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Home , Asmodeus, Muhammad Shafi Deobandi, Munkar and Nakir, Muqatil ibn Sulayman, Pure Heart, Shah Abdul Aziz Dehlavi

Exorcism in

by

Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips

Submitted infulfillment for therequire ment of the degreeof Doctor of Philosophy

University of Wales Saint 's University College LAMPETER September, 1993 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Declaration...... v • Acknowledgment...... •.••.•...•.•...... •.•....•...... •.•...... •...•.•...••.• VI ...... ·...... Abstract ...... vii... S ystem o fTrans 11terat1on...... V111 Introduction...... 1 Chapter One: The Spirit-World...... 4 The Spirit...... � ...... 4 0 .. ngm ...... 7 Form...... •...... 10 ...... 14 The Soul's Abode AfterDeath ...... �. 16 Souls of the ...... 17 Souls of the M s ...... 17 Souls of the Believers ...... 18 Souls of the Disbelievers ...... 18 Contact with the Living••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 19 Conclusion ...... 22 The An.g.els ...... 22 0 ngin ...... 23 Created ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 23 Light ...... 24 • . . Before Man...... ' .... 24 F Olm -- ...... , ...... 25 Invisible...... 25 Non-Human •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 25 Beautiful••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 27 Visible ...... 27 Neuter ...... 28 . Names...... 29 Jibril...... 29 Mika'il•• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 30 Isra.fil...... 3 O Malik...... 31 Munkar and Nakir...... 31 Harilt and Marilt...... •..•...... 31 Others ...... 32 Abilities ...... 33 Control ...... 33 • Thoughts ...... 33 Mobility ...... 34 Obedience ...... 34 Relationshipswith ...... 34 Birth...... 34 I . nsp1rat1on ...... ••...... •...•....••...... •...... 35 Recording ...... 36 Praying ...... 36 Death ...... 37 Questioning ...... 38 Guardian 38 Conclusion ...... 39 The ...... 39 Reality ...... 41 Origin ...... 44 Death ...... 45 (Ar. Shayjan) ...... 46 Form ...... 53 Invisible ...... 53 Visible ...... 56 Categories ...... 57 Aerial ...... 57 Animal 59 ...... Earthbound 61 ...... Abilities 61 ...... Eat Drink 61 and ...... Cohabitation 63 ...... Freewill 64 ...... Mobility 65 ...... Relationships Humans 66 with ...... Dreams 66 ...... Thoughts ...... 67 Homes ...... 67 Birth ...... 68 Sickness ...... 68 Death ...... 69 Cohabitation 69 Conclusion ...... 74 Chapter Two: Spirit-Possession 75 Terminology ...... 75 Reality ...... 76 Evidence for Possession 78 ...... Qur'Anic Evidence 78 ...... Evidence from the Sunnah 80 ...... Logical Evidence 82 ...... Evidence Against Possession 83 ...... Qur"anic Evidence 83 ...... Logical Evidence ...... 86 Analysis the Arguments of ...... 88 Refutation of the Evidence Against Possession 89 ...... Qur'Anic Evidence ...... 89 Evidence from Ijadith ...... 90 Logical Evidence ...... 91 Reasons for Possession ...... 93 Partial-Possession ...... 95

ii Mediumship ...... 95 Possession Objects of ...... 97 Demonic Visions ...... 98 Magic ...... 100 Terminology ...... 100 Reality ...... 101 Evidence for the Reality Magic of ...... 102 EvidenceAgainst the Reality Magic of ...... 105 Analysis of the Arguments ...... 108 Refutation of t,he EvidenceAgainst the Reality Magic 109 of ...... RelationshipBetween Magic and Possession III The Evil Eye ...... 113 Forms ...... 114 ...... 115 Terminology ...... 115 Validity ...... 116 The Exorcist ...... 119 Conditions ...... 120 Methodology ...... 122 First Step: (a) Undo Charm ...... 122 First Step: (b) Address ...... 123 SecondStep: Cursing ...... 125 Third Step: (a) Recitations 126 ...... al-Fatibah 126 Ayah ...... al-Kurs7i...... 128 Sarah 130 al-Baqarah...... Basmalah 130 ...... Ta'awwudh 131 ...... Adhan Iqamah 132 and ...... Prophetic 133 ...... Third Step: (b) Medicines 135 Dates ...... 136 Truffles 136 ...... Bath 136 ...... Fourth Step: Beating 137 ...... Chapter Three: Modem Muslim Exorcists 139 ...... Methodology 139 ...... Procedure 139 ...... Questionnaire 141 ...... Results ...... 142 Profile of the 20th Century Muslim Exorcist 149 Background ...... 149 Cases ...... 149 Signs Possession of ...... 149 Reasonsfor Possession ...... 151 Method Exorcism of ...... 151 Additional Techniques ...... 152 Possession Exorcism in and ...... 153 Definition ...... 153

