The Cultural Baggage of Second Language Reading: an Approach to Understanding the Practices and Perspectives of a Nonnative Product

22 SPRING 2006

The Cultural Baggage of Second Language Reading: An Approach to Understanding the Practices and Perspectives of a Nonnative Product

Eileen M. Ketchum Muhlenherg College

Abstract: The mle of background knowledge in second language (L2) reading has received much attention in pedagogical research through theoretical paradigms such as schema theory, mental models, scripts, and expectations. The recent culture goals of the National Standards (1999) have provided new direction for research in interactive reading models, as sufficient background knowledge can help students comprehend the relationship between the practices and perspectives of a nonnative text or product. This article presents a 3R model of reading strategies (Recognize, Research, Relate) that focuses on developing background knowledge about a target culture while applying this schema to appropriate clues in a foreign text. Samples of data from a qualitative study testing the effectiveness of the 3R model accompany the discussion of this approach designed for a wide-ranging instructional audience.

Key words: francophone, literature, reading, schema theory, second language acquisition (SLA), Standards

Language: French Introduction In today's global society, foreign language study has become increasingly important as world leaders recognize its value for effective international communication and intercultural understanding, ACTFli 2005; The Year of Languages campaign attests to the growing need for language educators to encourage more students to continue with foreign language study in a world progressively dominated by culturally diverse populations and international conflicts. The consequential rise in intercultural communication in all its forms—-spoken, e-mail, formal documents, literary texts, and so forth—inevitably poses specific challenges because of the cultural baggage that each word carries. The written word in particular, taken devoid of its cultural and interpersonal context, can lead to vast misunderstandings easi- ly avoidable through a culturally informed approach to textual communication. Indeed, the past few decades of research on reading strategies in second language acquisition (SLA) have focused on the importance of cultural knowledge in teaching foreign literature, leading to a somewhat broader view of the text than in

Eileen M. Ketchum (PhD, University of Wisconsin-Mcidison) is Visiting Assistant Professor of French at Muhlenberg College, Allentown, Pennsylvania. FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS • VOL, 39, NO, 25

previous decades. This interdisciplinary study in which students applied these approach to literary analysis joins and strategies to literary texts in an intermedi- expands upon prior research in fields such ate French language class, demonstrating as cultural anthropology and semiotics. the successes of interdisciplinary approach- Schema theory, introduced in its earliest es that provide multifaceted, student-cen- forms in 1932 by Sir Frederick Bartlett in tered explorations of the target culture. his book Remembering, has provided new This discussion will outline general strate- insights for SLA reading strategy research gies for the teaching of foreign language through its emphasis on the relationship reading comprehension and the use of ped- between the reader's background knowledge agogical tools that help students bridge the and the cultural context of the writer. gap between a native and nonnative reading Alternatively referred to throughout the of a text and that promote intercultural years as scripts (Schank &r Abelson, L977), understanding. frames (Minsky, 1975), expectations (Tannen, 1978), schemata (Adams & Review of Literature Collins, 1977; Bartlett, 1932; Rumelhart, The past 20 years of research into the role 1977; Rumelhart & Ortony, 1977), and of background knowledge in reading com- mental models Qohnson-Laird & Nicholas, prehension has often concentrated on three 1983), reader background knowledge has general categories: content schemata, for- particular significance in foreign language mal schemata, and linguistic schemata. The study because of the differing cultural per- majority of studies have investigated strate- spectives of author and receiver. Findings gies for developing and activating content by Carrell (1981, 1984a, 1984b, 1985, schemata, or informational clusters in the 1987) and others have shown that reading reader's mind that pertain to ideas, experi- in a foreign language requires more active ences, or contextual clues found within the preparation on the part of the reader, who text. Although formal schemata have fre- must not only activate the appropriate quently been clumped within that same scripts or mental models while reading a text category, their distinction as knowledge of but also recognize and acquire any cultural text structures, organization, or form information that may be lacking for an ade- deserves recognition when sueh structures quate understanding of the text. While one are culturally determined. Studies into the might assume that native readers already role of linguistic schemata have particular possess this necessary background knowl- relevance for nonnative readers, as lan- edge when approaching a written docu- guage poses the primary and perhaps most ment, readers of a foreign language text significant obstacle when analyzing a for- must overcome an added challenge of cul- eign text. tural unfamiharity when processing written communication. Content Schemata In light of these issues, the purpose of The earliest studies in content schemata this article is to examine studies on back- focused on the role of background knowl- ground knowledge in reading comprehen- edge in first language (H) reading compre- sion conducted throughout the past 20 hension (Bartlett, 1932; Schank & years. This investigation will emphasize in Abelson, 1977), concluding that readers particular those findings that highlight the rely upon previously acquired knowl- challenges of foreign language reading edge—organized into "slots" or specific comprehension, culminating in the devel- organizational patterns—that they may opment of a new model of reading strate- retrieve when triggered by certain clues in gies for foreign literature, A thorough a text. The complexity and relevance of this explanation of this model will be comple- information to the particular text will mented by examples from a qualitative determine the reader's comprehension and 24 SPRING 2006 recall of the text. In the past two decades, hension as students rely on this knowledge however, researchers began applying some to assist them with culturally unfamiliar of these findings to second language (L2) material (Carrell, 1981; Kintsch & Greene, research, with results indicating that famil- 1978), Although no specific conclusions iarity with the cultural content of a text can be drawn from these studies regarding (prior experience in the target culture as a the role of formal schemata alone, conclu- native or nonnative member) can positive- sions were later made by Carrell (1987) in ly affect students' reading comprehension a study aimed at uncovering the simultane- (Carrell, 1981; Hammadou, 1991; Johnson, ous or individual effects of formal and con- 1982; Pritchard, 1990; Roller & Matambo, tent schemata on Fnglish as a second lan- 1992; Steffensen, Joag-dev, & Anderson, guage (ESL) reading. Comparisons of two 1979), Based on these findings, other groups of students reading texts on Arab researchers investigated the effects of pro- and Western religious traditions (one group viding culturally specific background reading familiar, well-organized versions of knowledge to students prior to their read- the two texts; the other reading unfamiliar, ing a foreign text (Barry & Lazarte, 1995, rhetorically altered versions) showed that 1998; Kim, 1995), These studies found that cultural familiarity with the texts, or con- students with adequate instruction in the tent schemata, had a greater effect on read- cultural content of a foreign text under- ing comprehension than did formal organi- stand and recall more information from the zation of the text. text than those without any instructor- Studies were later conducted that guided preparation. Instructors might want specifically tested the role of formal to consider students' preferences when schemata by controlling for content developing their background knowledge schemata and varying text types or organi- about the target culture, as reader interest zational structures (Carrell, 1984a, 1984b; in the topic also seems to play a role in L2 Riley, 1993), As one might expect, results reading comprehension. Studies have showed that L2 learners who read texts fol- shown that topics which interest students lowing a familiar, episodic or tightly orga- the most in their own culture can assist nized structure could recall more idea units them in their comprehension of the same than those students who read more loosely subjects in foreign language texts, out- or deliberately altered versions of the same weighing any types of linguistic difficulties text. In other words, L2 reading compre- they may encounter (Bligel & Buunk, hension is greatly facilitated by knowledge 1996; Carrell 61 Wise, 1998; Leloup, of text types or rhetorical structures, given 1993;), In sum, the past 20 years of that students can activate this type of research into content schemata have schemata to assist them when encountering demonstrated that reading in a foreign lan- a text posing linguistic or cultural difficul- guage can be greatly facilitated by develop- ties. As such, it would seem that prior training students' background knowledge about ing in rhetorical organization to develop the culture represented in the text. students' formal schemata would benefit L2 reading comprehension. Studies have Formal Schemata indeed shown that students who received Formal schemata have frequently been instruction in text types or discourse struc- explored in conjunction with content tures recall significantly more of a foreign schemata, as the two interact simultaneous- language text (indicating higher reading ly during the L2 reading process. Indeed, comprehension) than readers provided investigations into the effects of students' with minimal or no such preparation knowledge of text organization and rhetor- (Carrell, 1985; Lee & Riley, 1990; ical structures have shown that such expe- Raymond, 1993). Overall, research into for- rience can positively affect reading compre- mal schemata in L2 reading comprehension FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS • VOL, 39, NO, :1 25 has demonstrated the importance of devel- These results point to the importance oping students' knowledge of text types of developing cultural schemata when and formal structures, given that students introducing literature in a foreign language can use their familiarity with discourse class, helping students understand texts structures and organizational patterns that may pose linguistic challenges in lower when their cultural or linguistic competen- level language classes. Instructors can cies fail them. indeed present linguistically challenging texts to their students provided that the Linguistic Schemata students have adequate preparation in the As with formal schemata, linguistic cultural content of the material. schemata have primarily been investigated Additionally, texts that focus on topics in relation to other schemiata in the interac- familiar to students (or topics that interest tive reading process. More specifically, them) within their own culture allow stu- researchers have explored the interaction dents to activate this information when between linguistic competencies (or processing linguistically difficult material. knowledge of the target language) and cul- Finally, knowledge of text structure and tural knowledge in L2 reading comprehen- organization, both in the students' own cul- sion, Johnson (1981, 1982) investigated ture and those of the target culture, can add whether the cultural origins of a text or its to students' comprehension and retention linguistic complexity would affect the read- of a foreign text. It would seem, then, that ing comprehension of nonnative readers. In developing all three types of schemata— the first study, Johnson presented two content, linguistic, and formal—is neces- Iranian and American folk tales to two sary for adequate L2 reading comprehen- groups of Iranian ESL students, one group sion. Of those three, content schemata is reading linguistically complex English ver- the key component, particularly when con- sions and the other group reading simpli- sidering the cultural differences inherent in fied English versions. The second study L2 literature. Figure 1 demonstrates this investigated whether prior experience in a relationship between the three types of foreign cultural tradition (the U,S, custom background knowledge, with cultural of Halloween) or vocabulary instruction information (or content schemata) at the would affect ESL students' reading compre- top, guiding and directing the other two hension of a text describing this custom. types of knowledge in a triangular fashion. Both studies found that cultural familiarity assisted students more with their compre- FIGURE 1 hension of the texts than did linguistic Triangular Relationship of Schemata competency, concluding that content schemata can greatly assist students when Content their linguistic skills are low. Other studies had similar results (Chen & Donin, 1997; Hammadou, 1991) in that researchers discovered that students with low or inade- Formal -^- Linguistic quate language proficiency tended to process and recall more thoroughly those texts that included familiar topics than those These findings led to the development of texts that presented unfamiliar subjects. In a model of reading strategies for L2 reading other words, nonnative readers may rely on comprehension that focuses on the develop- their background knowledge to compen- ment of background knowledge sufficient for sate for their ineffective language skills analyzing and understanding literary prac- when reading L2 texts. tices (formal schemata) and linguistic structures (linguistic schemata) from the cultural 26 SPRING 2006

