Introduced Species and the Issue of Animal Welfare.Pdf

A.S. Chamove et al. -Deep Woodchip Litter Original Article M Hutchins et al. -Introduced Species Original Article

for Dairy Purposes, Technical Bulletin Isolation and Identification of Food Those who must make decisions about the fate of introduced species need to No. 17. HMSO, London. Poisoning Organisms, Society of Appli seek a balance between the rights of the individual animals and preserving the viabili Markowitz, H. and Woodworth, G. (1978) ed Bacteriology Technical series No. ty of whole ecosystems. One important consideration is that, although the control of Experimental analysis and control of 17. Academic Press, London (in press). exotic animal populations may adversely affect individual sentient beings, inaction group behavior. In: Markowitz, H. and Murphy, D.E. (1976) Enrichment and oc may cause widespread suffering to many species and consequent loss of biological Stevens, V.J ., eds., Behavior of Captive cupational devices for orangutans and diversity. Wild Animals. Nelson-Hall, Chicago, chimpanzees. lnt Zoo News 23: 24-26. IL. Olesiuk, O.M., Snoyenbos, G.H. and Smy Zusammenfassung McGrew, W.C. (1981) Social and cognitive ser, C.F. (1971) Inhibitory effects of used capabilities of nonhuman primates: les litter on Salmonella typhimurium trans Eine heftige Debatte betraf kUrzlich das Thema der Kontrolle oder Eliminierung sons from the wild to captivity. lnt j mission in the chicken. Avian Dis 15:118- von eingefUhrten oder "exotischen" Tieren auf Land in offentlichem (US) Besitz. Die Study Anim Prob 2:138-149. 124. EinfUhrung von Tierarten, ob beabsichtigt oder unbeabsichtigt, scheint ein unverme Meyer-Holzapfel, M. (1968) Abnormal be Snoeyenbos, G.H. (1967) An epidemiologi indliches Resultat menschlicher Aktivitaten zu sein, doch rufen sie sowohl wirtschaft havior in zoo animals. In: Fox, M.W., cal study of salmonellosis in chickens, liche wie oekologische Probleme hervor. Schatzungsweise hatten Uber neunzig Pro ed., Abnormal Behavior in Animals. W. A vi an Dis 11 :653-667. zent dieser EinfUhrungen in gewisser Hinsicht eine schadliche Wirkung. Eine Kontrolle B. Saunders, Philadelphia. Tucker, J.F. (1967) Survival of salmonellae von Exoten kann erreicht werden durch Abriegelung, Erschiessen, Vergiften, Wiede Meynell, G.G. and Meynell, E. (1970) in built-up litter for housing of rearing reinfUhrung von heimischen Raubtieren. EinfUhrung von Krankheitserregern, Fang und Theory and Practice in Experimental Bac and laying fowls. Br Vet j 123:92-103. Entfernen, sowie Geburtenkontrolle. teriology. Cambridge University Press, Turnbull, P.C.B. and Snoyenbos, G.H. Diejenigen, welche die Entscheidung Uber das Schicksal eingefUhrter Tierarten London, U.K. (1973) The roles of ammonia, water acti treffen, mussen fur ein Gleichgewicht sorgen zwischen den Rechten der einzelnen Morgan-Jones, S.C. (1982) A method of vity, and pH in the salmonellacidal ef Tiere und der Erhaltung der Lebensfahigkeit des gesamten Oekosystems. Obwohl enumerating salmonellas in poultry envi fect of long-used poultry litter. Poult die Kontrolle exotischer Tierpopulationen sich schadlich auf einzelne empfindsame ronments. In: Corry, J.K.L., Roberts, D. Sci 12:72-86. Lebewesen auswirken kann, ist es wichtig daran zu denken, dass lnaktivitat ungeheures and Smith, D.C., eds., Methods for the Leid fUr viele Tierarten bedeuten und demzufolge den Verlust der biologischen Viel falt hervorrufen kann.

Introduction detail, paying particular attention to the

There has been considerable con interests of animal welfare/animal rights Introduced Species and the Issue troversy over attempts to control or elim advocates. Our discussion will focus on inate introduced or "exotic" animals on introduced mammals, because these an of Animal Welfare federally managed lands in the United imals, since they are both sentient and ap States. Some resource managers and con pealing, comprise the principal focus of servationists argue that exotic animal animal welfare/animal rights concerns. Michael Hutchins, Victoria Stevens and Natasha Atkins populations should be controlled, since they cause considerable habitat disrup Origins of Exotic Species tion, prey on or compete with native Recently, considerable debate has been heard about the control or elimination fauna, and alter natural ecosystems. This One of the many ways in which hu of introduced or "exotic" animals on publicly held U.S. lands. Species introductions, view has been hotly contested by some mans alter their environment is by trans whether intentional or unintentional, seem to be an inevitable result of human activi animal welfare and animal rights organi porting organisms across natural barriers ties, but they may result in both economic and ecological problems: It has been estim zations, which have objected to the propos to dispersal. By definition, exotic animals ated that over 90 percent of all such introductions have been harmful in some respect. ed methods of control, especially those are those that do not occur naturally, Control of exotics can be accomplished through containment, shooting, poisoning, that involve harrassment or killing. In either presently or historically, in a parti reintroduction of native predators, introduction of disease organisms, live capture some instances, such as the case of the cular ecosystem. An introduction is de and removal, and reproductive inhibition. Grand Canyon burros, differences of opin fined as the release, escape, or establish ion have led to long and costly court bat ment of an exotic animal into a natural Michael Hutchins is at the Department of Psychology Nl-25, Animal Behavior Program, University of Wash tles (Laycock, 197 4; Reiger, 1980; Stocker, ecosystem. Introductions can be differenti ington, Seattle, Washington 98195. Victoria Stevens is at the School of Forest Resources, Wildlife Sciences 1980). The purpose of this paper is to ex ated into two basic types: purposeful Division, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195. Natasha Atkins is a wildlife biologist in and accidental (Courtney, 1978). Palo Alto, California 94301. amine the introduced species issue in more

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Introduction detail, paying particular attention to the

