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Library of Congress: ISSN 2152-3908

Journal of Global Development and Peace

Table of Contents

Foreword ……………………………………………………………………………………… i

If Giants Tussle: Future of China-U.S. Cooperation……………………………………………... 1 Hanabeta Deshotel

Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda 2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia……………………………………………………………………………..……….. 16 Pépé François Haba

How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to Bridge the Strait……………………….…………………… 37 Rebecca Bruckenstein

Japan’s Taiwan Problem: Taiwan as a Complicating Factor in Sino-Japanese Relations………………………………………………………………………..……….……… 50 Tobias Yasutake

Impact of Microcredit on the Poor in Sierra Leone ……….……………………..……………….62 Oluwatosin Akegbejo-Samsons

Foreword Dr. Steve Hess

Some Thoughts on the BRICS

Dr. Steve Hess Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of Bridgeport’s College of Public and International Affairs

The articles in this issue of the Journal of Global Development and Peace are reflective of a larger process of global reordering that has been evident in 2015. As America’s uni- polar moment, initiated in the wake of the Soviet collapse in 1991, begins to recede, we have witnessed the growing prominence of rising powers in the form of the BRICS coalition of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa and a shift towards a more multi- polar world. In this context, American predominance cannot be assumed and its involvement in regional challenges has become more selective and limited. The administration of Barack Obama, who is entering his final year in office, has sought to avoid commit- ting the United States to costly military engagements that might overextend the country’s resources, and also sought to “pivot” America’s foreign policy attention away from the Middle East, which has lost much strategic importance in an era of domestic fracking and cheap oil, towards the Asia Pacific, which commands two-thirds of the world’s global GDP. This repositioning has meant minimizing direct American military action to address security challenges emanating from the Middle East, such as the so-called Islamic State, and relying on regional players, including Turkey, the Gulf States, and European allies to lead such efforts. Meanwhile, America’s global agenda has meant negotiating with new powers, such as China and Russia, throughout much of the world. These changes have created a much more complex and less predictable world that demands pushing beyond conflicting notions of America’s role in global governance and giving greater attention to the interactions of rising and middle-sized players within and across regions.

In her article, Hanabeta Deshotel, charts the ever-evolving relationship between the United States and China, as these two powers, with distinctly different cultures, political institutions, and understandings of global affairs, have negotiated their bilateral relationship – finding opportunities for cooperation but also clashing over issues where their interests diverge or their actions are misunderstood. Toby Yasutake, who focuses on the trilateral relationship between Japan, China and Taiwan, finds that international relations in the Pacific are often more complicated than the bilateral relationship of the United States and China. Understanding a complex web of relations between regional players is also essential. Pepe Haba’s article suggests that the relationship between China and Western powers, including not only the United States but also the European Union, ex- i Journal of Global Development and Peace

Foreword Dr. Steve Hess tends far outside the Asia Pacific region where Ethiopia and other African countries seek economic and political models as well as material support as they shape their national development programs. Oluwatosin Akegbejo-Samsons additionally finds that ideas emanating from the global South, namely the microfinancing concept of Bangladeshi econ- omist Mohammed Yunus, have become embedded in global finance regimes and applied to reconstruct and stimulate development in post-conflict states such as Sierra Leone. Finally, Rebecca Bruckenstein’s article on educational and sports visas has revealed that soft power initiatives between the United States and Cuba have helped pave the way for friendlier and more cooperative relations between countries with traditionally adversarial relations. These efforts culminated in the opening of formal diplomatic relations between the United States and Cuba in 2015 – an important step that will stand as a component of Barack Obama’s foreign policy legacy.

Steve Hess is an Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of Bridgeport’s College of Public and International Affairs and co-Managing Editor of the Journal of Global Peace and Development.

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If Giants Tussle: Future of China-U.S. Cooperation

Hanabeta Deshotel, University of Bridgeport

Abstract

Operating under the premise that favoring cooperation over conflict leads to peace and stability for each side of a bilateral relationship, this paper explores the number and quality of cooperative exchanges between the People’s Republic of China and the Uni- ted States: cultural, academic, economic, and security-related. Since China’s “opening” to the world in the 1970’s, the United States has been a key partner and competitor, and as the world’s two current major powers and economies, and representatives of two major cultural spheres, the relations between China and the United States consequently influence international relations on a large scale. Presented are cooperative exchanges as a foundation for the necessary soft power for each of these two nations to influence the other’s policy towards itself and possibly create a larger co-policy towards other nations, especially developing nations, or nations or non-states in conflict. How the United States and China act together or separately will determine much of future trends in development and security. Indicators of cooperation, in addition to the number of exchanges, include joint measures within multilateral institutions and public opinion polls. In today’s global climate, and with today’s information technology, it is nearly impossible for any government, whether one- or multi-party, to operate in a vacuum, without influence from citizens themselves. Many citizens are educated and vocal, and their opinions on business and national policies can affect their own nation’s course, as well as that of other nations.

Biography Hanabeta Deshotel is a graduate of the University of Bridgeport, College of Public and International Affairs. She holds a master’s degree in East Asian and Pacific Rim Studies and a master’s of Education. In 2015, she completed an intern- ship in South Korea with the non-governmental organization PSCORE, which assists North Korean defectors and is an NGO holding consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council. Her research interests include interactions between East Asian states and the United States; Korean reunification; women in politics; and educational reform.

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Background defined by the Acheson line of 1950. Rea- sons for the split between the communist It is a well-known maxim that, “when giants parties of Russia and China in 1960 are as tussle, everyone gets flattened.” The United follows: Mao began to see the relationship States has stood at the pinnacle of diplomatic, with the Soviets as a threat to his regime and economic, and military power for decades, “cult of personality,” the relationship be- and the People’s Republic of China is poised tween the USSR and the United States to take a similar position in East Asia and the seemed to be transforming (and warming), Pacific and to exert more global influence. there was disillusionment about the Soviet However, both powers, established and de- economic model, and Mao saw the USSR’s veloping, are much too aware of the harm a new policies as more of a threat to China China-U.S. conflict would inflict on neigh- than Stalin’s had been. bors, allies, and economic partners in the region, let alone themselves, to come to blows On the flip side, the USSR had begun to view over who will have supremacy. Both have China as a threat and was wary of China stabilizing (and aging) populations, both have slowly taking over the Soviet Far East and deterrent-capable militaries and nuclear had a hard time trying to balance the United weapons, and since the onset of a globalized States militarily in Asia. China had successful- economy, both are aware that more than ever ly tested nuclear weapons and most of all, before economies are interconnected and do and “most nightmarish,”3 the USSR feared not function well during conflict. However, it China cooperating with the United States. is well to keep in mind that there are tensions When China did come to new terms with the and unresolved issues that can stand in the United States in 1972, it was finally safe from way of a more productive cooperation. U.S. and Soviet attack, it gained the seat at the U.N. from Taiwan, and was now free During the Cold War, China and the United from international economic isolation. After States. saw each other as a “secondary the break-up of the USSR in 1991, China’s threat;” the USSR was the main focus of foreign policy swung to focus on the United both nations’ foreign policy.1 Now, however, States. though the United States has done much to assist in China’s development (capital, tech- Chinese policy has changed according to who nology transfer, etc.), these two superpowers was in power/in office in China: Mao view each other warily. It has been agreed Zedong (1949-76), Deng Xiaoping (1978-92), that it is in the interests of both to cooperate, Jiang Zemin (1989-2002), Hu Jintao (2002- yet numerous issues stand in the way of a 2012), or Xi Jinping (present). Even with true and lasting partnership, such as the Tai- leaders of different styles, Chinese foreign wan issue, North Korea, energy security, nu- policy has been known for its consistency of clear weapons proliferation, human rights, vision and its flexibility.4 And leaders have and environmental issues, among others. had successively less absolute power than their predecessor. More power is held now For three decades, during the Cold War, Chi- by different institutions, rather than one per- na’s foreign policy was shaped almost exclu- son at the top. It is interesting to note, how- sively by its interactions with the USSR.2 Chi- ever, that due to China’s large population, na chose to “lean East” partly due to the ex- even a city-level leader has quite a bit more clusion of China from the “Free World,” as power than a counterpart in many other

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countries. For example, a city leader in China from the military in either or both countries. may be in charge of a city as large as New And as for those “at the helm” in China, be- York City, and a leader at the county level cause there are now more voices, more insti- may be in charge of a population larger than tutions, such as the Central Leading Small some American states. Groups (CLSG), it is almost impossible to point to only one that runs foreign policy. The key goals of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), of which all leaders are a part, Deng Xiaoping ushered in a new era of free are: to grow the economy, to control popula- market economy, Special Economic Zones tion growth, and to prevent social unrest. (SEZs), more travel and educational ex- These goals drive all policy, but though the changes.6 He famously said, “Poverty is not party has one “line,” we must note that local socialism.” And it was necessary for China to governments seek to accomplish these goals open up to the world economy especially, in a variety of ways, thus the diversity appar- because it needed capital and new technology. ent in dealing with human rights and envi- Of course, opening up, or “letting the flies ronmental issues. Nathan and Scobell state, in,” also brought problems, such as corrup- “China [is able] to pursue a more strategic tion and inequality. Also, under the previous foreign policy than most other countries… system, jobs were guaranteed; now, due to But the high centralization of power also cre- market forces, many people face job insecuri- ates some span of control problems.”5 ty. Before, there was a large social safety net, but now, welfare services were reduced. Both Mao and Deng gained power from being closely allied with the military, and both We also witnessed at this time large student- had to deal with a certain amount of faction- and worker-led protests such as the 1976 alism. Deng made changes that opened Chi- Tiananmen Memorial Incident and 1979’s na up to globalization, and he set certain Democracy Wall. These protests were enact- standards of office, such as leaders observing ed because the pace of reform was seen as their terms of office and retiring before dying being too slow. The 1989 Tiananmen protest in office. As far as the current status of the sought to influence policy on several issues: military, it is still an integral part of the Chi- transparency, freedom of press, education, nese government; it is described as one of jobs, travel, and so forth. The decision to three “pillars of authority,” the other two impose martial law, the crackdown, was being the state and the CCP. The importance mostly against the citizens involved in the of the military has continued since 1967, protest, rather than the students, because when the army restored order, and in fact they were seen as a greater threat to the administered every major governmental insti- CCP.7 This was a major obstacle to the China tution after the Cultural Revolution. People’s -U.S. relationship for years. The United Liberation Army (PLA) officers today are States imposed economic sanctions on China known as being conservative and nationalistic. that were not lifted until 1993. In the 1990’s, This is an important consideration when China faced many challenges including: a looking at the tensions between the United growing population, migration to urban cen- States Navy and the PLA Navy in the South ters, the disaffection of minorities, and so China Sea, for example. The decision to esca- forth. late rather than diminish tensions may stem from having a disproportionate voice coming China’s growth for the past 20 years has been

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fueled by two things: a declining fertility rate ternational students. According to the Insti- and increased urbanization, both of which tute of International Education, the number increase productivity, but will also both meet of Chinese students in the U.S. (2014 report) an inevitable endpoint.8 Further obstacles to is 274,439, which is 31% of all international China’s growth are political, environmental, students.14 There are a growing number of and structural. To move up the value-added students from the United States studying in chain (design, invention, etc.), China will China as well: 14,887 of them, which makes need to develop a more open political system the United States China’s fifth largest source and civil society. Attention to intellectual of international students (5.4%).15 These stu- property rights can also contribute to a do- dents who study abroad in the United States mestic knowledge-based economy and sus- and China will be the forerunners of change tained economic growth. And civil society in their societies, through their understanding groups (including religious groups) can act as and overcoming cultural assumptions.16 They a safety net when the nation experiences eco- are making a financial investment in their nomic difficulties.9 In addition, China will own futures and in the future of China-U.S. have to deal with environmental degradation. relations. Finally, and most importantly, China will have to overcome the obstacle of having a Of more immediate and visible importance is population that lives longer and has fewer the economic cooperation between the two children. Productive adults will be spending powers. Gartzke, Li, and Boehmer consider more time caring for elderly parents, which that in today’s economy, attention to invest- necessitates a switch from high-productivity ment must be given precedence over trade manufacturing to low-productivity health (there is a greater volume of the former com- services.10 pared with the latter), and the need for confrontation and military violence has been Babones predicts that China in 2020 will done away with, as powers can use have a per capita GDP comparable to Brazil, “signaling” via economic channels to “signal” Mexico, and Russia.11 As of 2015, according their approbation or disapprobation of the to the World Bank, Brazil, Mexico, and Rus- other’s policies.17 Incentives for violence are sia all have GDPs above $10,000, while Chi- also reduced because “political shocks to na is at $6,800.12 There is a limit to China’s capital market equilibria invariably imply cap- growth. And fears that China will act the ital flight.”18 These researchers emphasize the hegemon are unnecessary because China will importance of economic ties and conclude be focusing on meeting its own people’s that there is evidence “that liberal economics needs and will be “an important but not all- may be at least as salient to peace as liberal powerful participant in the global system.”13 politics.”19

Literature Review Nolt hails the entrance of China into the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001 as One indication of more cooperative ties be- a positive step20 and stresses that China relies tween China and the United States is the heavily on the global market and good rela- number of academic exchanges. Since the tions with the United States.21 Sutter agrees 1970’s, China has encouraged students to go and makes the point that China’s Asian and abroad for higher education. For the United Pacific neighbors do not wish to choose sides States, China is now the largest source of in- between China and the United States, but

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seek good relations with both. “For many for example, can make China nervous. En- year, Chinese leaders… [showed] a strong zioni warns that both the United States and and overt opposition to the United States China should hold no joint exercises with and its policies… However, [they] came to China’s neighbors, but treat them as a recognize such a tough public stance against “buffer zone.”29 Campbell mentions develop- the United States could damage [China’s] in- ments such as exchanges between United terests.”22 Jisi Wang looks forward to U.S.- States and Chinese military educational insti- China joint energy projects and the building tutions, agreements to not use nuclear weap- of nuclear power plants,23 but also warns, “In ons against one another, and the presidential terms of state-to-state affairs, China and the hotline established in 1998.30 United States cannot hope to establish truly friendly relations. Yet the countries should be There are differing opinions on the efficacy able to build friendly ties on nongovernmen- of Confidence-Building Measures (CBMs), tal and individual levels.”24 but cooperation in the areas of environmental preservation and humanitarian aid are It has been stated that in the realm of securi- viewed as starting points,31 especially to ty, what is necessary between China and the guard against severe reactions to political United States is high-level military contacts. shocks such as the 1995-1996 Taiwan Strait Campbell and Weitz chart the history of con- missile crisis, the 1997 U.S.-Japan defense tacts being suspended (as after 1989 Tianan- guideline revisions, the 1999 bombing of the men Square) or resumed (as in 1993): Chinese embassy in Belgrade, and the 2001 “External developments repeatedly led one U.S.-China military plane collision near Hai- side or the other to suspend military contacts nan Island.32 Mutual trust is also difficult due as a form of signaling or retaliation, in effect to a perceived lack of military transparency holding them hostage to the larger political on the part of China,33 and the United States relationship.”25 What is important is that seemingly wanting to undermine China’s goal there is always a dialogue; each has different of reuniting with Taiwan. It is well to keep in goals for the dialogue: China seeks to influ- mind however, that on the topic of transpar- ence U.S. policy on Taiwan, for example, and ency, there are contrasting views even within the United States seeks to reassure Pacific China. In the 1990’s, Chinese civilian analysts allies, but lines of communication should be were in favor of more transparency, but the kept open. There are conflicting views on the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) and the desired level of contacts and exchanges. CCP favored uncertainty;34 they did not wish Christensen reports that in 2008 there were to “show their cards.” “Besides a general lack more high-level military contacts than previ- of enthusiasm for enhancing military trans- ously,26 while Nolt reports that contacts re- parency, the Chinese likely did not want to sumed in the 1990’s were fewer than in the draw attention to their strategic buildup and 1980’s.27 feared exposing vulnerabilities to a potential foe, particularly given Washington’s plans to Jisi Wang states that with military exchanges develop ballistic missile defenses.”35 between (or among) states, such as joint military exercises or observations, most im- Also, in the case of China, where the PLA portant is “where the weapons are aimed.”28 plays an integral role in government, and in Exercises held between the United States and the United States, where military voices are one of China’s Southeast Asian neighbors, also well represented, we must consider that

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there are actors who benefit from tensions Navy…remain works in progress. Neither… and crises more so than cooperative and New Delhi nor even Beijing appears willing peaceful relations. For example, “because or able to oversee the [maritime] commons highlighting a U.S. threat helped sustain ro- beyond its regional environs. Washington is bust defense spending, the Chinese military therefore attempting to build a U.S.-led coali- had an institutional incentive to sustain an tion or coalitions to superintend good order unfriendly relationship.”36 The same could be at sea.40 said about U.S. military spending and a “Chinese threat.” Regardless, CBMs will The United States is unlikely to develop a doubtless continue as long as U.S. commit- broad maritime-security coalition, given Chi- ments in the Pacific remain and China relies nese opposition and the wicked problems on the U.S. Navy to assist in policing sea afflicting the region. In addition, Southeast lanes.37 China and the United States have Asian governments are unlikely to join a coa- been able to cooperate on the unobjectiona- lition that excludes China, for fear of antago- ble Container Security Initiative (CSI), where- nizing their increasingly powerful neighbor.41 in shipping containers are screened at ports in the region including Shanghai, Shenzhen, One of the most recent military agreements and Hong Kong.38 between China and the United States has been the Memorandum of Understanding The biggest military players, of course, in (MOU) On the Rules of Behavior for the China-U.S. relations are their respective na- Safety of Air and Maritime Encounters, from vies. In the near future, according to Robert 2014. President Xi and President Obama also Kaplan, navies will be less necessary for war signed in 2015 an annex to the agreement, maneuvers and will be kept primarily to com- which specifies not only rules of behavior, bat piracy and protect shipping lanes, as well but also rules of communication, for desig- as to assist in disaster relief.39 Just like nating warning areas and for coordination NATO was formed to resist the Soviet Un- during emergencies.42 There are also hopes ion, it is possible that a “NATO of the Indi- that China and the United States can work an Ocean” will be formed to take on these together to combat the transnational threat modern marine challenges. Kaplan believes it to cyber-security. Tiezzi reported, “[A] new more likely that regional alliances will take on bilateral dialogue was one of the highlights of this role. However, considering the successes Xi’s visit to the United States, and will repre- of the NATO alliance, it is not improbable sent the highest-level regular talks on cyber that it could be repeated in Asia, perhaps issues between the U.S. and China.”43 Addi- even including East African states, Australia, tionally, in 2011, China drafted, and submit- and the United States, along with Indian ted to the United Nations, a code to limit Ocean neighbors China, India, Iran, and Pa- cyber-arms.44 kistan. It is unclear at this point whether such an undertaking would be led by China, the Another category of exchanges are those that United States, or some other actor. Cronin et take place within multilateral institutions. al. say, China and the United States interact via the It now appears that the U.S. sea services… United Nations, the World Bank, the IMF, may fall below the numbers and capability and the World Trade Organization (WTO). necessary to maintain order… The Indian They are both parties to the Treaty on the Navy and China’s People’s Liberation Army Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

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There is evidence that China wishes to resources) felt less of a threat than those who shape such institutions to be more favorable favored television or radio (unilateral to its own policies, and it has established new sources). The Pew Research Center Global alternative economic institutions.45 There is Attitudes Survey 2015 found that the young- trepidation in some circles that China per- er generation in both the United States and haps wishes to “challenge” what is seen as China had more positive views of the other the world order. Nolt cautions that China nation. Of 18- to 29–year- olds in China, should not be compared with “challenging” 59% had a positive view of the United States, nations of the past: “During the 1930’s, Ger- and 55% of the same age group in the United many, Japan and Soviet Russia… tried… to States had a positive view of China. For 30- create autarkic economic empires that would to 49-year-olds, 45% (view of the U.S.) and enable them to pursue their nationalist aims 41% (view of China) had positive views, and with little regard for the broader economic those over fifty had 29% and 27%. consequences.”46 China and the United Sutter qualifies that opinion polls can be in- States are both aware of the interconnected- fluenced by “unbalanced media and scholarly ness of theirs and global economies. China assessments”.48 Wang and Shoemaker put it conforms, as far as it sees conducive to their this way: national interest, and does not seek to be a global hegemon. Indicative of the (perceived) “The mass media influence public opinion. effectiveness of cooperative exchanges be- Since most Americans lack direct experience tween China and the United States, and how with China, they rely on media news to make likely their respective publics would be recep- their judgments. When China/US is covered tive to further cooperation, are public opin- more positively in the US/China media, ion polls to ascertain positive and negative Americans/Chinese tend to hold more favor- views of each nation. Policy today is influ- able opinions toward it, while negative cover- enced to varying degrees by public opinion, age may make them perceive China/the US and perceptions matter. Even in a one-party in an unfavorable light.”49 Nolt qualifies also, state like China, the public is becoming more saying that public opinion is influenced by vocal, and the government must have some “hardliners,”50 and Entzioni suggests under- level of responsiveness to maintain legitimacy mining such “war hawks” by having the and thus, sovereignty. United States and China further clarify their positions on the Taiwan issue.51 Kwon found that in the United States (three Midwestern states were under study), percep- Soft Power and Cooperation tions of China (whether or not China was considered a threat) varied according to age, Considering the various types of exchanges level of education, political party affiliation, that China and the United States engage in, and the respondent’s main information there is ample opportunity for the two pow- source.47 Younger respondents felt that Chi- ers to exert soft power on one another and na was less of a threat than older respondents, attract the other to their view. Through inter- those with a lower level of education felt less actions, each will influence the other’s policy of a threat, Democrats or Liberals felt less of towards itself, and in order to expedite coop- a threat than Republicans or Conservatives, erative actions (economic, environmental, and those who got their information from humanitarian, anti-piracy, etc.), there may be the Internet or newspapers (screened a chance to develop a co-policy towards oth-

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er states and actors. Types of exchanges, or in China, the United States, and the world public diplomacy, favored by both China and over. Cultural exchanges are planned and ex- the United States are: academic/educational ecuted every year. But familiarity with art, exchanges, cultural exchanges (including the music, historical and cultural treasures, and arts and sporting events), and the use of me- cuisine does need a firmer foundation. After dia.52 China, for example, has new cultural all, American food, music, and movies are capital due in large part to the 2008 Beijing enjoyed many places where American ideals Olympics, the 2010 Shanghai Expo, the Con- are unpopular. What is the necessary founda- fucius Institutes, and international interest in tion? Could it be people-to-people contacts? the Mandarin language.53 Scholars, business people, civil servants, and military personnel are meeting and getting to China, as it grows and asserts itself, “searches understand one another. Meeting and talking for security,” and tries to secure its interests, with just one person from another country has learned the importance of soft power in gives an entirely different perspective of the relating with neighbors and securing interests culture, customs, and goals of that country. more easily and efficiently. China, along with China has the right idea encouraging a more other nations, takes a lesson from the United open society with much travel to, and coop- States after its shows of hard power have had eration with, other countries. little success. Nathan and Scobell attribute this to the “failings of [America’s] individual- When Joseph Nye coined the term “soft istic culture,”54 and Melissen stresses that just power,” he stated that it was comprised of as important as the “message” is what you several things: cultural attraction, economic are “selling,” meaning, that if a nation’s poli- prosperity, smart diplomacy, technological cy does not match up with its rhetoric, it will innovation, and political values.57 China have a hard time winning “hearts and seems strong on the first three, improves minds.”55 quickly in innovation, but as far as political values, and in the case of its Southeast Asian “In the arena of public and elite opinion, the neighbors (its policies with regards to mari- enhanced popularity of Chinese government time territory), it is still less than attractive to policies as well as the pull of China as a cen- many. So while China spends billions on soft ter of Asian trade networks in recent years power: cultural institutes, media, and events, indicates that China exerts greater soft power it is important to remember that unfavorable and related influence in Asia. At the same policy decisions can undercut your soft pow- time… the ability of China and the United er. Again, the message and the policy need to States to get [Asian] governments to do match. things they would not be inclined to do… [is] an important way to assess influence. The It is a well-established principle that govern- record shows that China demonstrates little ments must enact programs of public diplo- such influence, whereas the United States macy in order to boost their soft power, or does.”56 “attractiveness,” to other nations and publics. Today, soft power, though experts Why is it that appreciation for a nation’s cul- acknowledge the difficulty of measuring its ture does not always translate into tolerance effects, has the capacity to enhance military for its ideals and policies? The value of cul- and economic influence, or even exceed that ture for increasing soft power is recognized influence. With so many overlapping strategic