iii , Fallen 154 and ...... Origin: Old Testament Apocrypha 156 and ...... New Testament 159 ...... Development: SecondCentury 160 ...... Third Fourth Centuries 162 and ...... Middle Ages Reformation 166 and ...... Survey Christian Exorcists 170 of ...... Chapter Four: Discussion 185 ...... : ...... Conclusion ...... 196 Appendix I The Manuscript ...... 212 Translation the Manuscript 223 of ...... An Explanation the Soul 239 of ...... Appendix H: Interviews ShaykhMubammad Tahir'Abdul-Mubsin 242 ...... 'Abdul-Khaliq 251 al-'Allar ...... Sa'Id 270 ...... 'Abdullah* Mushrif 276 al-'Amr! ...... 'Ali Mushrif 288 al-'Amri ...... Muhammad 301 al-Funaytil al-'Unayz! ...... Muýammad ibn Sa'iyyid 308 ad-Dawsari...... Rana Muhammad Anwar 312 ...... Qari"Abilul-Khaliq RahMw 320 ...... Maulana ShaykhA4mad 1jusaynZurdav! 325 ...... Khwaja Ijasan SanehNi? aml 331 ...... Qari' Maulana SayyidMu4ammad 1dris 336 ...... Maulana Iftikharul-Ijasan 340 ...... Fa4al Boadi 345 , ...... Shar -a n Khan * 356 ...... Ijasan Muhammad 359 ...... Muhammaý Sa'id 370 al-Afghani...... SudaneseExorcists 376 ...... Age 376 ...... Education 376 ...... Reasonfor Beginning 376 ...... Experience 377 ...... Concepts 377 ...... Signs Possession 377 of ...... Reasonfor Possession 377 ...... Method Treatment 377 of ...... Bibfiography 380 ......

iv DECLARATION

I declare that the following work is a result of my own investigation except where explicit reference has been made to the works of other scholars.

I further declare that the followingwork has not been submitted forany other degree.

Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips

V ACKNOWLEDGMENT

It is unimaginablethat an academiceffort of this magnitudecould successfidly come to fruition without the help of others. Expressinggratitude to those to whom it is due is a highly regarded Islamic custom based upon the statement of

Mubammad (4): "Whoever doesnot thank peopledoes not thank . " I First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor,Dr. Mawil Izzi Dien, for his invaluable spiritual and academicadvice and for his subtle direction of my efforts throughout the preparation of this thesis. Gratitude is also due to the Dean of the Faculty of

Theology, Dr. D. P. Davies, who provided both insightsinto the topic and technical guidance in its compilation. And lastly, I am indebtedto sister Amatullah who typed my thesis at a moment'snotice.

I Narrated by Aba Sa'Id,collected by Mmad andat-Tirmidhi, and authenticated by al-Alban!in., VaAh vol. 5, pp. 356-357,no. 6417.

vi ABSTRACT

This work is an investigation of the orthodox concept of exorcismin Islam.

The main purpose of this study is to identify the orthodox Islamic viewpoint of spirit- possessionof humansand its treatment(i. e., exorcism)based upon evidencefrom the

Qur'An, the Sunnah, views of the faýjbah (companionsof Prophet Mubammad [4]) and the opinions of the early Sunnitescholars. This dissertationis comprisedof an introduction, four chapters, a conclusion and two appendixes. The first chapter establishesthe Islamic parametersof the spiritual world of createdbeings. The second chapter consistsof a discussionof the orthodox understandingof spirit-possessionand a delineation of the prophetic methodologyof exorcism. The third chapteris devoted to a study of tabulated data from interviews with a samplingof modem-day, orthodox exorcists from various parts of the Muslim world and a brief presentationof exorcism according to Roman Catholicism. The fourth chapter consists of a comparative discussion of the second and third chapters,and it includesa conclusionin which the views of modem medicine are compared to exorcist tradition. Additionally, some questionsconcerning exorcism in Islam and other are answered.