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problems may be important, we will not successful establishment of an exotic Purposeful introductions are those lions of feral rabbits inhabit Australia and focus on them here. Instead, we will con species can be likened to throwing a that are made for a reason, usually to other oceanic islands (Holdgate, 1967; centrate on the relationship between na fulfill some real or perceived human Roots, 1976). In addition, domestic cats wrench in the machine and having it tive ecosystems and introduced animals, need. For example, reindeer were intro and dogs often adopt a feral or semiferal "foul up the works." Of course, unlike because it is this issue that generates some duced to Alaska to provide the mining existence in the vicinity of human habi machines, ecosystems can continue to difficult philosophical questions. industry with a means of transporting tation (Denny, 1974). "operate" after the introduction of non freight, provisions, and correspondence A case that appears to fit well An impressive literature exists on native organisms, but they may be alter through harsh, subarctic terrain. They within either classification is that of the the ecological effects of introduced ed significantly in the process. were imported to become "to the far feral burros that roam the southwestern mammals, and it is estimated that over Perhaps the most pervasive ecologi north what the camel is to desert re United States. Domestic burros were 90 percent of all such introductions cal disruption caused by introduced mammals is the destruction of soils- the gions" (Jackson, 1 897). Sportsmen and brought to North America in the six have been harmful (Roots, 1976). This is basis of much, if not all, of terrestrial life game managers have been responsible teenth century by the Spanish, who used not surprising when one pauses to con (Fig. 1 and 2). A dramatic example of soil for numerous introductions. A desire to them as beasts of burden (McKnight, sider the nature of ecosystems. Having damage caused by an exotic mammal is hunt familiar or fashionable game led 1958). In the mid to late 1800's, burros evolved over many millenia, ecological the transformation that took place on European settlers in New Zealand to im were also used by American prospectors systems are like vast, finely tuned ma the island of St. Helena following the in port a variety of large herbivores, in who, upon abandoning their dreams of chines made up of numerous interrelat troduction of domestic goats. In 1501, cluding the chamois, red deer, and Hi unlimited wealth, released their animals ed parts. The integration of the parts is this subtropical island in the Atlantic malayan tahr. This tradition has also into the desert. Since they were descend responsible for the machine running Ocean was densely covered with forest been followed in the United States, ed from the African wild ass (Equus smoothly. In ecosystems, the "parts" are organisms or important environmental vegetation, but in 1513 goats were im where exotic ungulates, such as the Eu asinus), which is adapted to arid cli features, which may be intricately inter ported by the Portugese. With an abun ropean wild boar, Barbary sheep, and Nil mates, the introduced burros prolifer related and interdependent. Following this dant food supply, and no predators or gai antelope, roam the forests, deserts ated, and thousands are believed to in line of reasoning, the introduction and competitors to limit their population, and plains- sometimes in considerable habit the region today. The burro was numbers (Laycock, 1966). originally brought to North America as a Some introductions have occurred beast of burden and therefore represents in a deliberate effort to eliminate exotic a purposeful introduction; however, its re species. For example, the mongoose was lease and subsequent establishment into imported to Hawaii in an attempt to North American ecosystems are conse control the Norway rat- also an immi quences that perhaps cannot be called grant and a significant agricultural pest purposeful, in the true sense of the word. (Laycock, 1966; Randall, 1971). The pur Ecological Effects of Exotic pose of other introductions has been to Species make animals available for human con sumption. In the eighteenth and nine Species introductions are common teenth centuries, domestic goats and and, whether intentional or unintention sheep were routinely placed on oceanic al, they seem to be an inevitable result islands such as Hawaii and the Galapa of human activities. Why, then, are some gos Islands to serve as a source of fresh resource managers and conservationists meat for the crews of ships sailing in so adamant about controlling or elimi remote seas (Coblentz, 1976). nating exotic animals? Accidental introductions include Concern about exotic animals can any that occur unintentionally (Court be divided into two categories: econo ney, 1978). For example, the ubiquitous mic and ecological. Economic concerns house mouse and Norway rat entered include the problems related to finan North America as stowaways on ships cial losses caused by exotic animals, (Elton, 1958). The European rabbit, which is such as those that result from the de commonly raised for human consump struction of agricultural crops or from FIGURE 1 Aerial photography showing trails, dust-bathing sites, and erosion caused by introduced moun tion, has been a frequent escapee. Mil- competition with livestock. While such tain goats in fragile alpine vegetation- Olympic National Park. (Photo by M. Hutchins)

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. \. FIGURE 3. Feral goats on Santa Catalina island off the coast of California. Note the lack of vegetation. (Photo by B. Coblentz) FIGURE 2. Aerial photograph, Olympic National Park. (Photo by M. Hutchins) herbivores may also affect native fauna. the Galapagos. Because of the cover af the animals multiplied rapidly. Hoards runoff led to excessive erosion, silting of These effects can be direct or indirect. forded the iguana by vegetation, these of foraging goats decimated vegetation rivers and streams, and large fluctua An indirect effect is illustrated by the species had coexisted for thousands of on the island's steep slopes and, in the tions in stream levels (Roots, 1976). endemic land iguanas and their preda years. However, introduced goats ate absence of plant cover, tropical rain There are numerous accounts of tors, the hawks, on Barrington Island in much of the vegetation, leaving the storms washed away much of the topsoil. habitat modification caused by in Today, the island's landscape is barren, troduced herbivores (Baker and Reeser, and native vegetation survives only on 1972; Baldwin and Fagerlund, 1943; Brat cliffs that are inaccessible to the goats ton, 1974, 1975; Coblentz, 1977, 1978; Caro (Holdgate, 1967). thers eta/., 1976; Hamann, 1975; Howard, By reducing vegetative cover, in 1964; Hutchins and Stevens, 1981; Mark troduced herbivores can also affect the and Baylis, 1975; Muller-Dombois and water storage capabilities of mountain Spatz, 1975; Pickard, 1976; Spatz and slopes. New Zealand is an island country Muller-Dombois, 1973; Wardle, 1974; Yo that has no large native mammalian her cum, 1976). In some cases, these animals bivores. The region's natural vegetation have caused significant alterations in evolved in the absence of heavy grazing plant community structure by foraging pressure, and therefore did not develop preferentially on some species and re chemical or physical adaptations for jecting those that are unpalatable. In protection. (Plants with a history of ex other instances, trampling of fragile soils ploitation by herbivores tend to evolve has created ideal conditions for distur adaptations such as toxins, thorns, or bance-adapted exotic plants, which may rapid growth and reproductive rates to outcompete native species. In many cases, protect them from their "predators.") introduced herbivores have been strong After deer and other ungulates were in ly implicated in the elimination or near troduced to the west coast of New Zea elimination of native plants (Fig. 3-6). land, the vegetative cover was severely In the course of changing the com reduced. With few plants to stabilize the position of plant communities, or reduc FIGURE 4. Coffee Pot Canyon on Santa Catalina Island. Introduced domestic goats reduced the plant soil or to retain moisture, ground water ing the degree of plant cover, introduced cover, thus resulting in extensive erosion. (Photo by B. Coblentz)