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interests, widely integrated economies, and a community, a useful paradigm is the “Four global public more aware, educated, and sav- Rings,” wherein the First Ring comprises vy, it is impossible to ignore one’s standing in everything that is part of China (Taiwan, etc.), world public opinion. A positive image can the Second Ring China’s contiguous neigh- well mean the difference between seeing a bors (Vietnam, India, etc.), the Third Ring key interest met or not. And a negative image the regional groupings China’s neighbors are puts so many noisy, expensive, and time- a part of (Southeast Asia, South Asia, etc.), consuming obstacles in the way. and the Fourth Ring everything outside the first three rings (Africa, Europe, etc.) The The subject of soft power gets sticky when United States may be considered as con- we consider human rights. China’s human cerned in all the Four Rings, as a Pacific rights record has been one of its major obsta- power and China’s very important partner/ cles in raising itself in world opinion (or at competitor. China has a voice in the Fourth least, in U.S. opinion). There is a debate go- Ring, but it limits itself out of necessity to ing on about the universality of human rights two spheres, economic and diplomatic. As and whether some rights are favored over long as Fourth Ring regimes keep China’s others according to a Western-centric view, interests in mind, China does not involve it- for example, individual rights over the state’s self in the regime’s ideology or domestic poli- right to noninterference, or the right to cer- tics (policy of noninterference).59 Some of tain standards of living over “right to devel- China’s controversial economic and diplo- opment.” There has also been some difficulty matic partners include: the Palestine Libera- in determining responsibility for worldwide tion Organization and Iran. Today China environmental pollution. Some point to Chi- nurtures such relationships for the purposes na as a “worst offender,” but many in China of: energy security, access to markets, arms want to continue developing unhindered in sales, and to isolate Taiwan and the Dalai La- order to “catch up” with developed countries. ma diplomatically, and so forth. Because of It takes much negotiation to determine who this pragmatic approach, China has some- and what will be capped, and at what level. thing of a negative public image in the Unit- Leaders in China have sought to export Chi- ed States. It appears as if Chinese business is na’s particular “brand” of economic develop- ignoring or exacerbating conflicts and does ment. The “Beijing Consensus” has been put not pay enough attention to humanitarian forward as a “distinctive” economic model in issues. juxtaposition with the “Washington Consen- sus.” We can clarify this by saying that the It has been the aim of some actors in the model is not entirely distinct, as it follows United States to convince China that uncon- many of the elements of the Washington ditional loans to corrupt governments keeps Consensus, including: fiscal discipline, a com- those governments corrupt, that conditionali- petitive exchange rate, liberalized trade, and ty improves governance, and good govern- foreign direct investment. In addition, much ance leads to sustainable economic growth. of China’s economic success has stemmed The other side of this debate is that, as a rela- from the utilization of technology from out- tive late-comer to international loan-granting, side of China.58 China has little choice about whom it grants loans. Towards the end of improving public When considering China’s relations and con- image, China will need to continue its hu- cerns with its neighbors and the international manitarian assistance and amp up its cultural

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exchanges, for example, the establishment of avoidance of confrontation, to persuade Chi- “Confucius Institutes.” Once again, with to- na that the United States is not actively work- day’s modern technology and media, the ing to slow its growth or diminish its role. global public is more aware and in tune with Two of China and the U.S.’s formal dialogues what goes on politically and economically in are: the Strategic Economic Dialogue about every corner of the world, and the global economic and environmental issues, the Sen- public speaks with a loud voice. It is not ior Dialogue about political and security is- enough today to have politicians and busi- sues,63 and the Human Rights Dialogue.64 nessmen on your side’ you need the favora- Key questions to consider are: What does ble opinion of the public to accomplish your China want from the United States? What ends. does the United States want from China?65 China wants the United States to recognize Much has been said (in favor and against) China’s unique role and to not handicap its China’s establishment of Confucius Institutes sovereignty. The United States wants China throughout the world, 465 in total, in 123 to be a good economic partner and “global countries; 97 of them are in the United citizen.” It wants China’s help on such issues States.60 These institutes are useful vehicles as: terrorism, nonproliferation, Middle East for promoting Chinese language and culture, conflicts, and norms of trade and finance.66 and understanding between cultures, and “China can best win increased power and many universities welcome their establish- prestige… through cooperation with the in- ment, universities which might otherwise not ternational community in common endeav- have the resources for such an endeavor. ors.”67 It is yet to be seen whether China will Others see them as mere arms of the Chinese display the level of transparency and coordi- government and resent their apparent stifling nation the United States wants to see with of freedom of thought and speech within an regards to international, multilateral institu- otherwise private and independent academic tions such as the IMF and World Bank. It is institution. The Confucius Institute at the likely that Chinese leaders will make a bid for University of Chicago has been discontinued utilizing instead new institutions, Asian Insti- over the matter, but many remain operation- tutions, such as the Asian Infrastructure In- al.61 vestment Bank.68 But it can be argued that some degree of cooperation with the United It has been recommended that the United States is important for China’s economic States learn from and continue previous suc- prosperity and social stability.69 cessful strategies of engaging with China, to maintain a strong U.S. military presence in Similar to the concept of U.S. “engagement” the Pacific in order to discourage coercion of with China is the concept of “peaceful evolu- other Pacific states, and to use “constructive tion.”70 In the 1950’s, this was a strategy used economic and diplomatic policies.”62 This is by the United States to try to shorten the life viewed as the best course for overall security span of Communism. It encouraged private and prosperity in the region. A strong U.S. ownership, free markets, and liberal democ- military presence has taken the form of in- racy. Today, however, in the Chinese Com- creased deployments and new alliances and munist Party (CCP), there is less emphasis on security partnerships. These are seen as nec- ideology and more on pragmatism, and the essary to make diplomacy more effective. It cultural, social, and economic changes that will take much diplomatic effort, and an have been observed since the administration

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of Deng Xiaoping and onward can be con- channels between the neighbors. Chinese sidered part of a new kind of “peaceful evo- officials have chilled towards North Korea, lution.” Today’s peaceful evolution is enacted but Chinese businesses seem to be applying a through such means as educational and cul- new kind of “Sunshine Policy,” but instead tural exchanges and the media.71 Peaceful of just aid, the “sunshine” is capital, bridges, evolution is looking successful because Chi- roads, factories, and a gradual drawing in to a nese leaders recognized the need to modern- more liberalized economic model. From air- ize to avoid the fate of the USSR. What was port terminals to skyscrapers to banks, China needed was: loans, technology, expertise, and is the engine behind North Korean construc- access to global markets, in sum, integration tion.74 Once again, some of the hairiest inter- with the world economy.72 What the CCP national issues will require China’s and the also needs is to enhance its political legitima- United States’ cooperation to solve. cy, through material means, rather than ideological. Economic interdependence has Conclusion meant an influx of liberal values and a possible challenge to the party, and thus, national, The Republic of China and the United States, sovereignty, but to choose autonomy is to one an established power, and the other choose isolation. There is a contrast between quickly rising, are rapidly coming to an im- “procedural legitimacy” and “performance passe. They will choose to either conflict or legitimacy,”73 and the CCP has chosen to em- cooperate, and due to the border-defying na- brace performance legitimacy. ture of today’s most pressing issues terrorism, natural disasters, environmental issues, and There have been signs that China is willing at so forth.— and considering the very inter- times to put aside its policy of noninterfer- connected nature of their very globalized ence and play the role of “good global citi- economies, it would serve both nations, and zen” as the United States desires. Examples their neighbors, for the two to continue and include China’s facilitating dialogue with the expand on existing cooperative exchanges: regime in Burma/Myanmar in 2007. China academic, cultural, economic, and security- was able to convince Burma to accept hu- related. Additionally, there is ample oppor- manitarian aid after the 2008 cyclone. Anoth- tunity for soft power and public diplomacy to er example was the Six-Party Talks between be utilized toward one another through such 2003 and 2009 over North Korea’s nuclear exchanges, cooperation within multilateral aims. With North Korea especially, China institutions, and efforts to improve public (and Chinese businesses) is/are crucial to opinion. No one need be trampled under seeing a peaceful resolution to this remnant foot, and the future may be prosperous and of the Cold War. secure for all nations, all “global citizens.”

Once political and ideological comrades, Chi- na and North Korea have not seen eye to eye as of late. This comes as a result of diverging ideologies and China’s impatience with North Korea’s disregard for international norms and even laws. However, amid disa- greements over nuclear weapons and human rights, economic relations have found new

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Endnotes (East-West Center: Washington, 2006), p. 21. 23. Jisi Wang, “China’s Search for Stability with 1. Andrew J. Nathan and Andrew Scobell, China’s America,” Foreign Affairs 84:5, (Sept/Oct 2005), Search for Security (New York: Columbia Univer- p. 42. sity Press, 2012), chp. 4. 24. Ibid. 2. Ibid.,, chp. 3. 25. Kurt Campbell and Richard Weitz, "The Limits 3. Ibid. of US-China Military Cooperation: Lessons 4. Ibid., chp. 2. from 1995–1999,” The Washington Quarterly 29, 5. Ibid. no. 1 (2005), p. 180. 6. Allan Lawrence, China under Communism 26. Thomas J. Christensen, “Shaping the Choices (Routledge, September 1998), p. 94. of a Rising China: Recent Lessons for the 7. Ibid. Obama Administration,” The Washington Quar- 8. Salvatore Babones, “The Middling Kingdom,” terly 32:3 (July 2009), p. 100. Foreign Affairs (September/October 2011), pp. 27. Nolt, “China and the United States: Conflict or 79-88. Co-operation?,” p. 25. 9. Thomas J. Christensen, “Shaping the Choices 28. Wang, “China’s Search for Stability with Amer- of a Rising China: Recent Lessons for the ica,” p. 42. Obama Administration,” The Washington Quar- 29. A. Etzioni, “Mutually Assured Restraint: A terly 32:3 (July 2009), p. 97. New Approach for United States-China Rela- 10. Salvatore Babones, “The Middling Kingdom,” tions,” The Brown Journal of World Affairs, 20(2), pp. 79-88. (2004), p. 43. 11. Ibid. 30. Campbell and Weitz, "The Limits of US-China 12. The World Bank Data, Accessed November 1, Military Cooperation: Lessons from 1995– 2015, www.data.worldbank.org 1999,” p. 174. 13. Salvatore Babones, “The Middling Kingdom,” 31. Ibid., 175. pp. 79-88. 32. Ibid., 180. 14. Institute of International Education Open 33. Ibid., 173. Patrick M. Cronin, Peter A. Dutton, Doors Report 2013-2014, Accessed November M. Taylor Fravel, James R. Holmes, Robert D. 15, 2015, http://www.iie.org/Services/Project- Kaplan, Will Rogers, Ian Storey, “Cooperation Atlas/United-States/International-Students-In- from Strength: The United States, China and US. the South China Sea,” (Center for a New 15. Institute of International Education Open American Security: Washington, DC, 2012), p. Doors Report 2013-2014, Accessed November 25. http://www.cnas.org/files/documents/ 15, 2015, http://www.iie.org/en/Services/ publications/ Project-Atlas/United-States/US-Students- CNAS_CooperationFromStrength_Cronin_1.p Overseas. df 16. Anders Hansen and Stig Thøgersen, "The An- 34. Banning N. Garrett and Bonnie Glaser, thropology of Chinese Transnational Educa- “Multilateral Security in the Asia-Pacific Region tional Migration,” Journal of Current Chinese Af- and Its Impact on Chinese Interests: Views fairs 44, no. 3 (2015), p. 3. From Beijing,” Contemporary Southeast Asia 16, 17. Erik Gartzke, Quan Li, and Charles Boehmer. no. 1 (June 1994), p. 28. "Investing in the Peace: Economic Interde- 35. Campbell and Weitz, "The Limits of US-China pendence and International Conflict,” Interna- Military Cooperation: Lessons from 1995– tional Organization 55, no. 02 (2001), p. 392. 1999,” p. 176. 18. Ibid. 36. Ibid., 182. 19. Ibid., p. 419. 37. Sutter, "China's Rise: Implications for US lead- 20. J.H. Nolt, “China and the United States: Con- ership in Asia,” p. 23. flict or Co-operation?,” Global Dialogue 3(4), 38. Cronin, Dutton, Fravel, Holmes, Kaplan, Rog- (2001), p. 25. ers, Storey, “Cooperation from Strength: The 21. Ibid., p. 31. United States, China and the South China Sea,” 22. Robert G. Sutter, "China's Rise: Implications p. 111. for US leadership in Asia,” Policy Studies 21, 39. Robert D. Kaplan, “Center Stage for the Twen-

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ty-first Century: Power Plays in the Indian 56. Robert G. Sutter, ”China's Rise: Implications Ocean,” Foreign Affairs 87:1 (January/February for US leadership in Asia,” Policy Studies 21, 2008), pp. 38-56. (Washington: East-West Center, 2006), p. 6. 40. Cronin, Dutton, Fravel, Holmes, Kaplan, Rog- 57. Joseph Nye, “Soft Power: The Means to Suc- ers, Storey, “Cooperation from Strength: The cess in World Politics,” Public Affairs, (New United States, China and the South China Sea,” York, 2004). p. 107. 58. Scott Kennedy, “The Myth of the Beijing Con- 41. Ibid., p. 112. sensus,” Journal of Contemporary China 19(65), 42. Shannon Tiezzi, “No More Dangerous Inter- (June 2010), pp. 461–477. cepts for US, China Military Aircraft?,” The 59. Nathan and Scobell, China’s Search for Security, Diplomat, (September 25, 2015). chp. 7. 43. Shannon Tiezzi, “China, US Discuss Law En- 60. John Sudworth, “Confucius Institute: The forcement Cooperation on Cyber- Hard Side of China's Soft Power,” BBC News, crimes,” (November 13, 2015). December 22, 2014. 44. Etzioni, “Mutually Assured Restraint: A New 61. Shannon Tiezzi, “The Future of China's Con- Approach for United States-China Relations,” fucius Institutes,” The Diplomat, September 30, p. 40. 2014. 45. Chunjuan Nancy Wei, “New Chinese Banks: 62. Thomas J. Christensen, “Shaping the Choices Right Out of Mao’s Playbook?”, The Diplomat, of a Rising China: Recent Lessons for the (March 21, 2015). Obama Administration,” The Washington Quar- 46. Nolt, “China and the United States: Conflict or terly 32:3 (July 2009), p. 90. Co-operation?,” p. 31. 63. Ibid., p. 91. 47. E. Kwon, “Invisible Anxiety: Would the Rise 64. Ibid., p. 96. of China Really Be a Security Threat to the 65. Ibid. United States?,” Pacific Focus 27 (2012), 369–392. 66. Jisi Wang, “China’s Search for Stability with 48. Sutter, "China's Rise: Implications for US lead- America,” Foreign Affairs 84:5 (Sept/Oct 2005), ership in Asia,” p. 2. p. 39. 49. X. Wang, and P. Schoemaker, “What Shapes 67. Ibid., p. 92. Americans’ Opinions of China? Country char- 68. Chunjuan Nancy Wei, “New Chinese Banks: acteristics, public relations and mass media,” Right Out of Mao’s Playbook?” The Diplomat, Chinese Journal of Communication 4, (March 1, March 21, 2015. 2011,) pp. 1–20. 69. Jisi Wang, “China’s Search for Stability with 50. Nolt, “China and the United States: Conflict or America,” p. 39. Co-operation?,” p. 23. 70. Russell Ong, “‘Peaceful Evolution’, ‘Regime 51. Etzioni, “Mutually Assured Restraint: A New Change’ and China’s Political Security,” Journal Approach for United States-China Relations,” of Contemporary China 16:53 (November 2007), p. p. 40. 719. 52. Tang, X., and Wang, Y., “The Rise in Studies 71. Russell Ong, “‘Peaceful Evolution’, ‘Regime of Public Diplomacy in the United States and Change’ and China’s Political Security,” p. 719. Reflections on American Foreign Policy,” 72. Ibid., p. 723. World Economics and International Politics 4, (2003), 73. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democra- pp. 22–27. tisation in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, 53. Servaes, Jan, “Soft power and Public Diploma- OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991). cy: The New Frontier for Public Relations and 74. Robert Potter, “The Perils of Investing in International Communication between the US North Korea,” The Diplomat, February 11, 2014. and China,” Public Relations Review, Vol. 38(5), (2012), p. 644. 54. Nathan and Scobell, China’s Search for Security, chp. 12. 55. Melissen, J. (Ed.), The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations, (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 59.

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References:  Hansen, Anders, and Thøgersen, Stig, "The Anthropology of Chinese  Babones, Salvatore, “The Middling Transnational Educational Migration,” Kingdom,” Foreign Affairs (September/ Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, Volume October 2011), pp. 79-88. 44 Number 3 (2015), pp. 3-14.

 Campbell, Kurt, and Weitz, Richard,  Huntington, Samuel P., The Third Wave: "The Limits of US-China Military Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Cooperation: Lessons from 1995–1999,” (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma The Washington Quarterly 29, no. 1 (2005), Press, 1991). pp. 169-186.  Kaplan, Robert D., “Center Stage for the  Christensen, Thomas J., “Shaping the Twenty-first Century: Power Plays in the Choices of a Rising China: Recent Les- Indian Ocean,” Foreign Affairs 87:1, sons for the Obama Administration,” The (January/February 2008), pp. 38-56. Washington Quarterly 32:3 (July 2009), pp. 89-104.  Kennedy, Scott, “The Myth of the Bei- jing Consensus,” Journal of Contemporary  Cronin, Patrick M., Dutton, Peter A., China 19(65), (June 2010), pp. 461–477. Fravel, M. Taylor, Holmes, James R., Kaplan, Robert D., Rogers, Will, Storey,  Kwon, E., “Invisible Anxiety: Would the Ian, Cooperation from Strength: The United Rise of China Really Be a Security Threat States, China and the South China Sea, Cen- to the United States?,” Pacific Focus 27, ter for a New American Security, (2012), pp. 369–392. (Washington, DC, 2012).  Lawrence, Allan, China under Communism,  Etzioni, A., “Mutually Assured Restraint: (Routledge, September 1998). A New Approach for United States- China Relations,” The Brown Journal of  Melissen, J. (Ed.), The New Public Diploma- World Affairs 20(2), (2014), pp. 37-51. cy: Soft Power in International Relations, (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).  Garrett, Banning N. and Glaser, Bonnie, “Multilateral Security in the Asia-Pacific  Nathan, Andrew J. and Scobell, Andrew, Region and Its Impact on Chinese China’s Search for Security, (New York: Co- Interests: Views From Beijing,” lumbia University Press, 2012). Contemporary Southeast Asia 16, no. 1, (June 1994), pp. 28–29.  Nolt, J. H., China and the United States: Conflict or Co-operation? Global Dialogue  Gartzke, Erik, Li, Quan and Boehmer. 3(4), (2001), pp. 23-32. Charles, ”Investing in the Peace: Eco- nomic Interdependence and International  Nye, Joseph, “Soft Power: The Means to Conflict,” International Organization 55, no. Success in World Politics,” Public Affairs, 02, (2001), pp. 391-438. (New York: 2004).

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 Ong, Russell, “‘Peaceful Evolution’, September 30, 2014. http:// ‘Regime Change’ and China’s Political thediplomat.com/2014/09/the-future-of Security,” Journal of Contemporary China -chinas-confucius-institutes/ 16:53 (November 2007), pp. 717-727.  Tiezzi, Shannon, “No More Dangerous  Potter, Robert, “The Perils of Investing Intercepts for US, China Military Air- in North Korea,” The Diplomat, February craft?” The Diplomat, September 25, 2015. 11, 2014. http:// http://thediplomat.com/2015/09/no- thediplomat.com/2014/02/the-perils-of- more-dangerous-intercepts-for-us-china- investing-in-north-korea/ miltary-aircraft/

 Servaes, Jan, “Soft power and Public Di-  Wang, Jisi, “China’s Search for Stability plomacy: The New Frontier for Public with America,” Foreign Affairs 84:5, (Sept/ Relations and International Oct 2005), pp. 39-48. Communication between the US and China,” Public Relations Review, Vol. 38(5),  Wang, X., and Schoemaker, P., “What (2012), pp.643-651. Shapes Americans’ Opinions of China? Country characteristics, public relations  Sudworth, John, “Confucius Institute: and mass media,” Chinese Journal of Com- The Hard Side of China's Soft Power,” munication 4, (March, 1, 2011), pp. 1–20. BBC News, December 22, 2014. http:// www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-  Wei, Chunjuan Nancy, “New Chinese 30567743 Banks: Right Out of Mao’s Playbook?,” The Diplomat, March 21, 2015. http://  Sutter, Robert G., "China's rise: Implica- thediplomat.com/2015/03/new-chinese- tions for US Leadership in Asia,” Policy banks-right-out-of-maos-playbook/ Studies 21, (Washington: East-West Cen- ter, 2006).  Wolper, G., The Origins of Public Diplomacy: Woodrow Wilson, George Creel and the Com-  Tang, X., and Wang, Y., “The Rise in mittee on Public Information, (Washington, Studies of Public Diplomacy in the Unit- DC: Brookings ed States and Reflections on American  Institute, 1991). Foreign Policy,” World Economics and Inter- national Politics 4, (2003), pp. 22–27.

 Tiezzi, Shannon, “China, US Discuss Law Enforcement Cooperation on Cybercrimes,” The Diplomat, November 13, 2015. http:// thediplomat.com/2015/11/china-us- discuss-law-enforcement-cooperation-on- cybercrimes/

 Tiezzi, Shannon, “The Future of China's Confucius Institutes,” The Diplomat,

Journal of Global Development and Peace 15

Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda 2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda 2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia

Pépé François Haba

Résumé

L'article vise à évaluer à la fois l'État Démocratique et Développementaliste et la stratégie d'Industrialisation Repo- sant sur le Développement Agricole adoptés par le gouvernement Éthiopien depuis les années 1990. Bien que le taux de croissance du PIB atteint par l'Éthiopie depuis 2003 a stimulé la confiance des dirigeants dans leur stratégie de développement, le scénario réel existant en Éthiopie ne correspond ni aux caractéristiques d’un État démocratique ni à celles d’un État développementaliste. Malgré le mauvais record des violations des droits de l'homme et la persistance de la mauvaise gouvernance, les donateurs traditionnels et émergents continuent toujours à fournir l’aide au développe- ment à l'Éthiopie. L'article propose une série de recommandations politiques nécessaires pouvant être pleinement mises en oeuvre par les partenaires au développement et le gouvernement Éthiopien afin les objectifs d'un pays à revenu in- termédiaire soient atteints par l'Éthiopie et de ceux de l'agenda 2063 par l’Union Africaine.

Abstract

The article aims at assessing both the democratic developmental state and the agriculture development-led industrialization (ADLI) strategy adopted by the Ethiopian government since the 1990s. Although the GDP growth rate achieved by Ethiopia since 2003 has boosted leaders’ confidence in their developmental strategy, the actual scenario existing in Ethiopia does not correspond neither to democratic nor developmental state features. Despite the bad record of human rights violations and the persistence of bad governance, traditional and emerging donors are still providing development assistance to Ethiopia. The paper proposes a set of policy recommendations that might be implemented by the Ethiopian government and its development partners in order to achieve goals set for middle income countries in the African Union’s Agenda 2063.