vii SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION

Arabic Letter Symbol Used2 Letter Symbol Used

a b M

"i t Z) n th h h/t

W kh Y d A ShortVowels r z a S sh u

LongVowels T-I

gh f Dipthongs

q aw !j k ay

2 This systemfollows the standardused by the EncYCIOPaediaOfIslam exceptin the case of the aff-JAmarticle before sun letters. This hasbeen changed according to has pronunciation. Aa marbDfahwhich precedesa pause been written as bi throughout, as in Arabic-EngfisbLexicon and other works. A dashhas been placed betweenletters which are read separately in Arabicbut maybe misconstrued,such as "I-h. "

viii INTRODUCTION

Throughout history man has alwayshad a strong attraction for the occult and . In the past, high priests,mediums, shamans, secret societies,cults and religions were alwaysthere to satisfythis thirst. With the birth of industrialization and the evolution of modem science, there arosein the West an era of skepticismwhich relegated the occult to the realm of fairy tales and fiction. However, from time to time there have been upsurges of spiritualism. In the past two decadescountless gurus, maharajis, swarnis, grs and representativesof Christian and Islamic cults have panned their wares among the present,impressionable generation of Westerners. During the last twenty years, in particular, the spiritualist wave has reachedan unprecedented height. In response, the movie industry has enthusiasticallychurned out a seriesof films about ghosts and demonic possession: The Exorcist, Rosemxyý Baby,

Possessed,Poltergeist, Gbost Busters, etc. Publishing houses have also printed a plethora of books on this subject. The basis for many of thesemovie scripts and novels has been extractedfrom a long tradition of Christian influencedliterature on the occult.

Belief in the spirit-world and diabolicalpossession of human beings has continuedvirtually unchallengedsince the earliestof timesin the East,especially in the Muslim world. Consequently,there has been very little recentliterature, written and published, especiallyof researchcaliber in the Muslimworld. However,in the last ten years, an upsurgeof interestamong about possession and the spirit-worldhas led to the republicationof mostof the classicaltexts on this subjectand the publication of a few modem works. There has also beena markedincrease in the numberof exorcists,especially among practicingMuslims. Orientalistliterature on this subject, although relatively abundant,concentrates extensively on the folklore aspectof the spirit-worldand demonic possession as it manifestsitself in differentMuslim lands.

1 This present work is specificallyaimed at filling a gap in modem researchon the Islamic concept of exorcismand the supernaturalworld related to it, basedupon the sources considered authentic by IslamiC3authorities and augmented by field research. This thesis is comprised of four chapters. The first two investigatethe theoretical aspectsof exorcism,and the last two contain data gatheredfrom field study and books, including a critical and comparativeanalysis of this collected inforrnation in light of its orthodox theological roots.

The first chapteris an introductionto the theologicalroots of exorcism.The orthodox Islamicconcept of created,intelligent beings which comprisethe spirit-world is given. Each class of the spirit-worldis portrayedin regardto its origin, form and abilities. From this, it is deducedwhether or not it is possiblefor anyof thesebeings to possesshumans.

The secondchapter presentsthe theologicalbasis for andagainst the beliefin spirit-possessionof humansand presentsthe authentic,narrated evidenceused by proponentsof both views. It furtherlooks at relatedterminology and examines the orthodox methodologyof exorcismbased upon prophetic tradition and the traditions of the Prophefscompanions.

The third chapteris comprisedof the resultsfrom a field studyof a samplingof orthodox Muslim exorcistscollected from differentIslamic communities around the world. This data includestheological views of the exorcistson the subject of exorcism,their techniquesand some casehistories of their patients.A tabulationof the data from the interviewsis usedto createa profile of the modemMuslim exorcist and his techniques.A brief presentationof the history,theory and practice of exorcism

3 When the term "Islamic" is used, it refersto orthodoxIslam, that which is in accordancewith the Qur'An and the Sunnah(authentic traditions of Prophet Muhammad [ý*]) is understoodby the early generationsof righteous,Muslim schýlars.

2 in the RomanCatholic branch of Christianityand other sects which sharetheir view of demonologyconcludes this chapter.

The fourth and final chapterconsists of a discussionin which the profile of the modem Muslim exorcist and his techniques developed in the third chapter are compared to the classicalmodel also presentedin the third chapter. The discussionis followed by a conclusion 'in which the views of the medicalprofession regarding exorcism are presented and the validity of exorcist tradition defended. It endswith a discussionof the Islamic view on successfulexorcisms performed by Christians.