Standpoint of the author. In effect, the er any gaps in their knowledge regard- Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the ing the target culture, and as a result, 2pt Century (National Standards, 1999) out- guides the second phase of research into lines similar goals in the "Cultures" standard: the target culture. "Students demonstrate an understanding of 2. Research. Using multiple and varied the relationship between the practices and types of resources, students then investi- perspectives of the culture studied" (p. 9) and gate those areas of the target culture that "Students demonstrate an understanding of most interest them and in which they the relationship between the products and lack adequate background knowledge. perspectives of the culture studied" (p. 9). 3. Relate. Finally, students apply their For the purposes of the current model, prac- newly developed schemata back to the tices would be defined as the literary and lin- text in the Relate stage, helping them guistic practices (structures, text organiza- make connections between the literary tion, literary techniques, word choice, and so and linguistic practices of the author forth) that comprise formal and linguistic and his or her cultural perspectives that schemata, and products would be defined as the students have researched. written documents or literature. The perspectives, therefore, would represent the content In the discussion that follows, each schemata necessary for an informed and phase will be explained in detail with insightful interpretation of these practices. examples from a qualitative study involving intermediate French students who analyzed The 3R Model of Reading a poem by francophone African writer Strategies David Diop. Twenty students enrolled in a Given that schemata are triggered by clues sixth-semester French course at a large within a text, the 3R model of reading midwestem university took part in a study strategies focuses on activating, developing, in which they read a poem entitled "Rama and incorporating background knowledge Kam" (see Appendix A) prior to any train- into the students' perspectives of the text. ing in the 3R model or any discussion of Figure 2 represents the three phases of this other francophone texts. After six weeks of model in triangular fashion, each stage learning and applying the 3R model to simultaneously affecting the other in an three other francophone African texts interactive process of reading comprehen- (Leopold Senghor's "Femme noire," David sion that helps bridge the gap between a Diop's "A une danseuse noire," and Birago native and nonnative reading of a foreign Diop's "Un jugement"), the students then text. analyzed the same poem again, following 1. Recognize. In the first phase the stu- the steps of the 3R model. The data from dents recognize those textual elements these pre- and posttests illustrate the suc- that trigger their appropriate informa- cesses of this reading strategies model, par- tional clusters or schemata. This recog- ticularly the student-centered development nition phase also helps students discov- of background knowledge and the application of this schemata to the appropriate FIGURE 2 clues in a foreign text. Structure of the 3R Model Recognize Recognize The Recognize phase directs students to find linguistic and literary elements in a text that reflect a distinct cultural reality of the author. Clearly, prior to developing any Research-*- Relate background knowledge in the target culture, students will probably point to char- FORKIGN lANGUAGi; ANNAIS • VOL. 39, NO. 1 27