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2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia

Introduction developmental state to be democratized, does Ethiopia possess the prerequisites pertinent An economic report on Africa presented by to establish a democratic developmental the United Nations Economic Commission state? How does the trilateral development on Africa remarks that the effective strategy collaboration have to be designed and har- for a state in Africa to perform an efficient monized in order to establish standards re- role in attaining a fast and sustained socio- quired for the adoption, implementation, and economic development coupled with pro- sustainability of a democratic developmental found structural change has to be founded regime in Ethiopia? on a developmental state. The report also points out the conflicting nature between the Broadly, this study aims to perform a com- policies employed in implementing the devel- prehensive appraisal of the democratic developmental state and those of the multilateral opmental regime implemented in Ethiopia to donors, such as adopting democratic values inform policy and identify the directions for required to foster citizens’ participation in further research. In the attempt to widen the the governance possess.1 In addition, it is understanding of the challenges facing both worth noting that throughout history, with the engagement of China with Western do- no exception, the starting point of all the nors in Africa and the adoption of a demo- great high performing economies in the cratic developmentalism, the practical rele- world—including the wealthiest—has been vance of this proposed research is to formu- mainly the farming sector. Chenery and late policy recommendations that ought to Moshe point out that during an economic inform development partners and policymak- growth that can induce structural transfor- ers to prop up a harmonious cooperation mation, transferring capital and labor from framework in providing foreign development the farming sector is helpful for nurturing assistance for building an Ethiopian demo- growth in the expanding sectors of manufac- cratic developmental regime, in particular, turing and other services of the economies in and in other African nations, in general. the developing countries. 2 Conceptual Framework In this regard, the government of Ethiopia in the 1990s, impressed by the success of the Democratic Developmentalism developmental state regime adopted by many countries in East Asia (i.e. China,3 Japan,4 According to Ohno, democratic develop- South Korea,5 Taiwan,6 etc.), decided to pur- mentalism is “a political regime in which a sue a similar pattern of economic develop- developmental party remains in power for a ment by adopting simultaneously the demo- long time by consecutively winning free elec- cratic developmentalism (DD) and the agri- tions which permit multiple parties, under cultural development-led industrialization which policies that punish rent seeking and (ADLI) blueprint as the most important encourage productive investment are imple- backbone for political strategies and structur- mented with a strong state guidance”. 8 al transformation.7 Agriculture development-led industriali- This complex context poses a certain number zation (ADLI) of relevant research questions which include the following: Knowing the complexity for a In the early 2000s, disappointed and reluctant

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Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda 2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia

to embrace the traditional development para- Agenda 2063 digm, the interim government in Ethiopia adopted and implemented the ADLI as the Agenda 2063 is an agenda adopted by the main policy principle in promoting the coun- Africa Union in 2013 in which point 29 fo- try’s national development. The adoption of cused mainly on achieving a democratic de- the ADIL was triggered by the fact that Ethi- velopmentalism in Africa by the year of 2063 opian society is recognized as an agrarian and is formulated as follows: community where approximately 86 percent Africa will be a continent where the institu- of its population are rural dwellers for whom tions are at the service of its people. Citizens land exploitation remains the predominant will actively participate in social, economic source of revenues. Considered as the unique and political development and management. spearhead for the developmental pathway of Competent, professional, rules and merit- Ethiopia, ADLI was devised to eradicate based public institutions will serve the conti- poverty by means of accelerating and sustain- nent and deliver effective and efficient ser- ing economic growth. It aimed to reinforce vices. Institutions at all levels of government the relationship between the agricultural and will be developmental, democratic, and ac- industrial sectors, by helping the small-size countable.”13 farming peasant to grow their productivity, enlarging the agricultural activities for private Democratic Developmentalism Regime commercial agricultural activities and build- in Ethiopia ing an industrial sector capable of engaging the human resources and exploiting the natu- Within the literature on the democratic de- ral resources of the country.9 The agricultural velopmental state, it has been determined sector absorbs over 83 percent of the total that a model for Africa should consist of the population, represents 46.3 percent of the combination of three major intertwined ele- national gross domestic product (GDP), and ments including the fundamentals, the demo- produces more than 90 percent of the reve- cratic pillar, and the development pillar.14 nues from exports10. Therefore, I use these three elements as the framework for the assessment of the demo- Triangular development cooperation cratic developmentalism as practiced in Ethi- opia. Although the concept of trilateral cooperation or triangular cooperation has not re- Fundamentals ceived universal agreement over its definition, it signifies the execution of aid projects that The vision, commitment, and patriotism of involve three sorts of partners: one or more the leaders are major fundamentals indispen- traditional donors, one or more emerging sable for the success of the democratic devel- donors, and the beneficiary country.11 In the opmental state in Africa. Ethiopian leaders strategic plan for 2014-2017 as well as the have envisioned a rupture from the previous memorandum of understanding for UNDP- socialism system in order to propel fast eco- China in 2010, the UNDP considers the tri- nomic growth while at the same time secure angular cooperation as the only fundamental political autonomy for each ethnic region.15 strategy to establish and sustain South-South They have considered economic growth as relations.12 important element for acquiring political support across the country but also for gaining

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Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda

2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia both autonomy and prestige from others.16 hierarchical relationship (donor-beneficiary) Meles Zenawi who led as an unchallenged with the communities in which they operate leader of the government, expressed a strong instead of a mutual partnership with an equal commitment in the process of building the footing.24 The country has some civil society country.17 actors involved in familiarizing citizens about Another major fundamental is the develop- democracy, also providing training in partici- ment ideology which holds that the develop- patory politics, voter education, civic educa- mental state should remain the ideological tion leadership, democratic governance, and underpinnings.18 To replace the previous gender issues in a democratic regime. Other Ethiopian socialist system, the economic sys- groups are engaged in building institutional tem based on free market has been adopted capacities, enhancing the management system with a particular ideology called a revolution- of the decentralized public finance, and es- ary democracy.”19 In contrast to the liberal tablishing communication channels for the bourgeoisie, which can allow individual par- citizens to express their voices to their ad- ticipation, accept a variety of opinions and ministrators in relation to the provision of interests, as well as a multiple representation, the services.25 this revolutionary democracy is based upon a collaborative participation of the communi- Furthermore, the state’s autonomy is also an ties where agreement is established through important fundamental. The assessment of debate chaired by the spearhead organiza- the Ethiopian bureaucracy reveals that it is tion.20 managed by qualified civil servants who possess clear defined responsibilities with the The funding of the development is another expectation to serve on the competitive basis. fundamental. The government of Ethiopia The recruitment of government employees receives billions of dollars yearly in interna- and technocrats is meritocratic. However, the tional aid to fund development.21 Higher lev- functionaries operate within a non- el governments can also transfer funds to autonomous institutional system and entirely lower governments as a source of financial controlled by the rules of the incumbent resources to adjust the balance of revenues elites. In numerous governmental services, versus disbursement assignment between the the top positions are assigned on the basis of administrations at federal and regional levels. an ethnic quota method. They are hence ex- At the same time, the federal funds are allo- pected to serve in conformity with their eth- cated according to the needs and the revenue nic’s orientation instead of pursuing the de- of each region.22 velopmental goals of their agency. Conse- quently, this undermines transparency, priori- Also, the embeddedness is another funda- tizes the fulfilment of the political project, mental. Embeddedness consists of establish- and encourages corruption, which is now ing relationship with mutual benefits between endemic in the sphere of Ethiopian bureau- a variety of sectors within the society, includ- cracy.26 The unmanageable impacts of the ing civil society organizations, private sectors, political intervention by the ruling elites pre- interests groups, community based organiza- vent autonomy within the bureaucratic sys- tions, and so forth.23 But in Ethiopia, many tem, undercut impartiality, weaken profes- civil society organizations are founded and sionalism, and provide favorable treatment managed by a handful of people and depend by political cronyism and ethnic affiliation.27 mainly on foreign funding. There is only a The state’s hegemony is also an important

Journal of Global Development and Peace 19

Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda 2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia

fundamental that is often referred to the 31 “war of position.”28 The current regime has The country has neither mechanisms nor in- adopted some nationalist themes in order to stitutions protecting the rights of the citizens. create a popular mobilization towards realiz- Although the country has a variety of demo- ing national goals. These include the “war on cratic institutions—judiciary courts, labor poverty” and the “Ethiopian Renaissance unions, civil society, and political party or- Dam project.” The dam project has become ganizations—many of them are unstable and a nationalist project due to the way that the perform more poorly than expected in a Western countries are blamed for their reluc- democratic system.32 tance towards supporting the project, reani- The prosecution of office abuse is also con- mates a protracted rancor against Egypt on ducted inadequately because office holders the issue of the control over the Nile, and it affiliated to the ruling party who violate the finally appeals to the involvement of every law and are involved in corruption activity citizen in Ethiopia with no exception of eth- are not usually prosecuted correctly.33 The nic group.29 violations of political and human rights are also widespread countrywide.34 In the same Democracy vein, the freedom of expression, religion, assembly, and association is also threatened.35 The developmental state requires the imple- Also, the establishment of a strong multi- mentation of a democracy pillar in several party system is another crucial democracy major blocks, including political and human pillar. Although there are over 60 registered rights, which turn around the confluence of political parties, there is a strict restriction on political rights and civil liberties.30 The suc- the opposition parties, which makes them cess of democracy requires the rule of law, unstable with no influence in the political which encompasses the separation of powers debate and policies design. The diaspora along with the supremacy of the law and the groups backing the opposition are character- equality before the law. In Ethiopia, the rul- ized by division and weakness.36 The governing party and its leaders monopolize all the ment’s practice of repression and strategy of political powers and the executive branch of co-optation have weakened politically the the government. The country is characterized interests groups. which has created an envi- by a weak separation of powers where the ronment politically violent and unstable since executive branch controls the legislative and 1998.37 the judiciary branches and undercuts the “checks and balances” principle. The legisla- Development tive branch in which the opposition party held only 1 percent of the seats has no influ- Ethiopia, previously centralized until the 20th ence on the decision making processes within century, has undergone twice a decentraliza- the ruling government. The judiciary branch tion process. which has resulted in structural is influenced by the executive branch and has transformation in the administrative, fiscal, no ability and autonomy in terms of inter- and political spheres.38 In Ethiopia, the state preting, monitoring and reviewing laws, legis- is deeply involved in the economy to the lation, and policies. There is no fair and time- point that the price of some products can be ly justice for citizens because the judges are fixed by the government, as well as the deval- not able to render decisions free from the uation of the currency, and the fixation of interference of the leaders of the ruling party. the exchanges rates in the way that can posi-

20 Journal of Global Development and Peace

Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda

2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia tively impact the economy. Moreover, there country, has non-navigable large rivers and is no private ownership over land, and the no railway network. In such conditions, the banking system and the telecommunication government considered road transport as a services are also owned by the government.39 crucial element for economic development With this strategy, the GDP has grown pro- and therefore adopted a strategy of huge gressively from US $ 117 billion to 489 bil- public investment called the “Road Sector lion with a slight growth rate around 10 per- Development Program (RSDP),” which was cent for the last decade. Additionally, the implemented across the country between high GDP growth under the developmental 1997 and 2010. The program has contributed state has been accompanied by a stable eco- to improvement of roads, which in turn has nomic growth. In 2013, the rate averaged impacted favorably the trends of entry and 10.3 percent, coinciding to the tenth consec- the size of the manufacturing companies.43 utive year of fast growth.40 The positive spill- Considering the internet and the mobile over of the GDP growth has been the reduc- phones, research shows that the numbers of tion of the both the prevalence and the se- subscribers for both communication tools verity of poverty with a gap lowered more have considerably increased after the adop- than 30 percent. However, the GDP growth tion of the developmental state approach by achieved so far is mainly from the services the government.44 The government has also sector (12.5 percent) rather from agriculture developed and implemented energy policies (9 percent) and industry (12,5 percent) as to augment and branch out the sources of aimed by the policies adopted by the govern- energy provision across the country.45 Up ment for ADLI’s approach.41 until 2001, the energy production of Ethiopia was only 478 megawatts. From 2002 to 2012, Also, an important development pillar is a the level of the production attained 1460 strong domestic entrepreneurial class capable megawatts. Improving the well-being trough of serving as the key of the private sector. It the provision of public goods is also a crucial is worth noting that the private sector has element of the development pillar.46 This en- grown considerably with four private banks compasses enhancing the quality of life, the and the bank branches have increased from level of education, and the accessibility of 562 to 970 between 2007 and 2010. In 2011, resources. Ethiopia’s human development there were 30 institutions of microfinance. In index value has increased from 0.284 in 2000 2001 there were 766 sectors of private manu- to 0.435 in 2013, representing a 53.2 percent facturing, which reached 1,766 in 2010, increase and averagingan approximately 3.34 whereas the number of public manufacturing percent yearly increase.47 increased only from 143 to 164 over the same period.42 In order to achieve universal health care envisioned by 2035, the government has adopt- Another crucial development pillar is to in- ed a variety of policies and strategies that aim vest in building of the infrastructure, includ- to improve access to basic services that can ing but not limited to roads, bridges, electri- provide fundamental health care and protect cal grid, water supply, sanitation, and com- people from huge health expenditures. Study munications. The Ethiopian government has shows that these policies and strategies in- adopted a huge infrastructure development clude the Ethiopian constitution, the health prioritizing transport and communications. care policy, the health finance strategy, the Ethiopia, in addition to being a landlocked health sector development plans, the Ethio-

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Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda 2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia

pian essential health package, the regional tained from research conducted by Samuel health laws, regulations, and guidelines as Gebreselassie.51 At the beginning, the main well as the health insurance strategy. The in- target population of the ADLI was the own- crease of the health coverage was 20 percent ers of small farms, mainly the crop producers between 1995 (40 percent) and 2002 (20 per- with the purpose to realize a fast increase in cent), whereas it increased by 29 percent agricultural production, increase the income from 2002 (60 percent) to 2010 (89 percent). of rural dwellers, achieve nationwide food The involvement of the government has also self-sufficiency, as well as the production of resulted in the exponential increasing number surpluses for the urban markets or the indus- of health facilities with 246 in 1995, 412 in trial sectors. The first step toward achieving 2002, 655 in 2005. and 1,787 in 2010. this objective was engaging in land distribu- Throughout the same period the number of tion. The assessment of land distribution and hospitals has been respectively 73, 115, 131, land tenure arrangements shows that land is and 200. 48 unequally distrusted in Ethiopia. The surface of the land cultivated by most Ethiopians is In the sector of education, the number of less than 0.5 hectares. Furthermore, at the schools built has increased along with the national level the average ownership of land rate of student enrolment in higher education. is 1.02 hectares, the per capita average own- In contrast to the neoliberal development ership is less than 0.20 hectares, and the dis- strategy where higher education is costly and tribution of farm unit size means that 63 per- only available for the wealthy, the Ethiopian cent of the farmers cultivate less than 1 hec- developmental state strategy has made it af- tare. A result of a land tenure survey con- fordable and accessible to all citizens of the ducted in 2001 presents a Gini-coefficient of entire country.49 0.499 at the household level, 0.541 at per capita level, and 0.539 at adult equivalent. In a similar vein, the incidence of the poverty This figure diverges from the Taiwan’s uni- declined only from 49.5 percent to 41.9 per- modal agriculture structure with an equal cent between 1995 and 2002 whereas it land distribution where four-fifths (80 per- reached 29.6 percent in 2010. The country cent) of its farms were within one acre of the has also performed successfully in other so- average farm size unit of 1.2 hectares and the cial welfare areas, which has contributed to top 1 percent is just 11.5 times the mean the improvement of life expectancy at birth farm size. from 46.4 to 59.3 years between 1991 and 2011 despite prevalence of HIV/AIDS, civil Another remarkable feature is that the bot- war. and repeated famine in the 1990s. Inter- tom 10 percent of the population owns no estingly, despite the recurrent cycle of land at all and the top 10percent own 39 per- droughts, the number of people receiving cent of the total agricultural land mass. This emergency aid has decreased since 2003 from unequal farm size distribution does not pro- 15 million down to 5.6 million.50 mote development of the sector because the small farmers have no opportunity to buy Agricultural development-led industriali- modern inputs needed for production meth- zation (ADLI) od. This binominal agricultural structure contributes to curb the purchasing power of the The information on the assessment of the small scale farmers while it directs the de- ADIL presented in this section is mainly ob- mand for manufactured goods for both pri-

22 Journal of Global Development and Peace

Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda

2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia vate consumption and inputs for large scale the leather and leather products industries agriculture towards the foreign market. leading to a poor quality of hides generated by the agricultural sector. This poor produc- Although the government has prioritized the tivity does not provide enough supply to the agricultural sector by adopting the ADLI ap- nascent manufacturing industries. proach, the land ownership controlled by the state has impeded agricultural production. Another element of the strategy was adop- The interdiction of private ownership over tion of the agricultural extension programs. land prevents the peasants from utilizing The programs were executed by creating the their assigned land for huge and long term participatory demonstration and training ex- profits and even discourages them to fully tension system (PADETES). The role of PA- invest for improving productivity. The inter- DETES was to provide farmer households diction of the private land ownership oblige with inputs along with visits by development the peasantry to stay under the control of the agents. Since its adoption, PADETES has state at the same time it protects the ethnic remarkably contributed in reaching many frontiers from disruption because the ag- farmers, increasing productivity, increasing glomeration of people to geographic areas grain production, increasing the use of ferti- defined on the basis of their ethnical back- lizer, and increasing the number the partici- ground would be earnestly imperiled. pation of farmer households in the extension programs. However, with the focus of the Another aim of the strategy was to create a extension packages on cereal crop and pro- linkage between the agricultural sector and duction, animal production and income gen- the other non-agricultural sectors that can erating crop production have been neglected. turn the agricultural sector into an engine of Another flaw is the formulation of the exten- growth for the industrial development pro- sion package at the federal level with the lack cess. The domestic manufacturing sector of regional strategies characterized by limited provides 1.8 percent of the total demand for infrastructure, fewer marketing aspects, weak manufactured inputs (technology inputs, fer- training for extension workers, and limited tilizers, etc.) required by the agricultural sec- use of packages by the farmers. tor. In contrast, the agricultural sector sup- plies 29.2 percent of its output as inputs in One policy of this strategy has been the villag- the domestic sector. This poor performance ization program. which consists of introduc- is due to the increased consumption of im- ing socio-economic transformation by means ported inputs (e.g. fertilizers) by the agricul- of an agrarian socialism as well as mecha- tural sector. nized and cooperative agrarian practices. However, the villagization has been essentially Another factor is the low purchasing power based in the regions which mostly need spe- for manufacturing consumption goods due cific assistance and other supports. to the decreased productivity engendered by the low labor mobility in rural areas and the Foreign aid high population growth. The feeble competi- tiveness of the domestic industries is mainly Ethiopia is today subjugated by foreign aid due to the increased accessibility to inexpen- and is ranked as the second biggest recipient sive goods. For instance, the land distribution of foreign aid in the world, receiving roughly strategy has encouraged the development of US$3.5 billion yearly from donors—

Journal of Global Development and Peace 23

Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda 2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia

representing approximately 60 percent the three main areas: democratic developmental- country’s budget.52 All 26 members of the ism, ADLI, and foreign aid. development assistance group (DGA)53 are partnering with Ethiopia along with emerging Democratic Developmentalism donors such as China and Brazil. 54 The process of building a democratic devel- In the past, if foreign aid helped in promot- opmental state in Ethiopia can be successful- ing developmental states in East Asia,55 the ly achieved after suppressing the obstacles, experience of Ethiopia demonstrates that many of which are related to the constitution. despite the huge amount of aid provided by The constitution should be amended in order foreign donors, there are some factors which to design, adopt, and implement the separa- impede the emergence of an Ethiopian devel- tion of powers with the system of “checks opmental democratic state. The government and balances,” preserve a full independence of Ethiopia prioritizes reducing poverty and of the judiciary, prevent the formation of establishing hegemony that can ensure the ethnic-based political parties, simultaneously survival and longevity of the current repres- protect the minority’s rights and consolidate sive regime with no incentive of building the nation-building process, and unify Ethio- democratic institutions. Another factor is the pia around a political system which is non- divergent policies and intervention strategies ethnic-based, pluralist, and democratic. The of the donors. For instance, China prioritizes constitutional amendments should also sub- trade and investment with a strong support ordinate the ethnic or nationality’s rights to for a poverty reduction strategy. This aligns the individual rights, including all attributes with both its policy of no interference and its of citizenship. The legal system in Ethiopia own experience of achieving food security needs to be enforced and protected against and enduring the communist regime. In con- political intervention. In this regard anti- trast, the Western model of aid in Ethiopia corruption agencies have to be created, has been the one in which donors have prag- strengthened, and protected firmly from po- matically focused on reducing poverty and litical influence. fighting terrorism over reducing oppres- The commitment of the leaderships has to sion.56 By way of illustration, to preserve the develop a responsiveness and attentiveness cooperation with African countries for the to all aspects of the country’s democratic de- anti-terrorism campaign, the United States velopment dimensions. Another important has remained indifferent towards violations strategy for the current ruling elites is to start of human rights and undemocratic tenden- their transformation by power-sharing with cies perpetrated by its partners in the region, all sectors of society, especially with the polit- including Ethiopia, Kenya, Djibouti. and ical opponents, thus contributing to establish Uganda.57 a grand national political coalition, build trust, and suppress the practice of excluding some Policy Recommendations elites for their political position or ethnic origin. That will consequently result in the The existing system is secured and preserved formation of local political alliance favoring by the combination of the three inertias de- the developmental regime and permitting the scribed by Ohno.58 Uprooting these inertias government to implement more programs within the current Ethiopian scenario neces- and conduct many developmental policies. sitate many strategic changes in the following As a result, such a political alliance with the

24 Journal of Global Development and Peace

Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda

2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia domestic groups will lead to a dominant coa- many co-ethnics in the neighboring countries, lition democracy,59 which will allow the ruling there is a need of establishing and maintain- party to secure the victory at every election ing healthy relations with these countries. with a scenario similar to the political regime Equally significant is the construction of a in Japan under the rule of the Liberal Demo- strong nation-state by adopting an ethnic-free cratic Party (LDP).60 civic nationalism to replace the current nationalism and politics solely based upon eth- Due to the strong correlation linking democ- nic identity. For instance, at the onset of their ratization to development, the country development endeavors countries such as should build the required socio-economic China, Ireland, Israel, South Korea, and Tai- institutions that enhance the participation of wan employed the nationalist zeal of the citizens into the process of economic de- “catching-up with the West” to allow a mobi- velopment. The best economic option for lization of the population for the emergence Ethiopia is the market economy with the of the developmental state.61 state playing a crucial role in directing, planning, and monitoring the economic process In addition, the relationship state–society whereas the private sector will also be al- also has a crucial role in the debate on the lowed to mushroom and operate freely. The developmental state. The state itself has to be leaders should design and implement strate- considered as an entity that should be imper- gic programs that create an economic nation- meably cohesive and protected from appre- alism. The leaders should also design policies hension by whatsoever interests in the socie- for economic diversification by focusing on ty. Therefore, the current elites should work targeted industries thought to contribute to towards building such a sort of relationship the growth acceleration. The policies should between the state and Ethiopian society as also be arranged in creating a force to attract recommended by Trouillott.62 foreign technology to be transferred into the country’s economy. The ideological foundation of the state has to be developmental, which should consist of The government must strengthen the capa- the design and articulation of a vision to- bility of the bureaucracy and create an envi- wards national development. While it has to ronment where the bureaucrats operate with inspire, motivate, and challenge, it should impartiality and political neutrality. The meri- include a precise description of the develop- tocracy in recruitment and nomination to ment objectives along with the details about various positions must be the main strategy the targets, time, and costs of the projects in staffing the bureaucracy in contrast of the that needs to be implemented. To allow the ethnic or political affiliation. In this regards, involvement and the appropriation of the the leaders need to be flexible and adapt the projects by the main sectors of the state, the system to the liberal democratic framework design of the vision should consider the in- underlined in the constitution, which would clusion and participatory approaches. 63 contribute to the viability, the stability, and the sustainability of the state. More im- In order to uproot the profound rooted bu- portantly, establishing a system of balance in reaucratic insolation issues, the government power sharing among the ethnic groups needs to build and strengthen an efficient would contribute to the success of the ethnic and professional public bureaucracy by creat- federalism. In addition, due the presence of ing an environment politically neutral, where

Journal of Global Development and Peace 25

Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda 2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia

the functionaries and technocrats can operate Agriculture development-led industriali- freely and impartially. This should pave the zation way for the principle proposed by Chalmers Johnson in his own words: “the politicians Structural transformation of the economy reign and the state bureaucrats rule.”64 One requires shifting from a mono-crop-based way to achieve that is to inverse the recruit- economy along with the entire dependence ment system. The promotion and recruit- on one unique raw material as the economy’s ment based upon meritocratic values should lifeblood towards an industrial-based econo- prevail over the application of the ethnic my. connectivity system and the political crony- The state should adopt new orientations to ism prevalent within governmental policy. In become autonomous and committed to enor- this regard, raising the standards of education mously invest in the agricultural sector and remains one prerequisite for forming human makes it as a national project. An agrarian capital and building a competent bureaucracy reform should be conducted in combination needed to form and sustain the Ethiopian of fair policies necessary to protect the right democratic developmental state. to adequate food in accordance with the declaration made by the World Forum in regard Instead of relying on foreign aid for funding to Food Sovereignty.67 The priority of food development, the state should devise a sound sovereignty is to implement agrarian reform strategy for generating financial resources that can provide to all peasants identical op- required for funding the development pro- portunities to access land and other agricul- jects, mainly the provision of public goods. tural resources. Substantial financial resources can be gener- One major policy is the promotion of agri- ated from the taxes collected from certain cultural extension services by deploying ex- activities, such as business, income, and tension workers (development agents) in eve- property. Investment in any revenue generat- ry rural areas of the country. The policy will ing activities and commercializing industrial support knowledge and skills transfer to goods can also be beneficial sources of finan- smallholder farmers. Another policy should cial resources. In the absence of the resource focus on the promotion of agricultural re- curse,65 the natural resources are substantial search in the field of food science, socioeco- sources of revenues. Encouraging domestic nomic, post-harvest technology, farm imple- savings can also spur financial market growth ments, breed and forage improvement, land resulting in revenue creation.66 and forestry management, biotechnological In the social realm, many social policies innovations, and fisheries. should be implemented, such as policies fo- The legal environment should be improved cusing on poverty reduction, inequality and to encourage private entrepreneurship and unemployment reduction, basic services pro- attract foreign investors. A strong export-led vision, and so forth. Educational policies and foreign direct investment-led industriali- should be adopted with a civic education zation policy should be designed. The pro- component that extols “Ethiopia,” promotes motion of the commercialization of agricul- national integration, develops the national tural products should be fostered with the consciousness, unites the fragmented socio- aim to expand small businesses. ethnic structure ,and promotes the sense of belonging to a historical community. Foreign aid

26 Journal of Global Development and Peace

Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda

2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia

The international aid provided to Ethiopia by natural resources, the security sector, and so its current partners encompasses motivations forth. The role of trilateral cooperation and practices that may either diminish the should be incorporated in planning the sorts effect of aid on building effective democratic of programs designed to reverse the vicious developmental regime or pose obstacles for cycle of brain drain, thus contribute to main- their promotion. The donors need to create a taining the skilled professionals to build a united front for structural transformation by professional bureaucracy for the sustainabil- linking economic aid to a pro-poor and pro- ity of the democratic developmental state. democratic political system. This can be suc- The realization of such cooperation will be a cessful achieved by executing two sequences veritable litmus test of supporting the social, of measures. economic, and political development that China, Western donors, and Ethiopian gov- Firstly, the money and technical assistance ernment have prescribed in their different need to be leveraged to propel for a planned policies as well as the prerequisites towards and firm disintegration of the party-state. fulfilling the "Agenda 2063" by all African This can be achieved by using time-bound countries. political triggers that are focused on internationally recognized governance standards and Conclusion by considering international treaties to which the government of Ethiopia has acceded. The main question addressed in this study Secondly, if this aborts, then the donors will was the investigation of the Ethiopian regime have to reduce aid gradually to the level re- in regard to the building of the democratic quired for humanitarian assistance. This developmental and the agricultural develop- course of action was even requested by the ment-led industrialization approach adopted jailed journalist Eskinder Nega.68 by the regime in the 1990s. The social, economic, and political development outcomes For the success of these actions, all donors achieved are identified by means of assessing need to tackle the engagement paradox and all the indicators as presented in the previous involve in triangular development coopera- section. tion with Ethiopia. Such a triadic cooperation will combine the comparative advantages of Although the regime is credited for the eco- both traditional donors (i.e., US, E.U, Aus- nomic growth and development of the public tralia, etc.) and the emerging donors (Brazil, services, many indicators of the democratic Russia, India, and China). Furthermore, it developmental state are below the threshold. will provide a great opportunity to under- The outcomes identified through the assess- stand and learn the policies and practices of ment demonstrate that Ethiopia is jailed by aid delivery of one another. Since the state is the social and political disasters characterized not powerful enough, such cooperation will by social injustice and the rule by law rather not only improve aid effectiveness as stated than the role of law. The use of exclusion in the Paris Declaration,69 but also help to practices in place of coalition and integration construct a strong, efficient, and good gov- signifies that the elites lack a commitment erned state in Ethiopia. The partners may and a development-oriented vision with the engage in areas as many as the science diplo- prevalence of rent-seeking and greedy atti- macy field, the agriculture and food security tudes. sector, the sustainable management of the

