was getting off the boat, he was assassinated. Caesar arrived shortly after, where Ptolemy handed him Pompeii’s head. Ptolemy thought this would make Caesar happy, but Caesar was not happy. Throughout the war Caesar had spared his defeated enemies, and claiming he also wanted to spare Pompeii. Caesar was so mad after being given the head he kicked Ptolemy XIII off the Egyptian throne, replacing Ptolemy with his sister Cleopatra. Ptolemy disappeared, and Cleopatra became queen of Egypt at age 19. Even though Pompeii is dead, the war continued. Caesar spent the next year in Egypt with Cleopatra. After Cleopatra gave birth to Ptolemy Ceasarion, Caesar went back to the civil war.

In 47 BC he defeated the army in Turkey, in 46 BC he defeated the army in North Africa, and in 45 BC he defeated the army in Spain. When he went back to Rome in 45 BC he was declared dictator for 10 years, and claimed he wanted to fix everything in Republic and then step down. Dictator from 45 to 44 BC he passed dozens of laws. One changed the Roman calendar, from 360 days to 365 days, with a leap year every 4th year. Month of Quintilius was changed to July. In February 44 BC Caesar was proclaimed dictator for life. People were worried that he would become king, divorce his roman wife, marry Cleopatra, and leave the Roman world to his son. The senate was most concerned about this, even though most people were happier under Caesar than under the senate. The senate feared loss of power and that it would only get worse. A conspiracy was formed by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, who were soon joined by 60 senators. Most of those senators had fought against Caesar in the civil war, but were spared in defeat and even given important jobs under Caesar. Cassius and Brutus were both Praetors and within a couple years they would be consuls. A lot of people who joined the conspiracy were personal friends of Caesar. In 44 BC the conspirators decided to strike Caesar at a meeting on March 15 or to the Romans, the Ides of March. The senate was meeting in the theater of Pompeii. For the meeting Caesar left his house and walked to the theater, where his bodyguard was dismissed, leaving him unprotected. Caesar entered the senate by himself and was then surrounded by conspirators. At a signal they all pull out knives and stab Caesar to death. Caesar fell at the foot of the statue of Pompeii. After they killed Caesar the conspirators went to the forum and told everyone they have restored (freedom). The people meet the speech with cold silence. The only ones who wanted the republic was the senate.

Lecture 16 – The Roman Empire

Important Terms Marcus Antonius: 44 BC Gaius Octavius Marcus Aemilius Lepidus: 43 BC 2nd Triumvirate Philippi: 42 BC (Appendix I) Sicily: 36 BC Actium: 31 BC (Appendix II) Republic: 509 – 31 BC

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Empire: 31 BC – 476 AD

Caesar was assassinated in the theater of Pompey by senators led by Brutus and Cassius in an attempt to restore the republic, because they couldn’t accept the Caesar’s dictatorship. They thought killing Caesar would be popular, which is why after the assassination they went to the forum to announce what they had done. However the people weren’t happy, Caesar had tried to help the people, while the senate didn’t and tried to kill people that did try to help them. The assassins left the forum and then Rome for the east, hoping that without Caesar Rome would revert to a republic.

The assignation gave rise to Mark Antony and Gaius Octavius. Mark Antony was a long time follower of Caesar, who had fought with him in the Gallic War and Civil War #2. Mark Antony was Caesar’s right hand man, running Rome when Caesar was gone. After Caesar’s death many soldiers transferred their loyalty to Mark Antony making him very powerful overnight, as what mattered most was who had the biggest army. In 44 BC, Gaius Octavius was 18, and Caesar’s closest male relative, his great nephew. Caesar must have seen something in him as Caesar left Octavius almost all of his money, and in his will adopted Octavian as his official son. Octavian’s new name was Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, he dropped the Octavianus soon after. Caesar’s favor made many soldiers transferred their loyalty to Octavius, and so he also became powerful. Octavian’s goal was to rule the whole world, and would do anything to achieve his goal.

In 43 BC Octavian and Antony joined with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus to form the 2nd Triumvirate. They used their combined armies to seize the western half of the empire, and then kill all the enemies they could, including the assassins of Caesar. They also killed rich people for money to pay their army.