acteristics that seem bizarre or foreign to clues or triggers in the text, they then them without much justification for their referred to faulty or superficial background choices. In-class discussions of their choic- knowledge about the culture to explain es may reveal preexisting stereotypes and their choices. Such indications underline impressions about the target culture, the need to develop students' background impressions that the instructor or fellow knowledge fully and accurately, so as to students may question and request further avoid reinforcing stereotypes and ethnocen- information about through research. In tric judgments about another culture. such a situation, the students' inability to In the posttest, these same students not justify their choices of literary elements in only could recognize more elements in the the Recognize stage emphasizes the areas in text as seemingly characteristic of African which they need to concentrate for further literature but could succeed in explaining schematic development and comprehen- why these textual clues pointed to an sion of the text. Literary or formal elements African cultural reality. For example. such as the rhythm of a poem, repetition of Student 1 explained the link between the certain words or expressions, particular tam-tam, dancing, and the griot as part of images or metaphors, the form of a text, an African celebration. Other students rec- and the organization or order of elements ognized the repetitive rhythmic elements in in the text may appear in the students' pre- the text and detailed their role within the liminary analyses at this stage. Linguistic overall structure of the poem. Relationships elements might include the insertion of were made between the rhythm of the words from another language (such as poem, the griot playing his tam-tam, and Arabic in a francophone text), geographical the movements of the dancer, Rama Kam, references within the target culture, names at the heart of this poem. Student 7 referred of historical figures or events, or expres- to ''beaucoup de textes africains que nous sions native to a dialect of that culture, and avons lus'' [a lot of African texts that we so forth. In the early stages of using this 3R have read[ as a reference for finding literary model, it may be helpful to provide guiding clues in this text, illustrating his ability to questions that would focus the students' rely on his newly developed formal and analyses on particular literary or linguistic content schemata for a more informed elements, later allowing the students to response than in his pretest. Generally, the choose freely the characteristics that they posttest responses to Question 1 tended to recognize. be more elaborate, longer lists of literary Appendix B presents samples of pre- and linguistic elements than those from the and posttest data of those textual clues that pretest, justified by informed references to students recognized in "Rama Kam" in the African culture represented in this response to the first pre- and posttest ques- poem. tion; "Identify all the elements in the text In essence, the main objectives of the that seem characteristic of African litera- Recognize phase are to ascertain students' ture." Of particular note in this data is the first reactions to a text in order to provide insistence on stereotypical images in the direction for research and discussion in the pretest, such as references to "une foret following stages of the 3R model. Moreover, sauvage" [a savage forestl, "primitivisme" since this recognition task demands little [primitivisml, "I'A/ric/ue majestueuse" interpretation at this early stage, students [majestic Africa], and one student who do not feel threatened to perform at a level admitted her stereotypical impressions of beyond their linguistic capabilities. As Africa as "la sensualite, la chaleur, les danses, pointed out earlier, preliminary discussions c'est mon idee d'Afrique" [sensuality, heat, of the students' choices in the Recognize dances, that's my idea of Africa). Although stage help to expose gaps in their knowl- students seemed able to point out certain edge about the target culture without rein- 28 SPRING 2006