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Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda 2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia

From the above analysis, the government has attitude and perceptions of all the actors failed to implement institutional system and (Government of Ethiopia and development policies tools that can convince the majority partners) and leading to the ripeness towards of the Ethiopian around the developmental- changes remain a relevant area of research. ism, to promote resource saving, to implement meritocratic service system, and en- Acknowledgements courage inclusion, which can positively build embeddedness. In the case of the authoritari- I would like to express my gratitude to both an developmental states in Southeast Asia, Dr. Steve Hess and Dr. Chunjuan Nancy Wei the political leaders were committed to im- for their invaluable contribution throughout plement development strategies, uproot tra- the researching, preparing, and writing of this ditional elites and restrict greediness, combat article. My special acknowledgement goes to corruption and rent-seeking.70 the reviewers for their insightful comments on the original manuscript, as these com- The findings of this study are also clear evi- ments led me to an improvement of the work. dence that both traditional and emerging do- Finally, I extend my thanks to the faculty nors are blindly supporting the corrupt and members of the College of Public and Inter- undemocratic regime in Ethiopia. The actual national Affairs for their helpfulness. scenario existing in Ethiopia does not correspond either to a democratic nor developmental features. In this regard, the view of Endnotes the ruling party's elite (Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front) for their 1. UNECA, “Governing development in Africa- commitment to build a developmental state the role of the state in economic transfor- remains a utopia. In my opinion, Ethiopia mation.” United Nations Economic Commis- sion for Africa, Report, 2011: XIII-XIV. should be considered as at the early stage of a http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/ developmental state. pubs/2011era-uneca.pdf 2. Hollis Chenery B. and Syrquin Moshe, In this regard, the above-mentioned policy “Patterns of development: 1950- recommendations would help to transform 1970,” (Oxford University Press for the World the current government into democratic gov- Bank, London, 1975),10. ernment and help to establish the Ethiopian 3. Bolesta, Andrzej, “China as a post-socialist developmental state: explaining Chinese development trajecto- democratic developmentalism, which remains ry.” (PhD Dissertation, The London School of a veritable litmus experiment to achieve the Economics and Political Science, 2012):12. objective of middle income by 2030 and the 4. Joseph Wong, “The adaptive developmental African Union Agenda of the democratic de- state in East Asia.” Journal of East Asian Studies, velopmental state in the continent by 2063. 4 (2004):351. http://vision.cer.uz/Data/lib/ However, the implementation of these rec- readings/development_models/ ommendations may encounter some obsta- DEV_STATE_The_Adaptive_Developmental _State_in_East_Asia_2004.pdf. cles that need to be addressed by conducting 5. John Minns, “Of miracles and models: the rise further studies. The regime has been in place and decline of the developmental state in South for more than two decades and the foreign Korea.” Third World Quarterly, Vol. 22, No 6 aid policies are specific for each donor and (2001):1038. http://courses.arch.vt.edu/ extremely complicated. Steps allowing the courses/wdunaway/gia5524/Minns01State.pdf. transformation of the issues underlying the 6. Yu-Shan Wu, “Taiwan's developmental state: After the economic and political turmoil,”

28 Journal of Global Development and Peace

Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda

2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia

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Journal of Global Development and Peace 29

Engagement of China, European Union, and the United States with Africa and its Implications for “Agenda 2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia

for Sudan and Egypt.” Energy, Water, Environ- 35. No coverage of political issues by private news- ment & Economic,1 (1) (2013): 1. http:// papers; no support by journalists to political www.eipsa1.com/cms/articles/ activities of opposition parties; harassment of BenefitofGERDP.pdf. Muslim community and restriction of the free- 30. In the literature, the former includes the elec- doms of assembly and association; and restrict- toral process (the right to vote, the right to run ed access to many web sources. Ibid.2 for public office, etc.) and the latter embodies 36. BTI (Bertelsmann Transformation Index) the pantheon of freedoms. See George Klay “Country report: Ethiopia” (2014):12 Kieh “Constructing the social democratic de- 37. Freedom House, “Freedom in the World.” velopmental state in Africa: lessons from the Freedom House (2014):10 Global South.” Journal of the Global South (2) 2 38. Tyler Dickovick and Rachel Beatty Riedl (February, 2015), 9-11. DOI 10.1186/s40728- “Comparative assessment of decentralization in 014-0004-4. Africa: Final report and summary of findings.” 31. Although there is an official independence of USAID (2010):37. http://pdf.usaid.gov/ the judiciary branch, its judgments always align pdf_docs/PNADX211.pdf. with the government policies. The antiterror- 39. Wibke Crewett, Ayalneh Bogale, and Benedikt ism law enacted in 2009 provides the security Korf, “Land Tenure in Ethiopia Continuity and forces with large discretion authorizing the Change, Shifting Rulers, and the Quest for detention of suspects without legal charge over State Control.” CAPRi Working Paper No. 91 three months. Ethiopian prisons have harsh (September 2008) :1; BTI (Bertelsmann Trans- conditions with frequent reported detainees’ formation Index) “Country report: Ethio- abuse and torture. See Freedom House, pia” (2014):19. “Ethiopia: Freedom in the World/” Freedom 40. Reuter, “IMF: Ethiopian economy needs re- House (2014):2; Lewis Gordon, Sean Sullivan vamp to avert slowdown.” Business report and Sonal Mittal “Ethiopian’s anti-terrorism (November, 2013). http://www.iol.co.za/ law: A tool to stifle dissent.” The Oakland In- business/international/imf-ethiopian-economy stitute and Environmental Defender Law Cen- - n e e d s - r e v a m p - to- a v e r t - s l o w d o w n - ter (2015):6 1.1603065#.VQxLbSvF_hA. 32. Freedom House, “Ethiopia: Freedom in the 41. Reuter, “IMF: Ethiopian economy needs re- World.” Freedom House (2014):2-5 vamp to avert slowdown.” Business report 33. Corruption is still prevalent in the country and (November, 2013). http://www.iol.co.za/ has never been addressed adequately by the business/international/imf-ethiopian-economy regime as demonstrated by corrective measure. - n e e d s - r e v a m p - to- a v e r t - s l o w d o w n - Credits, jobs, and land leases are easily accord- 1.1603065#.VQxLbSvF_hA. ed to the officials of the EPRDF. Bribes are 42. Teshome Aron, “Meles’s Development Para- solicited during documents processing by offi- digm and Its Impacts on Economic Transfor- cials at lower levels. In 2013, Transparency mation in Ethiopia”. Global Advanced Research International ranked Ethiopia 111th among Journal of of Management and Business Studies Vol. 1, 117 countries in its Corruption Perception In- Issue 11, December, 2012): 395. dex. Ibid: 4 43. Vivien Foster and Elvira Morella, “Ethiopia’s 34. These violations include: disruption of opposi- Infrastructure: A Continental Perspective.” The tion parties’ meetings; harassment, intimidation, International Bank for Reconstruction and De- arrest, killing and disappearance of political velopment/The World Bank. Country Report leaders in some parts of the country; threat to ( 2 0 1 0 ) : 6 - 17. http:// lose one’s properties or jobs and deprivation of siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRICA/ development assistance by not voting for the Resources/Ethiopia - ruling party; expulsion of indigenous groups by Country_Report_03.2011.pdf; Aron Teshome, the government, without necessary compensa- “Meles’s Development Paradigm and Its Im- tion, for development projects, such as dams; pacts on Economic Transformation in Ethio- prevalence of forced child labor; and strict law pia.” Global Advanced Research Journal of Manage- prohibiting same-sex relationship with an im- ment and Business Studies Vol. 1, Issue 11, prisonment for punishment. Ibid. 2 (December, 2012):393.

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2063”: A Case Study of Democratic Developmentalism in Ethiopia

44. Teshome Aron, “Meles’s Development Para- 54. Frederic Mousseau and Melissa Moore, digm and Its Impacts on Economic Transfor- “Development aid to Ethiopia: Overlooking mation in Ethiopia.” Global Advanced Research violence, marginalization and political repres- Journal of Management and Business Studies Vol. 1, sion.” The Oakland Institute (2013):12; and Issue 11 (December, 2012):394. HWR (Human Rights Watch) “Development 45. Aron, 394-395. without Freedom: how aid underwrites repres- 46. UNECA, “Economic report on Africa: govern- sion in Ethiopia” (2010):4. http:// ing development in Africa: The role of the state www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/ in economic transformation”. Issues paper ethiopia1010webwcover.pdf (2013):1. E/ECA/COE/30/03 AU/CAMEF/ 55. Demeke Atlaw Melke, “Promising democratic EXP/3(VI). developmental state in Africa: Evidences from 47. UNDP “Briefing note for countries on the Ethiopia.” International Journal of Educational Re- 2015 Human Development Report: Ethiopia/” search and Development Vol. 2(7), (July, 2013):169. Human Development Report (2015):2. http:// 56. Berhanu Abegaz “Aid, accountability, and insti- hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/ tution-building in Ethiopia: A comparative country-notes/ETH.pdf. analysis of donor practice.” WIDER Working 48. Alebachew Abebe, Laurel Hatt, Matt Kukla, Paper No. 2013/083. (September 2013):27. Sharon Nakhimovsky, “Universal health cover- 57. In this regard there a special command in age measurement in a low income context: an charge of Africa supervised by the U.S. Africa Ethiopian case study”. Health finance & gov- Command (AFRICOM) and mainly focused ernance project report. Bethesda, MD: Health the “3-D approach: defence, diplomacy and Finance & Governance Project (2014):15-18. development. See Opalo, Ken “The conse- https://www.hfgproject.org/wp- co-tent/ quences of the U.S. war on terrorism in Africa. uploads/2014/04/Ethiopia_Case-Study-on- Aljazeera America (June, 2014). http:// Measuring-Progress-towards-UHC_Final.pdf. america.aljazeera.com/opinions/2014/6/ 49. Aron, 392. a f r i c o m - u - s - w a r - 50. Frederic Mousseau and Melissa Moore, onterrorisminafricaalshabaabbokoharam.html “Development aid to Ethiopia: Overbooking 58. The three inertias are: i) Complementarity of violence, marginalization, and political repres- the institutions—an interdependence between sion.” The Oakland Institute (2013):3 http:// institutions create a situation where removing www.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/ only one institution does not transform the oaklandinstitute.org/files/ system; ii) Complementarity of the strategy— OI_Brief_Development_Aid_Ethiopia.pdf. indicates that certain individuals possess a 51. Samuel Gebreselassie, “Land, land policy and sound reason to maintain the existing system; smallholder agriculture in Ethiopia: options and iii) and the dependency of path—is related to scenarios.” Future Agricultures Consortium, the difficult task of shifting from a first chosen discussion paper 008 (2008):4-8. system to a new one. See Kenichi Ohno, 52. Frederic Mousseau and Melissa Moore, “Ethiopia: political regime and development “Development aid to Ethiopia: Overlooking policies”. GRIPS Development Forum, Tokyo. violence, marginalization and political repres- (2009):6. http://www.grips.ac.jp/vietnam/ sion.” The Oakland Institute (2013):3. KOarchives/doc/EP24_HLF1_DDADLI.pdf. 53. The World Bank, the United States, the Euro- 59. Ibid, p.6. pean Commission, Key European Union Mem- 60. Pyle, Kenneth B., “Japan Rising: The resur- ber States (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, gence of Japanese power and purpose.” (New France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Nether- York: Public Affairs, 2007). lands, Spain, Sweden, and the United King- 61. Unfortunately, the current ethnic federalism dom), Norway, Switzerland, and Japan. See policy only promotes ethnic nationalism to the HWR (Human Rights Watch) “Development detriment of civic nationalism, which nurtures without Freedom: how aid underwrites repres- ethnic tension leading to political instability sion in Ethiopia” (2010):8. http:// incompatible with development. Cited in Oma- www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/ no Edigheji, ed. Constructing a Democratic Develop- ethiopia1010webwcover.pdf. mental State in South Africa: Potentials and Challeng-

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es. (Cape Town: Human Sciences Research building developmental states: from theory to Council Press, 2010):2. practice.” Working paper 274. London: Over- 62. Michel-Rolph Trouillot “The anthropology of seas Development Institute.(September , 2006). the state in the age of globalization: Close encounters of the deceptive kind.” Current Anthro- pology, 42(1) (2001):26. References 63. OA Ilesami, “The role of strategic vision process in business development in Nigeria.” Glob- al Journal of Management and Business Research 11  Abebe Alebachew, Hatt Laurel, Kukla (9):18. Matt, Nakhimovsky Sharon, “Universal 64. Chalmens John, MITI and the Japanese Miracle: health coverage measurement in a low The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925-1975. Stan- income context: An Ethiopian case ford University Press(1982):12 http:// faculty.arts.ubc.ca/tiberg/ study.” Health Finance & Governance MPA_Asia_Apr_2010_readings/Johnson,% Project Report (2014). pp.108. https:// 20Chalmers.%201982.%20MITI%20and% www.hfgproject.org/wp-co-tent/ up- 20the%20Japanese%20Miracle%20Ch.% loads/2014/04/Ethiopia_Case-Study-on- 201.pdf. M e a s u r i n g - P r o g r e s s - t o w a r d s - 65. Resource curse or paradox of plenty is a situa- UHC_Final.pdf. tion where the existence of diamond, oil or other valuable resources does not lead to the economic development of the country. Cited in  African Union “Agenda 2063: The future Sachs, Jeffrey D. and Warner, Andrew M., we want for Africa.” AU (August, “Natural resources and economic development: 2014):8 The curse of natural resources,” European Eco- nomic Review 45 (2001): 827. http://  Addis Ababa, Ethiopia http:// earth.columbia.edu/sitefiles/file/about/ agenda2063.au.int/. director/pubs/EuroEconReview2001.pdf. 66. Hakim Ben Hammouda and Osakwe Patrick “Financing development in Africa: trends, is-  Aron, Teshome, “Meles’s development sues and challenges.” Addis Ababa: United paradigm and its impacts on economic Nations Economic Commission for Africa. transformation in Ethiopia.” Global Ad- (2006):4. vanced Research Journal of Management and 67. World Forum on Food Sovereignty, Final dec- Business Studies Vol. 1, Issue 11 laration of the World Forum on Food Sover- (December, 2012): pp. 384-396. eignty. International Conference Center in Ha- vana, Cuba on September 3-7, 2001. http:// www.ukabc.org/havanadeclaration.pdf.  Berhanu Abegaz “Aid, accountability, 68. Nega, Eskinder, “Letter from Ethiopia’s gu- and institution-building in Ethiopia: A lag.” The New York Times (July 24, 2013) http:// comparative analysis of donor practice.” www.nytimes.com/2013/07/25/opinion/letter Working Paper No. 2013/083. UNU- -from-ethiopias-gulag.html?_r=0. WIDER (September 2013):27. 69. Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, stated in 2005 for improving the quality of aid as well as  Bolesta, Andrzej, “China as a post-socialist its development impacts, focuses on five points including ownership, alignment, harmonization, developmental state: Explaining Chinese devel- results, and mutual accountability. Cited in opment trajectory.” (PhD Dissertation, The OECD, “The Paris declaration on aid effective- London School of Economics and Politi- ness and the Accra Agenda for action.” (2005). cal Science, 2012). pp. 289 http://www.oecd.org/development/ effectiveness/34428351.pdf.  BTI (Bertelsmann Transformation Index) 70. V. Fritz and Alina Rocha Menocal “(Re)

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36 Journal of Global Development and Peace

How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to

Bridge the Strait How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to Bridge the Strait

Rebecca Bruckenstein, University of Bridgeport

Abstract

The relationship between Cuba and the United States plays a role in the day-to-day reports of the news media industry. This coverage has created an environment that could be beneficial for further political and economic integration between the two nations, as it has been thrust on to the world stage. In the case of these two nations there are multiple strategies that can be used to continue the process for Cuba and the United States to take steps to further integration; steps that can adapt and change polices between the two nations in order to develop positive communication and economic growth. In- creased study of the history of the strained relationship between these two nations can be used as a base to develop a political and economic integration plan to strengthen a possibly budding partnership. This integration plan needs to have multiple facets in order to target different areas of concern. The paper that follows contains a plan to increase the exchanging of information through sports and educational visas. By focusing on these concepts, possible discussions can be born from these exchanges and drive change through a people to people perspective.

Biography Rebecca Bruckenstein is a recent graduate from the University of Bridgeport with a master’s degree in Global Development and Peace. She is passionate about creating innovative solutions for some of the world’s biggest challenges. She truly believes in the power of diversity and education as a tool for development. In the Global Development and Peace program she has had the opportunity to write about nations across the globe from South East Asia to South America; due to this she has been able to research a broad range of topics that impact a large amount of the global population. Through this program she had the opportunity to study abroad in Japan, where she was able to continue her Japa- nese study as well as experience a culture very different from the one found in the United States. Rebecca also has an undergraduate degree in Journalism and Drama Studies from SUNY Purchase College in New York. She looks forward to what the future has in store and hopes to continue researching and traveling through countries around the globe.

Journal of Global Development and Peace 37

How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to Bridge the Strait

Introduction events can have over time on the relationship between two nations.3 The relationship between the United States This paper seeks to understand how to im- and Cuba began around the late 1800s. This prove the political and economic bonds be- relationship between the two has shifted tween Cuba and the United States in order to from partnership to silence due to embargo help develop a more stable relationship be- to the beginnings of possible partnership tween the two nations. As above mentioned, again. The United States continually has these nations are at a crossroad in their rela- played a role in the political atmosphere in tionship. The main actors in this dialogue are Cuba from the late 1800s until Fidel Castro’s the governments of both Cuba and the Unit- rise to power in the 1960s. Once Castro rose ed States, the people of both nations, and the to power in 1959, the United States enacted a Cuban diaspora worldwide, but mainly in the trade embargo as well as other policies that United States. While the diaspora could be have affected the relationship between the considered a spoiler in this process, the opin- two nations, resulting in limited communica- ions of all of these parties have been shifting. tion.1 This embargo and limited political ex- Due to this shift it is important to make sure changes were originally due to Cuba’s shift to that the diaspora feels invested in this rela- communism and their growing relationship tionship-building process. This includes hav- with the Soviet Union during the 1960s. In ing the diaspora as part of the dialogue on 1961, Castro announced that Cuba was a how best to relate to the shifting alliance and Communist state, despite a dialogue held in discussing what roles they can take on in this the late 1950s between then Vice President process. An early step to repairing communi- Richard Nixon and Castro, which was an at- cation and trust could be pressing for open tempt by the United States to align Castro travel between the two countries, which and Cuba with the United States.2 This time would increase the need for visas and would period would be influential because of the create a base for academic and monetary ex- seemingly lasting impact this had on their changes. Many academics believe that the relationship and how it would ultimately limit exchange of ideas is an important step in re- the dialogue between the two nations. lationship-building techniques, meaning that A defining moment in the relationship be- opening the shores would allow for more tween these two countries was the Cuban unity between these populations. Missile Crisis. This crisis led to a fear that a nuclear war would be imminent between the Cuba and the Region United States and the Soviet Union, which theoretically could have had a global impact In order to understand how to more effi- due to the possible usage of nuclear weapons. ciently improve relations between the United Ultimately, the missiles in Cuba would be States and Cuba it is important to understand removed but this did not alter the relation- the roles that Cuba and the United States ship between the United States and Cuba. play in the region. The United States has Two other factors that have impacted the played an active role towards advancing re- relationship between the two nations are the forms that support a more open relationship flow of people between the two nations, as and in some ways it has stood in the way of well as the supposed creation of biological allowing the advancements of Cuba in re- weapons, which lead to Cuba being placed gional organizations. In her article “The Spe- on the terrorism watch list in 2002. This cial Case of Cuba,” Lana Wylie discusses not shows the impact one event or a series of only the role of the United States and its re-

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How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to

Bridge the Strait gional neighbors but the relationship that UN voted to condemn the US embargo of Cuba holds with Canada, specifically explor- Cuba. In 2011, 186 countries sided with Cu- ing the question of whether or not Canada ba while only two countries voted with the should play a role in trying to improve the United States. In 2009 Cuba was re-elected as relationship between the United States and a member of the United Nations Human Cuba. Wylie’s article also examines the im- Rights Council, largely because of the sup- portance of the role of Cuba in the region port it received from other states in the re- and the global perspectives of the nation.4 In gion.”6 This demonstrates the role and power order to create an environment of shared in- Cuba holds in the region, even up against the terests on a more regional level it is im- supposed power of the United States on this portant for the United States to understand topic. This is one of the reasons why it is so and try to develop these regional relation- important that the United States begins to ships further in order to create multiple open adapt its strategies and relationship in regards channels for both political and economic dis- to Cuba. By laying the groundwork for this course that can increase regional cooperation relationship we can as previously mentioned more broadly then the efforts being de- change the face of the region. scribed in-depth within this paper. Cuba and the United States While the United States has historically placed heavy restrictions on Cuba and has The relationship between the United States tried to keep them out of regional trade and and Cuba has been created through a political organizations, this has not been the strengthening and weakening of ties, policies, case in regards to the United States allowing governmental beliefs, and power structures Cuba to join organizations such as the United and events that have created the relationship Nations. Some of the United States opposi- that we experience today. This relationship is tion of Cuba being included in these groups the base of much academic scholarship on stems from Cuba not being a democracy and the small island nation of Cuba. In this way, the Cold War relationship between Cuba and the relationships between these two nations the Soviet Union. In 2009, the Organization are studied through multiple perspectives, of American States (OAS) lifted a 47-year which could yield different conclusions in suspension of Cuba’s membership to the regards to the relationship, as well as varying group, which made some government offi- opinions on ways to lay possible foundations cials of the United States angry, causing back- for change between the two. In recent history, lash within the states towards the Organiza- the discussion between the governments of tion of American States even though Cuba these two nations has expanded and this rela- chose not to return to the group at this time.5 tionship has begun to change and adapt with Cuba has played a role in furthering relation- the changing times and opinions. It is cer- ships with its neighbors by creating and join- tainly not a perfect process as there seems to ing regional organizations, which shows that be a one step forward, one step back process, even without being a part of the OAS, Cuba but this could be the optimal time in creating is able to gain support and have economic change that can be impactful in both political backing outside of that group. “Cuba’s inter- and economic integration in a way that is mu- national reputation is evident in the support tually beneficial for both nations. it receives in international institutions. For In a way, it is possible to approach the rela- the twentieth consecutive year, in 2011, the tionship between Cuba and the United States

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How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to Bridge the Strait

from multiple perspectives. These perspec- late the briefly described abovementioned tives include viewpoints from people such as steps to integration. members of the Cuban Diaspora, govern- The history of the relationship between the mental officials both on the international and two nations is an important part of the dis- local circuits, scholars, athletes, and global cussion; especially how it relates to the em- everyday citizens as just a few categories to bargo, which is both a part of the history as which people both are grouped and group well as a result of that history. A strong ex- themselves, as well as the way in which cen- ample of this discussion can be found in tral viewpoints could be formed and under- “The Normalization of US-Cuba Relations: stood. By understanding this topic through The Easing of the Embargo and the Role of these multiple lenses, it could impact the International Law” written for a presentation ways in which the two nations can begin to at the Universita Roma in February of 2015 come together to form a supportive version by Nigel D. White.7 This presentation deeply of political and economic integration. The explores the complex relationship between authors of the articles used in this case study the two nations. tend to analyze a specific subsection of the population interested in and apart of the rela- The starting point, in understanding the rele- tionship between the two nations. Each arti- vance of international law, is to clarify the cle stresses the impact that this relationship historical and political contexts within which has on those populations and some of the the bilateral relations of Cuba and the US articles take it one step further to discuss the have been shaped. That history is a struggle impact a stable relationship could have, both about sovereignty, independence, interven- on the two nations as well as its possible im- tion and non-intervention, self-determination pact on the populations they study. These and human rights, so basically it is a struggle articles cover such topics as the embargos over international law—it’s content, meaning effect on baseball players, the development and application.8 of infrastructure in Cuba as a possible way for building democracy, relationships be- This shows that a relationship between two tween the diaspora populations and their nations can play a role both in their bilateral home nation of Cuba, possible reforms to relationships as well as on a global level, the communist state, Cuba’s relationship with through international law. White tries to doc- its neighbors and Canada, and the ways in ument the effects the embargo has had on which the government of the United States Cuban citizens and what that means in rela- could play a role in improving the relation- tion to the formation of a relationship be- ship with Cuba. While these articles differ on tween the United States and Cuba. The rela- approaches and even vary slightly by topic, tionship between these two nations also is they all examine this relationship in such a formed by the role of the USSR in the region way that conclusions can be drawn to sup- of Cuba up until the early 1990s; with the fall port possible tools that can be used on the of the Soviet Union and the weakening of its path of political and economic integration. role in the region, Cuba became a weaker Each article contributes insight that is valua- nation with its citizens becoming the victims ble in helping to formulate an approach and of this relationship’s decline. This situation channel by which change could be possible, has somewhat been on the path to renewal as well each article plays a role in developing even with lag in the Cuba-US relationship. a deeper insight to the relationship and re- “That demonstrates, in my opinion, sufficient gion which is integral in being able to formu- intent and cause to constitute the deliberate

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How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to

