Environmental Challenges and Human Security in the Himalaya
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
Environmental Challenges and Human Security in the Himalaya Vimal Khawas Paper Presented at National Seminar “Himalayas in the New Millennium: Environment, Society, Economy and Polity” January 11-12, 2007, Centre for Himalayan Studies North Bengal University, Darjeeling Environmental Challenges and Human Security in the Himalaya Vimal Khawas1 Introduction Mountains form one of the most important bio-geographical resource zones of the world. They are remote areas covering 52 per cent of Asia, 36 percent of North America, 25 per cent of Europe, 22 per cent of South America, 17 per cent of Australia, and 3 per cent of Africa making up, in total, 24 per cent of the earth‟s continental surfaces (Bridges 1990:260). They encompass some of the most awe-inspiring landscapes, a great diversity of species and habitat types and distinctive, tenacious and often disadvantaged human beings. They directly support 22 per cent of the world‟s people who live within mountain regions (UNEP-WCMC 2002:8). A further 40 per cent live adjacent or very close to mountain areas (CEC 2002) and are benefited from mountain resources in more than one ways. Well over half the global population depends on mountain environments for a wide range of goods and services including for water, food, hydro-electricity, timber, biodiversity maintenance and mineral resources besides availing opportunities for recreation and spiritual renewal. Up to 80 per cent of the planet's fresh surface water comes from mountains. (Price 2002:72). Hence, mountains are very significant to human in a variety of ways. Scholars often argue that the future security of the planet's growing human population rests in great measure on mountain watersheds. Mountains are, however, fragile resource zones and are highly susceptible to both natural forces and anthropogenic factors. Mountain people face an environment in which everyday physical demands are great, natural hazards are significant and agricultural production is constrained. Only about 3 per cent of land ranked as highly suitable for rain-fed agriculture is within mountains, highlighting the restricted livelihood opportunities available to many mountain people (UNEP-WCMC 2002:8). Further, difficult access coupled with socio- economic and political marginalisation often compounds the problems. In recent times many anthropogenic activities have been aggravating the natural setup of mountains. Studies across the globe have found that the health of the world‟s mountains is in dire need of relief from modern anthropogenic activities that are causing lasting environmental damage and human insecurities (Eckholm 1982, Ives and Pitt 1988, Ives 1989, Agenda 21 1992, Jodha 1995, 2005, UNEP-WCMC 2002, UNU 2002). According to the analysis by the United Nations University, pressure from tourism, development, pollution, deforestation, climate change, and other forces is permanently eroding the landscape of many mountain ranges, with serious implications for society (National Geographic News 2002: February 1). Some of the major consequences of these processes include water shortages and increased natural disasters such as landslides, avalanches, catastrophic flooding, soil erosion; loss of genetic diversity; armed conflicts; wildfires; high winds; and extremes of temperature and radiation among others. 1 Faculty Member, Council for Social Development and Senior Research Scholar, Political Geography Division, School of International Studies, JNU, New Delhi. *[email protected]* 1 „War and natural disasters have long plagued mountain regions. Researchers have determined natural disasters in mountain regions worldwide were responsible for almost 1.6 million lives lost between 1900 and 1988, the foremost causes being floods and earthquakes. Other figures show that combat in mountain regions – some 105 wars and conflicts between 1945 and 1995 – resulted in 11.1 million casualties, including 7.8 million civilians‟ (UN News Release 2002: January 27). Restoring mountain ecosystems, improving mountain people‟s livelihoods, managing watersheds – and other aspects of environmental stewardship in mountain areas will require long-term local and regional cooperative programmes between communities, private and public stakeholder associations, policy makers and development financiers. The problems and constraints characterising mountain areas are varied and complex, requiring multidimensional interventions. Keeping in view the plight of the mountains across the globe in recent times, the United Nations designated 2002 as the „International Year of the Mountains‟ to draw attention to ecological degradation of mountains and promote policies that help protect critical resources and services they provide. Further, in