There are two appendixes. The first is comprisedof anunpublished, Arabic manuscriptabout the firm. It is transcribed,edited and translated, and portions of it are used in the presentationof the orthodox Islamic view on the finn andspirit- possessionof humans. The secondappendix contains seventeen interviews of exorcistsgrouped accordingto their locale. Also includedis a summaryof relevant data aboutexorcists in Sudan,extracted from the unpublishedMasters thesis of Abdel RahimElmahi Elnour, Fugara Techniques of MentalHealing (submitted to the Faculty of Arts, Departmentof Psychology,University of Khartoum,March, 1987).

Original texts of the Qur'Anand the PaSthquoted throughout this thesiseither have been translatedby me or existing translationshave beenmodified to correct errors or updatethe language.Consequently, the referencesto Englishtranslations are only to indicate existing English languagesources. I have also endeavoredto authenticatePadahs not found in the collectionsof $Agb al-BuLb&f and $Agh Muslim, which are generallyaccepted by Muslimauthorities as completely authentic with a few well-known exceptions.In doingso, I haverelied upon the works which have been critically authenticatedby ShaykhNAýiruddin al-Albw, one of the leading Pa&th scholarsof this century.

3 Chapter One

THE SPIRIT-WORLD

According to Islamic beliefs there are three different species of created intelligent beings: mankind, angelsand finn. Theseintelligent beings are called dba%V

aP#vqO1(rational beings).4 Although the bodiesof humanbeings inhabit the visible

material world, their souls. inhabit the spirit-world of invisible rational beings. The

spirit-world of createdbeings in the Islamic cosmologicalview is composedof human

spirits, angels and finn. Therefore, the possessionof human beings, by spirits, if

recognized by Islam, must involve one, some or all of these entities. In order to

determine what role, if any, they play in the spirit-possessionof humanbeings, the

following chapterwill investigateeach of the createdspiritual beingsin regard to their

reality, composition and abilities.

THE HUMAN SPIRIT

According to Islamicbeliefs the first classificationof createdspiritual beings is that of the humanspirit. The mostcommonly used Arabic terms for the humanspirit or soul are rob and nafs. Theword rap originallymeant breath or wind, while nafs was used reflexively to referto the selfor person.In the Qur'Anboth termsare used in referenceto the humansoul. 5

Some scholars of Padah and law and some mystics held that the rap was

different from the nafs. One such scholar,MuqAtil ibn SUlayMan,6 explainedthis view,

4 T. P. Hughes, Dictionmy oflslam qahore: PremierBook House, n.d. ), p. 40.

5 H. A. R. Gibb and J.H. Kramers, Sborter Encyclopaediaof Islam (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, I st ed., 1953), p. 433. Seealso E.W. Lane, Ambic- English Lexicon (Cambridge,England: Islamic Texts Society, 1984), vol., 1, p. 1180 and Dictionary of1slam, p. 546.

6 Muqatil ibn Sulaymanibn Bashir al-Azdi (d. 767) was born in Balakh but lived in Baghdad where he became among the leading Qur'Anic exegetesof his time. He

4 stating, "Man has life [PayAh],a spirit [TOP]and a soul [nafs]. When he sleeps,his nafs him. However, it does become - by which he understandsthings -leaves not separate from the body but leaveslike a rope with its fibers extendingfrom it. He seesdreams with the nafs which has left him, while PayAband n7p both remain, enablinghim to breathe and toss and turn during sleep.117 Thejudge, Aba Bakr ibn al-BAqillani,s held that the nafs was the breath which is inhaledand exhaled,and the rat a manifestation

('araV) of the life force (PayAb).9

Although the termsnafs (soul) and rap (spirit) areused to referto a numberof different things, the majority of scholarsheld that with regardto humanbeings, they are one and the samething. However,the termnafs is morefrequently used to refer to the spirit when it is attachedto the body,but whenit is completelyseparate from the body, the termrap is usuallyused. Rap is not usedto referto the humanbody by itself or alongwith the soul. Amongother usages, we find nafsreferring to blood, as in thejuristic maxim,"That whichhas no flowing blood [nafs] will not defilewater if it dies in it. " The evil eye(atyn) is alsoreferred to asnahsi, as in the expression,"So and so was afflictedby the evil eye[nafs]. " Nafs alsomeans "self, " asin the verse:

"Do not kUl yourscIves [anfusakuml." Qur'An,4: 29

also narratedPadfibs, however, hewas considered an unreliable narrator (mauvk al- badrth) by his contemporariesamong the padah scholars. I-fismost noted works kh include Nawidir at-Taflir and Mutasbibih aI -QuT '- jn (Khayruddin az-Ziri al [Beirut: 7, 281 A'. Mn Dar al-'Ilm li al-MalaM 6th ed., 1984], vol. p. -)

7 Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah,ar-ROP, pp. 327-328.