Bridge the Strait damage to Cuba and to its people over and population that both shapes and is affected beyond the US simply exercising its rights to by this uneasy relationship. The two specific choose trade partners.”9 This leads to further populations that are covered in this way are discussion on what on an international level Cuban athletes and the Cuban diaspora. is an appropriate response to a nation that These views are covered in two articles on disagrees with the political leadership of an- the subject: “Cuban Baseball Players, The other nation. Unlucky Ones: United States-Cuban Profes- sional Baseball Relations Should be an Inte- White argues that there has been a step to- gral Part of the United States-Cuba Relation- wards a return to a more open relationship, ship,” written by Rachel Solomon,12 and as diplomatic relations and ties have steadily “The Declining Symbolic Significance of the increased between the two nations and even, Embargo for South Florida’s Cuban Ameri- to some extent, the beginnings of more open cans,” written by Chris Girard, Guillermo J. travel between the two nations.10 He does Grenier, and Hugh Gladwin.13 Solomon’s state that this type of relationship building article covers the role that the embargo plays will not occur overnight and that it might in major league baseball and the acquisition take many years to build up a relationship of Cuban players; while Girard, Grenier, and that could be considered a durable or stable Gladwin explore the role the relationship be- peace level relationship in relation to Lund’s tween the two nations has affected in terms Curve of Conflict. White attributes the shift of the diaspora populations in Florida as well in part due to both President Obama being in as their view on the purpose and power of his last term and a shifting of the political the embargo. Both of these articles link back landscapes throughout Latin America. The to the history of these two relationships as it biggest roadblock to Cuban and US relations shows the importance of the effects of these could be said to be the Helms-Burton act and cross-national relationships on these popula- the Castro family remaining as the heads of tions. state; the role of international law from this perspective is that it plays a role in the shap- Cuban baseball players are affected deeply by ing of each nation’s opinion and policy on the lack of communication and by holes in the other. Even if it’s not followed, it does the relationship between the two nations; shape and define the relationship.11 One item Major League Baseball (MLB), for example, discussed in this article that could be seen as requires that they must give up their ties to creating a step towards a supportive political their home country of Cuba. Solomon’s arti- and economic integration policy from cle views the history of the Cuba-US rela- White’s perspective is the possible creation tions through the lens of baseball; at its core, of a tribunal in order for victims of both both nations view this sport as an important sides to receive a settlement, or perhaps a national pastime. The love of baseball in fund that could support them laid out with both nations began around the mid to late leaders from both nations involved in the 1800s. “Prior to the establishment of the pre- process. From the perspective of this paper, sent Cuban government, baseball was a com- an open dialogue is an important part of con- mon interest for the United States and Cuba, tinuing the steps towards further political and helping to bind the two countries together.”14 economic integration in the region. Like the diaspora population, these athletes face hardship if they so choose to come to Another way to view the relationship be- the United States in order to play baseball. tween the two nations is through a specific Such hardships include traveling by sea to

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How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to Bridge the Strait

human smuggling, all of which play a role in port among South Florida’s Cuban Ameri- the relationship between these two nations. cans.”18 This shows that by studying the dias- As the embargo has placed heavy restrictions pora population in order to understand their on the flow of trade and ideas, it impacts all opinions we are grasping yet another type of facets of life for Cuban citizens including the history of both the diaspora and that of the playing of sports. Solomon’s article explains embargo, which as previously mentioned is that the base of the embargo is in a policy one of the core parts of the US-Cuba rela- created in 1917 under the name of the Trad- tionship. In this quantitative study the au- ing with the Enemy Act; this bans any ex- thors are looking at nine dependent variables change with a nation that the United States is in order to understand what they call “exile at war with. This was expanded in 1933 to ideology.” These dependents in some way are mean any nation that the United States deter- all related to either the historical or more mines where a national emergency may ex- modern approach to this relationship, such as ist.15 The way in which Solomon structures determining how the respondents feel about her article gives a deeper understanding of travel to Cuba, Cuban musicians playing in both the history of the relationship of these the United States, open dialogue between the two countries as well as the hardships that two nations, as well as companies selling are faced by Cuban athletes, but especially in medicine to Cuba, or the United States regards to the challenges faced by Cuban providing food to the nation are some of the baseball players who one day hope to play factors that determine how the diaspora MLB baseball.16 Further development and views the world they live in and the life they understanding of how baseball could be used may have left behind. This all links to the not only as an indicator of Cuba-United understanding of how the relationship can States relations but as a tool for developing a effect, on a very local level, the diaspora pop- pathway to integration will be discussed in a ulation in the United States. While it seems subsequent chapter in this article. that this study expresses a drop in support, it doesn’t mean that there is not support to- The role of the diaspora population in the wards the embargo within this community relationship between the two nations is an and beyond in the United States.19 Both integral part of creating policy or possible Democrats and Republicans who are Cuban steps as they have a deep connection with Americans and still support an embargo and both nations. The article by Girard, Grenier, restrictions on the island are counter balanc- and Gladwin analyzes data collected by mul- ing what the president has attempted to do, tiple studies, which are focused on the way such as lifting some of the travel bans.20 It is the diaspora feels towards Cuba and their important that while examining the broad support towards an embargo on the nation.17 relationship between the governments of the The embargo can be documented as one of two nations that the localized, small interper- the ways in which the relationship between sonal relationships are examined in order to Cuba and the United States can be studied be able to create policies that take these dif- and analysed; this is because it impacts both ferent levels into account. As steps are made Cuban citizens in the region as well as US in improving relations it is important that the citizens and the Cuban diaspora. “The latest diaspora are included in the process, as this survey in a series extending from 1991 to group can be one of the spoilers on the path 2008 shows for the first time that the US to political and economic integration. trade embargo no longer enjoys majority sup-

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How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to

Bridge the Strait

Another way in which the literature can study the Cuban Revolution with clandestine radio the relationship between Cuba and the Unit- broadcasting and the US-sponsored Radio ed States is through policy implementation Marti broadcasting politically oriented pro- and through the ability and opportunity to gramming since 1985…In particular the access information or tools to gather infor- CDA promoted telecommunications services, mation such as the internet. In “A Cuban which were previously prohibited by the em- Spring? The Use of the Internet as a Tool of bargo.”24 Democracy Promotion by United States Agency for International Development in The concept of free speech is extremely im- Cuba,” Pamina Firchow provides a current portant in United States culture and it is em- understanding and history of the availability bedded in much of the nation-building they of the internet in the region.21 Access to the conduct across the world. While unsuccess- internet is yet another lens by which we fully trying to spread the word of democracy could study the United States’ role in Cuba. building in the 1980s, free speech is constant- In Cuba, access to the internet is limited and ly being reimagined to try to reform the na- under careful watch by the government. tion. The USAID plays a big role in this pro- “One such policy is the integration of Inter- cess in Cuba. In 2011, a USAID contractor net technologies and the provision of materi- named Alan Gross was found guilty of enter- als by development actors such as the United ing Cuba on a tourist visa and bringing to the States Agency for International Development nation devices that can link, and can assist in (USAID) as part of their democracy promo- linking, Cuban citizens into the internet. tion programs in developing countries. Alt- While much of what he brought onto the hough in many instances these programs are island was legal, there were some items which welcomed by recipient governments, the were not and the way in which they were question becomes more difficult when deal- brought in led to Gross’s arrest. The lack of ing with those authoritarian regimes that are internet on the island as documented in not open to the unregulated proliferation of Firchow’s work shows that it can be used to the Internet in their societies.”22 This is the support the argument of both sides as Cuba case as described in Cuba where even though says that access to the internet can create there is some infrastructure for the internet it equality issues and the United States siding is not readily available; the citizens of Cuba with the importance of freedom of speech do have access to the Intranet, which gives and democracy building.25 This shows that them access to limited information that the the United States-Cuba relations on the issue government has already sanctioned as appro- of access to information is very strained and priate. Even with this limited access, the peo- is one of the challenges that is faced when ple of Cuba have tried to attempt to speak trying to figure out a way to create pathways out through various mediums such as blog- towards economic and political integration. ging when possible and the passing around of “Although democracy promotion may be a a flash drive to pass along information.23 part of USAID’s mandate, in the case of Cu- Internet and media have been used as a de- ba, this is obviously not appropriate.”26 By mocracy building tool between the two na- studying the relationship through the lens of tions as well: access to the internet we can see some of the defining differences between the two nations “Democracy promotion through ICTs has and ways in which creating policy must be been a part of the US-Cuba relations since handled in order to bring about even the

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How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to Bridge the Strait

smallest step toward integration. came popular in Cuba a short time later. Be- It is important to understand the relation- tween the latter part of the 1800s and 1959, ships between any nations from multiple per- when the Cuban Revolution occurred, the spectives. In each piece of literature on the exchange of baseball players was possible topic of the United States and Cuba relation- with both Americans and Cubans playing on ship, a different perspective is provided each nation’s teams. This exchange ended through multiple lenses in order to best un- because Cuba started putting Communist derstand a very complex relationship. In or- reforms into place and aligning themselves der to create a change that could be sustaina- closer to the Soviet Union during and after ble it is important to understand there are the Cold War. Due to a rise in tensions be- multiple primary and secondary actors that all tween the two nations, restrictions such as must be included if political and economic the embargo were put in place. These re- integration is to take place. This goes beyond strictions were placed in an attempt to weak- just conflict resolution but rather moves into en the Castro regime but ultimately, as of conflict transformation where the two parties 2015, the regime is still in power. Since these can be on the path to working together on restrictions have been put into place, some different projects on multiple levels. Under- Cuban citizens have left hoping for a better standing the past and current situations is life in the United States, which is approxi- important in formulating a plan for the future. mately 90 miles from the Cuban coast. In- The relationship between the United States cluded in this group of people seeking op- and Cuba is currently constantly in flux as the portunities beyond Cuban shores are athletes. United States government is trying to forge a Castro had laid out a similar style system to road to integration between the two nations. that of the Soviet Union, whereby sports are It is important to mention that none of the important not only to physical health but to articles that are presented are from the Cu- the power of nation building. Salaries are low ban perspective as most of the articles are but the calling of the ability to make money written in the United States or the western for available skills has enticed some to at- world. As this paper is being written the rela- tempt this path to a better life. For some Cu- tionship is changing and adapting everyday, ban baseball players this seems like the best which is creating more information for fur- path possible to be successful but a slew of ther academic research on the topic. By being regulations stand in their way on the path to able to analyze the above articles it provides being able to play for the MLB. By examining the ability to determine what a possible path these regulations and by analyzing the role to integration could be acceptable to both they play in the lives of athletes, it could be nations. possible to foster a dialogue about possible ways to create integration between athletes in The Complexities of Baseball and United both nations; this step can as well lead to States-Cuba Relations even more possibilities for economic and political integration.27 Baseball is known for being the official pastime of the United States, but it has also As above stated, there are multiple re- played a role in the relationship between the strictions for Cuban baseball players who United States and Cuba. As mentioned previ- wish to play baseball in the United States. ously, baseball became popular in the United These restrictions can be complex and espe- States around the mid to late 1800s and be- cially challenging for Cuban players to navi-

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How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to

Bridge the Strait gate because players are forced to give up tries. their Cuban citizenship and because of a MLB rule that was created in 1977 by Com- Access to Educational Visas missioner Bowie Kuhn, which became known as the “Kuhn Directive,” which bans Education is a strong tool that can be used to any dealings with baseball players in Cuba, help individuals grow in both their social sta- from recruiting, scouting, and signing. tus and culture as well as be a tool to change Whereas players from other countries have a nation. Education can also be used to help the ability to be signed in their home coun- formulate strong bonds and friendships be- try,Cubans are forced to move elsewhere and tween nations. In regards to Cuba, there have assume residency if they wish to play baseball been periods of influx of Cuban and Ameri- in the United States. The other way that play- can academic exchanges, but it is hard to pin- ers can currently play in the MLB is by com- point a steady pattern beyond who is in polit- ing to the United States straight from Cuba ical office in the United States and what their and by joining what is known as the amateur relationship is to Cuba at the current time. draft. Like the diaspora population, defecting Educational tools and visas are looked at in baseball players face similar hardships com- “U.S.-Cuba Academic and Science-Based ing to the United States, such as being smug- Exchanges: Prospects for a Two-Way Street” gled across the 90 mile strait into Florida. 28 by Stephen Johnson, Nicholas R. Lombardo, Solomon’s article discusses some proposals and Sadie May Davis. It also provides readers that have previously been made in order to with some helpful hints on how best to move help the situation of the Cuban baseball play- forward if you wish to host academic confer- ers, which ultimately can have lasting impacts ences or to travel for educational purposes to in both nations. She talks about two possible Cuba, as well as some historical context to strategies, one of which is known as the these endeavors.30 “Baseball Diplomacy Act,” which was created around 1995 but has yet to be enacted. In a way this article is another lens by which This law would allow baseball players to to gain insight into the United States-Cuba come to the United States on a work visa to relationship. “For foreign participants, ex- play baseball. This visa would allow the play- changes in the United States offer an atmos- ers the ability to keep their Cuban citizenship, phere to think and speak freely as well as a bring their salaries back to Cuba, and stay in lens through which to see the United States the country a certain amount of time; howev- in a positive light.”31 This demonstrates what er, this law has yet to be passed due to being was discussed in the article concerning the blocked by the United States Congress. USAID’s idea of democracy building in na- There has also been some lobbying move- tions like Cuba, which is that democracy ment towards a worldwide baseball draft. building is a large part of the United States This would not directly affect Cuban players interests in involvement with other nations.32 because as long as there are heavy restrictions The usage of academic exchanges is not new it would not change their situation. The arti- to these two nations as they have been part- cle also discusses the benefits that would oc- ners in these types of dialogue from the be- cur if these restrictions were lifted.29 These ginning of the United States-Cuba relation- benefits are expanded in the discussion be- ship in a broad sense until today, even in its low on ways that baseball can be beneficial as limited state. The article discusses some of a tool for integration between the two coun- the partnerships that have occurred over time.

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How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to Bridge the Strait

They are able to explain to us the importance that the costs of the passports and visas are of location choice when selecting where the extremely high for the common person’s in- event will be held. The article explains three come, even more so if it is determined that primary locations for such educational events. an interview is needed before being present- Events within the United States, have the ed with a visa. It is important to keep in mind ability to expose Cubans to democracy and the selection process for who you invite to freedoms they cannot access in Cuba the join your academic conference, as it is often main pitfall being that access to the United government or ranking officials that are able States by Cuban citizens is limited based on to attend and that if additional people should various factors. If the event is held in Cuba, be invited it is important to allow that pro- United States citizens could possibly attend cess to be handled by someone or a respect- but freedom of speech and ideas are ex- ed organization on the ground so as to not tremely limited. This leaves the option for a alienate or put any person you may have neutral third country, but removing the dis- wanted to invite in danger.34 Due to these cussions from the countries in question concerns it’s extremely important that plan- makes instilling values of either nation ex- ning is done in advance over a longer period traordinarily more difficult.33 This demon- of time then often necessary for other coun- strates that location ultimately plays a large tries. Johnson et al.’s article provides us with role in possible outcomes for the event. At some background understanding of the im- times, there is also an increase in students portance of educational conferences and the and professors being able to teach in either best practices for such affairs.35 country but for very specific purposes. Integration through Baseball Another roadblock to academic exchanges is the actual access to visas for both Americans Baseball, as mentioned previously, is Ameri- and Cubans. Both have to apply for a visa ca’s pastime and one can argue it has as well and the category of travel that they are apply- become a popular pastime in Cuba. It is im- ing for impacts the ability to receive a visa. In portant to acknowledge that what is pro- the United States there are restrictions on posed here is just a step in a process towards reasons for travel for citizens to Cuba and an integration, since many different dialogues application that must be filled out in advance need to be held by these different interest of travel. All documents must be held onto groups and that policies need to be adjusted for five years by both the traveler and airline to fit the views of the people involved. The if they fly down to Cuba. In this way, there purpose of using baseball is because the play- are two designations of visas known as ers can be considered a group of people who “general licenses” and “specific licenses.” can be beneficial to both nations. Americans “General licenses” are the most typically used love to watch the sport, see new players, and type being that it contains approximately 12 buy lots of merchandise, which benefits different designations such as government teams and ultimately, players. For the United official, humanitarian aid worker, journalist, States to be able to access a market of strong or student just to label a few. In respect to healthy players such as those found in Cuba, Cuban regulations the biggest complication is it can help to revitalize teams and the sport in that Cuba can deny visas for various reasons, general. To Cuba, this creates an even bigger especially if they believe that the citizen may interest in available players, the sport itself, not return to Cuba after being abroad and ability to play in a more global setting, and if

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How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to

Bridge the Strait policies were created with players in mind concerns about the accessibility of visas and remittances could be sent to the nation to travel as a two-way street. Currently there is assist in economic projects to further develop much discussion in the United States about the nation, in areas that may normally be ig- the increase of travel to Cuba; as of this time nored. travel is limited to specific types of travel and is not yet completely open to tourism. The The “Baseball Diplomacy Act” laid out in tool of educational visas can be an important Solomon’s article seems to be the most well way to build up an educated discourse on developed plan for this process, but due to multiple topics, including that of visa accessi- the regime in Cuba change is slow coming bility. Educational exchanges can be impact- from the United States government and var- ful and a strategic tool for cultural under- ies from president to president. The Obama standing and sustainable development; on administration is making headway with their both a people to people level as well as a na- relationship to Cuba but it does not seem as tion to nation level that could possibly breed if baseball is on the table as of yet. By using an opening of dialogue that brings the two baseball as a tool towards integration it can nations together and can build a strong sup- be a talking point where both parties can port network for possible regional integration. benefit by changing the policy that is in place Since there are some channels in place for as of this date.36 This can be formulated by academic travel, it is important to make sure gathering a council in regards to the MLB that the progress that has been made contin- and the creation of new regulations for ues to have strides towards success. As the sports visas between the two nations. This number of participants in each nation tends council should include government officials to fluctuate year to year as one nation may from multiple nations, members of the MLB, allow and the other may decide that it is not a current players from multiple nations such as beneficial usage of funds and time. Due to Cuba, and even if possible some members of this it is important to focus on the im- the diaspora population. This group can meet portance of exchanging academic ideas espe- in Canada if meeting in the United States cially on topics where the U.S. can help to doesn’t seem possible, as Canada has stable forward Cuba development wise and how the relations with both nations that would be the two nations can benefit from sharing ideas. It main members of this exchange. Hopefully, is well known that Cuba has some of the this council ultimately will lead to changes to world’s best healthcare and by studying medi- the sports visa program that can be sustaina- cine together it could create benefits for both ble and a positive step for political and eco- nations. At this time, even though the Castro nomic integration and conflict transfor- regime is still in power, it is important to mation for all parties involved. plant the seed of educational friendship if the Cubans are not ready for democracy building Integration through Educational Visas as a tool of education. It will be best to focus on ways the two nations can work together The term “educational visas” can be pretty and to avoid any sensitive topics. Within the broad as it can be used in discussion as visas confines of the United States it is important to attend school programs, teach, or attend to focus on opening the ability for the dias- academic conferences. Access to visas can be pora to be a part of the educational model as a controversial topic in both the United they have insight on Cuba that others may States and Cuba, since each nation has its not be able to share. It is also important that

Journal of Global Development and Peace 47

How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational and Sports Visas to Bridge the Strait

educational institutions advertise programs It is important to support political and eco- and create interest in Latin American coun- nomic integration in the region because Cuba tries in general in order to open the eyes of is miles off Florida’s shore and a policy of students and to present them with more op- communication can help to support success- portunities to study abroad. Education can es in both nations. Transformation will not be a tool for change and one that should be occur overnight, but overtime step by step nurtured and supported as the nations’ rela- progress can be made to help the region be- tionships change, in order to create an open come more integrated with an open dialogue, line of communication and educated individ- and the opening of dialogue can support uals who can speak expressly on the topic. As changes in policy. abovementioned in relation to baseball players a council of different stakeholders should be created to assist the governments in creating an education plan for the nations togeth- Endnotes er to be used as a goal to reach over time. Educational visas, like the general visas, need 1. BBC. “BBC Time Line between the US and to be more well-known and understood by Cuba.” Last modified on October 11, 2012. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin- interested parties and more access is essential america-12159943. if it will be a mode of political or economic 2. Ibid. integration. 3. Ibid. 4. Lana Wylie, “The Special Case of Cuba.” Inter- Conclusion national Journal (2012): 661-684. 5. Ibid. 679-670. The relationship between the United States 6. Ibid. 672. 7. Nigel D. White. “The Normalization of the US and Cuba is at a crossroad, and it has become -Cuba Relations: The Easing of the Embargo a large topic for the media and something and the Role of International Law.” Presented people across the globe seem to gravitate to- at the Universita Roma February 2015: 1-9. wards as a story of a nation surviving a 8. Ibid. 4. blockade, but there is much more to this rela- 9. Ibid. 7. tionship and much more to the story then 10. Ibid. 1-9. what is portrayed by the media. As dialogue 11. Ibid. 9. 12. Rachel Solomon. “Cuban Baseball Players, The between the two nations opens to discuss Unlucky Ones: United States-Cuban Profes- conflict resolution that links to the embargo sional Baseball Relations Should be an Integral and other restrictions, it is important to sup- Part of the United States-Cuba Relationship.” port an effort towards conflict transfor- Journal of International Business Law (2011): 1-30. mation as a way to bring about a strong sup- 13. Chris Girard et al. “The Declining Symbolic portive relationship between the two nations. Significance of the Embargo for South Flori- By interacting with multiple populations and da’s Cuban Americans.” Latino Studies (2010): 4 -22. policies it is important that as many voices 14. Rachel Solomon. “Cuban Baseball Players, The are heard as possible to make an adaptable Unlucky Ones: United States-Cuban Profes- process that meets the needs and wants of sional Baseball Relations Should be an Integral the masses. While this paper primarily focus- Part of the United States-Cuba Relationship.” es on baseball players and access to educa- Journal of International Business Law (2011): 2. tional visas, it and others like it can be the 15. Ibid. 1-30. opening of dialogue on the exchange of ideas. 16. Ibid. 17. Chris Girard et al. “The Declining Symbolic

48 Journal of Global Development and Peace

How to Foster Open Dialogue between Cuba and the United States: The Usage of Educational andCase Sports Not Visas Closed to

Bridge the Strait

Significance of the Embargo for South Flori-  Firchow, Pamina. 2013. "A Cuban da’s Cuban Americans.” Latino Studies (2010): 4 Spring? The Use of the Internet as a Tool -22. of Democracy Promotion by United 18. Ibid. 4. 19. Ibid. 4-22. States Agency for International Develop- 20. Lana Wylie, “The Special Case of Cuba.” Inter- ment in Cub." Information Technology for national Journal (2012): 668. Development 347-356. 21. Pamela Firchow. “A Cuban Spring? The Use of the Internet as a Tool of Democracy Promo-  Girard, Chris, Guillermo J Grenier, and tion by United States Agency for International Hugh Gladwin. 2010. "The Declining Development in Cuba.” Information Technology for Symbolic Significance of the Embargo Development (2013): 347-356. 22. Ibid. 347. for South Florida's Cuban Americans." 23. Ibid. 347-356. Latino Studies 4-22. 24. Ibid. 350. 25. Ibid. 347-356.  Johnson, Stephen, Nicholas R Lombardo, 26. Ibid. 354. and Sadie May Davis. 2012. "U.S.-Cuba 27. Rachel Solomon. “Cuban Baseball Players, The Academic and Science-Based Exchang- Unlucky Ones: United States-Cuban Profes- es." A Report of the CSIS Americas Program sional Baseball Relations Should be an Integral Part of the United States-Cuba Relationship.” 1-20. Journal of International Business Law (2011): 1-30. 28. Ibid.  Solomon, Rachel. 2011. "Cuban Baseball 29. Ibid. Players, The Unlucky Ones: United 30. Stephen Johnson et. al. “US-Cuba Academic States-Cuban Professional Baseball Rela- and Science-Based Exchanges.” A Report of the tions should be an Intergal Part of the CSIS Americas Program (2012): 1-20 United States-Cuba Relationship." Journal 31. Ibid. 2. 32. Pamela Firchow. “A Cuban Spring? The Use of of International Busniess Law 1-30. the Internet as a Tool of Democracy Promo- tion by United States Agency for International  White, Nigel D. 2015. "The Normaliza- Development in Cuba.” Information Technology for tion of US-Cuba Relations: The Easing Development (2013): 347-356. of the Embargo and the Role of Interna- 33. Stephen Johnson et. al. “US-Cuba Academic tional Law." Universita Roma. Rome. 1-9. and Science-Based Exchanges.” A Report of the CSIS Americas Program (2012): 14-15  34. Ibid. Wylie, Lana. 2012. "The Special Case of 35. Ibid. Cuba." International Journal 661-684. 36. Rachel Solomon. “Cuban Baseball Players, The Unlucky Ones: United States-Cuban Profes- sional Baseball Relations Should be an Integral Part of the United States-Cuba Relationship.” Journal of International Business Law (2011): 1-30.

References

 BBC Time Line between US and Cuba. Octo- ber 11, 2012. Accessed 2015. http:// www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america -12159943.

Journal of Global Development and Peace 49

Japan’s Taiwan Problem: Taiwan as a Complicating Factor in Sino-Japanese Relations

Japan’s Taiwan Problem: Taiwan as a Complicating Factor in Sino- Japanese Relations

Tobias Yasutake

Abstract

Taiwan’s unique situation creates an apparently unsolvable security situation between countries that need to be partners: a situation where the best action seems to be to do nothing. Sino-Japanese relations are currently shaky at best. Disputes over territory and insults (whether real or perceived) over unresolved issues from World War II disrupt what is an essential relationship for stability in the region. Things are only complicated more by the presence of Taiwan. Historically, the issue of Taiwan has always been a vitally important playing piece between China and the United States, but Japan also seems to have a vested interest in Taiwan. This connection with Taiwan has the potential to negatively impact Sino- Japanese relations. In the event of a Taiwanese crisis, Japan’s relation with China could be pushed over the edge: a situation that would not favor anyone. Therefore, there will proba- bly be no conflict, but tensions are constantly high. This paper looks at the relations between China, Japan, and Taiwan, each to each, with an emphasis on Taiwan’s potential to deteriorate Sino-Japanese relations.