view of the fragility and their overall importance as the regulator of global ecological balance it is argued that mountains deserve the level of concern afforded to other global ecosystems such as wetlands, forests and coral reefs. Table 1 Important Human Security/Insecurity Parameters shared by Mountain Regions at Global level Sl. No. Parameter Global Value (%) 1 Area defined as mountains of global land* 27.2 2 Population distribution 21.9 3 Endangered Languages worldwide that occur in mountain regions** 28.0 4 Terrestrial precipitation worldwide falling in mountain region*** 24.0 5 Forests worldwide occurring in mountain regions 23.0 6 Susceptible area worldwide that occurs in mountain regions**** 31.0 7 Fires worldwide that occur in mountain regions 24.0 8 Severe climatic change# simulated worldwide 23.0 9 Area converted to agriculture worldwide that occurs in mountain regions 16.0 (to cropland) 21.0 (to grazing) 10 Suitable area (for agriculture) worldwide that occurs in mountain regions 03.0 11 Deforestation (1992-2000)@ 01.3 12 High impact land worldwide (from infrastructure development) in 24.0 mountain areas for the year 2035 13 Area within the radius of a war worldwide that occurs in mountain 32.0 regions## 14 Area worldwide with three or more severe pressures that occurs in 24.0 mountain regions 15 Protected area worldwide that occurs in mountain regions$ 32.0 * Also includes Antarctica; ** here defined a 1-100 speakers; ***Antarctica not included **** Destructive` earthquakes (level VIII or greater on the modified mercalli scale) # Severe climate change is defined as areas where either temperature increases by more than 2.5o C or precipitation decreases by more than 50mm/yr by 2055m averaged for the five GCMs. @ Data refers to percent changes in mountain areas only. ## A war is defined as a conflict in which at least 1000 battle deaths a year occurred for at least 1 year between 1946-2001. $ The percentage of protected area that occurs in mountain regions is slightly larger that the percentage of the total global area defined as mountains (27%). Source: Compiled from: UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Mountain Watch, 2002 2 The paper would be guided by the above discourse that has found prominent place across discussion forums at the global level. The Himalaya2, one of the youngest and loftiest geo- entities that the planet has ever produced, has been one of the prime examples among the mountain systems that are often cited whenever environment and associated development issues are discussed in connection to the mountains. The basic aim of this paper would, hence, be to identify, quantify and offer a general discussion on the various natural and human made environmental insecurities that often challenge human security in the Himalaya and its geographical milieu. While doing so, we will also attempt to critically review some of the debatable theories/findings put forward by some scholars/organisations and examine their relevance with the present reality in the area seeking the help of recently available data. Geographical Location Geographical location of the Himalaya has to be seen in the context of its geological3 and geomorphological attributes. Taking into account its geological character and the geomorphic processes operating therein „the Himalayan arc extends between latitudes 26° 20' and 35°40' North, and between longitudes 74°50' and 95°40' East‟ (Ives and Messerli 1989, Ives 2004, Rao and Saxena 1994). It refers to the great range of mountains that separate India, along its north-central and north-eastern frontier, from China (Tibet). The Himalaya extend from the Indus Trench below Nanga Parbat (8,125 m) in the west to the Yarlungtsangpo-Brahmaputra gorge below Namche Barwa (7,756 m) in the east, a west-northwest to east-southeast distance of about 2,500 km and a width of 200 – 300 km (ibid). Tentatively, such a definition includes, politically, the independent kingdoms of Nepal, Bhutan and Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Darjeeling region of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh and some hill districts of northern Assam.4 The region directly provides life-support base for over 65 million mountain people. In addition, the Himalayan environment indirectly has an effect on a much larger area than its actual geographical stretch5. In South Asia, the Himalayan environment greatly affects the densely populated Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains. 2 I would prefer to use a singular term (Himalaya) instead of plural term (Himalayas) often used by non- geographers as Himalaya refers to one macro-geologic unit. 3 The geographical boundary of the Himalaya is still a disputed discourse. We are considering only that part of the mountains that qualify the geological considerations applied to the