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with exotics for food and other resources. exotic mammals may interbreed with In Africa, the Cape buffalo (Syncerus caf closely related species, and thereby al fer) was nearly eliminated by rinderpest, ter the genetic composition of natural a disease imported from Asia with domes populations (deVos eta/., 1956). Often, tic cattle (deVos et a/., 1956). Internal hybridization results in offspring that are parasites (cestodes, nematodes, and tre ill suited for survival or are incapable of matodes) have moved among continents reproduction. In Czechoslovakia, intro in exotic animals and, in some cases, duced domestic goats hybridized with na have been transmitted to native wildlife. tive ibex at such a high rate that they ef Ectoparasites (ticks, lice, fleas, etc.), fectively eliminated the latter (Turcek, which carry diseases such as bubonic 1951). plague and typhus, have been imported In summary, there is ample evi to various regions on rodents like the dence that: (1) exotic mammals can cause black rat (deVos et a/., 1956). significant changes in natural ecosys It is evident from these examples tems, (2) such changes are usually dele that introduced mammals can cause terious, and (3) it is impossible to predict considerable habitat modification, as the nature or extent of such changes and well as affect native animal populations their ultimate impact on native flora and FIGURE 5. Fence erected on Santa Catalina Island. The right side is goaHree. Note the differences in veg through competition, predation, or fauna. A recognition of these facts has etative cover. (Photo by B. Coblentz) transmission of parasites and disease. led some biologists to label introduc However, there are additional "side ef tions of non-native organisms as "species iguanas with no place to hide in time of pie, the introduced mongoose of Hawaii fects" of species introductions that are pollution" and "ecological roulette" danger. As a result, they were captured preys on birds' eggs and nestlings; on the much more subtle. For instance, some (Courtney and Ogilvie, 1971). more frequently by the hawks, and were island of Molokai, this predator was soon threatened with extinction (Dowl responsible for eliminating the dark ing, 1964). Non-native herbivores also rumped petrel and Newell's shearwater. compete directly for food and other Kauai is the only main island in the ar resources with native animals. For exam chipelago that has its original comple ple, seed-eating birds became extinct on ment of endemic birds. Not surprisingly, Guadalupe Island in Mexico following it is the only island that is mongoose the importation of domestic livestock, free (Kramer, 1971 ). The introduced which consumed many of the same plants black rat has also been implicated in the (Greenway, 1958). In addition, it has decline or disappearance of several been suggested that introduced ungul Hawaiian bird species (Atkinson, 1977). ates, such as the burro and Barbary Feral dogs and cats cause considerable sheep, have contributed to the decline mortality in wildlife populations. For ex of the native bighorn sheep (Ovis cana ample, feral housecats prey on endemic densis) in the southwestern United States birds and reptiles in the Galapagos Is (Hansen, 1980). One study found that the lands, Hawaii, and the West Indies (Ko diets of burros and bighorns overlap by necny, pers. comm.; Iverson, 1978; Kra -~~ ·'. as much as 52 percent (Walters and Han mer, 1971 ). .... ~-. -'%1.7_ sen, 1978), and it follows that any vege Exotics can affect native animals in tation eaten by feral burros would not many other ways. Diseases carried by in be available for the bighorns (Fig. 7). troduced animals may have profound ef While introduced herbivores (pri fects on native wildlife species that have marily ungulates) cause the most severe not previously developed an immunity. habitat alteration, non-native carnivores The effects can be particularly severe when FIGURE 6. An exclosure in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park illustrates the loss of vegetative cover due to have been responsible for the greatest native animals contract these new diseases, the foraging activities of introduced herbivores. A feral goat is attempting to forage on vegetation inside number of species extinctions. For exam- while simultaneously having to compete the exclosure. (Photo by D. Reeser) 324 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 3{4) 1982 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 3{4] 1982 325 If'I· :