Biography

Tobias Yasutake is a graduate student at the University of Bridgeport. Born in Hawaii to a German mother and a Japanese American father, he is always interested in the many different sides and perspectives of differing cultures. A writer of both fiction and non-fiction, and an enthusiast of history, culture, religion, philosophy, and game design, he is currently studying in the Master of Arts in East Asian and Pacific Rim Studies Program.

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Japan’s Taiwan Problem: Taiwan as a Complicating Factor in Sino-Japanese Relations

Introduction Therefore, when examining the issue of Tai- wan, it is not only necessary to examine Tai- Taiwan is a strange and unique country politi- wan’s role in potentially disrupting the rela- cally. It has been the catalyst for numerous tionship between China and the United tense moments and has been thought of and States, but also its possible disruption of Sino debated about a great deal. This is because it -Japanese relations. This paper intends to has played the role of an important and con- analyze the Taiwan issue and look at how it troversial issue between the United States relates to the already complex situation sur- and China. In brief, the United States is allied rounding China and Japan. Not mentioning and supports Taiwan. China (meaning the the United States is practically impossible PRC, People’s Republic of China) has had when discussing Taiwan’ however, the focus issues with Taiwan ever since, during the of this paper is on the triangle of Japan, Tai- Chinese Civil War, Chiang Kai-shek (the wan, and China. Is Taiwan important to Ja- leader of the Republic of China: Chinese Na- pan, or is an improved Japanese relationship tionalist side) was driven from the mainland with Taiwan something that Japan cannot get and retreated onto the island of Formosa, out of that harms Japan’s relationship with which was renamed Taiwan. When the Unit- China? ed States and China normalized relations in the 1970s, the issue of Taiwan created com- Current Sino-Japanese Relations plications and was never resolved. Sino-Japanese relations are a complex and While technically Taiwan’s only ally is the tense subject. Historically, China was always United States,1 Taiwan has numerous posi- the dominant power in Asia, and the other tive relationships with countries around the nations, including Japan, paid respect to Chi- world. One of the greatest and most im- na and were deeply affected by Chinese cul- portant to Taiwan is Japan. However, this ture. Since the start of the Century of Humil- friendship between Taiwan and Japan, like iation (a hundred year period of China being the friendship between Taiwan and the Unit- defeated starting with the opium wars in ed States, may cause trouble between Japan 1839 and ending with the PRC seizing con- and China. Until recently Japan was the trol of mainland China in 19495), Chinese world’s second largest economy, only behind decline and Japanese growth changed that the United States, but in 2010 China over- relationship, but now China sees itself as re- took Japan in terms of GDP.2 Since then, the turning to its “rightful” position. A rising gap has only widened. The two counties are China naturally worries Japan, who was the both economic powerhouses whose shadows dominant power in the region for much of are cast over the entire region. The relation- the century since the Meiji Reformation.6 ship between these two ‘giants’ of Asia is a Currently, Japan is having plenty of problems subject that is very important when consider- with China even without the “help” of Tai- ing economic growth in the entire region.3 In wan. In 2014, the BBC released their World his article Chinese Relations with Japan, Deng Service Poll. The BBC found that no country states, “Sino-Japanese relations take on an hated Japan more than China, and no coun- importance in Asian affairs at least compara- try hated China more than Japan.7 Sino- ble to that of Franco-German relations in Japanese relations have suffered in recent determining European affairs.”4 years over a number of issues. Old wounds surrounding actions done by the Japanese

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Japan’s Taiwan Problem: Taiwan as a Complicating Factor in Sino-Japanese Relations

sometimes flare up. States. In 1949 Chiang Kai-shek and his nationalist followers fled from mainland China These can take the form of visits by Japanese to Formosa, which was then renamed to Tai- officials to the Yasukuni Shrine honoring wan. While I refer to Taiwan, it is technically Japanese war heroes, including some who did known as the Republic of China (ROC). To- wartime atrocities to Chinese,8 or in the form day, Taiwan does not actually consider itself of the Japanese editing school textbooks to the rightful ruler of China, but for Chiang reduce the severity of their World War II ac- Kai-shek’s reign, the ROC considered itself tions.9 Another example of an issue is the the rightful government of China in exile, dispute between China and Japan over the and the divide between the ROC and PRC to Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands. The anti-Japanese be temporary. sentiment grew so great over this issue that in 2012 some protestors demanded that the The Communist PRC tried to align itself with Chinese government go to war with Japan,10 Soviet Russia during the Cold War, but after and Japanese businesses lost approximately a time it began to move away from the $120 million in property damage due to van- U.S.S.R. In 1972, President Nixon shocked dalizing and looting.11 the world by normalizing relations with the Chinese.14 This was the beginning of the in- The post war relationship between Japan and tractable issue of Taiwan between the United China has not always been so terrible despite States and China. In 1979, President Jimmy the fact that many of the problems surround- Carter ended U.S. recognition of Taiwan in ing modern Sino-Japanese relations relate to favor of China, but the United States Con- actions done during World War II. For ex- gress passed the Taiwan Relations Act, where ample, after the Tiananmen Massacre in 1989, the United States still protected Taiwan Japan was the first country to re-establish against Chinese attack and supplied Taiwan diplomatic ties with China.12 While fears of a with weapons for its defense.15 Chinese rise creates a lot of natural tension, and nationalistic tendencies13 in both coun- The support of the United States for Taiwan tries are not helping, Japan and China are could easily be considered the biggest stick- trying to rebuild their relationship. The two ing point in the relationship between the countries are tied together very strongly eco- United States and China. It was an unre- nomically, and this makes it in both of their solved issue then and it remains so now. De- interest to work together. Also, any overt ac- spite the fact that the United States officially tion that the Chinese may make against the does not recognize Taiwan, the United States Japanese will upset the United States and has shown that it is willing to defend it in spell bad news for practically everyone in the truth and not just on paper. region. The US' pivotal role was most clearly shown A History of Taiwan and Current Cross- in 1996, when China conducted provocative Strait Relations missile tests to try and influence Taiwan's first direct presidential election. In response, Despite the fact that this paper is focusing on US President Bill Clinton ordered the biggest Japan’s connection with Taiwan, it is impos- display of US military power in Asia since the sible to discuss Taiwan’s current history with- Vietnam War, sending ships to the Taiwan out understanding the context of both its Strait, and a clear message to Beijing.16 history with mainland China and the United

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Japan’s Taiwan Problem: Taiwan as a Complicating Factor in Sino-Japanese Relations

Both sides are unwilling to back down, and issue in its relations with Washington. The yet conflict would be disastrous for both issue has existential importance for China sides, and therefore the issue has remained in because control of Taiwan is essential to Chi- a strange undetermined nebulous state for nese security. To Chinese policymakers, the over thirty five years. crux of the “Taiwan problem” has never been Taiwan’s separation from the mainland Why is this such an important issue for both as such, but the U.S. role in perpetuating that countries? It was surprisingly difficult to re- separation.”18 search reasons for why the United States is so adamant in its defense of Taiwan. The re- Realpolitik means looking at a situation based sources I found didn’t even address the issue, not on ideology or rhetoric, but rather in and only talked about why Taiwan was so terms of practical and material factors. Au- important to China,17 and besides, a fully in- thor Thomas J. Christensen analyzes Chinese depth reason is both moot and beyond the foreign policy with a realpolitik mindset, but scope of this paper. The following therefore finds that it is inadequate to explain China’s is speculation. emphasis on Taiwan. The Chinese seem to absolutely refuse to allow the Republic of There are two points of view: an optimistic China to change its name to the Republic of one and a pessimistic one. The United States Taiwan, even though Taiwanese independ- has stated over and over again that they are ence is currently de facto: only non-existent interested in a peaceful resolution to the Tai- legally. Why would China “risk damage to its wan situation, and so the optimistic view is economy and war with the world’s only su- that the United States’s position is good for perpower” just to prevent a country from its image as a global peacemaker. The United changing its name? Christensen argues thusly: States is protecting democracy and freedom Preventing Taiwan's independence would be from the military actions of a Communist important to any Chinese regime, but it is a country and simply has continued to do even critical nationalist issue for the Chinese Com- after becoming close to China in a post-Cold munist Party government. The party has, by War environment. However, Taiwan does way of market reforms, all but obliterated the not look like it wants to peacefully rejoin second of the two adjectives in its name. Al- China, and China views a declaration of inde- most no influential figure in Chinese govern- pendence on Taiwan’s part as unacceptable. ment or society believes in communism any- The pessimistic realpolitik view therefore more, and that has created a vacuum that would be that the United States is using Tai- nationalism, always a strong element in the wan as a playing piece in order to suppress party's legitimacy, is filling. As many analysts China’s power and also as an excuse to main- have noted, nationalism is the sole ideological tain a military presence in the region. Neither glue that holds the People's Republic togeth- of these explanations is entirely satisfactory. er and keeps the CCP government in power. The reasons why China is so adamant on the Since the Chinese Communist Party is no Taiwan issue is more documented and clear. longer communist, it must be even more Chi- Its importance is difficult to overstate. One nese. And… could even say that it is the most important aspect of their most important relationship. Chinese leaders will go to extraordinary As authors Nathan and Scobell say in their lengths to prevent Taiwan's independence in book China’s Search for Security, “The PRC has part because they fear a national breakup. always labeled Taiwan as its highest-priority Chinese analysts believe that national integri-

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Japan’s Taiwan Problem: Taiwan as a Complicating Factor in Sino-Japanese Relations

ty would be threatened by an uncontested 1995 was the nature of the rivalry. The rivalry declaration of Taiwanese independence, es- had shifted from a contest for control of pecially because of the decades of propagan- Chinese territory to a competition for control da about Taiwan's unbreakable links to the of China’s identity.21 motherland. They subscribe to a domestic domino theory in which the loss of one piece This makes an unequal and strange rivalry of sovereign territory will encourage sepa- between these two countries. When China ratists elsewhere and hurt morale among the engages in trade with other countries around Chinese forces who must defend national the world, one of the few conditions that unity. Their most notable concerns are with China demands is that these foreign powers traditionally non-Han regions such as Tibet, recognize that there is only one China: the Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia.19 PRC. China’s clout is so much greater than Taiwan’s that most of the countries that So one reason that the CCP are willing to haven’t recognized the one China are small accept a de facto Taiwanese independence so South and Central American countries. With- long as it does not become a legal independ- out Taiwan being a military threat, China has ence is because they fear that legal independ- still installed 600 missiles pointed at Taiwan. ence will cause their authority over other re- Yet despite the strength that mainland China gions of mainland China to deteriorate. The holds over Taiwan, Taiwan has the backing step towards de jure independence is an im- (if not the recognition) of the world’s only portant one, because if Taiwan becomes its superpower, and even though there is tension own country then it can get a seat in the UN between the two, that somehow does not and be impossible for China to ever reclaim. stop a large amount of economic interde- The narrative that the Communist Party has pendence.22 Indeed, China is Taiwan’s big- stated about Taiwan makes this an essential gest importer, more than doubling the Unit- issue. Above, Christensen very bluntly makes ed States.23 the point that the CCP can hardly be considered “really” Communist anymore. One of While the two are so different in size and the arguments of the original CCP was that power, somehow they are at odds. While they they and they alone could unite China and are at odds, they still somehow are inter- save it from its century of humiliation. The twined. The current state of affairs really has existence and persistence of Taiwan disrupts only one outcome that can satisfy everyone: this narrative. Despite the fact that mainland maintaining the status quo. Anything else China is vastly greater in terms of political, means a huge upset on everyone’s part. And economic, and military capabilities, Taiwan so Taiwan remains as it is. shows that Chinese can democratize.20 Current Japanese Taiwanese Relations The democratic outcomes in Taiwan are manifestations of the evolution of a distinct Japan and Taiwan share a common ally: the cultural and political identity for the inhabit- United States. The United States is willing to ants of the island. The result of the appear- step in for the defense of both countries if ance of a Taiwanese identity as distinct from needed. This arraignment started post-World a mainland Chinese one was a game changer. War II, strengthened during the Cold War, While the cross‐strait rivalry was clearly not and remains so today. Both Japan and Tai- new—Beijing and Taipei had been rival re- wan have some shared needs that are ad- gimes since 1949—what had changed by dressed by their alliance with the United

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Japan’s Taiwan Problem: Taiwan as a Complicating Factor in Sino-Japanese Relations

States, in particular a fear of a rising China. Taiwanese Independence.26 Regardless, there However, Taiwan and Japan have a stronger has been a strong pro-Japanese force inside tie than simply strategic concerns. of Taiwan despite the previous colonial relationship. The relationship between Japan and Taiwan really begins with the end of the Sino- Post-World War II, Japan stood back onto its Japanese war in 1895, when Taiwan became a own feet and made some connections with colony of Japan.24 It remained a colony of Taiwan, who, after all, was their natural ally Japan for fifty years. Ten years later, Korea against a Communist China. But in 1972, also became a colony of Japan, but strangely “Nixon shock” racked Japan. President Rich- there are many issues today between Korea ard Nixon reached out a friendly hand to the and Japan over the old Japanese imperial col- CCP without informing the Japanese that onization that are not nearly as big of a prob- they planned to. As SOEYA writes, “The lem for Taiwan. Why Korea has serious Japanese ambassador to Washington, Ushiba problems with historical issues with Japan Nobuhiko, was informed of Nixon’s an- but Taiwan does not is a topic for another nouncement less than an hour before, and paper, but I offer a single point on that is the Japanese Prime Minister, Sato Eisaku, is relevant for this paper. There was Japanese said to have learned of it only a few minutes exploitation of Taiwan during their rule, but before.”27 The Japanese strategy to cope with the Japanese divided Taiwan into two groups: a dramatic change in the political situation the privileged rich and the oppressed poor. was to become friends with China. The rich were given educational opportunities and could keep the land that they already However, even though the Japanese recog- owned, and steps were taken to make them nized the PRC as the sole ruler of China, they Japanese. This made a “weak hegemony” by maintained relationships of all kinds except making those in power in Taiwan wish to diplomatic recognition with Taiwan.28 This become “sub-Japanese.” became a common strategy used by other countries including the United States. The Attracted by the industrial modernity and involvement between Japan and Taiwan only ‘Westernization’ of Japanese culture, many increased over time, despite the change in Taiwanese intellectuals embraced Japaniza- Sino-Japanese relations. While interacting tion to some degree. Yet according to the and increasing trade with China, Japan still authors, “What developed under Japanese involved itself with Taiwan until its relation- rule was not a simple relationship of oppres- ship reached what could easily be termed sive subjugator and the resisting subjugated, “unofficial in name only.”29 This policy has but rather a struggle by the Taiwanese people worked well for Japanese interest. It has let to form a Taiwanese identity while intention- Japan reap economic rewards as well as pla- ally assimilating the Japanese ideology im- cating China, which is Japan’s biggest military posed on them.”25 threat. At the same time it has kept the benefits of interacting with Taiwan.30 These bene- An example ripple effect of this was Lee fits are not small: Japanese trade with Taiwan Teng-hui, Taiwanese elected President from increased from $27 billion from 1990 to $64 1988 to 2000. Lee was born under the Japa- billion in 2006.31 Once again we see that the nese rule in Taiwan in 1923, he was educated strategy that works best is to not disrupt the in Japan and speaks fluent Japanese, and un- status quo. If Taiwan goes one way or anoth- der his term he was very pro-Japan and pro- er, either de jure independent or else claimed

Journal of Global Development and Peace 55

Japan’s Taiwan Problem: Taiwan as a Complicating Factor in Sino-Japanese Relations

fully by China, Japan will be forced to choose friendship with Japan, and at the same time between two sides, something which does stir conflict in Sino-Japanese relations. Not not benefit it. enough to destabilize everything, but enough The reasons why Taiwan wishes to have to try and deter strong Sino-Japanese rela- good relations with Japan are simple tions. The Taiwan situation is maintained (although there is the question on why their with all parties winning (or at least not losing relationship did not suffer despite coloniza- horribly) so long as it balanced properly with tion). Given the enormous discrepancy of the status quo maintained. This is why a crisis strength between Taiwan and China, Taiwan has not happened yet: it isn’t in the interests needs all of the friends it can get. Japan is of any of the players involved. But a bad mis- also allied with the United States, and with- take could turn the Taiwan problem into a out Japanese cooperation, a U.S. defense of flash point.34 The balance can be difficult and Taiwan would be much more difficult. Also, delicate, and even if it does not spill over into during Japanese occupation of Taiwan, the war, the Taiwan problem causes upsets. Lee Taiwanese benefited from the advanced in- Teng-hui, the pro-Japanese Chairman men- dustrialization of Japan, letting Taiwan have tioned earlier, is one such example. Lee was the edge over China post-World War II.32 Chairman of the KMT party (Kuomintang, Why, though, is Japan interested in being al- also commonly called Nationalist party) of lies with Taiwan? Like answering the United Taiwan. After the end of his term in office States’ interest in Taiwan, this is a harder and during the Democratic Progressive Par- question to answer. Reasons include their ty’s (DPP) rule, Lee asked for a visa to visit shared history, common values (such as capi- Japan, which was granted. Despite the fact talism, democracy, and a liking for Japanese that Lee’s visit was not political in nature (he Pop), their close economic ties, their net- was visiting for medical treatments), China works contacts amongst politicos of the reacted badly. Lee’s visit just so happened to countries despite the fact that there are no coincide while Sino-Japanese relations were official diplomatic ties, and their shared stra- being tested over Japanese revisions of his- tegic concerns.33 torical textbooks for high school, as well as a dispute over agricultural trade.35 Many of these reasons merely reinforce the relationship, not cause it. They came about But why would Japan support an unneeded after close ties between Japan and Taiwan action of a former head of state if it could were already established, which most likely damage the relationship with its biggest trad- happened during colonization. However, the ing partner and largest potential threat? One reason of shared strategic concerns is some- possible reason was that it was an intentional thing that is constant. Taiwan could be seen ploy by Lee to divide China and Japan. How- as something that slows the rise and power ever, that is speculation. A more solid of China, and if the United States and Japan (though not mutually exclusive) reason is be- support Taiwan in order to curb Chinese ad- cause of the force of pro-Taiwanese senti- vance, Taiwan is going to take advantage of ment in Japan immediately before an election. the situation as far as it can. Though Lee’s condition was routine and Another reason why Japan could have a treatment could have been performed else- strong relation with Taiwan is because of ac- where, his application came just as the Liber- tions taken on the part of Taiwan. It is abso- al Democratic Party (LDP) held intraparty lutely essential to Taiwan to have Japanese elections to determine the LDP’s president, support, so the Taiwanese try to broker and thus the country’s next prime minister.

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Japan’s Taiwan Problem: Taiwan as a Complicating Factor in Sino-Japanese Relations

All of the candidates aggressively affirmed of cross-Strait relations and the integral bene- their support for Lee’s visit and all of the ma- fit of the Chinese nation, and will surely be jor newspapers editorialized on his behalf. scorned by compatriots from both sides. Eventually the Ministry of Foreign Affairs And… found no choice but to issue a visa on “humanitarian” grounds. Lee’s putatively pri- Although Tokyo is unlikely to take actions vate and nonpolitical visit garnered saturation that will cause serious harm to its important coverage from the Japanese news media.36 relationship with China, there is nevertheless Another example of Taiwan’s spoiling of re- a high likelihood that Japan will increase its lations with China is the Chinese “three nos.” cooperation with Taiwan and provide the The “three nos” were “no support for two necessary moral support to the DPP Chinas, no support for Taiwan’s independ- [Democratic Progressive Party]. Although ence, and no support for Taiwan’s represen- military-to-military relations between Taiwan tation in international organisations.”37 While and Japan have been good, albeit quietly so, the Japanese did agree to the first two, they in recent years, they would conceivably ex- said nothing on the third point. As PENG- pand under a DPP administration that, much ER writes, “Japan’s refusal to bend to PRC like a large segment of the Taiwanese public, pressure to endorse the Three Nos during has never hidden its deep affinity toward Ja- the 1998 visit of Jiang Zemin to Japan can be pan. Nor is this a recent thing. In 2008, the interpreted as another instance of Taiwan KMT party found victory, and many ex- succeeding in securing Japanese sympathy pected that the Taiwanese government would and support.”38 move away from Japan and closer towards China because the KMT party of that year In 2015, Lee once again visited Japan. Just was different from Lee Teng-hui, but it did like his previous visit, his mere presence put not happen. Instead, Japan and Taiwan Japan into a situation where they would have seemed to get even closer. For example, Ja- to decide between their Taiwanese ties and pan signed agreements letting Taiwanese their Chinese ties. From the article “Better fishermen fish around the Senkaku islands, Get Used to it, China: Taiwan and Japan Will which is something rather remarkable consid- Get Closer”:39 Despite applying considerable ering the situation surrounding the islands.40 pressure on Tokyo in recent weeks, Beijing was unable to prevent the Japanese govern- Conclusion ment from rolling out the red carpet for former Taiwanese President Lee Teng-hui last While it is not the only factor (or even the week. And… main factor) in disruptions in Sino-Japanese relations, Taiwan represents a problem that Ma Xiaoguang, a spokesman for the State needs to be sensitively handled on all sides. Council’s Taiwan Affairs Office, said Beijing Until the Taiwan issue is solved, there will be “strongly oppose[s] any country providing a complexities surrounding it that will make stage for ‘Taiwan independence’ activities, headline news. This may be in the interest of and take strong umbrage at Japan allowing Taiwan, as it inflates the importance of such Lee to visit.” a relatively small island to the point where Ma continued: “Lee’s contemptible acts have policy makers in several countries, including made compatriots from both sides see more the world’s most powerful country, spend a clearly the extreme harms ‘Taiwan independ- great deal of time analyzing and considering ence’ forces do to the peaceful development the situation from every possible angle. How-

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ever, even though Taiwan did not necessarily the event of a crisis. A third strategy would choose the position, it still is a dangerous be to try and mediate the cros-strait relation. game that could blow up in Taiwan’s face, The official U.S. stance is interest in a peace- and the faces of everyone else involved. On ful resolution to the Taiwan issue, and a ways to solve the Taiwan problem, there is peaceful resolution would remove the danger no simple solution. It is a delicate knot more of crisis and the balance of being between complex than the proverbial Gordian Knot two opposing sides. However, I don’t believe ever could be. As stated several times that Japan is currently in a position to do this. throughout this paper, what seems to be the First they must improve their relationship best policy is to accept Taiwan’s current de with China, a prospect that looks difficult as facto independence while a one China policy both sides are currently becoming more and is maintained. more nationalistic.