forcing stereotypes. Indeed, it is these gaps, discussing any words they identified as par- the students' inability to justify their choic- ticularly representative of Senegalese culture. es in the early stage, that guide the second The instructor may be a helpful resource as phase of the 3R model. Therefore, the well, drawing from his or her own knowledge research conducted by the students—and ot French when exploring words and expres- the manner in which they go about that sions the students do not know. Following research—begins the process of shedding this preliminary investigation, small groups initial false impressions about the target of four or five students then research a cul- culture and ideally leads to a more native tural topic chosen from the Recognize stage view of these "other" literary and linguistic (such as Sub-Saharan African dance), using practices. various resources over a selected period of time. Research materials might include Research books, articles, the Internet, videos, museum The Research stage of the 3R model has two exhibits, e-mail correspondence in the target essential goals: (a) develop students' culture, and native sources from the commu- schemata about the target culture, and (b) nity Afterward, the students share tlieir find- provide students with research skills and ings with the rest of the class in order to ben- resources that help them become lifelong efit from one another's research and acquire independent learners. Rather than focusing similar schemata. The primary goal for the on teacher-centered lectures about the tar- instructor at this stage is to serve as an exter- get culture, this stage directs students to nal but informed guide in the research pro- research those elements that interest them cess, possibly assisting the students in choos- in the text and that they pointed out in the ing their research topic or demonstrating the Recognize stage, perhaps developing prior databases and resources at the school library. knowledge about the culture or filling in In this way the students explore the target gaps they discovered in their schemata. culture independently and are motivated to Prior studies have shown that interest in a explore those areas of their schemata that topic promotes more effective schematic most interest them. development and reader comprehension, For the present study, students had six and this stage reinforces that tendency by weeks between the pre- and posttests, dur- having students choose areas that they ing which they researched a particular cul- would like to research from the text. In tural topic in small groups. Throughout essence, this stage involves both the gather- that time, students conducted multifaceted ing of facts about the particular culture research using the Internet, articles and (visible culture or practices) and the inter- books, videos, CDs, and e-mail correspon- pretation of these facts as underlying cul- dence in Senegal. The e-mail correspon- tural values (invisible culture or perspec- dence provided an individual perspective tives). However, rather than relying on one on the information that the students were single source, students must conduct researching, illustrating the dynamic nature research using multiple resources to arrive of culture and the need to question and at a multifaceted, informed interpretation explore another culture on a continual of the subject in question. basis. Additionally, the entire class partici- Students begin a preliminary search by pated in an interactive dance and drum- looking up unknown vocabulary words in ming demonstration provided by local dictionaries and explaining why these partic- African experts. Through this experience, ular words, these linguistic practices, might students could sense firsthand the intimate represent the cultural reality of the author. In correspondence between music and dance the present study, students were given a dic- at the heart of Sub-Saharan African cul- tionary of Senegalese French, the Lexique du tures. Instructors can effectively provide Fran^ais du Senegal (1979), to use in class for such a sensory experience for students by FOREIGN lANGUAGI- ANNALS • VOU 39, NO. 1 29 taking advantage of the interdisciplinary of a Haitian author to write in Creole or opportunities of an educational setting: French might indicate the value he or she specialists in music, folklore, art, religions, places on Haitian customs versus those of anthropology, dance, or history might pro- the European colonizer. Moreover, a writer vide excellent resources for exploring the may include in his or her text historical fig- link between literature and culture with the ures and events that refer to narratives students. Thus, the Research phase helps passed down through indigenous peoples, students develop their schemata in many rather than those recounted by European or ways—through written materials, spoken western historical texts. Such literary deci- or e-mail communication, and personal sions underline the author's belief in repre- experiences. As with Johnson's t982 study senting the reality of his or her ancestral of ESL students' experiences of Halloween, origins and subsequent rejection of a forced such multifaceted research undoubtedly assimilation of western history. Indeed, stu- becomes ingrained in the students' minds dents' ongoing research of history, lan- and provides a solid foundation to which guage, traditions, and so forth would allow they can refer when interpreting the text a an informed interpretation of such literary second time in the Relate stage. and linguistic practices. Appendix C presents examples of stu- Relate dents' responses to the second question in Finally, ihe Relate stage asks students to the pre- and posttests, referring to this rela- apply their newly acqtiired background tionship between practices and perspec- knowledge about the culture back to the tives: "How do these literary elements text, demonstrating an understanding of [pointed out in Question 1] reflect African the relationship between the literary prac- cultural values?" This question aimed at tices and cultural perspectives of the uncovering the degree of students' back- author. Students first return to the ground knowledge about the target culture Recognize stage by reviewing the literary and their ability to activate the appropriate and linguistic elements they pointed out schemata when triggered by clues in the previously as representative of the target text. In the pretest, students tended to refer culture, either to reject some elements or to cultural values as "important" or "essen- add other clues that they may now recog- tial" without much explanation as to why, nize in the text based on their ongoing whereas in the posttest they seemed to be research. Second, the students interpret able to rely upon greater developed how these literary and linguistic elements schemata to present the underlying reasons uniquely represent the cultural reality of for their importance. For example, the author, thereby attempting to under- although Student 4 presented relatively stand the text from a more native point of complex thinking in her pretest analysis of view than in previous readings. Lastly, the "Rama Kam," her answer represented pri- Relate stage places each text in a larger marily the visible facts, the cultural prac- framework of literature from the target cul- tices represented by these literary elements. ture by asking the students to compare and In her posttest, she succeeded in relating contrast the current text with others that these cultural practices to the underlying they have read from that culture. This cultural perspectives of the author. Indeed, reconsideration of other literature allows one of the successes of the 3R model lies in students to position each author's literary helping students understand why cultures and linguistic practices in relation to one have certain practices. Through practice another, demonstrating to students the and continual application of these analyti- variety of perspectives that exist in a single cal strategies, students come to a greater culture and helping them shed stereotypical realization of the underlying worldviews generalizations. For example, the decision that motivate seemingly foreign behaviors 30 SPRING 2006 and customs. Moreover, the posttest data conduct independent research and literary for Question 2 illustrate the students' analysis. Moreover, as students chose their development of their formal schemata own subjects of research, their interest in through more thorough explanations of lit- the topic could help them retain this infor- erary techniques and structures than those mation within their overall schematic found in the pretests. Student 2, for framework. instance, entered into a detailed explana- Due to time constraints of the study tion of the poem's structure as reflecting the and the 50-minute class period allotted for images portrayed of an African dancer. the posttest itself, these analyses are not Furthermore, this student made links extensive by any means and certainly do not between the value of dance and the African reach a level of understanding that a native woman, albeit in a somewhat superficial reader of this same text would reach. manner. Student 4, on the other hand, suc- However, the differences between the pre- ceeded in making connections between the and posttest analyses of "Rama Kam" do poem's form, the images of the woman rep- indicate an improvement in cross-cultural resented in the poem, and the cultural per- comprehension, including a new ability to spectives of women as linked with nature analyze cultural differences in relation to and communal development through their underlying cultural values and perspectives. powers of birth. Her analysis illustrated the Rather than simply seeing cultural differ- underlying worldviews of the target culture ences, the students began to realize the rela- that led to the author's literary choices. tionship between practices and perspec- Student 6 discussed the poem's rhythm at tives, as outlined in the National Standards length, making connections between the (1999). It is through building background literary structures and the value of music in knowledge about the culture, along with African cultures. Rather than saying simply acquiring skills for gaining that knowledge, that music is important, as often found in that students begin the process of shedding the pretests, this student named specifically stereotypes about the target culture and the links between music and dance (per- viewing that culture on an equal plane with haps triggered by his experience with the their own. Student 7 offers a prime example African dance and music demonstration) as of this removal of cultural baggage that pre- well as music's various roles in Senegalese viously obstructed her view of the poem. daily life. Whereas in the pretest she emphasized the As for linguistic schemata. Students 1, openness or primal sexual nature that she 2, and 3 analyzed particular words as repre- associated with African cultures (supposed- sentative of the author's culture, primarily ly drawn from a course in anthropology), through the emphasis on noir [black] in the her posttest analysis explained the emphasis poetn. These three students demonstrated on sexual desire in the poem as a glorifica- how the words chosen by the author under- tion of Africa and an element of the negri- lined his role in glorifying African culture tude movement. In all, the 3R model opens prior to colonization, values explained in students' eyes to a new interpretation of for- detail by Student 3 as indicative of the eign literature and helps remove initial negritude movement. Certainly students stereotypical judgments by teaching stu- could have made similar connections had dents to question their opinions of other the instructor given a lecture on negritude cultural practices as bizarre or different. writers and their literary techniques. Given that the present study occurred However, the fact that students discovered over only a six-week period, students could this information on their own, later rein- benefit more if instructors applied these tech- forced through class discussions of other niques to a semester or yearlong course. poems, undoubtedly gave them a certain Indeed, the 3R model would be quite effective sense of confidence in their own abilities to in a course such as introduction to literary FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS • VOL. 39, NO. 1 31 analysis or a survey course of literature in the 1. Students should learn to recognize liter- Caribbean or francophone world, for exam- ary and linguistic practices on their own ple. Students might be responsible for partic- through continual analysis and reanaly- ular research topics throughout the course of sis of a particular text. the unit, periodically presenting their findings 2. Students should research those topics to the class as applied to the specific region from a text that most interest them so as under investigation. In a course where multi- to build upon previous knowledge or ple texts are introduced, the instructor might begin developing lifelong interest in that initiate class discussions in the Recognize culture. phase for each text and have the students con- 3. Students should research a target cul- duct their research at home. The students ture using multiple resources in order to would then return to class for a second anal- arrive at a multifaceted comprehension ysis of the same text, relating their research and schematic development. findings to the text at hand. In that way, stu- 4. Instructors should serve as guides for dents could not only deepen their back- helping students acquire cultural and ground knowledge (the content schemata) literary analysis skills, in an effort to about the various cultures that speak the tar- promote individual exploration by the get language but could also expand their lin- students. guistic and formal schemata by exploring 5. Students should learn to reexamine a numerous linguistic varieties (e.g., French in text once they have acquired cultural Senegal vs. French in Quebec) and variations knowledge, thereby encouraging their of text types from different cultures (e.g., folk understanding of the relationship tales in Sub-Saharan Africa vs. folk tales in between literary practices and cultural Martinique). Clearly, the longer the amount perspectives as well as helping remove of time devoted to students' research and lit- their initial stereotypes about the target erary analyses, the greater the chances that culture. the students will develop a highly complex 6. Students should read multiple texts and advanced schematic framework for future from a single culture so they can relate reference. each text, each author's particular literary and linguistic practices, to other Conclusion textual practices and individual cultural Based on previous research regarding the perspectives. role of background knowledge in L2 reading comprehension, the 3R model provides These general strategies perhaps need a structured framework of reading strate- framing within an overall goal of intercul- gies that guide students and instructors in tural understanding; that is, beyond litera- the process of analyzing the relationship ture, what can this Recognize-Research- between practices and perspectives of Relate process teach students about inter- another culture. Although the data samples cultural communication as a whole? here have been presented in French, the Returning to the issues of cultural bag- general nature of the tasks involved in each gage and miscommunication presented at the stage of the 3R model permits their applica- beginning of this article, it is clear that the 3R tion to almost any body or genre of litera- model provides a useful tool for analyzing ture and in any target language. Indeed, the the quintessential relationship between lan- examples shown in this article reinforce guage and culture. More specifically, students previous findings in L2 reading compre- learn that a word cannot be understood out- hension and illustrate certain pedagogical side of its cultural context, that the world- strategies for the teaching of foreign litera- view of the speaker or writer influences the ture: words that he or she uses when communi- cating with others. Therefore, each written 32 SPRING 2006 piece of communication must be interpreted Carrell, P L. (1987). Content and formal in reference to cultural, linguistic, and formal schemata in ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly, schemata that have shaped the document at 21, 461-481. hand. It is this realization that can ultimately Carrell, P L., & Wise, T. E. (1998). The rela- open students' eyes to the dangers of inter- tionship between prior knowledge and topic pretation and translation founded upon interest in second language reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20, 285-309. superficial knowledge and stereotypical impressions. In the present state of rising Chen, Q., & Donin, J. (1997). Discourse pro- political and cultural conflict around the cessing of first and second language biology texts: Effects of language proficiency and globe, such knowledge can perhaps bring a domain-specific knowledge. Modem Language closer understanding between peoples of dif- joumal, 81, 209-227. fering and often opposing practices, a new Hammadou,J. (1991). Interrelationships among respect for cultural difference as equal to prior knowledge, inference, and language profi- one's own view of the world. ciency in EL reading. Modem Language joumal, 75, 27-38. References Johnson, P (1981). Effects on reading comprehension of language complexity and cul- Adams, M. J., & Collins, A. (1977). A Schema- tural background of a text. TESOL Quarterly, Theoretic View of Reading. Technical Report 15, 169-181. No. 32. Illinois University, Urbana Center for the Study of Reading. Cambridge, MA: Bolt, Johnson, P (1982). Effects on reading com- Beranek & Newman, Inc. prehension of building background knowledge. TESOL Quarterly, 16, 503-516. Barry, S., & Lazarte, A. (1995). Embedded clause effects on recall: Does high prior Johnson-Laird, P, & Nicholas, P (1983). knowledge of content domain overcome syu- Mental models: Toward a cognitive science of tactic complexity in students of Spanish? language, inference, and consciousness. Boston: Modem Language journal, 79, 491-504. Harvard University Press. Barry, S., & Lazarte, A. (1998). Evidence of Kim, S. (1995). Types and sources of prob- mental models: How do prior knowledge, lems in L2 reading: A qualitative analysis of syntactic complexity, and reading topic affect the recall protocols by Korean high school inference generation in a recall task for non- EEL students. Foreign Language Annals, 28, native readers of Spanish? Modem Language 49-70. Joumal,,82, 176-193. Kintsch, W, & Greene, E. (1978). The role of Bartlett, E C. (1932). Remembering: A study in culture-specific schemata in the comprehen- experimental and social psychology. sion and recall of stories. Discourse Processes, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1, 1-13. Biigel, K., & Buunk, B. P. (1996). Sex differ- Lee,J. E, & Riley, G. (1990). The effect of pre- ences in foreign language text comprehen- reading, rhetorically-oriented frameworks on sion: The role of interests and prior knowl- the recall of two structurally different exposi- edge. Modem Language journal, 80, 15-31. tory texts. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 25-41. Carrell, P L. (1981). Culture-specific schemata in L2 comprehension. In R. Orem and J. Leloup, J. W. (1993). The effect of interest Haskell (Eds.), Selected papers from the ninth level in selected text topics in second lan- Illinois TESOL/BE Annual Convention (pp. guage reading comprehension. Doctoral dis- 123-132). Chicago: TESOL/BE. sertation, Ohio State University. Carrell, P L. (1984a). The effects of rhetorical Lexique dufran^ais du Senegal. (1979). Dakar: organization on ESL readers. TESOL Nouvelles Editions Africaines. Quarterly 18, 441-469. Minsky, M. (1975). A framework for repre- Carrell, P L. (1984b). Evidence of a formal senting knowledge. In P. Winston (Ed.), The schema in second language comprehension. psychology of computer vision (pp. 211-277). Language Learning, 34, 87-112. New York: McGraw-Hill. Carrell, P L. (1985). Eacilitating ESL reading by teaching text structure. TESOL Quarterly, 19, 727-752. FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS • VOL. 39, NO. 1 33