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U.S. Park Service

Control through containment has animal cannot be captured easily before been advocated in some situations. Con the drug is administered, such efforts fining exotic animals to particular areas, can result in considerable trauma. Obvi it is argued, can reduce environmental ously, euthanasia is practical only when alteration. This is a popular alternative large animals are involved, and when they among many humane advocates, since it occur in small, relatively contained pop is a nonlethal solution. However, this ulations. method has several shortcomings. First, Poisons or lethal traps have been fences meant to contain exotic animals successful in controlling some animal can also prevent the natural movements populations, but these methods have sev of native species (Carothers eta/., 1976). eral distinct disadvantages, the most ser Second, by restricting the animals to a ious of which is their ability to kill indis particular area, the degree of environ criminately. In the process of controlling mental modification is often intensified exotics, many native animals may be de locally. Third, containment may not be stroyed as well. In addition, many animal possible because of the difficulty associ welfare/animal rights advocates consider ated with keeping certain animals in the these methods to be inhumane. desired area; for species that can climb, The reintroduction of native preda jump or burrow, effective containment tors has had increasing appeal as a "na would be difficult and expensive. The tural" method for controlling populations nature of an animal's habitat can also be of exotic animals. However, there is no prohibitive. For example, erecting fences guarantee that the predator will prey ex in rugged mountainous terrain may prove clusively on the species targeted for difficult or impossible. Moreover, even control, or that the rate of predation will if the animals were effectively restricted be high enough to significantly reduce to a particular area, periodic efforts at population growth. The introduction of population control would probably still exotic predators to control populations be necessary. of exotic herbivores is inadvisable, since The use of firearms has been advo there is no way to predict the range of FIGURE 7. Burros brought to North America by the Spanish in the sixteenth century. Thousands now roam the cated to control feral ungulates, such as species that they will include in their diet. deserts of the Southwest. burros and goats. This method does have The introduction of disease organ some advantages, such as low cost and isms has also been used to control popu Controlling Exotic Animals minimal impact on the environment. How Once it has been determined that lations of exotic animals. But diseases ever, many animal welfare/animal rights often have the same disadvantages as tox In an effort to preserve· native some sort of action is necessary or de advocates find shooting unacceptable. While ecosystems and to curb the adverse ef sirable, resource managers must evaluate ins or traps, in that there is no guarantee a well-placed bullet can result in a rapid, fects of introduced animals, biologists each method in terms of its feasibility, that they will affect only those species humane death, even the best of marksmen have recommended numerous methods of cost, potential for environmental disrup designated for control. However, some sometimes miss their targets. When death control. Sometimes complete elimina tion, and humane considerations. disease organisms will affect only particu from shooting is not immediate, the ani tion of the exotic is advocated, while in The methods available for controll lar types of animals. The classic example mal may suffer pain. In addition, when other cases, controlling populations at ing exotic animals fall into five basic of a disease organism that was used to shooting is done from aircraft, animals lower than current levels has been pro categories, each with its associated control an exotic mammal is that of my may be badly traumatized by the chase, posed. Solutions have ranged from live costs and benefits. The categories in xomytosis- a viral disease imported to and the probability of a humane death is capture and removal to shooting and clude: containment, direct killing (by Australia in an attempt to control the much reduced. poisoning. Because the methods used to shooting, poisoning, trapping, etc.), preda European rabbit. The virus was effective control exotics are a major point of con tor and disease introduction, reproductive Opponents of shooting may advocate initially, but the rabbits eventually de tention between animal welfare/animal inhibition, and live capture and removal. euthanasia, but the drugs used for this veloped an immunity, and the virus it rights organizations and resource mana Field conditions and the nature of the purpose are often dangerous and expen self became less virulent (Fenner, 1965). gers, we will discuss this issue in more organism generally dictate which alterna sive and require trained personnel to New strains have subsequently been in detail. tives are likely to be the most feasible. handle and inject them. In addition, if the troduced, with some success (B. Coblentz,

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U.S. Park Service

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pers. comm.). may also limit the effectiveness of live Reproductive inhibition is another capture and removal. Relatively inaccessi possible nonlethal solution. Several ble areas, such as mountainous terrain methods have been attempted, but their or dense forests, can make the location, practicality and effectiveness are ques capture, and transport of large animals tionable. Tubal ligations, castration, and difficult, if not impossible. chemosterilization are feasible for some An additional problem limiting the animals, and have the advantage of be effectiveness of live capture and ing permanent forms of reproductive removal is that of the ultimate disposi control. The disadvantage of these alter tion of the animals. Public adoption of natives is that they all involve capturing captured exotics is feasible only for a and handling the animals, and may re few domestic species, such as horses sult in considerable psychological and and burros, and then only in limited physiological trauma. Hormone implants numbers. For other animals, such as and orally administered reproductive in reindeer or mongooses, such a strategy hibitors require repeated applications, is impractical. It is possible that these sometimes on a daily basis. In addition, animals could be released in some other these methods may have deleterious side location. However, unless the release effects (Matsche, 1977 a, 1977b, 1980; Seal, site falls within their native range, the 1976). Methods involving surgical pro animals are just as likely to cause habitat cedures may lead to infection or death alteration in their new host environment (Zwank, 1981 ). Mechanical devices that as they were in the previous one. prevent conception have also been de In addition, a major drawback to veloped, but were found to be ineffec live capture and removal programs is tive and impractical (Matschke, 1976). At the cost (Fig. 8). The Fund for Animals present, reproductive inhibition is feasi reportedly spent $500,000 to remove ble only for small or confined popula about 600 burros from the Grand Can tions where animals can be captured easi yon (Anonymous, 1981 ). Often, introduc ly. It is also a gradual, rather than a rapid ed ungulates are found in remote or in method of control: if reproductive inhi accessible areas. Even if live capture bition is used as a method for complete and removal were feasible, expensive FIGURE 8. Method used to transport introduced mountain goats from Olympic National Park. This il elimination, then environmental altera equipment (such as helicopters) and per lustrates the expense of live capture and removal programs. (Photo by M. Hutchins) tion can be expected to continue until sonnel trained in capturing and handling the population eventually dies out. · the animals would be necessary. Because The newly emergent concept of ani tient animals is certainly a desirable - Live capture and removal is another of the exorbitant costs, most capture and mal rights has been central to many re goal, so is the preservation of natural nonlethal method of population control. transport programs must rely on a very cent debates involving animals, whether ecosystems and native wildlife. The wel However, it has numerous limitations. In unpredictable funding base- private they are found on farms, in laboratories, fare of animals has been a concern of deed, the animals are often subjected to interest groups. or in the wild. Attempts to control des both the conservation and humane move considerable physical and psychological Discussion tructive exotic mammals, such as the Grand ments; but, despite this superficial similar stress while being captured and trans In order to examine the relationship Canyon burros, have been opposed by ity, profound differences exist. Callicott ported. Some animals may suffer limb between introduced species and the ani animal welfare and animal rights organi (1980) has com pared the "land ethic" of fractures and lesions as a result of falls, mal welfare/animal rights movement, we zations whose members perceive the har Aida Leopold (1949) with the "humane and some may succumb to overdose from have organized the discussion around rassment or death of sentient beings to ethic" of Peter Singer (1975). While only drugs or to shock (Stelfox, 1976). Others two critical questions: be unjustified or cruel and immoral. (But sentient animals are afforded moral may contract capture myopathy- an oft see also the discussion on domestic ani standing according to the humane ethic, en fatal muscular disorder in hoofed 1. Are efforts to eliminate or con mals, below.) However, the introduced the land ethic is more holistic, focusing animals that is induced by the trauma of trol exotic animals- regardless of what species issue is not as straightforward as not only on animals, but also on plants, capture and transportation (Chalmers and method is chosen- incompatible with those that involve obvious cruelty to ani soils, and waters. While we recognize Barrett, 1977; Spraker, 1977, 1978). The the philosophical tenets of the animal mals. While the humane treatment of sen- that philosophical differences exist within specific characteristics of the host habitat welfare/animal rights movement? /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 3(4) 1982 329 328 /NT I STUD ANIM PROB 3(4} 1982 M Hutchins et al. -Introduced Species Original Article M. Hutchins et al. -Introduced Species Original Article