For Taiwan, it is still too early to see clearly if Although it is principally a danger to the rela- the newly elected Taiwanese President Tsai tionship between China and the United Ing-wen will maintain the status quo or push States, it is still important to look at Sino- for Taiwanese independence. Testing if Chi- Japan relations as this will most likely define na is bluffing is a dangerous game to play, the economic growth in the region, and it is and it seems like what there is to gain is so important to understand the relationships of much less than what there is to lose, especial- all the countries involved in this tangled web ly because the stability of cross-strait rela- of political entrapments. The key to the Tai- tions is important for stability in the entire wan issue on all sides is to not tip over every- region. For China, maintaining the status quo thing and to move carefully and slowly, hop- also seems to be their intent. The Chinese are ing that the complex situation does not be- nothing if not patient. Problems can all be come a crisis point in which things spiral out settled in enough time. As a recent news arti- of control. cle says: Endnotes: Rushing the matter would risk pushing over the carefully balanced architecture of cross- 1. 1 "Taiwan Flashpoint," BBC News, accessed strait relations, while punitive measures December 2, 2015, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/ shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/04/taiwan_flashpoint/ against the Taiwanese for the democratic html/us_role.stm. choices they make would result in the very 2. 2 "China Overtakes Japan as World's Second- opposite of what Beijing has sought to ac- biggest Economy," BBC News. February 14, complish over the years – to win the hearts 2011, accessed December 3, 2015, http:// and minds of Taiwanese by convincing them www.bbc.com/news/business-12427321. that a future with China is in their best inter- 3. 3 Sheila A. Smith, “Japan-China Relations: est.41 Three Things to Know,” Council of Foreign Rela- tions, last modified November 18, 2014, ac- To reduce the tension in Sino-Japanese rela- cessed November 20, 2015, http:// tions, Japan should always consider the im- www.cfr.org/asia-and-pacific/japan-china- pact on China in their dealings with Taiwan. relations-three-things-know/p33807. The internal political situation might make 4. 4 DENG Yong, “Chinese Relations with Japan: this difficult at times. Another strategy might Implications for Asia-Pacific Regionalism,” be to distance Japan from Taiwan. The dan- Pacific Affairs 70, no. 3 (1997): 373, http:// ger with Japan’s relation with Taiwan is in- www.jstor.org/stable/2761028. 5. 5 Alison Adcock Kaufman, "The “Century of creasing tensions and a split of interests in Humiliation,” Then and Now: Chinese Percep-

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tions of the International Order," Pacific Focus 19. 19 Thomas J. Christensen, "Chinese Realpoli- 25, no. 1 (2010): 2. tik," Foreign Affairs 75 (1996): 46 6. 6 Ibid., 5. 20. 20 Andrew Scobell, "China and Taiwan: Bal- 7. 7 “Negative views of Russia on the Rise: Glob- ance of Rivalry with Weapons of Mass Democ- al Poll,” BBC World Service Poll, June 2014, p. 22, ratization," Political Science Quarterly 129 (2014): accessed May 4, 2015, http:// 450. downloads.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/country- 21. 21 Ibid., 451. rating-poll.pdf. 22. 22 Dick K. Nanto and Emma Chanlett-Avery, 8. 8 HIGURASHI Yoshinobu, “Yasukuni and the "The Effect of the Rise of China on Taiwan, Enshrinement of WarCriminals,” Nippon.com, Japan, and South Korea," Problems of Post- November 23, 2013, accessed March 5, 2015, Communism 53 (2006): 36. http://www.nippon.com/en/in-depth/ 23. 23 "Taiwan's Top Import Partners," World’s a02404/. Top Exports. November 18, 2015, accessed 9. 9 Mark Selden and Yoshiko Nozaki, "Japanese December 4, 2015, http:// Textbook Controversies, Nationalism, and His- www.worldstopexports.com/taiwans-top- torical Memory: Intra- and Inter-national Con- import-partners/2613. flicts," The Asia-Pacific Journal 7 (2009): http:// 24. 24 "Administration of Taiwan in Recent Centu- www.japanfocus.org/-Mark-Selden/3173/ ries: The Ch’ing period," Taiwan Provincial Gov- article.html. ernment, accessed December 5, 201, http:// 10. 10 Leo Lewis, “Chinese protesters demand war subtpg.tpg.gov.tw/Eng2/history/history-e- with Japan over disputed islands,” The Times, 2_3.htm. September 16, 2012, accessed May 7, 2015. 25. 25 Review of Taiwan Under Japanese Colonial Rule, 11. 11 Richard Katz, “Mutual Assured Production: 1895-1945: History, Culture, Memory by Liao Ping Why Trade Will Limit Conflict Between China -hui and David Der-wei Wang, Taipei Eco- and Japan,” Foreign Affairs 92 (2013): https:// nomic and Cultural Office in New York, Feb- www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2013- ruary 2008, http://www.taiwanembassy.org/ 06-11/mutual-assured-production. US/NYC/ct.asp? 12. 12 ZHU Zhiqun, “People-to-People Diploma- mp=62&CtNode=3642&xItem=51563. cy in China-Japan Relations,” The Diplomat, 26. 26 ZHA Daojiong, "The Taiwan Problem in March 17, 2015, accessed May 4, 2015, http:// Japan-China Relations: An Irritant or Destroy- thediplomat.com/2015/03/people-to-people- er?" East Asia 19 (2001): 210, doi:10.1007/ diplomacy-in-china-japan-relations/. s12140-001-0007-z 13. 13 Peter Hays Gries, “China’s “New Thinking” 27. 27 SOEYA, “Taiwan in Japan's Security Con- on Japan,” The China Quarterly 184 (2005): 848, siderations,” 138. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20192541. 28. 28 ZHA, "The Taiwan Problem in Japan-China 14. 14SOEYA Yoshihide, “Taiwan in Japan's Secu- Relations," 206. rity Considerations,” The China Quarterly 165 29. 29 SUN Jing, "Japan-Taiwan Relations: Unoffi- (2001): 131, http://www.jstor.org/ cial in Name Only," Asian Survey 47 (2007): 791, stable/3451109. doi:10.1525/as.2007.47.5.790. 15. 15 Andrew J. Nathan and Andrew Scobell, 30. 30 Qingxin Ken WANG, "Taiwan in Japan's "Chapter 4: Deciphering the U.S. Threat," In Relations with China and the United States China's Search for Security (New York: Columbia after the Cold War," Pacific Affairs 73 (2000): University Press, 2012), 103. 365. 16. 16 Taiwan Flashpoint," BBC News, accessed 31. 31 Brian Bridges and Che-Po Chan, "Looking December 2, 2015, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/ North: Taiwan's Relations with Japan under shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/04/taiwan_flashpoint/ Chen Shui-bian," Pacific Affairs 84 (2008): 586. html/us_role.stm. 32. 32 Review of Taiwan Under Japanese Colonial Rule. 17. 17 "Why the Taiwan Issue is so Dangerous," 33. 33 Lam PENG-ER, "Japan-Taiwan Relations: PBS, accessed December 4, 2015, http:// Between Affinity and Reality," Asian Affairs: www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ An American Review 30 (2004): 253-254. china/experts/taiwan.html. 34. 34 "Why the Taiwan Issue is so Dangerous," 18. 18 Nathan and Scobell, China's Search for Security, PBS, accessed December 4, 2015, http:// 100. www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/

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china/experts/taiwan.html. Taiwan Strait." South China Morning Post. 35. 35 ZHA, "The Taiwan Problem in Japan-China March 16, 2016. Accessed March 16, Relations," 211. 2016. http://www.scmp.com/comment/ 36. 36 Gregory W. Nobel, “What Can Taiwan (and the United States) Expect from Japan?” Journal insight-opinion/article/1925770/why- of East Asian Studies 5, no. 1 (2005): 2-3. beijing-has-no-desire-turn-screw-tsai-ing- 37. 37 Qingxin Ken WANG, "Taiwan in Japan's wen-and. Relations with China and the United States  Deng, Yong. “Chinese Relations with after the Cold War,” 368. Japan: Implications for Asia-Pacific Re- 38. 38 Lam PENG-ER, "Japan-Taiwan Relations," gionalism.” Pacific Affairs 70 (1997): 373- 260. 391. http://www.jstor.org/ 39. 39 J. Michael Cole, "Better Get Used to It, Chi- na: Taiwan and Japan Will Get Closer," The stable/2761028. Diplomat, July 30, 2015, accessed December 5,  Gries, Peter Hays. “China’s “New Think- 2015, http://thediplomat.com/2015/07/better ing” on Japan.” The China Quarterly 184 -get-used-to-it-china-taiwan-and-japan-will-get- (2005): 831-850. http://www.jstor.org/ closer/. stable/20192541. 40. 40 Michal Thim and Misato Matsuoka, "The  Higurashi, Yoshinobu. “Yasukuni and Odd Couple: Japan & Taiwan's Unlikely the Enshrinement of WarCriminals.” Friendship," The Diplomat, May 15, 2014, accessed December 5, 2015. http:// Nippon.com, November 23, 2013, accessed thediplomat.com/2014/05/the-odd-couple- March 5, 2015, http:// japan-taiwans-unlikely-friendship//. www.nippon.com/en/in-depth/a02404/. 41. 41 Cole, J. Michael, "Why Beijing Has No De-  Kaufman, Alison Adcock. ““The sire to Turn the Screw on Tsai Ing-wen and “Century of Humiliation,” Then and Threaten Stability across the Taiwan Strait," Now: Chinese Perceptions of the Inter- South China Morning Post, March 16, 2016, national Order." Pacific Focus 25, (2010): 1 accessed March 16, 2016, http:// www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/ - 33. Doi: 10.1111/j.1976 - article/1925770/why-beijing-has-no-desire- 5118.2010.01039.x turn-screw-tsai-ing-wen-and.  Katz, Richard. “Mutual Assured Produc- tion: Why Trade Will Limit Conflict Be- References tween China and Japan.” Foreign Affairs 92 (2013). Accessed May 4, 2015.  Bridges, Brian, and Che-Po Chan. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/ "Looking North: Taiwan's Relations with china/2013-06-11/mutual-assured- Japan under Chen Shui-bian." Pacific Af- production. fairs 84 (2008): 577-596.  Lewis, Leo. “Chinese protesters demand  Christensen, Thomas J. "Chinese Realpo- war with Japan over disputed islands.” litik." Foreign Affairs 75 (1996): 37-52. The Times, September 16, 2012, Accessed  Cole, J. Michael. "Better Get Used to It, May 7, 2015. China: Taiwan and Japan Will Get Clos-  Nanto, Dick K., and Emma Chanlett- er." The Diplomat. July 30, 2015. Accessed Avery. "The Effect of the Rise of China December 5, 2015. http:// on Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea." thediplomat.com/2015/07/better-get- Problems of Post-Communism 53 (2006): 33- used-to-it-china-taiwan-and-japan-will-get 47. -closer/.  Nathan, Andrew J., and Andrew Scobell.  Cole, J. Michael. "Why Beijing Has No China's Search for Security. New York: Co- Desire to Turn the Screw on Tsai Ing- lumbia University Press, 2012. wen and Threaten Stability across the  Nobel, Gregory W. “What Can Taiwan

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(and the United States) Expect from Ja- stroyer?" East Asia 19, no. 1-2 (2001): pan?” Journal of East Asian Studies 5 205-24. doi:10.1007/s12140-001-0007-z. (2005): 1-34.  Zhu, Zhiqun. “People-to-People Diplo-  Peng-er, Lam. "Japan-Taiwan Relations: macy in China-Japan Relations.” The Dip- Between Affinity and Reality." Asian Af- lomat, March 17, 2015. Accessed May 4, fairs: An American Review 30 (2004): 249- 2015. http://thediplomat.com/2015/03/ 67. people-to-people-diplomacy-in-china-  Scobell, Andrew. "China and Taiwan: japan-relations/. Balance of Rivalry with Weapons of Mass  "Administration of Taiwan in Recent Democratization." Political Science Quarterly Centuries: The Ch’ing period." Taiwan 129 (2014): 449-68. Provincial Government. Accessed December  Selden, Mark, and Yoshiko Nozaki. 5, 2015. http://subtpg.tpg.gov.tw/Eng2/ "Japanese Textbook Controversies, Na- history/history-e-2_3.htm. tionalism, and Historical Memory: Intra-  "China Overtakes Japan as World's Sec- and Inter-national Conflicts." The Asia- ond-biggest Economy." BBC News. Feb- Pacific Journal 7 (2009). http:// ruary 14, 2011. Accessed December 3, www.japanfocus.org/ - M a r k - 2015. http://www.bbc.com/news/ Selden/3173/article.html. business-12427321.  Smith, Sheila A. “Japan-China Relations:  “Negative views of Russia on the Rise: Three Things to Know.” Council of Foreign Global Poll.” BBC World Service Poll, June Relations, last modified November 18, 2014, 22. Accessed May 4, 2015. http:// 2014. Accessed November 20, 2015. downloads.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/ http://www.cfr.org/asia-and-pacific/ country-rating-poll.pdf. japan-china-relations-three-things-know/  Review of Taiwan Under Japanese Colonial p33807. Rule, 1895-1945: History, Culture, Memory  Soeya, Yoshihide. “Taiwan in Japan's Se- by Liao Ping-hui and David Der-wei curity Considerations.” The China Quarter- Wang. Taipei Economic and Cultural Of- ly, no. 165 (2001): 130–46. http:// fice in New York, February 2008. http:// www.jstor.org/stable/3451109. www.taiwanembassy.org/US/NYC/  Sun, Jing. "Japan-Taiwan Relations: Un- c t . a s p ? official in Name Only." Asian Survey 47 mp=62&CtNode=3642&xItem=51563. (2007): 790-810. doi:10.1525/  "Taiwan Flashpoint." BBC News. Ac- as.2007.47.5.790. cessed December 2, 2015. http://  Thim, Michal, and Misato Matsuoka. news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/ "The Odd Couple: Japan & Taiwan's Un- asia_pac/04/taiwan_flashpoint/html/ likely Friendship." The Diplomat. May 15, us_role.stm. 2014. Accessed December 5, 2015.  "Taiwan's Top Import Partners." World’s http://thediplomat.com/2014/05/the- Top Exports. November 18, 2015. Ac- odd-couple-japan-taiwans-unlikely- cessed December 4, 2015. http:// friendship/. www.worldstopexports.com/taiwans-top  Wang, Qingxin Ken. "Taiwan in Japan's -import-partners/2613. Relations with China and the United  "Why the Taiwan Issue Is so Danger- States after the Cold War." Pacific Affairs ous." PBS. Accessed December 4, 2015. 73, no. 3 (2000): 353-73. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/  Zha, Daojiong. "The Taiwan Problem in frontline/shows/china/experts/ Japan-China Relations: An Irritant or De- taiwan.html.

Journal of Global Development and Peace 61

Impact of Microcredit on the Poor in Sierra Leone

Oluwatosin Akegbejo-Samsons

Abstract

It is the focus of this paper to examine the meaningful impact that microcredit has had on the poor people in Sierra Leone. Microcredit relates to the provision of money in the form of small trading loans to impoverished clients and this usually happens in destitute communities and with the sole purpose of ensuring economic growth through the development of entrepreneurial activity. This is meant to reduce poverty by generating employment and empowering women. This paper discusses various scholarly contribu- tions to the subject of microfinance and economic empowerment. The discussion cap- tures differing views on microfinance, reconstruction after war, models of microfinance in Sierra Leone, importance of microcredit programs, and microcredit in relation to women empowerment. The paper concludes with a narrative on the significance and life changing power of microfinance.

Biography Oluwatosin Akegbejo-Samsons is a graduate student in the University of Bridgeport’s College of Public and International Affairs program in Global Development and Peace. He received his Bachelor’s degree from Babcock University in Nigeria where he studied International Law and Diplomacy, serving as the Assistant General Secretary of the 2012 graduating class. At the University of Bridgeport, he is member of the Model United Nations Club as well as the Pi Sigma Alpha and Sigma Iota Rho honor societies, and works as a library assistant at Wahlstrom Library and intern at the International Institute of Connecticut.

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Impact of Microcredit on the Poor in Sierra Leone

Introduction The idea of helping the needy has been in existence as long as man has travelled the Poverty and the inequitable distribution of earth. Nevertheless, as communities devel- wealth and material resources have always oped into nations, helping the poor was left plagued the world through the centuries. Ac- to generous and large-hearted organizations, cording to the World Bank, 1.4 billion people churches, and mainly the government. As are in extreme poverty around the world different regimes of governments rotated, the based on 2005 purchasing power parity, and distribution of financial assistance to the pen- this is close to 25.2% of the world populace. niless was drastically reduced. Several affluent Nevertheless, the intense poverty (based on nations brought financial assistance to the $1.25/day) has reduced globally from 52% in needy in third-world nations by making avail- 1981 (1.9 billion people) to 26% in 2005 (1.4 able for their governments different credits billion people).1 The plight of pennilessness and other loan systems, such as development and the means to curtail it remains of high banks and monetary agencies to help in re- priority in the global economy of today and ducing poverty and underdevelopment.4 The the majority of the underdeveloped and de- economic and financial disaster of the 1980s, veloping countries have made significant ef- coupled with the incompetence of banks and forts towards reducing poverty. In some other financial agencies, forced the extinction countries, non-governmental organizations of banks and financial agencies that are keen have notably complimented the efforts of the on eradicating poverty. Microfinance is com- national government, and thus it was realized ing forth as a fundamental part of the new that poverty reduction is a continuing pro- development paradigm, described by the cess for poverty eradication. 2 phrase “participation and development”. Alt- hough the idea has become really popular Over the last two decades, the rising West among supporting agencies, financial organi- African country of Sierra Leone has experi- zations, development practitioners, and acad- enced political unrest, financial havoc, and a emicians, theoretical assumptions on which cruel civic war during most of the 1990s. Da- this idea is founded seems entirely unex- ting back to the 1930s, gemstones have amined.5 played a significant role in the overall economy and this have been a powerful feature of The article will examine the following ques- the rural economies and communities where tions: Is microcredit a solution or part of the they are stored. Over the last twenty years, solution to poverty? Do non-governmental there has been much debate about the pub- organizations play a vital role in the reduction licly talked about “blood diamonds,” which of poverty around war-torn countries? The have been said to have played a major role in article suggests that microcredit is a means to sustaining the conflict. The protracted con- poverty eradication, but not an end in itself. flict wrecked much of the country and this Efforts for operational sustainability must led to enormous anguish to the people, with target not only the less poor capable of re- a supposed 50,000 deaths and the ousting of paying loans, but include the otherwise mar- over half of the inhabitants. As a result of ginalized poor. that, everyday trading activities were badly unsettled, the majority of the country’s infra- Literature Review structure was dismantled and seriously wrecked, and financial hardship became ex- The idea of microfinance has been in exist- tensive and thoroughly embedded. 3 ence for some time, proof of credits being

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Impact of Microcredit on the Poor in Sierra Leone

given out to the poor having been seen and the progress can then directly lead to around Europe following the 18th century. poverty eradication, regardless of the fact Jonathan Swift established a fund to render that there exists an outstretch counter- “poor industrious tradesmen” loans “in little argument about under what state of affairs sums of five and ten pounds, which were to this happens. It has over time been reported be repaid every week at a low cost of two or that microfinance supports economic pro- four shillings, with no interest.” An addition- gress, but the theory that microfinance al one was the Irish Reproductive Loan Fund boosts economic progress has been under Establishment that started around 1822 to serious contention in hypothetical writings. It help the impoverished by providing them also has been called into question and investi- with small credits under 10 Euros in modern gated on a practical basis.9 Financial institu- terms. It was around the 1970s that micro- tions are essential to economic progress since finance became a present-day occurrence. they transmit community’s savings to busi- The present-day idea of microcredit was initi- nessmen who launch their business ideas.10 ated by Muhammad Yunus, a native of Bang- Years of battle, clashes, combat, strife, strug- ladesh who was educated in the United States gle, and war, and most times natural catastro- and later became a professor at Chittagong phes, often results in a downturn in the good University around Bangladesh.6 condition of life and financial prosperity in the lives of the marginalised poor in a given Microfinance has been in existence though society. In circumstances of utter and abso- mainly in the dark and invisible by noncha- lute disaster, the communities almost discon- lant spectators. It has simply been within the tinue surviving, nationwide economies col- last forty years that conscious worldwide at- lapse, and societal and governmental make- tempts have been made to validate economic up vanishes. Microfinance, as a system of service to the needy. This procedure began independence local monetary establishments, urgently around the early mid-1980s and also can have an important task in the shift from began to assemble an affecting drive. Pres- ease to rebuilding and continual growth. 11 ently, there are numerous microfinance institutions supporting economic assistance to a Ohanyan points out those two contradictory predicted 100-200 million of the earth’s pen- propositions have been put into practice in niless. Now, what started as an elementary post-conflict Bosnia-Herzegovina. The first “operation” inspired greatly by an improve- one views microfinance as an instantaneous ment example is growing into a universal cor- peace-building tool aiming at some inhabit- poration updated increasingly by a financial ants and giving monetary assistance to these example. 7 The majority of the microfinance particular applicants. This approach is pre- institutions are able to function very well be- ferred by charitable establishments. which cause of financial aid and donations from may use it to rebuild impoverished borrowers. governments and all other supporters. In Its intention is to provide a societal assured spite of this, the microfinance world is gov- network and reduce the societal rate of shift. erned by an organisational example maintain- This can however divide the society.12 The ing that a microfinance institution should be other proposition is a more profit-making able to pay for its functioning and funding idea. It centres on the continuing viability of expenditure with agenda proceeds.8 the microfinance institutions provided that contributing organizations pull back. Economic ideologies propose that micro- According to C. Van Rooyen et al, the mak- finance should lead to economic progress, ing available of “micro” economic services to

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Impact of Microcredit on the Poor in Sierra Leone

the impoverished individuals, most especially the development of entrepreneurial activity. small credits of $50-$1000, has been applaud- The aim of microcredit is to help reduce pov- ed by spokesmen as an efficient poverty re- erty by entrusting the penniless to engage in duction and growth mechanism. Regarded markets that bring about income and to be- jointly as microfinance, these economic ser- come more self-supporting and self- vices consist of micro-savings, microcredit, sustaining. The level to which microfinance and loans and have been credited with sanc- encourages poverty reduction in developing tioning micro-entrepreneurs to establish busi- market economies has been the focal point nesses and grow their income, in addition to of an expanding body of inquire in the field upgrading the total economic wellbeing of of evolving economies. 15 the impoverished individuals. Additionally, microfinance has been ascribed as upgrading Microfinance affords the penniless an oppor- other economic outcomes (inclusive of sav- tunity to tackle financial barrenness, provoke ings plus the collection of assets, which in- earnings, and capture enterprising chances, cludes furniture or other home appliances) and over time the triumph of microcredit and also non-financial results like health, nu- sometimes depend on individual entrepre- trition, education, food-security, housing, and neurs’ expertise, mentality, and social con- job-creation. 13 nections, and also including their level of social investment and psychological capital to Various Views of Microfinance and Mi- seek business development.16 The Micro- crocredit credit Summit of 1997 defined microcredit as “programmes which gives out small loans to The United Nations affirmed that 2005 is the the very poor people for self-employment international year of Microcredit. Microcredit ventures that will directly generate income, is the supplying of loans to impoverished thereby allowing them to care for themselves borrowers and the really poor, penniless, low and their immediate families.”17 Microfinance -income earners, unemployed women, and is the provision and distribution of pocket- local borrowers, who are omitted from the size loans to the extremely poor in order to prevalent financial system. It has attained a give them the opportunity to become entre- predominant place as a lending tool in the preneurs and self-employed to earn suffi- sphere of international financial resources in ciently high income to liberate themselves the last three decades. Microcredit or micro- from the never-ending cycle of poverty. In its finance programs are now a known path, extensive sense, microcredit includes the act mainly to reach those with little or no income, of making small amounts of loans available who would naturally be secluded from formal to the poor and other intended borrowers financial institutions, due to the reality that that have not been able to access loans from they do not possess the required collateral commercial banks due to its high interest and credit history required to lend and create rates. 18 Yunus states that it is crucial to dis- their own businesses and going on to become tinguish microcredit in all its previous types relevant businessman or businesswoman. 14 from the specific type of credit used at the Microfinance relates to the providing of Grameen Bank, which he calls monetary services that includes pocket-size “Grameencredit.” Yunus also states categori- trading loans, to impoverished clients, com- cally that the “most unique feature of Gram- monly in poor societies, with the sole pur- eencredit” is that it is not based on any sort pose of affirming economic growth through of collateral or legally enforceable agreements

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Impact of Microcredit on the Poor in Sierra Leone

but rather it is based on “trust,” and not on chances of female lenders in such activities as legal protocols.19 Microcredit refers to the act used clothing handling and tie-dying. This of providing the loan while microfinance, is has directly provided jobs to members of the the act of providing these same borrowers recipient’s immediate families so this loan with financial services, such as savings estab- system had a wide effect that imparts nation- lishments and insurance policies. It encom- al development aims of creating economic passes the field of microcredit.20 Micro- self-sufficiency and elevating the means and finance is the granting of credits, funds, in- standards of living. The microcredit loan sys- vestments, guarantee, savings, and other tem in Sierra Leone has also changed the monetary services to impoverished people. mental representation of the women about This is usually offered to people who do not themselves and aided their growing under- have the required access to commercial standing of self-development. The loan sys- banks or other official monetary services pro- tem has also made possible training opportu- viders.21 nities for the Sierra Leone Market Women Association to update their production Reconstruction After War knowledge and skills and also intensify their views about market competition.24 The Unit- When the war in Sierra Leone ended, the ed Nations Capital Development Fund means of living for the majority of the mar- (UNCDF) is putting to test with such fund- ket women were already destroyed and lives ing. became really hard for them. A national non- governmental organization called “Campaign Models of Microfinance in Sierra Leone for Good Governance” provided them with countless financial and technical assistance Microfinance is surely one of the main ways and thereafter a comeback plan was devel- for continual access to funds and thus in- oped. This plan gave rise to a focused micro- cludes microcredit, small savings, and small credit loan scheme that will empower women insurance. Microfinance will surely provide to begin selling, trading, and production ac- support with little credit; for instance, with tivities, thereby creating a favorable condition US$5 to US$50 and a savings down payment for them to start all over again and come out of less than US$1, in spite of the little size, it of the poverty cycle. 22 can be used to bring about revenue- Today microcredit (small collateral free generating activities and long-lasting employ- loans), which is for the primary purpose of ment. 25 promoting small-scale businesses and self- empowerment, is now an efficient and effec- Saving: In 2001, Stuart Rutherford, a recog- tive poverty reduction method for poor nized specialist in savings for the penniless, women in Sierra Leone. Microcredit played stated this: “Even though their earnings can an important role in reconstructing the lives be erratic and inconsistent, the penniless of market women in Sierra and began new need more revenue that what they have pres- and meaningful livelihoods for them.23 The ently.” The demand for important large microcredit received by the Sierra Leonean funds arises from growth events such as Market Women Association have created self childbirth, schooling, wedding ceremony, and -employment possible for her members and death from crisis such as sickness, and from also providing them with low income, and chances to devote in resources or economic these credits have increased the occupational activities. The most dependable and main-

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tainable manner in which the penniless can shareholding in it. Even with its partnership acquire important large funds is to develop with Union Trust Bank, it is not permitted to them somehow, or any other form from their acknowledge deposits in its own name and own saving; savings-oriented monetary ser- thus only have loan products. Finance Salone vices for the penniless exist to help them do has 11 divisions operating all through the just that.26 country and 6 sub-offices and it serves over 18,000 clients. Its 2009-2013 plans project Size of Desire for Loans: The urge for micro- additional extension. Finance Salone had (as credit is significant and it is soaring across at September 2010) a payback rate of 98% the country. In spite of the reality that only and a standard portfolio at danger below 30 10% of families currently possess bank cred- days at 5%. 30 its outstanding, 58% are fascinated in acquiring loans in the next year. Sierra Leone re- Salone Microfinance Trust (SMT) is a micro- mains mainly a local country, with 63% of finance institution situated in Sierra Leone the inhabitants living in unpalatable build- that began its activities following the conclu- ings; the majority of the country’s economic sion of the battle in Sierra Leone around activity is located in the capital city of Free- 2002. It was established by the global NGO town.27 Child Fund. Meticulous microfinance started in 2003 in Sierra Leone with the aid of Mi- NGO-MFIs: There are roughly about nine crofinance Investment and Technical Assis- effective microfinance institutions (MFIs) in tance Facility, funded by the United Nations Sierra Leone. Different from community fi- Development Program, the German Promo- nancial institutions and commercial financial tional Bank KfW, and Cordaid. Over time, institutions, MFIs are not permitted to they grew into a recognized institution that is acknowledge deposits. They are moreover a authorized as a credit-only microfinance or- main approach of monetary access to the un- ganization by the bank of Sierra Leone. The constrained and local divisions of the coun- goal was to lower the susceptibility of indi- try.29 viduals in fragile states. This project will guarantee that access to funding enable peo- Finance Salone: Finance Salone was institut- ple in Sierra Leone the chance to increase or ed in 2005 and is potentially the principal mi- set up a business. Revenue and employment crofinance institution in Sierra Leone. In assist in rural strength and peace, so earning 2010, Union Trust Bank purchased a major an income gives individuals the opportunity

