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The Cultural Baggage of Second Language Reading: an Approach to Understanding the Practices and Perspectives of a Nonnative Product

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The Cultural Baggage of Second Language Reading: an Approach to Understanding the Practices and Perspectives of a Nonnative Product 22 SPRING 2006 The Cultural Baggage of Second Language Reading: An Approach to Understanding the Practices and Perspectives of a Nonnative Product Eileen M. Ketchum Muhlenherg College Abstract: The mle of background knowledge in second language (L2) reading has received much attention in pedagogical research through theoretical paradigms such as schema theory, mental models, scripts, and expectations. The recent culture goals of the National Standards (1999) have provided new direction for research in interactive reading models, as sufficient background knowledge can help students comprehend the relationship between the practices and perspectives of a nonnative text or product. This article presents a 3R model of reading strategies (Recognize, Research, Relate) that focuses on developing background knowledge about a target culture while applying this schema to appropriate clues in a foreign text. Samples of data from a qualitative study testing the effectiveness of the 3R model accompany the discussion of this approach designed for a wide-ranging instructional audience. Key words: francophone, literature, reading, schema theory, second language acqui- sition (SLA), Standards Language: French Introduction In today's global society, foreign language study has become increasingly important as world leaders recognize its value for effective international communication and intercultural understanding, ACTFli 2005; The Year of Languages campaign attests to the growing need for language educators to encourage more students to continue with foreign language study in a world progressively dominated by cul- turally diverse populations and international conflicts. The consequential rise in intercultural communication in all its forms—-spoken, e-mail, formal documents, literary texts, and so forth—inevitably poses specific challenges because of the cul- tural baggage that each word carries. The written word in particular, taken devoid of its cultural and interpersonal context, can lead to vast misunderstandings easi- ly avoidable through a culturally informed approach to textual communication. Indeed, the past few decades of research on reading strategies in second lan- guage acquisition (SLA) have focused on the importance of cultural knowledge in teaching foreign literature, leading to a somewhat broader view of the text than in Eileen M. Ketchum (PhD, University of Wisconsin-Mcidison) is Visiting Assistant Professor of French at Muhlenberg College, Allentown, Pennsylvania. FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS • VOL, 39, NO, 25 previous decades. This interdisciplinary study in which students applied these approach to literary analysis joins and strategies to literary texts in an intermedi- expands upon prior research in fields such ate French language class, demonstrating as cultural anthropology and semiotics. the successes of interdisciplinary approach- Schema theory, introduced in its earliest es that provide multifaceted, student-cen- forms in 1932 by Sir Frederick Bartlett in tered explorations of the target culture. his book Remembering, has provided new This discussion will outline general strate- insights for SLA reading strategy research gies for the teaching of foreign language through its emphasis on the relationship reading comprehension and the use of ped- between the reader's background knowledge agogical tools that help students bridge the and the cultural context of the writer. gap between a native and nonnative reading Alternatively referred to throughout the of a text and that promote intercultural years as scripts (Schank &r Abelson, L977), understanding. frames (Minsky, 1975), expectations (Tannen, 1978), schemata (Adams & Review of Literature Collins, 1977; Bartlett, 1932; Rumelhart, The past 20 years of research into the role 1977; Rumelhart & Ortony, 1977), and of background knowledge in reading com- mental models Qohnson-Laird & Nicholas, prehension has often concentrated on three 1983), reader background knowledge has general categories: content schemata, for- particular significance in foreign language mal schemata, and linguistic schemata. The study because of the differing cultural per- majority of studies have investigated strate- spectives of author and receiver. Findings gies for developing and activating content by Carrell (1981, 1984a, 1984b, 1985, schemata, or informational clusters in the 1987) and others have shown that reading reader's mind that pertain to ideas, experi- in a foreign language requires more active ences, or contextual clues found within the preparation on the part of the reader, who text. Although formal schemata have fre- must not only activate the appropriate quently been clumped within that same scripts or mental models while reading a text category, their distinction as knowledge of but also recognize and acquire any cultural text structures, organization, or form information that may be lacking for an ade- deserves recognition when sueh structures quate understanding of the text. While one are culturally determined. Studies into the might assume that native readers already role of linguistic schemata have particular possess this necessary background knowl- relevance for nonnative readers, as lan- edge when approaching a written docu- guage poses the primary and perhaps most ment, readers of a foreign language text significant obstacle when analyzing a for- must overcome an added challenge of cul- eign text. tural unfamiharity when processing written communication. Content Schemata In light of these issues, the purpose of The earliest studies in content schemata this article is to examine studies on back- focused on the role of background knowl- ground knowledge in reading comprehen- edge in first language (H) reading compre- sion conducted throughout the past 20 hension (Bartlett, 1932; Schank & years. This investigation will emphasize in Abelson, 1977), concluding that readers particular those findings that highlight the rely upon previously acquired knowl- challenges of foreign language reading edge—organized into "slots" or specific comprehension, culminating in the devel- organizational patterns—that they may opment of a new model of reading strate- retrieve when triggered by certain clues in gies for foreign literature, A thorough a text. The complexity and relevance of this explanation of this model will be comple- information to the particular text will mented by examples from a qualitative determine the reader's comprehension and 24 SPRING 2006 recall of the text. In the past two decades, hension as students rely on this knowledge however, researchers began applying some to assist them with culturally unfamiliar of these findings to second language (L2) material (Carrell, 1981; Kintsch & Greene, research, with results indicating that famil- 1978), Although no specific conclusions iarity with the cultural content of a text can be drawn from these studies regarding (prior experience in the target culture as a the role of formal schemata alone, conclu- native or nonnative member) can positive- sions were later made by Carrell (1987) in ly affect students' reading comprehension a study aimed at uncovering the simultane- (Carrell, 1981; Hammadou, 1991; Johnson, ous or individual effects of formal and con- 1982; Pritchard, 1990; Roller & Matambo, tent schemata on Fnglish as a second lan- 1992; Steffensen, Joag-dev, & Anderson, guage (ESL) reading. Comparisons of two 1979), Based on these findings, other groups of students reading texts on Arab researchers investigated the effects of pro- and Western religious traditions (one group viding culturally specific background reading familiar, well-organized versions of knowledge to students prior to their read- the two texts; the other reading unfamiliar, ing a foreign text (Barry & Lazarte, 1995, rhetorically altered versions) showed that 1998; Kim, 1995), These studies found that cultural familiarity with the texts, or con- students with adequate instruction in the tent schemata, had a greater effect on read- cultural content of a foreign text under- ing comprehension than did formal organi- stand and recall more information from the zation of the text. text than those without any instructor- Studies were later conducted that guided preparation. Instructors might want specifically tested the role of formal to consider students' preferences when schemata by controlling for content developing their background knowledge schemata and varying text types or organi- about the target culture, as reader interest zational structures (Carrell, 1984a, 1984b; in the topic also seems to play a role in L2 Riley, 1993), As one might expect, results reading comprehension. Studies have showed that L2 learners who read texts fol- shown that topics which interest students lowing a familiar, episodic or tightly orga- the most in their own culture can assist nized structure could recall more idea units them in their comprehension of the same than those students who read more loosely subjects in foreign language texts, out- or deliberately altered versions of the same weighing any types of linguistic difficulties text. In other words, L2 reading compre- they may encounter (Bligel & Buunk, hension is greatly facilitated by knowledge 1996; Carrell 61 Wise, 1998; Leloup, of text types or rhetorical structures, given 1993;), In sum, the past 20 years of that students can activate this type of research into content schemata have schemata to assist them when encountering demonstrated that reading in a foreign lan- a text posing linguistic or cultural difficul- guage
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