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various factions of both the conserva considers that funds are limited and In transporting animals from one place addition, some of the goats captured by tion and humane movements, we con could possibly be put to better use. For to another and allowing them to remain, the National Park Service and removed sider their radically divergent emphasis example, poaching and smuggling, stim we rob native organisms of their "right to to reduce pressure on the region's fragile on the individual as opposed to the spe ulated by a lucrative wildlife trade, has life." To argue that people should not ecosystem were shipped by state game cies or ecosystem to be a crucial issue. helped to push many species to the brink have created such problems in the first officials to Nevada and Utah- areas We perceive many difficulties in the of extinction. The half million dollars place is, at this point, entirely unproduc well outside the animals' native range. efforts of humane organizations to defend spent by the Fund for Animals to remove tive. And to assume that our ecological The goats were imported to these areas the rights of introduced species. Myers the Grand Canyon burros could have been problems would suddenly be solved if specifically for the purpose of recreational (1979) and Erlich and Erlich (1981) have used to alleviate the suffering of a great we "let nature take its course" is naive, hunting. If government agencies such as identified habitat disruption as the most er number of animals, had it been made since we are often forced into active the National Park Service wish to justify significant threat to wild-animal popula available to organizations like the World management of our few remaining natu the elimination or control of exotic ani tions. Therefore, a concern for wild ani Wildlife Fund, whose objective is to save ral ecosystems. Human intrusions are mals on the premise that it will protect mals needs to be expressed in a willing endangered species from extinction. subtle, and diverse; potential threats re native ecosystems, then they must be ness to protect natural ecosystems. On a Even philosophers who argue that quire constant monitoring, and once iden more consistent in formulating and ap superficial level, animals appear to be nonhuman animals have a "right to life" tified, may require immediate action to plying their own policies: Simply trans separate entities, moving independently recognize that such a right is not abso prevent any permanent damage. porting the problem to another area is not a solution. and freely within their environments. In lute. According to Regan (1976): "There 2. Is the elimination or control of There are laws that seek to control fact, nothing could be further from the may arise circumstances in which an in exotic animals justifiable under all cir the importation of foreign organisms in truth. All living organisms are closely dividual's right to life could be out cumstances? In what circumstances is it to the United States (e.g., Carter, 1977); tied to the habitats in which they have weighed by other, more pressing, moral justifiable? evolved. Thus, if the introduction of an demands, and where, therefore we would however, there are no regulations limit exotic herbivore leads to an alteration in be justified in taking the life of the in Some recent control programs in ing the introduction of exotic species in plant community structure, native ani dividual in question." This attitude is volving federal lands have been justified to natural ecosystems (Courtney, 1978). mals that depend on certain plants for reflected in the policy of The Humane by statutes authorizing the protection of Protests by animal welfare/animal rights food or cover may starve or be captured Society of the United States toward native organisms and ecosystems; how organizations have sometimes forced fed more frequently by their predators. stray cats and dogs. Each year, millions ever, it may be difficult to justify such eral agencies into preparing Environmen While an effort to control or e·liminate of unwanted pets are put to death by actions on all lands. Lands under federal tal Impact Statements (e.g., in the case exotics may sometimes necessitate the organizations dedicated to the promo jurisdiction are managed to meet their of the Grand Canyon burros; U.S. Interior killing or harrassment of individual sen tion of animal welfare and animal rights. stated purpose under the law, and this Department, 1980) to justify their removal tient animals, inaction may result in Ironic as this may seem, the death of may have little relevance to the preser of exotics, but no similar studies are re widespread suffering. A difficult ques countless animals is seen as an accep vation of natural ecosystems. For exam quired before new species are introduced tion for humane organizations contem table alternative to the starvation and ple, National Forests, wildlife refuges, by state game agencies. plating legal or political action against misery that would accompany overpop and rangelands are seldom managed so On the basis of this discussion, it is government agencies that want to con ulation. We believe such actions areal as to preserve natural ecosystems, and evident that the control or elimination trol introduced animals is: Are we willing so justifiable for wild animals, though the agencies managing these lands have of exotic species cannot always be justi to I ive with the suffering of the many this may be unfortunate. But we do not come under repeated attack for allow fied on the basis of preservationism; other organisms that are adversely affect place the burden of moral responsibility ing economic interests to take preced however, advocates of control can argue ed by the exotic soecies? on animals (Feinberg, 1978), and this ence over ecological concerns. In some much more convincingly in the case of Animal welfare/animal rights ad- may account for the guilt that we feel in cases, the viability of ecosystems is of National Parks. These few areas consti vocates must also contend with the real causing them to suffer or in taking an concern to resource managers only tute a relatively small portion of our to ization that many nonlethal methods of "innocent" life. It is certainly not the when it affects the production of com tal land area and contain the only re population control may be less effective fault of introduced animals that they mercially important livestock or game maining habitats that are still relatively and less humane than lethal methods, were captured and transported to anoth animals. For example, in Olympic Na pristine (Houston, 1971 ). If the control of such as shooting. Indeed, if one's goal is er habitat by humans. However, the fact tional Park, federal officials have recog destructive exotics is made possible on to reduce pain and suffering, then the remains that exotic species do exist and nized a need to control a population of these lands, we believe that every effort advocacy of methods such as reproduc are, in many cases, causing significant introduced mountain goats (Hutchins should be undertaken to preserve the tive inhibition or live capture and removal ecological changes at the expense of and Stevens, 1981 ), but Washington native animal and plant communities. must be questioned. The exorbitant costs other animals. Indeed, while we discuss state game managers oppose complete At least, by exerting control on this of live capture and removal are also eth the rights of introduced animals, still removal because it would eliminate hunt limited geographic scale, we will have ically questionable, especially when one others may be driven toward extinction. ing opportunities on adjacent lands. 