National Standards in Foreign Language Rumelhart, D. E., & Ortony, A. (1977). The Education Project (1999). Standards for for- representation of knowledge in memory. In R. eign language learning in the 21st century. C. Anderson, R. J. Spiro, and W. E. Montague Yonkers, NY: Author. (Eds.), Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge (pp. 99-135). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Pritchard, R. (1990). The effects of cultural Erlbaum Associates. schemata on reading processing strategies. Reading Research Quarterly, 25, 273-295. Schank, R. C. & Abelson, R. P. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry into Raymond, P M. (1993). The effects of struc- human knowledge structures. Hillsdale, NJ: ture strategy training on the recall of exposi- Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. tory prose for university students reading French as a second language. Modern Steffensen, M. S., Joag-dev, C, & Anderson, Language Journal, 77, 445-458. R. (1979). A cross-cultural perspective on reading comprehension. Reading Research Riley, G. (1993). A story structure approach Quarterly, 15, 10-29. to narrative text comprehension. Modern Language Journal, 77, 417-432. Tannen, D. (1978). The effect of expectations on conversation. Discourse Processes, 1, Roller, C. M., & Matambo, A. R. (1992). 203-209. Bilingual readers' use of background knowledge in learning from text. TESOL Quarterly, 26, 129-141. Rumelhart, D. E. (1977). Understanding and summarizing brief stories. In D. La Berge and S. J. Samuels (Eds.), Basic processes in reading: Perception and comprehension (pp. 265-303). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 34 SPRING 2006

Appendix A Pre- and Posttest

David Diop (1927-1960) est ne en France, a Bordeaux, en 1927, de parents senegalais et camerounais. II a passe la plus grande partie de sa vie en France avant d'aller enseigner au Senegal et en Guinee. II est mort en 1960 dans un accident d'avion. Son seul recueil de poemes. Coups de pilon (1956) manifeste un attachement profond au continent africain et aux traditions perdues pendant la colonisation europeenne. [David Diop (1927-1960) was born in Bordeaux, France in 1927, to Senegalese and Cameroonian parents. He spent most of his life in France before returning to Senegal and Guinea. He died in 1960 in a plane accident. His only collection of poems. Hammer Blov^^s (1956) manifests a profound attachment to the African continent and to the traditions lost during European colonization.]