Brutus, Cassius and the other assassins headed east. They figured out power laid with having soldiers, and soon raised an army, seizing control of the eastern half of the empire. In 42 BC the 2nd Triumvirate fought the Assassin’s army at the battle of Philippi and was victorious. After the battle Brutus and Cassius committed suicide, most of the other assassins were captured and killed.

The republic is finished, as there was no one left with power who wanted to restore the republic. After the battle the 2nd Triumvirate divided up the empire. Antony received glory at Philippi and so chose first, choosing the east, Octavian took the west, leaving Lepidus with North Africa. Octavian wanted the whole empire and so he had to get rid of his allies. First, in 36 BC, there was a dispute between Octavian and Lepidus. Lepidus saw opportunity to get rid of Octavian, and so transported his army to Sicily but when his soldiers found out they were going to attack Octavian they mutinied and handed Lepidus over to Octavian. Octavian kicked Lepidus out of the triumvirate, exiled him to southern Italy, and taking over North Africa in the process.

After Philippi, Antony went east, met with Cleopatra, fell in love with her, divorced his roman wife (Octavia) and then married her. The roman people didn’t like this. Soon after Cleopatra gave birth to twins, a boy and a girl, and Antony announced all his territories in the east would go to his children by Cleopatra. Octavian started a propaganda campaign against Cleopatra, and then declared war, against Cleopatra and Egypt, but not Antony. The battle of Actium, 31 BC, was a naval battle where Octavian’s navy destroyed the navy of Antony and Cleopatra. After the battle Antony and Cleopatra fled back to Egypt, where Antony committed suicide, Cleopatra tried to seduce Octavian, but when it didn’t work she also committed suicide, leaving Octavian to annex Egypt.

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This is the end of the Roman Republic, and the beginning of the Roman Empire, with Octavian as Rome’s first Emperor.

Appendix I - Liberators’ War

Since 133 B.C. when Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was killed by his cousin Publius Cornelius Nasica after he bypassed senatorial authority, Romans had constantly been fighting amongst themselves for the power of Rome. Gaius Julius Caesar managed to take control of Rome and become dictator of the Roman world. When he was killed on the Ides of March 44B.C. the Roman world was again split. In 43 B.C. a conflict broke out between these two factions the and the Liberators the conflict was called the Liberators’ War. The war lasted less than a year but drastically changed the Roman world.

The Liberators’ leaders were Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus, two of the main senators in the conspiracy against Caesar in which they stabbed him before a meeting of the senate. Brutus before he would enter into the conspiracy made it so that Marcus Antonius was not to be killed along with Caesar and also that the Caesar’s killing was to be publicly announced to the people. The Liberators wanted the republic back with the senate at full power and those who had broken roman laws to be punished. The people didn’t have the same mind set as the Liberators, and when the people saw Caesar’s body they went after the Liberators. The Liberators escaped and headed east into Greece and Macedonia raised an army and navy and took over the eastern half of the roman world.

The Second Triumvirate consisted of Marcus Antonius, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Marcus Antonius had been one of Caesar’s generals, second in command of his legions when at war, and had been given control of Rome to make sure Caesar’s orders were followed in his absence. After Caesar’s death some of the legions under Caesar’s command transferred their loyalty to him. Octavius was Caesar’s great nephew who received a majority of Caesar’s money and was adopted by Caesar to be his son and heir. After a battle in which both consuls in charge of the army were killed Octavius took command of the legions and refused to give them up. Lepidus was leader of the Caesar’s army and avid supporter of Caesar. He gave command of the legions over to Marcus Antonius after Caesar’s death and was elected Pontifex Maximus with Marcus Antonius’ help. In 43B.C. these three form the Second Triumvirate and use their armies to seize control of the western half of the Roman world. They made the Second Triumvirate legally the leading body of Rome by the Lex Titia. Marcus Antonius was given Gaul, Lepidus got Hispania, and Octavius got Sicily, North Africa, and Sardinia. The law also gave them wide ranging powers that allowed them to rule as dictators over these provinces. They then turned on the only opposition to their power which was the Liberators in Macedonia and Greece, who controlled the eastern half of the Roman world. The reason given for war against the Liberators was to avenge the assassination of Caesar. This would allow them to avenge Caesar’s death and take control of the eastern half of the Roman world.