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cally and biologically critical areas. Ad ment of effective control programs, such not to question the ethical foundations control of exotic animals illustrates vocates of control can also argue con as their cost and the high degree to of the movement or to challenge the some of the complex ethical problems vincingly in some cases that do not in which some exotic species have become sincerity of its beliefs. We wish only to that confront the animal welfare/animal volve National Parks. For example, when established. The high cost of control broaden its perspective. Michael Fox- a rights movement, conservationists, and exotic species threaten the existence of makes it necessary to set priorities leading proponent of the animal welfare wildlife managers today (also see Calli rare or endangered native organisms that perhaps only the most destructive of and animal rights movement- has argued cott, 1980; Rodman, 1977). We believe live outside park boundaries, then con non-native organisms should be targeted recently for a more moderate approach that such problems must be confronted trol can be justified. It might also be ap for action. As Darling and Eichorn (1967) to the issue of animal rights (Fox, 1978, directly and openly if the movement is propriate to control exotic animals on have noted: "The question of the status 1979). He views the arguments of Singer to retain its credibility and maintain its lands adjacent to parks or other sensitive of exotics should not cause hysterical (1975) and other "radical" animallibera momentum. Aldo Leopold once said that areas in order to prevent recolonization. reactions until each example is thought tionists as falling short of the requirements "a thing is right when it tends to preserve In arguing against the control of cer through." Of course, some exotics, such for a practical humane ethic. Indeed, the integrity, stability and beauty of the tain exotic animals, some animal welfare/ as the Norway rat, have become so firm many other more ardent defenders of biotic community" (Leopold, 1949). In animal rights advocates have question ly established that complete elimination animal rights have focused exclusively addition, Blackstone (1978) has observed ed whether any benefits would actually has proved to be impossible. Some ani on the protection of sentient animals, that the environmental crisis "involves result from such actions. However, there mal welfare/animal rights organizations and often their attention is concentrated not merely what some consider to be isol are several instances in which the con have argued that federal agencies should be only on those animals that are perceived ated and particular problems, such as trol or elimination of exotic mammals required to prove that exotics are in fact as being appealing or "cute." Fox (1979) the pollution of our lakes and rivers, the has had beneficial effects. When small causing irreparable damage before con recognizes the inherent weakness of this smog of our cities, and the devastating exclosures were erected to study the ef trol programs are implemented. While philosophy, noting that: "The ecological effect of pesticides, on food chains; it in fect of feral goats on native flora in we recognize the importance of moni imperative of responsible stewardship volves a threat to life on this planet and Haleakala National Park, Hawaii, the toring the actions of government agen concerns our treatment of, and relation certainly to the quality of that life." In seeds of a heretofore unknown legumi cies, there are several reasons for reject ship with all of creation, both sentient fact, if humane organizations are unable nous plant began to germinate (Baker ing this position. First, it is impossible to and nonsentient." He envisions the ani or unwilling to broaden their perspec and Reeser, 1972). The elimination of predict the long-term effects of exotics mal welfare/animal rights movement as tive to encompass the whole of nature, feral rabbits from Laysan Island in the on native fauna and flora, and even more an important transition to a more holistic they will risk a total alienation of the leeward Hawaiian chain saved the ende difficult to quantify the nature of such "eco-ethic." While we agree that a rec environmental community. Moreover, in mic Laysan teal from almost certain ex effects. We really know very little about ognition of the rights of all living things adhering to a philosophy that emphasiz tinction (Warner, 1935). At the time the the inner workings of most ecosystems is an important step toward the attain es a reverence for I ife, but that ignores rabbits were eliminated, the birds' popu systems of biological interdependencies ment of such a goal, we also stress that the conditions necessary for its survival, lation had been reduced to less than sev can be extremely subtle, and in the ab responsible stewardship may involve dif they may ultimately be unfaithful to en individuals. Now there is a healthy sence of such information, precise pre ficult, and sometimes painful, decisions. their own ideals. diction is impossible. Second, detailed population. The loss of biological diver In some cases, our actions may result in Acknowledgments studies of the ecological impacts of exo sity that could have resulted would have the death or suffering of other sentient tic animals may take years to complete We thank J. Agee, M. Beecher, B. been a great price to pay for inaction. beings. Of course, we do not believe and, while the irreparable damage is be Coblentz, C. Crockett, D. Houston, and Myers (1979) has estimated that nearly 1 that cost-effectiveness should be the ing documented, it may have already R. Taber for reading and commenting on million species of animals and plants sole consideration in the development taken place. To some extent, resource the manuscript. will vanish from this planet by the end of of animal management strategies. A so managers must act on the basis of intui the century, if habitat destruction is al ciety's values are just as important as its References tion and previous experience. If there is lowed to proceed at current rates. While economics. When the need to control a any evidence that significant habitat al Anonymous (1981) Wild burros still un exotic species represent only one kind of destructive animal has been identified, teration is being caused by exotics, then der fire. Newsweek 97(15):17-1 8. habitat degradation caused indirectly by then reductions should be accomplished fast and decisive action might be neces Atkinson, I.A.E. (1964) Relations between humans, they are a significant contribu in the most humane manner possible, sary and justifiable. feral goats and vegetation in New tor to the problem. given the limitations of the situation. Epilogue When the purpose of such. reductions is Zealand. Proc NZ £col Soc 11:39-44. While we recognize the need to to preserve natural ecosystems or to Atkinson, I.A.E. (1977) A reassessment of We have identified several difficult control or eliminate some exotics in protect endangered animals and plants, factors, particularly Rattus rattus L., biologically critical areas, we would not problems for the animal welfare and ani it should not be viewed as incompatible that influenced the decline of ende argue for the elimination of all exotics. mal rights movement in defending intro with the humane ethic. mic forest birds in the Hawaiian Is There are major obstacles to the develop- duced species. However, our purpose is The controversy surrounding the lands. Pacific Sci 31(2):109-133.