8 Muýammad ibn al-Tayyib al-Baqillahl-(939-1013) was born in Ba§rah and lived in Baghdad where he became a judge and was among the leadirig scholastic theologians of his time. He inheritedthe leadershipof the Ash'ari school of thought and wrote many books against the rival Mu'tazilite school. Among his published works are I: ijz al-Qur'ffn and al-Inýjf. (A]-A'I&n, vol. 6, p. 176.)

9Ar-Rap, p. 274.

5 Rap hasvarious usages. For example,it is usedto referto the Qur'Anitself.

"And thus We revealed to you by Our command a scripture

Qur'An,42: 52

It is alsoused in referenceto AngelGabriel, as in the verse:

"The trustworthy [n*l descended with it [ie., the Qur'gnl. " Qur'In, 26:193

Allah also refers to the succor which He grantsHis righteous servantsas n7tr

"llose are whom He has written in their heartsfaith and aided

them with a spirit [n*1 from Himself. " Qur'An,58: 22

In Arabic the human sensesare also referred to asraps, as in the expression,"The senseof smell [ar-rap ash-sh&=1. "10

Thereare two otherArabic terms, nasam and nasxnah, which arederived from the same root and are synonymouswith both nafs and n7p. Theseterms also refer to any crawling or waMng creaturewhich possessesa soul.11 Although theseterms are not found in the Qur'An, they are mentionedin a number of prophetic statements. For example, "Verily, the soul [nasamah]of the true believerbecomes a bird in the trees of Paradise." 12

10 Al-Albani's Sbarh al-'Aq! dahkt-Tzftjw, ýyah (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islami, 8th ed., 1984), p. 445. The Arabic text was taken verbatim from ar-ROP,pp. 326-327 and 329-330.

II Ibn Marqfles Lisin al-'Amb al-Mahit (Beirut: Dar Lisan al-'Arab, n.d. ), vol. 3, p. 629. See also Ibn al-Athies an-MUyah 17 Gbadb aRffadfth (Beirut: al- Maktabah al-Islanýiyyah,I st ed., 1963), vol. 5, p. 49.

12Narrated by Kab ibn Malik, collectedby an-Nasa! and Ibn Majah, and authenticatedby al-AJbw in YaAbSunan an-Nasill, vol. 2, p. 445, no. 1960.

6 ORIGIN

The opinion held by the majority of Islamicscholars is that the humansoul (rap) is not consideredto be of divine origin, but it is a finite, createdentity. The commentatorof SbarpaPAqj'dahkt-T4jwiyyah saidthe following, "Thenit [human spirit] is a part of AII&Wscreation and as such is created,according to the consensusof Sunnite scholars,as statedbyMuhammad ibn Nasral-Marwazi, 13 Ibn Qutaybah14and others." 15This positionis basedupon the followingevidence from the Qur'An:

"AMh is the creator of all diings. " Qur'An,13: 16 and 39:62

The meaningof this verse is general andincludes everything besides Allah andI-Es attributes. Similarly, evidence maybe foundin AllWs statementto ZakariyyAin the Qur'An:

"I createdyou before and you were nothing." Qur'in, 19:9

The term "humanbeing" refers to both the body and spirit, andthe addressis to Zakariyya, who is composedof both a body and spirit.16

Further evidencefor this positionhas been deduced from descriptionswithin the Qur'An and the badrth of the spirit in termsof dying,being held, snatched and

13 Muhammadibn Naýr (806-852),born anddied in Baghdad,was a Ijanbalite scholar of badfth. Among his is Tagm Qadr which hasbeen ýSlyarAUn manyworks as-ýWjh published. an-Nubalj', vol. 14,p. 33, no. 13.)

14'Abdullah ibn Muslim ibn Qutaybahad-Daynarl (d. 878)was alsoa Hanbalite ý]-Qur'ffn scholar noted for his booksMushkU a]-QurJn, MusWI aAUadFAGbaffb and Gbaffb al-yadrth, the latter two of which are published. (Siyar A'J&n an- Nuball', vol. 13,p. 296, no. 138.) 15 Sbatbýal-AqFdabkl-T4jw. ýyah, p. 391. Seealso Majrnal al-FatjwjSba YI& al-lslkn, vol. 4, p. 216.