At the start of the war, the Second Triumvirate left Lepidus in Italy to maintain their rule while Marcus Antonius and Octavius went into Northern Greece with their forces. They sent a forward force to look for the Liberators, but when they found them, they discovered they were easily outnumbered and retreated to a strong position that blocked the Liberators from advancing past them. After a short time the Liberator’s attempted to flank the forward force, causing the forward force to retreat to a nearby town, Amphipolis, and fortify it. Marcus Antonius soon arrived at Amphipolis with the majority of the army. Octavius was detained in Dyrrachium due to poor health. Meanwhile the Liberators used their superior naval forces to blockade the Second Triumvirate’s communications going to Italy and supplies

Page 20 of 24 coming from Italy. The Liberator’s strategy was to wear down the Second Triumvirate forces with a lack of supplies from the blockade and in the mean time to take a defensive position and not to get involved in a decisive battle which could cost them everything. They set about taking the position near where the Second Triumvirate’s advanced force had abandoned and to fortify it with a rampart and ditch. This position was on high ground and was bounded on the north by hills and to the south by a marsh. Brutus took the North camp nearest the hills and Cassius took the southern camp nearest the marsh. The Second Triumvirate moved out of Amphipolis and into position to the west of the Liberators and bounded to the south by the same marsh as the Liberators. The army was split into two with Octavius, after coming from Dyrrachium, taking the north camp opposite Brutus and Marcus Antonius taking the southern camp opposite Cassius. Needing to have a decisive battle, because of the Liberator’s blockade and the surrounding country not able to support their army for long, Marcus Antonius offered battle several times, but the Liberators stuck to their strategy. So Marcus Antonius decided to cut a path through the marsh in an attempt to flank the Liberators. Cassius eventually noticed and cut his own path through the marsh trying to cut off Marcus Antonius’ extended right wing, leading Marcus Antonius to attack the fortifications in between Cassius’ camp and the marshes to relieve his extended right wing in the marsh.

Marcus Antonius’ attack on the fortifications in between the marsh and Cassius’ camp lead to a full battle of both side’s forces on October 3rd, 42B.C. Each side had roughly 100,000 soldiers on each side. The Second Triumvirate was all roman legions while the Liberators had their legions reinforced by eastern allies. Marcus Antonius’ army was fighting against Cassius’ army, but some had advanced south before the battle. In the north Brutus’ army didn’t wait for the signal to attack and surprised Octavius’ army and caused then to rout back to their camp, and then proceeded to take the camp as well, however, started looting the camp before Octavius’ forces were finished and allowed them to reform and retreat to Marcus Antonius’ camp. Marcus Antonius’ army had beaten back Cassius’ and taken Cassius’ camp as well. When Cassius’ men that had been going south returned they were beaten back by Marcus Antonius’ men and retreated. Cassius hearing that Brutus had suffered an equally severe loss and being unable to see anything contradictory, because of the large clouds of dust caused by the battle, had his freedman, Pindarus, help him commit suicide. The battle was essentially a draw with the Second Triumvirate losing about 16,000 to the 8,000 lost by the Liberators and each side capturing one of the others camps. The big difference was the loss of Cassius for the Liberators, because he was not only one of the leaders he was also the one with the most military experience, knowledge, and respect.

On the same day reinforcement and supplies sent from Italy to the Second Triumvirate were intercepted at sea and destroyed by the Liberators naval blockade. This made the Second Triumvirate’s supply situation even more in doubt, so they sent a legion south to gather supplies. Marcus Antonius meanwhile started moving his forces east through the marsh trying to flank Brutus’ position. Brutus to counter this maneuver extended his fortifications southeast. Brutus did not receive the same respect as Cassius from the allied forces and they started to desert. Brutus wanted to stick with the original plan of wearing down the enemy by blockade, but his officers and soldiers were tired of his delay strategy and continually demanded that he give them another chance at open battle. On October 23rd, 44B.C. Brutus lead his army against the Second Triumvirate. The battle was taken part in by both sides’ veterans. The soldiers were packed close together in solid formations and threw down their Piliums so that they would just fight by swords. In the end Brutus’s attack was stopped and routed. Octavian’s soldiers were able to capture Brutus’s camp before the routing soldiers could return and defend the camp. This made it impossible for Brutus’ army to reform, and the majority of his army was lost. Brutus was able to retreat to the hills close by with roughly 20,000 men. Seeing no chance for escape Brutus committed suicide. The Second Triumvirate’s victory over the Liberators was complete.