Rama Kam—Coups de pilon (1956) par David Diop Me plait ton regard de fauve Et ta bouche a la saveur de mangue Rama Kam Ton corps est le piment noir Qui fait chanter le desir Rama Kam Quand tu passes La plus belle est jalouse Du rythme chaleureux de ta hanche Rama Kam Quand tu danses Le tam-tam Rama-Kam Le tam-tam tendu comme un sexe de victoire Halete sous les doigts bondissants du griot Et quand tu aimes Quand tu aimes Rama Kam C'est la tornade qui tremble Dans ta chair de nuit d'eclairs Et me laisse plein du souffle de toi O Rama Kam ! FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS • VOL. 39, NO. 1 35

[Rama Kam - Hammer Blows (1956) by David Diop Your fawn took pleases me And your mouth has the flavor of mango Rama Kam Your body is the black pepper That makes desire sing Rama Kam When you pass The most beautifut is jealous Of the warm rhythm of your hip Rama Kam When you dance The tam-tam Rama Kam The tam-tam tensed like a victory sex Pants under the bouncing fingers of the griot And when you love When you love Rama Kam It is the tornado that trembles In your flesh of a night of lightening And leaves me full of your breath Oh Rama Kam!]

Lisez ce poeme au moins 2/ois - vous pouvez utiliser un dictionnaire pour chercher les mots que vous ne reconnaissez pas. Apres, repondez aux questions suivantes. [Read this poem at least 2 times - you can use a dictionary to look up words that you do not recognize. After, respond to the following questions.[ 1) Identifiez tous les elements du texte qui vous semblent caracteristiques de la litterature africaine. [Identify all the elements of the text that seem characteristic of African literature to you.] 2) En quoi ces elements litteraires refletent-ils des valeurs culturelles africaines? [How do these literary elements reflect African cultural values?] 3) En quoi ces valeurs culturelles sont-elles similaires ou differentes des valeurs de votre propre culture? [How are these cultural values similar or different to the values of your own culture?] 36 SPRING 2006

Appendix B Recognize Data: Pretest and Posttest

Student Pretest Posttest

Llatmosphere de ce poeme est une Le poeme decrit une celebration, une danse foret sauvage. La concentration des avec le tam-tam et les danseurs. Le griot, elements naturels, la tornade, le qui joue le tam-tam, developpe aussi un primitivisme de Rama Kam, sont theme, une histoire pour la communaute. africains. Uambiance est cree par Fusage des mots [The atmosphere of this poem is a africains, comme "mangue", "tam-tam", wild forest. The concentration of "griot", et "Rama-Kam". Les images de la natural elements, the tornado, the nature decrivent la danse et la culture primitivism of Rama Kam, are africaine. African.] [The poem describes a celebration, a dance with the tam-tam and the dancers. The griot, who plays the tam-tam, develops this theme also, a story for the community. The ambiance is created by the use of African words, like "mango," "tam-tam," "griot," and "Rama Kam." The images of nature describe African dance and culture. ]

Le rythme du poeme est un peu mots africains: tam-tam, griot, mangue, comme un tam-tam. Dans le texte U piment, rythme, danses, aimes y a des mots pour les choses rythme: repetitions de "Rama Kam" chaque d'Afrique, le tam-tam, le piment. 2 ou 3 vers, Rama Kam est la fin des phras- Aussi U utilise chanter et danser, les es souvent, "Le tam-tam" est repete pour traditions africaines. Des mots l'emphase pas tres structure, comme un comme la tornade, tremble, eclairs poeme oral disent la force de l'Afrique images de la femme: nature - fauve, saveur majestueuse. de mangue, tornade qui tremble, nuit d'e- [The rhythm of the poem is a little clairs; corps - piment noir, belle, rythme de like a tam-tam. In the text there are ta hanche, dans ta chair de nuit, souffle de words for African things, the tam- toi tam, pepper. Also he uses singing [African words: tam-tam, griot, mango, and dancing, African traditions. pepper, rhythm, dance, love, Worlds like tornado, tremble, light- rhythm: repetitions of "Rama Kam" every 2 ning speak of the strength of majes- or 3 lines, Rama Kam is often the end of tic Africa. phrases, "the tam-tam" is repeated for a less structured emphasis, hke an oral poem images of the woman: nature— fawn, flavor of mango, tornado that trembles, night of lightning; body—black pepper, beautiful, rhythm of your hip, in your flesh of night, your breath] FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS • VOL, 39, NO. 1 37

Le rythme du poeme me fait Les mots comme Rama kam, tam-tam, et penser d'une danse et les fetes, Les griot demontrent l'importance de la mots africains sont utilises aussi, musique, les histoires, et la danse en comme "Rama Kam", Quand je Afrique, La langue est comme une danse— regarde le poeme (les images), je les phrases courtes, la repetition, Le rythme vois une image stereotypique du poeme evoque la musique d'une danse d'Afrique, La sensualite, la et les rythmes d'un tam-tam, Le rythme est chaleur, les danses, c'est mon idee aussi comme le rythme d'une histoire d'un d'Afrique, griot, [The rhythm of the poem makes [Words like Rama kam, tam-tam, and griot me think of a dance and parties, show the importance of music, stories, and African words are also used, like dance in Africa, The language is like a "Rama Kam," When I look at the dance—short phrases, repetition. The poem (the images), I see a stereo- rhythm of the poem evokes the music of a typical image of Africa, Sensuality, dance and the rhythms of a tam-tam. The heat, dances, that is my idea of rhythm is also like the rhythm of a griot's Africa,] story, [