16 Sbarh al-'AqWahkt-T4jwjyyah, pp. 391-392.

7 released.These are all qualitiesof createdthings. 17 Allah states:

"Every soul will taste death..." Qur'An,3: 185,21: 35 and29.57

"It is All-th that takesthe souls at death. And those that do not

die He takes during their sleep. Those on whorn He has passed

the decree of death, He holds back [from returning to this life],

and the rest He releases[back to their bodies] for an appointed term." Qur'An,39: 42

Umm Salamah reported that Allah's Messenger (4) camewhen her husband,AbiD

Salamah,died and found his eyes open in a fixed stare.He closedthem and said, "Whena soulis snatched,the sightfollows it. " Is

The opinion of the soul being uncreatedand consequentlya part of AUWS essence, was held by some Muslim philosophers Eke al-Kind-i,19 al-Farab,20 and

17 Ibid., p. 392. 18 jFagh Muslim, vol. 2, pp. 43643 7, no. 2003. 19 Ya'qikb ibn Is-ýIq al-Kindi (d. 873), a leadingArab Muslim philosopher of his time, was a son of one of the kings of Kindah. He grew up in Baýrahthen traveled to Baghdad where he studied and becamefamous in the fields of medicine,philosophy, music, engineeringand astronomy. He authoredmany books and translatedand wrote commentaries on many others, totaling over 300. His book on medical compounds, al-Adwj, ýý al-Murakkabah, was translated into Latin along with some of his treatises' in philosophy. Among his other publishedworks are Risgah Dat-Tanji-M on astrology, and al-Qawl fj' an-Nafs and Kbxnsah Rasi'llin philosophy. (A]-A'Ift, vol. 8, p. 195.) SeeM. M. Sharif, A History ofMuslim Phildsopby, vol. 1, p. 443.

20 Abil Muhammadibn Muhammadibn Tarkhanal-RrAb! (874-950) jTransoxiana). was born in Farab He wasof Turkishorigin, but wasraised in Baghdad. He becameproficient in Greekand most of the Easternlanguages known in his time. He became known as "The SecondTeacher" due to his commentarieson the writings of Aristotle ("The First Teacher") and is consideredthe preeniinentMuslim philosopher. He is known in the Westby the Latin nameAlfarabius or Avennasar. Among his publishedwritings are al-Fuýa&IPýJ'al-'Ulcyn andal-mustqj al-Kabir. (APAVArn, vol. 7, p. 20. See also TheNew EncyclopaediaBfitarmica [Chicago: EncyclopaediaBritannica Inc., 15thed., 1992],vol. 4, p. 680.)

8 Muýammad ibn Zakariyya ar-RAz!;11 by ýiafis such as the Ikhwjn g-$araM and Ibn

'Arab!; 23 and by some scholastic theologians (mutaWliman). 24 Among them were those who used Islamic texts to support their position that the soul is from Allah's command, an attribute of Allah, and thus uncreated. This argumentis basedupon the

Qur'anic verse:

"Say, Me spirit is from my Lord's command [amrl. '" Qur'An

17:85

However, here the meaningof wr (command)is not the divineorder itself but the thing being ordered. The use of the mgdar (infinitive)to meanism maf 'a] (past participle)is a well-knownArabic construction. 25

Another evidenceused by this factionto supportthe uncreatedorigin of the spirit is the Qur'arucverse in referenceto AllWs creationof Adam:

"And I blew in hirn from My spirit. " Qur'An,15: 29

They claimedthat in this verseAllah attributesthe spirit to Himselfin the sameway as He does His attributes, such as mercy, knowledge,sight, etc. On the otherhand,

21 Abe Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya ar-RM (865-925), a philosopher and among the leading medical scholars,was born in Rayy and studiedthere. At the age of 30 he traveled to Baghdad where he became famous and was given a number of leading scientific posts. In the West he was known by the Latin nameRhazes. The number of known titles of his written works is 232. I-lis most famouswork is a]-Hmy in medicine, which was translated into Latin. (A]-A'I&n, vol. 6, p. 130.) SeeA History of Muslim AflosopAy, vol. 1, p. 443.

