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Dissertation Part I Cover Page The handle http://hdl.handle.net/1887/39726 holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation. Author: Akker, M.L. van den Title: Monument of nature? An ethnography of the world heritage of Mt. Kenya Issue Date: 2016-05-25 MONUMENT OF NATURE? AN ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD HERITAGE OF MT. KENYA Marlous van den Akker © 2016, Marlous van den Akker No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior permission of the author. Cover photo: Mt. Kenya from Mukima, a housing estate just outside Nanyuki town Photo by Marlous van den Akker The research presented in this dissertation was financially supported by the Leiden Global Interactions Research Profile and the Institute of Cultural Anthropology and Development Sociology at Leiden University. MONUMENT OF NATURE? AN ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD HERITAGE OF MT. KENYA Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof.mr. C.J.J.M. Stolker, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op woensdag 25 mei 2016 klokke 16.15 uur door Maria Louise van den Akker geboren te Gouda in 1983 Promotor: Prof.dr. P.J. Pels Promotiecommissie: Prof.dr. G.A. Persoon Prof.dr. L. Meskell Stanford University Prof.dr. S. Legêne VU University Amsterdam TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements Full page map of Mt. Kenya World Heritage Site Introduction Doing Ethnography on Mt. Kenya’s World Heritage Status 1 I. The Rise of Heritage Conservation World Heritage in Historical Perspective 11 II. Becoming World Heritage The ‘State Party’ Behind Mt. Kenya’s 1997 World Heritage Listing 33 III. A Place of Nature Cultural and Political Histories Marginalized 67 IV. White Perils Racial Struggles over Land in Mt. Kenya’s Shadow 93 V. Mt. Kenya World Heritage Site Revisited A Conservancy’s Quest for Perpetual Safekeeping 124 Conclusion Monument of Nature? 153 Notes 162 References 167 Samenvatting 184 About the Author 189 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A great number of people inspired and contributed to this dissertation. To those whom are not listed below I emphasize that I have treasured each conversation, each debate, and each shared cup of coffee that came to pass in the course of this project. In the first place, I am indebted to the individuals who made my introduction to Kenya easier, and whose contacts and connections helped to smooth the first phase of this research. Among them have been Rachel Spronk, her Nairobian friend Janet and her family, Angela Kronenburg García, Adriaan Tas, Charles Nzioka, Eleanor Monbiot, and Paul Benson. I am particularly grateful to those who helped me gain access to Mt. Kenya’s conservation scene and who, apart from sharing with me their own insights and points of view, aided me in building networks of informants. Thank you Susie Weeks, Humphrey Munene, Anthony King †, Jonathan Moss and Robert Obrien. In alphabetical order, I thank George Abungu, Rashid Butt, Geoffrey Chege, Ian Craig, Martin Dyer, Michael Dyer, Flemming Dyhr †, Amos Egal, Shawn Evans, Gideon Gathaara, Ramesh Gathogo, Simon Gitau, Max Graham, Tim Hobbs, Peter Howard, Danson Kamau, Mercy Kendi, Edwin Kinyanjui, Oliver Kinyua, Julius Kipng’etich, Christian Lambrechts, Richard Leakey, Benson Lengalen, Dominic Maringa, James Mathenge, Gordon Murray, James Murray, Paul Muya, James Mwangi, John Mwangi, Margareth Mwangi, Robert Myall, Daniel Maina Ndoria, Solomon Maina Ndoria, Leo Niskanen, James Njogu, Karanja Njoroge, Maurice Nyaligu, Anthony Ochino, Mordecai Ogada, Charles Oluchina, Elizabeth Ouma, Edward Parfet, Deirdre Prins-Solani, John Sikote, Mark Simpkin, Malte Sommerlatte, Chris Thouless, Tom Traexler, Richard Vigne, Peter Viljoen, Ben Wandago, Hoseah Wanderi, Sammy Warigia, Satish Wason, Mike Watson, David Western, Charlie Wheeler, and Bongo Woodley. You, as well as others I have not mentioned by name, offered me your perspectives on Mt. Kenya’s World Heritage status and took the time to share your knowledge and experiences with me. I am extremely appreciative of this. I think warmly of Leiden University’s Institute of Cultural Anthropology and Development Sociology. Over the years the institute has been a stimulating academic environment. In particular, I consider myself fortunate to have received the guidance of Peter Pels. His expertise, his encouragement, and his inspiring and meticulous comments on my writings have been of inestimable value to me. I also cherish the solidarity and critical eye that fellow PhD candidates and other colleagues offered me. Thank you Erik Bähre, Andrea Cerda, Richard Fraser, Roos Gerritsen, Jan-Bart Gewald, Wendelmoet Hamelink, Zane Kripe, Sabine Luning, Carrie Nakamura, Maarten Onneweer, Khadija Outmany-Kadrouch, Christoph Rippe, and Annemarie Samuels. In addition, I am indebted to the Bayreuth Academy of Advanced African