Les elements qui semhlent carac- II y a un rythme dans ce poeme avec les teristiques de la litterature rimes et les repetitions, II y a les repetitions africaine sont le rythme et la de la phrase "Rama Kam" et "le tam-tam", repetition, Le rythme du poeme Les repetitions de "Rama Kam" creent une est comme un tam-tam et la division de ses sentiments et de la heaute de repetition est de la phrase "Rama Rama Kam, 11 y a les assonances a la fin des Kam", lignes, entre les phrases qui sont separees [The elements that seem charac- par "Rama Kam", comme une chanson teristic of African literature are the africaine. Par exemple, "fauve" et rhythm and repetition. The "mangue" et "noir" et "desir", Les repeti- rhythm of the poem is like a tam- tions de la phrase "Rama Kam" sont comme tam and the repetition is of the un tam-tam dans une histoire, phrase "Rama Kam,"[ [There is a rhythm in this poem with the rhymes and repetition. There are repetitions of the phrase "Rama Kam" and "the tam-tam," The repetitions of "Rama Kam" create a division of his feelings and the beauty of Rama Kam. There are assonances at the end of lines, between the phrases that are separated by "Rama Kam," like an African song. For example, "fawn" and "mango" and "black" and "desire," The repetitions of the phrase "Rama Kam" are like a tam-tam in a story]

Les elements qui me semblent car- La repetition des mots "Rama Kam" cree acteristiques de la litterature des divisions entre les parties de la femme africaine sont la repetition du mot africaine, Au debut, v. 1-2 decrivent la fig- "Rama Kam", les actions de danser ure, vs, 4-5 decrivent le corps et la peau, v, et rythme, et la nature, 7-9 decrivent sa heaute, et v, 11-19 [The elements that seem charac- decrivent ses actions, Le vers "Le tam-tam teristic of African literature to me Rama Kam" exprime le rythme tres bien. 38 SPRING 2006

are the repetition of the word On peut voir une ceremonie avec les tam- "Rama Kam," the actions of danc- tams, un griot qui raconte les histoires, et ing and rhythm, and nature.] Rama Kam, qui danse au rythme de tous les elements ensemble. [The repetition of the words "Rama Kam" create a division between the parts of the African woman. In the beginning, lines 1-2 describe the face, lines 4-5 describe the body and skin, lines 7-9 describe her beauty, and lines 11-19 describe her actions. The line "The tam-tam Rama Kam" expresses the rhythm very well. One can see a cere- mony with tam-tams, a griot who tells stories, and Rama Kam, who dances to the rhythm of all the elements together.]

Un element du texte qui est carac- Uauteur utilise les images de la nature pour teristique de la litterature africaine decrire la femme, par exemple le mangue, est la repetition. II repete la phrase la tornade, I'eclair. Ce poeme se concentre "Rama Kam" six fois. II repete aussi sur le corps de la femme, utilisant les aussi des phrases deux fois, l'un metaphores pour la decrire, par exemple apres l'autre, comme "Et quand tu "ta bouche a la saveur de mangue, ta chair aimes / Quand tu aimes Rama de nuit d'eclairs". 11 y a la repetition dans le Kam". poeme, qui lui donne la structure d'une ]An element of the text that is chanson. La repetition de Rama Kam est characteristic of African literature comme le choeur de cette chanson. La is the repetition. He repeats the repetition du mot "tam-tam", avec le mot phrase "Rama Kam" six times. He "Rama Kam", donne au poeme un rythme also repeats phrases two times, vite comme une danse. one after the other, like "And ]The author uses images of nature to quand you love / When you love describe the woman, for example the Rama Kam".] mango, tornado, lightning. This poem also concentrates on the body of the woman, using metaphors to describe her, for example "your mouth has the flavor of mango, your flesh a night of lightening." There is repetition in the poem, which gives it the structure of a song. The repetition of Rama Kam is like the chorus of this song. The repetition of the word "tam-tam," with the word "Rama Kam," gives a fast rhythm like a dance to the poem.]

On trouve des references aux ani- Dans beaucoup de textes africains que nous maux et aux danses africaines et la avons lus, l'auteur fournit la femme population a les memes qualites. africaine comme un animal sauvage mais Us sont affames, passiones, majestueux. Dans ce poeme, sa bouche est ardents, mais chaleureux et gra- "la saveur de mangue". Aussi, on trouve cieux. des references a la musique africaine quand l'auteur utilise le mot "tam-tam". FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS • VOL. 39, NO. 1 39

[One finds references to animals Finalement, plusieurs poemes africains and to African dances and the developpent une idee de la nature. Uauteur population has the same qualities. dit que "c'est la tornade qui tremble" They are famished, passionate, "quand tu aimes Rama Kam". ardent, but warm and gracious.] [In a lot of African texts that we have read, the author supplies the African woman like a wild but majestic animal. In this poem, her mouth is "the flavor of mango." Also one flnds references to African music when the author uses the word "tam-tam." Finally, several African poems develop an idea of nature. The author says that "it is the tornado that trembles" "when you love Rama Kam."]

Appendix C Relate Data: Pretest and Posttest

Student Pretest Posttest

1 Une grande valeur est le respect et Ici, les mots sont la base qui definissent les la reverence qu'on montre dans ce images principales dans le poeme. Encore, poeme. Les Africains, dans leur lit- comme "Femme noire", l'image est d'une terature, parlent des personnes femme respectee et mysterieuse. Elle a du grandes et qu'elles ont beaucoup de pouvoir et de l'intrigue aussi. Elle est un pouvoir. symbole de toutes les choses qui represen- lA great value is the respect and tent l'Afrique passee. Elle est le reve des reverence that one shows in this Africains en pensant aux temps difficiles poem. Africans, in their literature, (l'esclavage et la perte de la fierte). speak of grand people and that they [Here, the words are the base that defines have a lot of power] the principal images in the poem. Still, like "Black woman," the image is of a respected and mysterious woman. She has power and also intrigue. She is a symbol of all the things that represent past Africa. She is the dream of Africans when thinking about difficult times (slavery and the loss of pride). ]

Ces elements suggerent que la Limportance de la danse et de la musique communaute est une valeur impor- est evidente dans le poeme. Les lignes les tante. Les activites qui peuvent se plus longs ont un effet cathartique, comme trouver dans le poeme sont la danse, parce qu'ils decrivent l'activite sociales. Hlle sont essentielles a la d'une danse avec plusieurs details. La danse culture africaine. est une activite de communaute. [These elements suggest that the Limportance de la femme est montree dans community is an important value. ce poeme. Lignes 7-9 suggerent qu'une The activities that can be found in femme est la danseuse. En croyant l'importance de la danse, on peut voir l'importance 40 SPRING 2006

the poem are social. They are donnee a la femme par le lien entre la essential to African culture.] femme et la danse. Quand l'auteur parle de la race noire, il annonce la valeur de la race noire - la negritude. Il utilise les elements africains quand il ecrit en frangais. En le faisant, il ecrit dans un style qui montre les valeurs africaines. [The importance of dance and music is evi- dent in the poem. The longest lines have a cathartic effect, like dance, because they describe the activity of a dance with several details. Dance is a community activity. The importance of the woman is shown in this poem. Lines 7-9 suggest that a woman is a dancer. In believing the importance of dance, one can see the importance given to the woman by the link between the woman and dance. When the author speaks of the black race, one can see the value of the black race - negritude. He uses African elements when he writes in French. In so doing, he writes in a style that shows African values.]

