Transnational Advocacy Networks for China’S Environment and Public Health

ABSTRACT Title of dissertation: DOUBLE-MOBILIZATION: TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY NETWORKS FOR CHINA’S ENVIRONMENT AND PUBLIC HEALTH Fengshi Wu, Doctor of Philosophy, 2005 Dissertation directed by: Professor Ken Conca Department of Government and Politics This dissertation investigates the nature of transnational advocacy networks and the impact of domestic structures on the development and political relations of such networks. Drawing upon the theoretical frameworks built by Margaret Keck, Katherine Sikkink and Sanjeev Khagram, I, though, challenge the conceptual bias embedded in this body of literature emphasizing contentious political relations between advocacy actors and targeted governments. I use the method of in-depth comparative case studies, and focus on two transnational advocacy networks in nature conservation and HIV/AIDS prevention in China to illustrate my three-fold argument: First, it is necessary to relax the theoretical bias in existing transnational advocacy literature, and recognize that the triangular relationship among the state, local society and international NSAs varies both over time and across issue areas. The two cases studied reveals a what I call the “double-mobilization” character of such networks. This Double-mobilization pattern emphasizes that international advocacy actors endeavor to engage, collaborate with, and advocate around the state, even as they establish connections and solidarity with local societal groups. I propose this double- mobilization concept to capture the gradual, consensual, and sustainable aspect of transnational activism. Second, it is not sufficient to use political regime type as the main causal variable to examine the emergence and evolvement of transnational activism and advocacy networks. Evidence from China has shown that the politics generated by international NSAs in a non-democratic country is complex, and despite strict macro-structures, transnational advocacy networks are emerging. Third, I argue that two domestic micro-level structures—decentralization within the state, and interconnections within existing civil society groups—strongly influence the political relations of transnational activism and networks. With decentralized environmental governance, and a strong and connected local environmentalist community, international NGOs have been able to generate, expand, and consolidate their mobilization networks in both governmental and societal domains in nature conservation. While transnational NGO linkages and networks are surfacing in HIV/AIDS preventions in China, both the scope and level of deepening of such networks are still limited. DOUBLE-MOBILIZATION: TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY NETWORKS FOR CHINA’S ENVIRONMENT AND PUBLIC HEALTH by Fengshi Wu Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2005 Dissertation Committee: Professor Ken Conca, Chair Professor Douglas Grob Professor Margaret Pearson Professor Miranda Schreurs Professor James Gao, Dean representative © Copyright by Fengshi Wu 2005 ii To my parents, Wu Zhigui and Ge Yumei 献给我的父亲母亲，吴志桂、葛玉梅 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Numerous people have shared with me their insights on transnational activism and China’s environmental and public health governance, without which this dissertation would only be in vain. Special thanks are due to Wen Bo, Dr. Weng Yongkai, Humphrey Wou, Jin Jiaman, Dr. Jennifer Turner, and Jim Harkness. I acknowledge the valuable input from my whole Dissertation Committee to bring about the final product. Professor Ken Conca spent countless hours reading various field reports and chapter drafts and provided comments during the process. I am grateful to the Blue Moon Foundation and Beijing Global Environmental Institute for their financial and logistic support for my field work in China in 2004. Billy Varettoni, Jenny Wüstenberg, Keri Parker, and Ken Cousins gave generous assistance in editing the final draft. I thank Professor Charles Butterworth, Waseem El-Rayes and Ghada Al- Madbouh for their friendship and support during my graduate years and dissertation writing. Finally, this dissertation is dedicated to my parents for their love and education. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Notes...........................................................................................................................v List of Abbreviations...................................................................................................vi List of Figures.............................................................................................................vii List of Tables...............................................................................................................viii Chapter 1....................................................................................................................1 International Non-state Actors, Transnational Activism, and China: An Introduction Chapter 2....................................................................................................................40 Transnational Advocacy Networks in Theory Non-state Actors in Translational Relations Double-mobilization: Transnational Advocacy Networks Theory Revisited Domestic Structures and Transnational Advocacy Networks Chapter 3....................................................................................................................107 Transnational Nature Conservation Advocacy Networks in China The Nature Conservation Crisis Environmental Civil Society International Advocacy Actors and Transnational Networks in Nature Conservation Chapter 4....................................................................................................................198 Transnational HIV/AIDS Prevention Advocacy Networks in China China’s AIDS Epidemic Social Activism in HIV/AIDS Prevention International Advocacy Actors and Transnational Networks in HIV/AIDS Prevention Chapter 5....................................................................................................................285 Domestic Structures and Transnational Double-mobilization: A Cross-sectoral Comparison Chapter 6....................................................................................................................355 Conclusions Appendices.................................................................................................................382 Bibliography..............................................................................................................394 v NOTES 1) All Chinese names are kept in the format of last name first and first name second, except wherever is specially noted. 2) Currencies: RMB—China Yuan, UKP—U.K. pound, USD—U.S. dollar vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AIDS—Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome CSW—commercial sex workers CITES—Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species EPA—(provincial and local) Environmental Protection Bureaus HIV—Human Immunodeficiency Virus GONGO—government organized non-governmental organization IDU—Intravenous Drug User NPC—National People’s Congress MoH—Chinese Ministry of Health MSM—men have sex with men MTCT—mother-to-child transmission NGO—Non-governmental organization NSA—non-state actors PLWHA—People Living with HIV/AIDS SARS—Syndrome of Acute Repertory Syndrome SEPA—Chinese State Environmental Protection Administration SFB—Chinese State Forestry Bureau UNAIDS—United Nations AIDS Programme VCT—voluntary counseling and testing (for potential HIV+ patients) vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1. The Boomerang Model (Keck and Sikkink, 1998)…………………….. 60 Figure 2.2. The Double-mobilization Model...............................................................66 Figure 2.3. Comparing the temporal dimension of the Boomerang and Double- mobilization models (two parts)……………...…………………………..71-72 Figure 2.4. A synthesis of the Boomerang and Double-mobilization models……….75 Figure 2.5. Impact of domestic democracy and social mobilization on transnational advocacy networks………………………………..………………………….82 Figure 3.1. Governing bodies related to nature conservation in China….………….115 Figure 3.2. Data on reforestation (total size and the part converted from arable lands, 1999-2004)…………………………………………………………..122 Figure 3.3. Growth of international NGOs in nature conservation in China……….146 Figure 3.4. General characteristics of international NGO community in nature conservation in China………………………………………………………147 Map 3.3. WWF, TNC and CI conservation the eco-hotspot in southwest China…..178 Figure 4.1. Official accumulative numbers of HIV and AIDS patients……………. 203 Map 4.1. Geographic distribution of HIV infection cases (2003 estimates)………..204 Figure 4.2. Modes of transmission among HIV/AIDS cases (2003 estimates)……. 204 Box 4.1. Structure of the State Committee of AIDS Control and Prevention………213 Figure 4.3. Governing structures in HIV/AIDS prevention in China………………213 Figure 4.4. Growth of international NGOs working in health and AIDS in China…250 Figure 4.5. General characteristics of international NGO community in AIDS prevention in China…………………………………………………………254 Figure 5.1. Growth of international NGOs in conservation, health, and HIV/AIDS prevention in China…………………………………………………………289 Figure 6.1. Domestic micro-level structures and the emergence of transnational advocacy networks………………………………………………………….368 Figure 6.2. Domestic micro-level structures and the political patterns of transnational advocacy networks………………………………………………………….368

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