Studies that invited me for a guest fellowship in July 2014, during which I shared this project with a larger academic audience and received constructive feedback that enriched this work. I reserve special gratitude for Silvester Kimeli Choge and Joyce Gathigia. Your friendship has been, and continues to be, unprejudiced and unconditional. Your kindness and affection instilled this project with a lightness and optimism that I have not encountered before. Thank you. More than anyone, I owe Erik. You are my guest of honour. DeVink Mapdesign Ltd INTRODUCTION DOING ETHNOGRAPHY ON MT. KENYA’S WORLD HERITAGE STATUS In August 2010, a man called Teddy Munyao climbed to Point Lenana, the lowest of Mt. Kenya’s three peaks. The act itself was not exceptional. Each year, thousands of tourists visit Mt. Kenya National Park and many of them come for mountaineering. The hike to Point Lenana is not particularly harsh: under the instructions of a good guide even inexperienced climbers generally pull it off. But Teddy Munyao’s trek meant to write history. He carried with him a copy of the new Kenyan Constitution, which had just passed parliament, to plant it on top of the mountain. He succeeded and his action received national media coverage (see for instance Daily Nation, 24 August 2010, 29 August 2010; Standard Media, 24 August 2010). Nearly three years prior to Teddy Munyao’s deed, Kenya had witnessed an outburst of extreme violence. The brutality had been sparked by the outcome of the general elections held in December 2007, after which the supporters of two opposing political parties had attacked one another. The atrocities lasted until late February 2008. By that time, more than a thousand people were confirmed dead, and an estimated three hundred thousand people had left their homes and possessions to escape the bloodshed (Anderson & Lochery 2008: 328). Roughly a month into the conflict, United Nations’ Kofi Annan intervened in an attempt to calm the hostilities. Under his mediation, the leaders of the two competing parties eventually agreed to a comprise and divided the country’s key administrative positions amongst their members. In the years that followed, the international community pressured Kenya’s politicians into drafting a new constitution, so that future elections would not end in such 1 mayhem again. Teddy Munyao’s climb marked the end of this process – it meant to symbolize that former difficulties in organizing the country’s leadership democratically had finally been surmounted. It was not the first time that Mt. Kenya got caught up in nationalist propaganda. In fact, Teddy Munyao’s hike was a reiteration of an earlier event that had taken place in 1963. In December that year, Kisoi Munyao, Teddy Munyao’s father, had climbed Mt. Kenya to mark the end of colonial rule. While the British made preparations for the transfer of governance an assistant of the soon-to-be president Jomo Kenyatta had asked Kisoi, who was a trained porter boy, to raise the republic’s new flag on Mt. Kenya at the exact moment of Kenyatta’s inauguration. The act was part of a larger celebration programme that one Kenyan journalist later recounted as follows: Midnight December 11-12 found two elderly men standing in the middle of the huge arena of the Uhuru Stadium in Nairobi. The band played the British national anthem. Then suddenly the lights were dimmed. There was a profound silence among the 250,000 people who filled the Stadium that night. Once I heard a boo, but it sounded as stupid as it was mannerless. Then the lights went on, and all I could hear was the deafening roar of the crowd as they cheered the raising of the black, red and green flag of the new Kenyan nation. Prime Minister Jomo Kenyatta, for whom this was the crowning moment of his forty-year political life, walked back to the Royal Pavilion waving his white fly whisk. At his side walked the grey-haired Malcolm MacDonald, the last but most popular of British Governors in Kenya and the country’s first Governor-General. Then fireworks exploded to light the sky and, as it were, officially announced the birth of the new nation. Ng’weno (1964: 36) While in Nairobi groups dressed in tribal costumes were performing indigenous dances, and while men of faith were leading public prayer ceremonies (Ng’weno 1964: 37), Kisoi Munyao and his crew struggled on Mt. Kenya. The group had aimed for the highest of Mt. Kenya’s three summits, called Batian, but bad weather conditions had forced them to settle for Mt. Kenya’s second highest peak Nelion (Ng’weno 1964: 38). On arrival, Kisoi took the Kenyan flag from one of the backpacks and planted it firmly on Nelion’s rocky surface. According to popular belief, this happened exactly at midnight and it is said that while Nairobi exploded into fireworks and cheers, Kisoi watched the cloth flutter in the wind. Kisoi Munyao’s expedition was one of symbolic reconquest.
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