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The Politics of Care: Black Community Activism in England and the United States, 1975-1985 Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Nicole M. Jackson, M.A. Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2012 Dissertation Committee: Leslie Alexander, Advisor Judy Wu Tiyi Morris Copyright Nicole M. Jackson Abstract In the 1970s and 1980s, African Americans and Black Britons placed community activism at the center of their work. Understanding their communities as imperiled or neglected, they directed their efforts towards exposing and dismantling institutional racism in State agencies. This project considers Black activism around educational inequalities, police harassment, and health care to demonstrate various expressions of Black community activism. Because of the focus on local and national communities, activists participated in an expression of a politics of care, which placed the survival of Black families, children and communities, writ large, as the center of a socio-political platform. Connected to expressions of familial responsibilities, care, and love, activists saw their work on behalf of other Black people as central to the maintenance of Black communities locally, nationally, and sometimes globally. ii Dedication To Laverly “Lee” Worth Fowler. I miss you. iii Acknowledgements Much like the activism presented below, I know that this dissertation could never have been written without an entire community of people. Obviously I can not name, or remember, them all but I would like to try. First, I would like to thank my mother, Ida Lyons, for providing the kind of invaluable support I needed. Whether she was a listening ear, a copy center, or even just someone to check and make sure that my flights were leaving and arriving on time, she has always been in the trenches with me, figuratively speaking. My family, those here and those that have passed, have also been wonderful founts of knowledge and encouragement throughout the process, but my aunts, Brenda Fowler and Dorothy Fowler DeBose, and cousin, Loleatha Edmond, have always reminded me to keep heading towards my goal. And lastly, even though they are far too young to read or even recognize this accomplishment, my nieces and nephews are wonderful reminders that I did not do this work solely for myself. Sometimes I feel as if I ended up in college and graduate school purely by accident. But in reality I have made my way here with the hard work of educators who were absolutely committed to my success. Specifically, I could never have reached this point without three women, whom I lovingly refer to as my feminist mentors or othermothers: Jeannine King, Myrna Santiago and Denise Witzig. I guess it is true, we really are Gaels for life! At Ohio State, it has been the most wonderful, even if sometimes painful, journey to this process. I could never find enough ways to thank Leslie Alexander, Tiyi Morris or Judy Wu for their support, faith, encouragement and keen editorial eyes. Without them this dissertation would be a collection of questions I was too afraid to answer. Like any graduate student, my experience here was made through the friendships. To all of my colleagues who were happy to help me dissect books, rehash troublesome classes, and struggled with me through, what felt like, infinite response papers, there will probably never be enough “thank you”s to offer. But rising to the top of this huge list must be Noel Voltz, thank you so much for the movie nights and Half Price runs; Alicia Lengvarsky Christian, for just being you and for the cookies; Jessica Pliley, you have no idea what an inspiration you are; Christy Holmes, I guess we will always have Germany, even if we don’t want it; Dawn Miles and Liseli Fitzpatrick (and Sonny), thank you for literally sheltering and sustaining me throughout this process, but especially at the bitter end. I have al been very lucky to meet along this journey, by absolute chance, two lovely, brilliant women who provided the kind of insight into this work that I so sorely needed, so thank you Rashida Harrison and Nydia Swaby. And lastly, even though this might seem quite odd, I would like to thank my two cats, Kat and Manny, for giving me other lives on which I could focus, to provide a very necessary break from all of... this. iv Lastly, I would like to thank the archivists and archives that I visited. In each location I was lucky to meet a wonderful person who’s insight and direction shaped this project in interesting and unexpected ways. The Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture at the New York Public Library was a necessary stop in the early iterations of this project, even as the project moved to new shores. The Black Cultural Archives, George Padmore Institute, and Lambeth Archives were everything I hoped they would be and more, and helped me to see London in an entirely new light. Lastly, the African American Museum & Library in Oakland, California and University of California, Berkeley Newspaper Archives at Doe Library were, as usual, wonderful and taught me such new things about the cities I am lucky to call home. v Vita June 2001................................................ Berkeley High School 2005........................................................ B.A. History, Saint Mary’s College of California 2009........................................................ M.A. History, The Ohio State University 2007-2010.............................................. Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of History, The Ohio State University 2010-present........................................... Small Section Leader, Department of History, The Ohio State University Publications “A Black Woman’s Choice: Depo-Provera and Reproductive Rights.” Journal of Research on Women and Gender 3 (2001), Sustainability Issue, 23-37. Fields of Study Major Field: History vi Table of Contents Abstract......................................................................................................................... ii Dedication..................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments......................................................................................................... iv Vita................................................................................................................................ vi Introduction................................................................................................................... 1 Black Community Activism and the Politics of Care................................................... 16 A Very Tender Problem: Education and the Making of “Multi-cultural” England....... 36 Screaming Loud Against the System: Race and Class in the Oakland Unified............ 94 School District On the Front Line: Race, Citizenship and the Battle Over English Streets.................... 114 Who Runs Oakland?: African American Citizenship and Police-Community............... 154 Relations Peculiar to Us: Women’s Health as Community Activism............................................ 192 Not Suffering In Silence: Black Women’s Health and Black Feminist Politics............. 240 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 275 Bibliography.................................................................................................................... 282 vii Introduction In Talking Back: Thinking Feminist, Thinking Black, African American feminist theorist bell hooks argues for the possibility of using love as a revolutionary foundation of political activism. “In reconceptualizing and reformulating strategies for future feminist movement, we need to concentrate on the politicization of love, not just in the context of talking about victimization in intimate relationships, but in a critical discussion where love can be understood as a powerful force that challenges and resists domination.” hooks make this assertion as a critique of the ways in which (White middle- class) feminists eschewed a discussion of positive intimate relationships as a driving force for political mobilization. Believing that activists’ personal relationships were vital, this project considers how responsibilities to family and community have undergirded the social activism of African Americans and Black Britons. Love and care helped to create political platforms for Black social activism.1 The history of the 1970s-1980s has yet to receive extensive historical attention. Deemed too recent to “count” as history, much of this period’s important social trends have been taken up by journalists, political scientists and social critics, especially in the United States and England. However, when the period has been considered by historians it has been to discuss it’s relationship to the 1960s and early 1970s. Usually the later 1970s and 1980s are considered as a diminution of the social revolution of the previous 1 bell hooks, Talking Back: Thinking Feminist, Thinking Black. Boston: South End Press, 1989, 26. 1 period, alongside growing rates of unemployment and recessions in each country, with moves toward decreased social spending domestically. While this may be a fairly accurate assessment, it would be erroneous to presume apathy from communities affected by the socio-economic and political milieu, and it would be just as wrong to

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