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to provide for their families and create a programs that will enable individuals to fulfill good future for themselves and their children. their potential. They make available loans to Their aim was to make available loans to women who are overlooked by other micro- pocket-sized businesses and also enhanced finance organizations, so they give them the access to loans. chance to conduct trading activities by selling products to their fellow rural societies. Recip- The Salone Microfinance Trust (SMT) has ients of loan are not mandated to make avail- her general office in Makeni and with the able security and also to pay back their cred- credit of Cordaid, SMT was able to transmit its on a weekly basis against ruthless interest microcredits. They were also able to extend rates 32 small loans to their applicants. The majority of applicants want a credit of about 130€. By this scheme, they help the government of Applicants of SMT have the chance to obtain Sierra Leone to fulfill her target of growing a a group loan or a personal loan. In the course well-grounded and fully functional micro- of the coming years, SMT will lead the pio- finance division. BRAC makes available neering of several fresh loan products such as pocket-size business loans to business men motorbike taxi loan and a solar credit. Dur- and women who seek to increase their busi- ing the subsequent three years, SMT also ness venture and these credits allows the wants to become a deposit-taking establish- business owners to establish fresh employment as this would enable applicants of SMT ment opportunities and make available fresh to have a safe and secure place for their services. The pocket-size loans range from funds. They also want to ensure that pocket- USD 800 to 6,000 and is made available to sized businesses will have access to finance. individuals instead of groups. In 2012, BRAC Individuals in Sierra Leone realized that it led the Youth Business Development Pro- was arduous to get finance to commence a gramme, and this is assisted by Restless De- business venture to generate money for their velopment in Sierra Leone and the goal of families. They uphold microfinance organiza- this program was to inspire young business tions around Sierra Leone in order for more men and women to create modern business individuals to have access to funds. models that will in turn create more employment. 33 BRAC (Sierra Leone): This microfinance scheme was put in place in 2007 and has As of 2012, BRAC’s microcredit program been formulated to supply trustworthy access was operating in 43 other offices that cover a to cost-effective monetary services to impov- population of 123,786. The program set up erished and marginalized women.31 They 1,846 microcredit groups with 20,631 mem- opened their offices in Sierra Leone around bers, wherein 15,316 are borrowers. Totally, 2008 and by the end of 2011, they have im- BRAC gives out credits up to USD 3,019,913 pacted over 700,000 Sierra Leoneans with in the year 2012 and the concluding credit businesses in microfinance, agriculture, poul- totalled USD 1,157,106. BRAC’s pocket-size try, livestock, health, and judicial services. business activities are functional in 26 various Their mission is to enable individuals and offices around Sierra Leone and it attends to societies in circumstances of poverty, igno- 7,824 people.34 rance, disease, and social injustice. Their in- Importance of Microcredit volvement seeks to achieve huge scale, posi- Microcredit initially began as an economic tive transformations via economic and social means of fighting poverty and it still accom-

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plishes this purpose; several organizations scious.37 Microcredit provision can extend to have sought to make a clear differentiation greater levels of cognitive edge between the “marginally poor” and the “very (determination, relentlessness, confidence, poor.” Microcredit uses a diverse lending belief, and strength) among customers. Also, method such as active and growing loans, the rate to which microcredit arrangement regular repayment plans, and little or no col- and supplying affects the cognitive edge of lateral to make sure of high repayment rates customers is dependent on the level of trade among the impoverished and undeserved help accorded to them during the borrowing borrowers. Microcredit also offer small credit process. 38 at the first instance, with the promise of bigger future loans for timely refunds and this Microcredit: A Target for Women juicy offer serves as a powerful driving force for a micro-entrepreneur to develop her or In Jobra (a small region of Sierra Leone), it his business 35 was realized that it is always difficult for borrowers to organize themselves into groups, Microcredit ensures that lenders have a sec- so to make things quite easy an intending ond means of income and this deters them borrower would have to convince a second from borrowing against their present con- person to join the group, and the two would sumption rate. Weekly refunds give the lend- come together to convince and enlist more ers and recipients the necessary benefit of members.39 The moment a group of five has discovering difficulties and troubles early; been formed, the bank would give out a loan frequent refunds also provide better custom- to two members of the group, and if they er service, and it also help lenders with sav- could pay back in six weeks, two more mem- ings constraints. Local moneylenders are pos- bers of the same group could request loans. sibly always better informed of borrower Each group member had to present them- quality and possess more efficient methods selves to the bank to experience at least sev- of observing and enforcing agreements than en days of serious training on the bank’s commercial banks. In other words, due to codes, customs, guidelines, and protocols and their friendly and communal ties, relevant also to be tested on their understanding of information, and position advantage, these the codes and conducts. This is simply to test moneylenders are in a distinct position to and know the serious-minded people who lend to the poor 36 really want to become members. 40 Since its launch, Grameen Bank has formu- The microcredit system is really a savings and lated its reimbursement methods according credit program, and it makes members start to the following formula: cultivating the habit of savings for rainy days, and they start depositing mandatory savings before receiving any loan. The first thing an active member does is to begin to deposit a particular amount of money every week with the loan has been granted. their microfinance and this amount begins to grow. The constancy of money deposited and regular appearance in group meetings are prerequisites for receiving loans, so this loan amount per week for 50 weeks. makes them responsible and time con-

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week for every 1,000 taka of the loan amount. onean Market Women Association’s policy 41 was to provide microloans of about Le100, 000 (ca. $45) to each of the women in cate- Any economic discussion of microcredit and gories of 20-30 borrowers from the 26 mar- microfinance is not complete without a dis- kets in Freetown respectively. 44 cussion of its impact on women. The Micro- credit Summit Campaign Report (2000) talks Results about a thousand programs in which 75%of the clients were women. A typical Sierra Le- There is positive reasoning to affirm that mi- onean woman necessarily needs capital but is crofinance makes the social and economic hindered from borrowing from banks be- circumstances stronger and healthier for the cause they require heavy collateral so lending penniless. For example, “the loans agenda of to women has a stronger impact on the wel- Microfinance Institutions is exceptionally fare of the household than lending to men. 42 successful, which can be seen by the fast pay Microcredit empowers women in Sierra Leo- back speed, understanding created amidst the ne to participate in economic prosperity intended society and profitable developmen- where they had been excluded in the past. tal influence made on the receivers of the Sierra Leone microfinance schemes have po- loans.”45 Microcredit has shown that ex- tentially expanded their outreach and become tremely poor households and impoverished self-sustaining. They are a useful anti-poverty borrowers can benefit from greater access to instrument and when the penniless, especially loans and that this provision and distribution women, receive loan; they become economic of loans can be an efficient tool for poverty players with power, power to improve not reduction by helping and empowering wom- only their lives but the lives of their house- en and by extension uplifting entire commu- holds, their societies, and societies of states. nities and the state at large. 46 43 Microcredit programs in Sierra Leone are now combined with health care, protective Microcredit has also proven that institutions education, life and affliction insurance, or- do not directly suffer heavy losses from lend- phan care, and other social services not for- ing to the poor. Microcredit in reference to merly associated with microcredit. Grameen Bank has succeeded where so many others have failed. They do not suffer heavy Women were unprivileged on the basis of losses due to its distinct group borrowing being women and being poor in Sierra Leone. agreements, which enabled Grameen Bank to They could not access lands and other capital make sure of borrowers paying back without resources and this was the basic limitations, requiring collateral from the poor because together with absence of loans obtainability. they do not have it. 47 In the midst of the bulk of rural and impoverished urban women dwellers, market wom- Non-state microcredit has been demonstrat- en labelled themselves as the “poorest of the ed to be an effective measure to enable mar- poor.” They deal principally in spoilable ket women to participate in peace economies. foodstuffs at rural everyday markets. Several Over time, attention has been focused on market women are uneducated and so unable government schemes of microlending but to communicate and scribble down English. now it is focused on non-state programs.48 In The tariff system practized in Sierra Leone is the year 2000, using a grant of US$50,000 by limiting. As things improved, the Sierra Le- the UK Department for International Devel-

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opment (DFID), the Sierra Leonean Market globe with 81.5% of her populace living in Women Association established microcredit total hunger and poverty. Juma, a growing strategies to increase the standards of living business woman, says that the credits she of their members. The project was set out by received have transformed her life. She can the then Minister for Department for Inter- now make available a bright future for her national Development, Claire Short, in Free- children and she is part of BRAC’s micro- town in one of Freetown’s main markets.49 finance unit in the Kenema district. In 2012, From 2000 to 2003, the plan of action was BRAC got across to over 19,926 people, run very successfully as seen by the large ac- trained 27 BRAC employees, 209 community cess of market women to the loan support farming promoters, 174 model agriculturist, (90%of the loan funds was of great assistance and 3,321 general agriculturists, and farming to the women), the huge success proportion equipment was distributed to 2,577 agricul- of projects (about 70%of microcredit benefi- turists, and seeds and fertilizers to 2,664 agri- ciaries gained from the support), and high culturists. Thus, microcredit as evidenced in rate of credit recovery (nearly 80%of the Sierra Leone is part of the solution to pov- credits were received except for scenarios of erty and this case proves that non- unexpected crisis. As a positive result of the governmental organizations have a vital role Freetown evidence, microcredit was taken to to play in the reduction of poverty around market women in six more regions in the war-torn countries. Bonthe, Bo, Kono, Makeni, Kabala, and Kambia regions.50 The microcredit scheme resulted to micro- solutions but this is not to state that micro- Microcredit favored women on the political credit cannot play an important role in pov- stage. It has increased active participation of erty reduction. It is a means to poverty eradi- women in the local areas in the rural political cation and not an end in itself. Microcredit organizations which have alerted their sense should not be seen as a key card to flush out of active participation in the economic revi- poverty in developing countries in Africa, but talisation of their communities. The majority as a very ideal development strategy that can of women that were actively involved in the be incorporated with a host of other viable microcredit loan systems are successful entre- options derived from rural conditions and preneurs and they kept on doing all the wants. Given the uncertainty of extreme pen- household chores at home.51 nilessness and continual improvement, it is really difficult to figure out and calculate the Conclusions growth and improvement made by the receivers of microcredit towards reaching their The Republic of Sierra Leone, similar to its goals so that administrators can be able to surrounding countries, is endowed with a supervise and judge the usefulness of the mi- wealth of unadulterated riches; unfortunately, crocredit scheme and regulate it as necessary. the country stands as one of the impecunious In other words, the productiveness of any in Africa. Inadequate formal education lin- policy to eradicate poverty needs to be made gers on as part of the obvious issues infecting around the definition of poverty so as to be Sierra Leone, as evidenced in the education able to calculate the number of poor and rate at 35.1% and the female education rate is map out a microcredit program of interfer- at a lowly 24.4%. Sierra Leone is a member ence to eradicate poverty and promote con- of the top 10 poorest countries around the tinual development over time.52 If micro-

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credit schemes are to act as a bedrock for the "Microfinance: A comprehensive review of the extremely poor to get accustomed to trading existing literature." Journal of Entrepreneurial Fi- and services so as to increase their total wel- nances and Business Ventures 9, no. 1 2004: 1-28. http://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/jef/ fare, while combining continuous improve- vol9/iss1/2 ment, the really important questions that 9. 9 Barr, Michel S. "Microfinance and Financial needs to be cleared for Africa should be: a) Development." Michigan Journal of International Are the long-lasting poor sections of the Law 26 (2005): 1-26. populace involved in microcredit schemes? 10. 10 Barr, Michel S. "Microfinance and Financial b) How effective are the receivers of micro- Development." Michigan Journal of International credit in affecting the economic system? c) Law 26 (2005): 1-26. 11. 11 Seibel, Marek Hudon and Hans Dieter. Do the actions of the microcredit receivers "Microfinance in post-disaster and post- directly or indirectly contribute to environ- conflict situations:turning victims into share- mental growth? 53 holders." Savings and Development (Giordano Dell -Amore Foundation) 31, no. 1 (2007): 3. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25830949 Endnotes 12. 12 Seibel, Marek Hudon and Hans Dieter. "Microfinance in post-disaster and post- 1. 1 Hossain, Mohammad Kamal. "Measuring the conflict situations:turning victims into share- Impact of BRAC Microfinance Operations: A holders." Savings and Development (Giordano Dell Case Study of a Village." International Business -Amore Foundation) 31, no. 1 (2007): 4. Research April 2012: 1-2. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25830949 2. 2 Hossain, Mohammad Kamal. "Measuring the 13. 13 C. Van Rooyen, R. Stewart and T. De Wet. Impact of BRAC Microfinance Operations: A "The Impact of Microfinance in Sub-Saharan Case Study of a Village." 1-2. Africa: A systematic review of the evidence." 3. 3 Maconachie, Tony Binns and Roy. "Going Journal of world development 40, no. 11 (2012): Home in Postconflict Sierra Leone: Diamonds, 2249-2262. agriculture and re-building rural livelihoods in 14. 14 Asayehgn, Desta. "Do Microcredit Pro- the Eastern Province." Geographical Association grams Alleviate Poverty and Foster Environ- (Geographical Association) 90, no. 1 (2005): 1- mentally Sustainable Development? A Review 2. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40574030. of African Case Studies." 2010: 1-16. 4. 4 Buskirk, Ray M. Valadez and Bruce. "From 15. 15 Alexander Newman, Susan Schwarz and Microcredit to Microfinance: a business per- Daniel Borgia. "How does microfinance en- spective." Journal of Finance and Accountancy 3. hance entrepreneurial outcomes in emerging 5. 5 Elahi, K. Q., and C.P. Danopoulos. "Micro economies? The mediating mechanisms of psy- Finance and Third World Development: A chological and social capital." International Small Critical Analysis." Journal of Political and Military Business Journal 32, no. 2 (2014): 158-179. Sociology 2. 10.1177/0266242613485611. 6. 6 Stanley, Yang Maia and T.D. "Micro-credit 16. 16 Alexander Newman, Susan Schwarz and and Income: A Literature Review and Meta- Daniel Borgia. "How does microfinance en- analysis." Bulletin of Economics and Meta-Analysis hance entrepreneurial outcomes in emerging 2012: 1-3. economies? The mediating mechanisms of psy- 7. 7 Brau, James C., and Gary M. Woller. chological and social capital." International Small "Microfinance: A comprehensive review of the Business Journal 32, no. 2 (2014): 158-179. existing literature." Journal of Entrepreneurial Fi- 10.1177/0266242613485611. nances and Business Ventures 9, no. 1 (December 17. 17 Levin, Grace. "Critique of Microcredit as a 2004): 3. http:// development model." 2012. 1-9. digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/jef/vol9/ 18. 18 Aubuchon, Rajdeep Sengupta and Craig P. iss1/2 "The Microfinance Revolution: An Overview." 8. 8 Brau, James C., and Gary M. Woller. 2008: 1-22. 19. 19 Aubuchon, Rajdeep Sengupta and Craig P.

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"The Microfinance Revolution: An Overview." Annual Report." 9. 2008: 1-22. 34. 34 Abed, Sir Fazle Hasan. "BRAC Sierra Leone 20. 20 Aubuchon, Rajdeep Sengupta and Craig P. Annual Report." 14. "The Microfinance Revolution: An Overview." 35. 35 Aubuchon, Rajdeep Sengupta and Craig P. 2008: 1-22. "The Microfinance Revolution: An Overview." 21. 21 Anne-Lucie Lafourcade, Jennifer Isern, Pa- 2. tricia Mwangi, and Matthew Brown. "Overview 36. 36 Aubuchon, Rajdeep Sengupta and Craig P. of the Outreach and Financial Performance of "The Microfinance Revolution: An Overview." Microfinance Institutions in Africa." 2005: 1-20. 8. 22. 22 Solomon, Christiana. "The Role of Women 37. 37 Alamgir, Asif Dowla and Dewan. "from in Economic Transformation: Market Women Microcredit to Microfinance: Evolution of Sav- in Sierra Leone." 11. ings Products by MFIS in Bangladesh." Journal 10.1080/14678800600933571. of International Development : 1-20. 23. 23 Solomon, Christiana. "The Role of Women 38. 38 Alexander Newman, Susan Schwarz and in Economic Transformation: Market Women Daniel Borgia. "How does microfinance en- in Sierra Leone." 11. hance entrepreneurial outcomes in emerging 10.1080/14678800600933571. economies? The mediating mechanisms of psy- 24. 24 Solomon, Christiana. "The Role of Women chological and social capital." 160. in Economic Transformation: Market Women 39. 39 Yunus, Muhammad. Banker to the Poor: Micro- in Sierra Leone." 6, no. 3 (November 2006): 11. lending and the battle against world poverty. Public 10.1080/14678800600933571. Affairs Books, 3. 25. 25 Johnson, Omotunde E.G. "Economic Chal- 40. 40 Yunus, Muhammad. Banker to the Poor: Micro- lenges and Policy Issues in Early Twenty-First- lending and the battle against world poverty. Public Century Sierra Leone." International Growth Cen- Affairs Books, 3. tre, October 2012: 167. 41. 41 Yunus, Muhammad. Banker to the Poor: Micro- 26. 26 Johnson, Omotunde E.G. "Economic Chal- lending and the battle against world poverty. Public lenges and Policy Issues in Early Twenty-First- Affairs Books, 4. Century Sierra Leone." International Growth Cen- 42. 42 Aubuchon, Rajdeep Sengupta and Craig P. tre, 168. "The Microfinance Revolution: An Overview." 27. 27 Johnson, Omotunde E.G. "Economic Chal- 6 lenges and Policy Issues in Early Twenty-First- 43. 43 Buss, Terry F. "Microcredit in Sub-Saharan Century Sierra Leone." International Growth Cen- Africa." 3. tre, 172 44. 44 Solomon, Christiana. "The Role of Women 28. 28 Johnson, Omotunde E.G. "Economic Chal- in Economic Transformation: Market Women lenges and Policy Issues in Early Twenty-First- in Sierra Leone." 12. Century Sierra Leone." International Growth Cen- 45. 45 Hossain, Mohammad Kamal. "Measuring tre, 183. the Impact of BRAC Microfinance Operations: 29. 29 Johnson, Omotunde E.G. "Economic Chal- A Case Study of a Village." 2. lenges and Policy Issues in Early Twenty-First- 46. 46 Aubuchon, Rajdeep Sengupta and Craig P. Century Sierra Leone." International Growth Cen- "The Microfinance Revolution: An Over- tre, 183. view."13. 30. 30 Johnson, Omotunde E.G. "Economic Chal- 47. 47 Aubuchon, Rajdeep Sengupta and Craig P. lenges and Policy Issues in Early Twenty-First- "The Microfinance Revolution: An Overview." Century Sierra Leone." International Growth Cen- 20. tre, 184. 48. 48 Solomon, Christiana. "The Role of Women 31. 31 Johnson, Omotunde E.G. "Economic Chal- in Economic Transformation: Market Women lenges and Policy Issues in Early Twenty-First- in Sierra Leone." 6, no. 3 (November 2006): 8. Century Sierra Leone." International Growth Cen- 10.1080/14678800600933571. tre, October 2012: 185. 49. 49 Solomon, Christiana. "The Role of Women 32. 32 Abed, Sir Fazle Hasan. "BRAC Sierra Leone in Economic Transformation: Market Women Annual Report." 8. in Sierra Leone." 6, no. 3 (November 2006): 11. 33. 33 Abed, Sir Fazle Hasan. "BRAC Sierra Leone 10.1080/14678800600933571.

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50. 50 Solomon, Christiana. "The Role of Women is, 2008: 1-22. in Economic Transformation: Market Women  B.Zack-Williams, Alfred. "Sierra Leone: in Sierra Leone." 6, no. 3 (November 2006): 13. The Political Economy of Civil War, 10.1080/14678800600933571. 51. 51 Solomon, Christiana. "The Role of Women 1991-1998." Third World Quarterly (Taylor in Economic Transformation: Market Women and Francis Limited) 20, no. 1 (February in Sierra Leone." 6, no. 3 (November 2006): 7. 1999): 143-162. 10.1080/14678800600933571.  Barr, Michel S. "Microfinance and Finan- 52. 52 Asayehgn, Desta. "Do Microcredit Pro- cial Development." Michigan Journal of In- grams Alleviate Poverty and Foster Environ- ternational Law 26 (2005): 1-26. mentally Sustainable Development? A Review  Brau, James C., and Gary M. Woller. of African Case Studies." 2010: 2. 53. 53 Asayehgn, Desta. "Do Microcredit Pro- "Microfinance: A comprehensive review grams Alleviate Poverty and Foster Environ- of the existing literature." Journal of Entre- mentally Sustainable Development? A Review preneurial Finances and Business Ventures 9, of African Case Studies." 2010: 1-16. no. 1 (December 2004): 1-28. http:// digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/jef/ References vol9/iss1/2  Buskirk, Ray M. Valadez and Bruce.  Abed, Sir Fazle Hasan. "BRAC Sierra "From Microcredit to Microfinance: a Leone Annual Report." 2012: 1-84. business perspective." Journal of Finance  Alamgir, Asif Dowla and Dewan. "from and Accountancy 6, no. 1 (2011): 1-17. Microcredit to Microfinance: Evolution  Buss, Terry F. "Microcredit in Sub- of Savings Products by MFIS in Bangla- Saharan Africa." Journal of Microfinance/ desh." Journal of International Development ESR Review 7, no. 1 (2005): 1-12. 15, no. 8 (November 2003): 1-20.  C. Van Rooyen, R. Stewart and T. De  Alexander Newman, Susan Schwarz and Wet. "The Impact of Microfinance in Daniel Borgia. "How does microfinance Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review enhance entrepreneurial outcomes in of the evidence." Journal of world develop- emerging economies? The mediating ment 40, no. 11 (2012): 2249-2262. mechanisms of psychological and social  Carlson, Dyan Mazurana and Khristo- capital." International Small Business Journal pher. "From Combat to Community: 32, no. 2 (2014): 158-179. Women and girls of Sierra Leone." Edit- 10.1177/0266242613485611 ed by Sanam Naraghi Anderlini. January  Anne-Lucie Lafourcade, Jennifer Isern, 2004: 1-46. Patricia Mwangi, and Matthew Brown.  CREDO, Margaret Lebbie-Moebiyor and. "Overview of the Outreach and Financial "Sierra Leone: A Country Report: From Performance of Microfinance Institutions "Women's World: Experiences that Link in Africa." 2005: 1-20. Women Internationally"." NWSA Journal  Asayehgn, Desta. "Do Microcredit Pro- (The Johns Hopkins University Press) 15, grams Alleviate Poverty and Foster Envi- no. 1 (2003): 132-136. ronmentally Sustainable Development? A  Elahi, K. Q., and C.P. Danopoulos. Review of African Case Studies." 2010: 1- "Micro Finance and Third World Devel- 16. opment: A Critical Analysis." Journal of  Aubuchon, Rajdeep Sengupta and Craig Political and Military Sociology (San Jose P. "The Microfinance Revolution: An State University) 32, no. 1 (January 2004): Overview." Federal Reserve Bank of St. Lou- 61-77.

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Impact of Microcredit on the Poor in Sierra Leone

 Hossain, Mohammad Kamal. "Measuring stable/25830949 the Impact of BRAC Microfinance Oper-  Solomon, Christiana. "The Role of Wom- ations: A Case Study of a Village." Interna- en in Economic Transformation: Market tional Business Research 5, no. 4 (April Women in Sierra Leone." 6, no. 3 2012): 1-13. (November 2006): 1-17.  Johnson, Omotunde E.G. "Economic 10.1080/14678800600933571 Challenges and Policy Issues in Early  Stanley, Yang Maia and T.D. "Micro- Twenty-First-Century Sierra Leone." In- credit and Income: A Literature Review ternational Growth Centre, October 2012: 1- and Meta-analysis." (Dept of Economics 574. and Business, Hendrix College, Conway,  Levin, Grace. "Critique of Microcredit as AR) August 2012: 1-36. a development model." Journal of Under-  Yunus, Muhammad. Banker to the Poor: graduate Research at the University of Tennessee Micro-lending and the battle against world pov- 4, no. 1 (2012): 1-9. erty. Public Affairs Books, 2003.  Lynn L.Amowitz, Chen Reis, Kristina Hare Lyons, Beth Vann, Binta Mansaray, Adyinka M. Akinsulure-Smith, Louise Taylor and Vincent lacopino. "Prevalence of War-Related Sexual Violence and other Human Rights Abuses among Inter- nally Displaced Persons in Sierra Leone." American Medical Association 287, no. 4 (2002): 1-9.  Maconachie, Tony Binns and Roy. "Going Home in Postconflict Sierra Leo- ne: Diamonds, agriculture and re-building rural livelihoods in the Eastern Prov- ince." Geographical Association (Geographical Association) 90, no. 1 (2005): 67-78. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/40574030.  Richards, Paul. "To Fight or to Farm? Agrarian Dimensions of the Mano River Conflicts (Liberia and Sierra Leone)." Oxford Journals (Oxford University Press) 104, no. 417 (October 2005): 571-590.  S., Robinson Marguerite. The microfinance revolution:sustainable finance for the poor. Vol. 1. World Bank Publications, 2001.  Seibel, Marek Hudon and Hans Dieter. "Microfinance in post-disaster and postconflict situations:turning victims into shareholders." Savings and Development (Giordano Dell-Amore Foundation) 31, no. 1 (2007): 5-22. http://www.jstor.org/

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