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Baker, j .K. and Reeser, D.W. (1972) Goat Courtney, W.R. (1978) The introduction Hamann, 0. (1975) Vegetational changes ed diethylstilbestol as an oral contra management problems in Hawaii Vol of exotic organisms, In: H.P. Brokaw, in the Galapagos Islands during the ceptive in white-tailed deer. j Wild/ canoes National Park. U.S. Dept lnt ed., Wildlife and America. U.S. Fish period 1966-73. Bioi Conserv 7:37-59. Manage 41(1 ):87-91. Nat Res Rep 2:1-22. and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Hansen, R.M. (1980) Habitat, In: G. Mon Matsche, G.H. (1977b) Fertility control in i .. Baldwin, P.H. and Fagerlund, G.O. (1943) Courtney, W.R. and Ogilvie, V.E. (1971) son and Sumner, L., eds., The Desert white-tailed deer by steroid implants. J The effect of cattle grazing on koa re Species pollution. Anim Kingdom 74 Bighorn. University of Arizona Press, Wild/ Manage 41(4):731. production in Hawaii National Park. (2): 22-28. Tucson, AZ. Matsche, G.H. (1980) Efficacy of steroid Ecology 24(1):118-122. Darling, F.F. and Eichorn, N.D. (1967) Man Holdgate, M.W. (1967) The influence of implants in preventing pregnancy in Blackstone, W.T. (1978) Is there an envi and Nature in National Parks. Con introduced species on the ecosystems white-tailed deer. J Wild/ Manage 44 ronmental ethic?, In: Blackstone, W. servation Foundation. of temperate oceanic islands, In: To (3):756-758. H., ed., Philosophy and Environmental Denny, R.N. (1974) The impact of uncon wards a New Relationship of Man and McKnight, T.L. (1958) The feral burro in Crisis. University of Georgia Press, trolled dogs on wildlife and livestock, Nature in Temperate Lands. Part Ill, the United States: distribution and Athens, GA. In: Proc 39th Am Wild Conf, pp. Changes Due to Introduced Species. problems. J Wild/ Manage 22(2):162- Bratton, S.P. (1974) The effect of the Eu 257-291. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland. 179. ropean wild boar (Sus scrofa) on the deVos, A., ManVille, R.H., and VanGeld Houston, D. (1971) Ecosystems of nation Muller-Dombois, D. and Spatz, G. (1975) high elevation vernal flora in Great er, R.G. (1956) Introduced mammals al parks, Science 172:648-651. The influence of feral goats on the Smokey Mountains National Park. Bull and their influence on native biota. Howard, W.E., (1964) Introduced brows lowland vegetation of Hawaii Volca Torry Bot Club 101(4):198-206. Zoologica 41:163-194. ing animals and habitat stability in noes National Park. Phytocoentologi Bratton, S.P. (1975) The effect of the Eu Dowling, H.G. (1964) Goats and hawks-a New Zealand. J Wild/ Manage 28(3): ca 3(1): 1-29. ropean wild boar, Sus scrofa, on grey new theory of predation on the land 421-429. Myers, N. (1980) The Sinking Ark. Perga beech forest in the Great Smokey iguana. Anim Kingdom 67(2):51-56. Hutchins, M. and Stevens, V. (1981) Olym mon Press, New York, NY. Mountains. Ecology 56:1356-1366. Elton, C.S. (1958) The Ecology of Invasions pic mountain goats. Nat Hist 90(1):59- Pickard, j. (1976) The effect of feral goats Callicott, j.B. (1980) Animal liberation: a by Animals and Plants. Chapman and 69. (Capra hircus L.) on the vegetation of triangular affair. Environ Ethics 2:311- Hall, London. Iverson, j.B. (1978) The impact of feral Lord Howe Island. Aust J Ecol 1:103- 338. Erlich, P. and Erlich, A. (1981) Extinction. cats and dogs on populations of the 114. Carothers, S.W., Stitt, M.E. and johnson, Random House, New York, NY. west Indian rock iguana, Cyc/ura car Regan, T. (1976) Do animals have a right to R.R. (1976) Feral asses on public lands: Feinberg, j. (1978) Human duties and an niata. Bioi Conserv 14(1 ):63-7 4. life?, In: T. Regan and Singer, P., eds., an analysis of biotic impact, legal con imal rights, In: W.T. Blackstone, ed., jackson, S. (1897) Annual report on the Animal Rights and Human Obligations. siderations and management alterna Philosophy and Environmental Crisis. introduction of domestic reindeer in Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, Nj. tives, In: Trans 41st North Am Wild/ University of Georgia Press, Athens, to Alaska. US Bur Ed 7:1-124. Reiger, G. (1978) Wild boars, burros, horses Conf, pp. 396-406. GA. Kramer, R.j. (1971) Hawaiian Land Mam cause park service apoplexy. Audu Carter, j. (1977) Exotic organisms. Execu Fenner, F. (1965) Myxoma virus and Oryc mals. Charles A. Tuttle Co., Rutland, bon 80(3):119-122. tive Order 11987, May 24, 1977, p. tolagus cuniculus: two colonizing spe VT. Rodman, j. (1977) The liberation of na E0-1. In: Anon, The President's envi cies, In: H.G. Baker and G.L. Stebbins, Laycock, G. (1966) The Alien Animals. Na ture? Inquiry 20:83-131. ronmental program, 1977. Council on The Genetics of Colonizing Species. tural History Press, New York, NY. Roots, C. (1976) Anima/Invaders. Universe Environmental Quality. U.S. GPO, Academic Press, New York. Laycock, G. (197 4) Dilemma in the desert: Books, New York, NY. Washington, DC, 66 pp. Fox, M.W. (1978) Man and nature: biolog burros or bighorn? Audubon 76(5): Seal, U.S., Barton, R., Mather, L., et a/. Chalmers, G.A. and Barret, M.W. (1977) ical perspectives, In: R.K. Morris and 116-117. (1976) Hormonal contraception in cap Capture myopathy in pronghorns in Fox, M.W., eds., On the Fifth Day: Ani Leopold, A. (1949) A Sand County Alma tive female lions (Panthera leo). J Zoo Alberta, Canada. JAm Vet Med Assoc mal Rights and Human Ethics. Humane nac. Oxford University Press, New Anim Med 7(4):12-20. 