22 A History of Musihn Allosophy, vol. 1, pp. 296-299.

23 SbolteTEncyclopaediaoflslam, p. 436.

24 M,?jmo' a]-Fatjwj, vol. 4, p. 222.

25 SbaqbaPAqj'dahqf-T4JwlYYah, p. 392.

9 orthodox scholars point out that it is necessaryto acknowledgethe two categoriesof things referred to by Allah as His. The first includesdescriptions of things which do not exist by themselves, like Allah's mercy, knowledge, power and fife. These are actual attributes and descriptionsof Allah. The other category consistsof things which exist separate from Allah, like the house of Allah, His she-camel,His servant,His messengerand His spirit. Theseare createdthings attributed to their Creator as His to indicate their special place of honor amongHis creation.26 Muhammad ibn Nasr was quoted as saying, "There is no differenceamong Muslims with regard to the fact that the souls of Adam and his progeny, Jesus, and all other descendantsof Adam are created. Allah createdthem, developedthem and gavethem form. Then He attributed them to Himself as He did with the remainderof His creation. Almighty AM said:

lie has subjectedto you whatever is in the heavensand on earth,

all of it is from Qur'An,45: 13 27

FORM

Some philosophersassert that eachindividual has three types of soulswithin him: ammArah,lawwarnah and mqmainnah. Theymaintain that humanpersonality is a reflection of the predominantsoul. However, accordingto 1eading Sunnite scholars,the correctposition is that theseQur'Anic terms all referto the singlehuman soul which exists in three stateS.28 In its loweststate an-nafs al-ammirah b! as-sO urgesthe completeand unbridled fulfillment of the soul'sbase desires:

"Verily, the soul persistentlycommands evil. " Qur'An,12: 53

26 Ibid.

27 Isml'il ibn Muhammadat-Tayn-d al-Asbahw, al-ýIuyaha Bayin jy.M4q#ah (Riyadh: Dar ar-Rayah,I st ed., 1990),vol. 1, p. 469.

28 Sbafbýal-'Aqj-dahkt-T4jwiyyah, pp. 394-395.

10 It is in this respectthat Prophet Mubammad(4) said, "An adulterer is not a believer while comn*ting adultery." 29

When the sinful desiresare opposed by faith, the soulmay blame and chastise its owner for the he or she commits, and thereforebecomes an-nafs a]-lawwAwah. The Qur'Anstates:

"And by Allih, I swear by the self-recriminating soul." Qur'An,75: 2

Likewise, the Prophet (4) said, "If your good deedsmake you happyand your evil deedsmake you feel bad,you area believer."30

If faith becomesstrong, good deedspredominate and the soul becomes tranquil. This is referredto as an-nafsal-migmainnah.

"0 peaceful soul, return to your Lord. " Qur'in, 89:27

Attempts have been madeby manyscholars to identifythe constitutionof the soul. Some, Eke Fakhruddin ar-Razi,31 held that it was corporeal. Others, such as al- GhaZZ, SInj, 33 jh32 and Ibn adopted the Aristotelianview that it wasincorporeal. In

29 Narrated by AbO Hurayrah in Sa&h al-Bukh&j, vol. 7, p. 339,.no. 484 and &Ah Muslim, vol. 1, p. 3 9, no. 104. 30 Collected by Mmad, and al-Ijakim and authenticatedby al-AlbW in Silsilah al-4jdah g-&Ahah, vol. 2, p. 83, no. 550.

31 FakhruddinMubammad ibn 'Umar ar-Razi (1150-1210),a leadingQur"anic exegete,was born in Rayy. He was the preeminentscholar of his time in Islamic sciences,as well as logic andphilosophy. I-Es most famous work is his eightvolume commentaryon the Qur'An which he entitled Maratfpal-Gbayb but which became known as at-TaIsir a]-Kabir. Among his other publishedworks areLawAmi'al- Baýyinjt, Ma'ghn I)sal ad-Dfn, a]-MAsji1 a]-Kbamsahand Nihjyah a]-Ijaz 17 . Dirgyahal-I jjz. (A]-A'Ijm, vol. 6, p. 3 13.) 32 Abo Ijamid Mubammadibn Mubammadal-Ghazzah (105 8-1111), a leading Muslim theologian,was born in Tas and was educatedthere and at Naysabor,