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The scattered part of the Liberators army were gathered up and added to the Second Triumvirates’ army. Old veterans were discharged back to Italy or stayed in Philippi. A new arrangement was made between the Second Triumvirate. Marcus Antonius would take over the Roman world east of Italy. Octavius would take the western world with the exception of North Africa which went to Lepidus. Lepidus later tried to take over Sicily but his soldiers mutinied, so he was kicked out of the Second Triumvirate, and his territory and forces were turned over to Octavius. Marcus Antonius and Octavius later fought a war against each other with Octavius coming out as the victor. Octavius was now in control of the entire Roman world.

Three of the most powerful people in the Roman world came together in alliance. This alliance gave them armies, territories, and power in the western Roman world. The Second Triumvirate was able to destroy the Liberators and in doing so they killed the strength of the Roman Senate. With this strength gone the Second Triumvirate was able to divide the Roman world amongst themselves, until Octavius was able reclaim the territories from his colleagues and again bring the Roman world under one faction with him at its head.

Appendix II - Final War of the Roman Republic

The Liberator's War subjected Rome to a civil war in which those loyal to the senate were defeated and the Roman World carved up between the victors. The two most powerful people of these were Marcus Antonius and Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian. They were at odds with each other after the Liberator's War, and would plunge Rome into another civil war, the largest Rome had seen. The results of this war would change the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire that would last for more than 500 years.

Marcus Antonius, Mark Antony, was a general to Gaius Julius Caesar in his many campaigns, and ruled Rome on Caesar's behalf when Caesar was away. Being Caesar's second cousin and so close to him, he expected to be his heir, but was disappointed when Octavius received it, after Caesar's assignation. Antony was still a consul for the year and the only one still alive, and took a moderate course relating to the assassination of Caesar, neither praising nor condemning the action. This seemed to stop a civil war but in actuality only succeeded in postponing it. In the end Antony, Octavius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate and fought the assassins in the Liberator's War.

Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian was born Gaius Octavius. Octavius was Gaius Julius Caesar's great nephew and after going through hostile territory to Caesar's camp and impressing him, Caesar named him as his heir in his will. After Caesar's death Octavius was awarded a large fortune and adopted as Caesar's son giving him the name Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian. His new name attracted many of Caesar's veterans to him and he used these soldiers to create an army. Originally sided with the Liberators against Antony but later switched sides and joined Antony against the Liberators.

Antony and Octavian had both been generals in the Liberator's War and had split the world between the members of the Second Triumvirate. Lepidus soon tried to expand his territory by taking Octavian's but was mutinied against and lost his territory to Octavian. This now split the Roman World in two, the western half belong to Octavius and the eastern half belonged to Antony. Antony had been having an affair with the Queen of Egypt, Cleopatra, while married to Octavian's sister, Octavia minor. Antony from right after Caesar's will being read had slandered Octavian. Octavian now did the same, using Cleopatra as the substance for the propaganda against Antony. However, the propaganda was not

Page 22 of 24 effective enough to turn the senate and people against Antony. Octavian got a hold of Antony' will and read it to the senate, in which he left Roman land to his wife and children and wished to be buried in Egypt with Cleopatra. This angered the senate and with Octavian blaming Cleopatra, for everything in the will, the Senate soon declared war on her. Octavian knew that Antony would help his wife, Cleopatra, in the war and so was able to declare war on him without actually declaring war on him. This allowed the Roman people to be rallied against a foreigner rather than a Roman. This was very important because of the recent civil wars Romans were unwilling to declare war against other Romans. This was a major cause of why Lepidus' soldiers mutinied against him, and whose fate Octavian wanted to avoid. When Antony heard the news that Rome had declared war, against Cleopatra, he immediately came to her aid. The senate cancelled all of his titles, powers, and made him a traitor to the Roman people. Octavian had wasted no time summoning up the legions under his control, and soon Antony did the same and joined them with Cleopatra's.