Les elements refletent les valeurs Les mots et le langage expriment les valeurs culturelles africaines parce que les africaines parce que le "noir" est un ele- ceremonies ont beaucoup de ment important de la negritude, qui s'est danse au rythme du tam-tam, un passee a Paris pendant les annees 1930, et element tres important. les buts de ce mouvement de Senghor, [The elements reflect African cul- Cesaire, et Damas etaient d'unifier et tural values because the cere- exprimer les valeurs noires, utiliser et monies have a lot of dance to the exprimer et avoir la confiance dans ses rhythm of the tam-tam, a very racines, et raconter les elements naturels. important element.] Le tam-tam est un instrument essentiel pour les histoires, la musique, la danse. Le griot est une personne qui raconte les legendes oralement, et la danse et la musique et les chansons sont ainsi tres importantes pour la communaute. I The words and the language express African values because "black" is an important element of negritude, which occurred in Paris during the 1930s, and the goals of this movement of Senghor, Cesaire, and Damas were to unify and express black values, use and express and have confidence in one's roots, and recount natural elements. The tam-tam is an essential instrument for the stories, music, dance. The griot is a person who tells legends orally, and dance and music and songs are thus very important for the community.] FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS • VOL. 39, NO. 1 41

Le rythme du poeme reflete le Parce que la femme n'est pas specifique, rythme de la vie africaine. 11 est mais un symbole, le poeme cree une forme structure et omnipresent. Les parfaite des femmes. Dans nos articles de emotions semblent avoir une spir- recherche, nous decouvrons que la negri- itualite qui tire au religion. Bien tude est responsable pour avoir ameliore la star, l'usage des fruits et de choses valeur des femmes dans la culture afrieaine. afrieaines suggere Fendroit et l'at- Ce poeme decrit la femme puissante et sex- mosphere. Je dirais que le uelle. Il implique que toutes les femmes soulignement des caracteristiques possedent ces valeurs. Egalement, l'associa- naturelles et physiques reflete les tion de la nature a la femme est un autre gouts africains. trait africain. La femme, parce qu'elle a des [The rhythm of the poem reflects enfants, a un lien special a la nature. La the rhythm of African life. It is femme symbolise le commencement de la structured and omnipresent. The vie, le cycle de la vie, et le futur pour la emotions seem to have a spiritual- communaute. ity pulled from religion. Of course, [Because the woman is not specific, but a the use of fruits and African things symbol, the poem creates a perfect form of suggests the place and the atmo- women. In our research articles, we discov- sphere. I would say that the er that negritude is responsible for having underlining of natural and physi- improved the value of women in African cal characteristics reflects African culture. This poem describes the powerful tastes.] and sexual woman. It implies that all women posses these values. Equally, the association of nature to the woman is another African trait. The woman, because she has children, has a special link to nature. The woman symbolizes the beginning of life, the cycle of life, and the future for the community.]

Ces elements litteraires refletent Les images de la femme montrent que la des valeurs culturelles parce femme est tres importante. EUe represente qu'elles sont leur culture, et com- rAfrique sans les Europeens (colonisation). ment la vie est en Afrique. Ce Elle exprime les valeurs de la culture poeme montre que les Africains africaine dans ce poeme - comme l'influ- sont fiers de leur culture. La ence forte de la danse, la musique, la com- musique, la danse, le piment noir, munaute, la femme, et la fierte des sont importants aux Africains. Africains de leur propre culture. La femme [These literary elements reflect est essentielle de la culture africaine, elle la cultural values because they are represente. their culture, and how life is in [The images of the woman show that the Africa. This poem shows that woman is very important. She represents Africans are proud of their culture. Africa without the Europeans (coloniza- Music, dance, black pepper, are tion). She expresses the values of African important to Africans.] culture in this poem - like the strong influ- ence of dance, music, the community, the woman, and the pride of Africans of their own culture. The woman is essential to African culture, she represents it.] 42 SPRING 2006

Le rythme des chansons, des dans- La tradition de la musique est decrite es, des tam-tams et du poeme sont d'abord avec l'usage du tam-tam pour creer une partie de la culture, Leurs un rythme pour le poeme, Avec le rythme fetes utilisent le tam-tam pour les sont les danses et les chansons, Quand on chansons et les danses, et les gens danse, on joint avec la musique et combine utilisent le tam-tam pour raconter les deux, Le musicien change son rythme les histoires aux enfants, avec les pas du danseur et le danseur [The rhythm of songs, dances, change ses pas pour la musique, Ici, la tam-tams and of the poem are a musique aide a raconter l'histoire de Rama part of the culture. Their parties Kam, Dans la culture africaine, la musique use the tam-tam for songs and peut raconter les histoires, aider le travail, dances, and the people use the etre une partie des ceremonies ou etre dans tam-tam to tell stories to the chil- une forme de divertissement, dren,] [The tradition of music is first described with the use of the tam-tam to create a rhythm for the poem. With the rhythm are the dances and songs. When one dances, one joins with the music and combines the two. The musician changes his rhythm with the steps of the dancer and the dancer changes his steps for the music. Here, music helps to tell the story of Rama-Kam, In African culture, music can tell stories, help with work, be a part of ceremonies or be in a form of entertainment, 1

La sexualite peut signifier une cul- Dans ce texte, la femme est plus ideale que ture plus ouverte sexuellement, Je celle du conte, Elle a un rapport unique trouvais que les cultures africaines avec la nature, Ici, elle est un objet eleve de sont plus ouvertes dans une classe desir, Cette idee vient de la negritude, de d'anthropologie, Les caracteris- laquelle Diop etait une partie, Elle (Rama tiques animales peuvent refleter Kam) symbolise I'Afrique et cela est l'association et le rapport entre pourquoi l'auteur emploi les metaphores de l'homme et l'animal, Le texte me la culture africaine, semble "primal" dans le sens de la [In this text, the woman is more ideal than nature basique, that of the folk tale. She has a unique con- [Sexuality can signify a more sex- nection with nature. Here, she is an elevat- ually open culture, I found that ed object of desire. This idea comes from African cultures are more open in negritude, of which Diop was a part. She an anthropology class. The animal (Rama Kam) symbolizes Africa and that is characteristics can reflect the asso- why the author employs metaphors of ciation and the connection African culture,] between man and animal. The text seems "primal" to me in the sense of basic nature,]