171:918-923. Society of the United States, Washing York, NY. Singer, P. (1975) Animal Liberation. Avon Coblentz, B.E. (1976) Wild goats of Santa ton, D.C. Mark, A.F. and Baylis, G.T.S. (1975) Impact Books, New York, NY. Catalina. Nat Hist 85:71-77. Fox, M.W. (1979) Animal rights and nature of deer on Secretary Island, Fiordland, Spatz, G. and Muller-Dombois, D. (1973) Coblentz, B.E. (1977) Some range relation liberation, In: D. Paterson and Ryder, New Zealand. Proc NZ Eco/ Soc 22:19- The influence of feral goats on koa ships of feral goats on Santa Catalina R.D., eds., Animal Rights- A Sympo 24. tree reproduction in· Hawaii Volca Island, California. J Range Manage 30 sium. Centaur Press, Sussex, England. Matsche, G.H. (1976) Non-efficacy of noes National Park. Ecology 54:870-876. (6): 415-419. Greenway, j .C. (1958) Extinct and Vanish mechanical birth control devises for Spraker, T.R. (1977) Capture myopathy of Coblentz, B.E. (1978) The effects of feral ing Birds of the World, Special Publi white-tailed deer. J Wild/ Manage 40 Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep, In: goats on island ecosystems. Bioi Con cation 13. Am Comm lnt Wild/ Protect, (4):792-795. Trans Desert Bighorn Sheep Council serv 13:279-286. New York, NY. Matsche, G.H. 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Spraker, T.R. (1978) Pathophysiology as Walters, J.E. and Hansen, R.M. (1978) Evi sociated with capture of wild animals, dence of feral burro competition with Model Bill for Prohibiting B. "Process of taking," in addi In: R.J. Montali and Migaki, G., eds., desert bighorn sheep in Grand Canyon Anti-Hunters Drafted by WLFA tion to any act directed at the tak The Comparative Pathology of Zoo Ani National Park, In: Trans Desert Big ing of a wild animal, includes tra The Wildlife Legislative Fund of mals, Symp Nat/ Zoo/ Park, Smithsoni horn Sheep Counci/1978, pp. 10-16. vel, camping, and other acts prepa America, whose letterhead asserts that its an Institution, Washington, DC. Wardle, J. (1974) Influence of introduced ratory to taking which occur on sole raison d' etre is "to protect the Heri Stelfox, J.G. (1976) Immobilizing bighorn mammals on the forest and shrub lands or waters upon which the af tage of the American Sportsman to hunt, sheep with succinylcholine chloride lands of the Grey River Headwaters. fected person has the right or privi to fish and to trap," has devised a model and phencyclidine hydrochloride. J NZ j Sci 4(3):459-486. lege to take such wild animal. Wild/ Manage 40(1):174-176. Warner, R.E. (1963) Recent history and state statute for making the various tac tics of anti-hunting activists illegal. And Stocker, J. (1980) Battle of the burro. Nat ecology of the Laysan duck. Condor Section 2. Harassment prohibited with some success: since the group began Wi/d/79(5):14-16. 65:3-23. A. No person shall interfere its efforts in January 1982, eight states Turchek, F.J. (1951) Effect of introductions Yocum, C.F. (1967) Ecology of feral goats with the lawful taking of a wild ani have enacted legislation containing some, on two game populations in Czecho in Haleakala National Park, Maui, Ha mal by another, or the process of tak or all, of the WLFA's suggested provi slovakia. j Wild/ Manage 15:113-114. waii. Am Mid Nat 77(2):418-451. ing, with intent to prevent the taking. sions. These states are Montana, New York, U.S. Department of the Interior (1980) Zwank, P.J. (1981) Effects of field laparo B. No person shall disturb a Washington, Vermont, Connecticut, Michi Feral Burro Management and Ecosys tomy on survival and reproduction in wild animal, or engage in an activity gan, Minnesota, and California. tem Restoration Plan and Final Envi mule deer. j Wild/ Manage 45(4):972- or place any object or substance that ronmental Assessment. National Park 975. It all began when the Animal Defense will tend to disturb or otherwise af Service, Grand Canyon National Park. Council initiated a campaign to disrupt fect the behavior of a wild animal, the hunt of desert bighorn sheep in Ari with intent to prevent or hinder its zona. Their efforts were sufficiently ef lawful taking. fective that the Arizona Fish and Game FORTHCOMING ARTICLES C. No person shall disturb an Department, working with the state At other person who is engaged in the torney General, Robert Corbin (himself a Feral Dogs of the Galapagos Islands- Bruce Barnett and Robert Rudd lawful taking of a wild animal or hunter), decided to take a closer look at who is engaged in the process of tak the existing laws to see why anti-hunting Historical Trends in American Animal Use and Perception- Stephen Kellert ing, with intent to dissuade or other activity was not a punishable crime. The wise prevent the taking or to prevent resu It of these efforts was that Arizona The Effects of Ethostasis on Farm Animal Behavior-A.F. Fraser and M.W. Fox such person's enjoyment of the out drafted and passed the nation's first "anti doors. harassment bill." Psychological Aspects of Slaughter- Harold Herzog and Sandy McGee D. No person shall enter or re The WLFA, eager to duplicate the main upon public lands, or upon pri victory won in Arizona, had its own at vate lands without permission of the A Different Approach to Horse Handling, Based on the Jeffery Method-Judith torneys draw up a model bill that "goes owner or his agent, with intent to Blackshaw and Sharon Cregier further than the Arizona law by protecting violate this section. the activities of all sportsmen including E. The maximum penalty for Vivisection and Misanthropy- George P. Cave hunters, trappers, and fishermen" (quoted violation of this section is a fine of from a publicity package distributed by five hundred dollars and thirty days A Three-Year Review of Events in Animal Welfare: How Far Have We Come? WLFA to promote the bill). The follow imprisonment, or both. Editorial Board ing is a verbatim copy of the bill. Section 3. Failure to obey order Model Statute to Prohibit Harassment prohibited of Hunters, Trappers and Fishermen A. No person shall fail to obey the order of a peace qfficer to desist Section 1. Definitions from conduct in violation of Section As used in this Act: 2 if the officer observes such con A. "Wild animal" means any duct, or has reasonable grounds to wild creature the taking of which is believe that the person has engaged in authorized by the fish and game laws such conduct that day or that the of this state. person plans or intends to engage

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