The two forces comprised about equal numbers of soldiers and warships, about 200,000 soldiers and around 300 warships. Antony moved his army to Western coast of Greece, and had his ships patrol the waters for Octavian should he attempt to cross by sea. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Octavian's General in this and previous wars, was able to capture Methone, city allied to Antony, in the Greek Peloponnese. From here he sailed up the coast and captured Corcyra, where Octavian was able to bring his forces unscathed, a major victory for Octavian. Antony moved his forces to Actium. Agrippa cut of Antony's supply from the sea which he was dependant on, while Octavian landed on the Greek mainland and headed south. These two forces of Octavian essentially trapped Antony where he was. Many of Antony' forces switched sides every day that the trap was in place. One of them gave away Antony' plan for braking out of the blockade. This plan turned into the battle of Actium. The problem with Antony' fleet was that there had been a recent disease outbreak within the camp, and he had lost many of his sailors. Many of his crews were short staffed and he had to burn many ships that he couldn't man. Another problem was Antony was a general, not an admiral, and did not have the naval warfare ability that Agrippa had. Antony had about 300 Quinqueremes which were very large ships, while Octavian had about 400 lighter, more maneuverable Liburnians. Another difference between the two fleets is that Octavian had fresh, seasoned sailors with experienced captains, while Antony had a relatively inexperienced, moral weakened crew and captains in his fleet. On September 2nd 31BC, Antony tried to attack the north of Octavian's blockade and stay near the safety of the shore, but Octavian's ships stayed back until the middle of the day when Antony had to extend his attack from the shore's protection. Soon the battle began and Octavian's lighter ships were able to out maneuver the larger ships of Antony. Cleopatra seeing the battle going to Octavian orders her fleet to flee through a hole in the line retreat to open sea. After Cleopatra flees, Antony follows suit with a small group of ships, leaving his fleet and army behind. Octavian wins the battle either sinking or capturing the rest of the ships. After they retreat to open sea Antony and Cleopatra flee back to Egypt.

After the battle Antony' army which had been on land watching the battle and had been equal to Octavian’s began to desert him in large quantities. Octavian's army now had close to 60 legions, but let up to 10 of them retire, because they had been in the Roman Army since fighting with Caesar. Octavian led his army by land through to Egypt instead of by sea straight to Egypt. This was because Antony got the majority of his power from the client kingdoms in Asia, and so by going through Asia Octavian kept Antony from rebuilding his forces. One of Antony' commanders, Lucius Pinarius, switched allegiance to Octavian. Antony led the soldiers against Pinarius but lost, being outnumbered 2 to 1. He then retreated back to Alexandria where he and Cleopatra were put under siege. Antony's remaining fleet and army surrendered, without a battle. Through a brake in communication Antony was told Cleopatra had already committed suicide, and so did the same stabbing himself in the stomach.

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However, Cleopatra was still alive though after Antony' death she commits suicide by having a poisonous snake bite her. Caesarian, Caesar's son by Cleopatra, was ordered to be killed by Octavius, with an explanation of "two Caesars is one too many." Octavian did let Antony's children live. He also came to claim Egypt as his own personal province, in which he could gather large quantities of money from the richest Roman province. With Antony and Cleopatra's deaths the last civil war of the Roman Republic came to a close.

All leaders who wanted the Senate to rule again and had enough power to do so were killed in the Liberator's War and with his only remaining rival, Antony now dead, Octavian became the most powerful and uncontested leader of the Roman World. He spared many who had opposed him in this war contrary to his previous attitude during the Liberator's War. He kept the senate, though he was the one actually in control, but made an effort to make others believe that he was merely, Princeps Senatus, first man of the senate. He set up the new form of government which would rule Rome for centuries to come, called the Principate. This Principate allowed for the PAX Romana, which was a long period of Roman peace.

The Liberator's War subject Rome to a civil war in which those loyal to the senate were defeated and the Roman World carved up between the victors. The two most powerful people of these were Marcus Antony and Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian. They were at odds with each other after the Liberator's War, which would plunge Rome into another civil war, the largest Rome had seen. The results of this war would change the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire that would last for more than 500 years.

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