11 TawAHI a]-AnwJral-Bay#W134classifiedthe humansoul as an incorporeal emanation from Allah.35 Yet others, like Abfi 'Abdullah ibn al-Khalib,36 claimed that it was none other than the human body itself.37 The majority of scholarsrejected the latter two claims as being pure speculation,lacking any shredof evidencefrom the only sources which could define it -the Qur'An and the Sunnah. Ibn Ijazm3swas quoted by Ibn al-

especially under Imam al-Ijaramayn al-Juwayni(1028-1085) who he stayedwith until the im&ný death. He was appointed to teach at the Nl? anu*yyahMadrasah at Baghdad. There he taught and wrote on canonlaw, and he also wrote controversial books against various deviant sects. He later engrossedhimself in ýQfisrnand studied Greek philosophy. Through his writings, the forms of Greek dialectic madetheir final entry into Muslim thought. Among his famouspublished works are al-Mustaýfafmin 71m al-Usal in canon law; Wyar aPflm and Tahifut al-Falisifah in logic and philosophý; and his classic,JAýya' Ulam ad-an. (SbonerEncyclopaedia ofIslam, pp. 111-114.)

33 Known as' (d. 1037) in the West,Aba 'Ali al-Ijusaynibn SinAwas born in Bukhara. He wasa Persianphysician, and the mostfamous and influential of the philosopher-scientistsidentified with Islam. He was particularly notedfor his contributionsin the fields of Aristotelianphilosophy and medicine.He composed Kitib asb-Sbi7a'(Book of Healing),a vastphilosophical and scientific encyclopedia and a]-Q5nC1nij-qt-Tibb (CanonofMedicine), is the famousbooks . which among most in the historyof medicine.(TbeNewEnqyc1qpaedia Bfitannica, vol. 1, p. 739.) 34 "Abdullah ibn 'Umar al-Bay4aw!(d. 1287), a jurist, Qur'am*cexegete and scholar, wasborn in the city of Bay4a'(Persia near Shiraz) and was made the judge of Shirazfor sometime. He is mostnoted for his exegesis,An wir at-Tang] waAsnir at- Ta'tql, commonlyknown as a]-Bqypw, TawVi' al-Anwarin theologyand MinhJi al- WWI ff '11Ma]- UsOl in canonlaw. (A]-A']Arn,vol. 4, p. I 10.)

35 Shorter Encyclopacdla ofIslam, p. 435.

36 Abil 'Abdullah Muýammadibn'Abdullah (1313-1374), bom in Grenada,was famous under the title "Lisanud-DIn Ibn al-Kharib." He wasa historianand a manof letters. He later settledwith his fan-dlyin Fas. At onepoint in his illustriouscareer he was jailed and accusedof heresyand deviant philosophical ideas. While in prisonhe wrote a number of booksan the historyof the citiesof North Africa and Spain. (A]- A'I&n, vol. 6, p. 235. )

37 Ar-Rap, p. 275. 38 'Aft ibn ibn Ijazm a?- (944-1064), born in Cordova, was among the leading Muslim jurists of all time. He revived the Zahiri school ofjurisprudence which was founded by Dawad ibn 'Ali a?-ZAhirl (815-883). He was a prolific writer,

12 Qayyim39as saying that the majority upheld the view of ar-Rae in which the soul is considered corporeal and different from the humanbody. 40 Ibn al-Qayyim then listed one hundred and sixteen proofs from sources of Islamic thought in support of this vieW.41

It is generallyheld that the soul exists throughoutthe physicalbody. Ibn Taymiyyah42said, "The soul hasno specializedlocation in the body. It flows through the body in the same way as the life force, which is manifestin all parts of the body.

The presence of the soul is a condition for the existenceof fife. When the soul is present,life is present,and when it leaves,life leaves."43

and amonghis morefamous published works areal-Fýsal in heresiology;an II volume work in Islamic law calledd-Muhalli anda]-Ihk&n I! Usala]-Ahk&n in canonlaw. (A]-A']Arn, vol. 4, pp. 254-255.) 39 Mulýammadibn Abil Bakr (1292-1350)came to be knownas Ibn Qayyim.al- Jawziyyah or simplyIbn al-Qayyimbecause his fatherwas the director(qayyim) of al- JawziyyahMadrasah at Damascus. He wasborn in Damascuswhere he studiedand becamea leading,Ijanbalite theologian and faithful discipleof .Among his publishedworks arePlam a1-Muwaqqi'!n, 7-jdal-MaW, g-Pwj7q al-Mursalah, Madkij as-SVL4Tn,ar-ROP and Igbithah al-Lahfaln.(SbonarEncyclopaedia of Islam, p. 149. Seealso al-A ']am,vol. 6, p. 56.) 40 Ar-Rap, pp. 275-276.

41 Ibid., 277-299. 42 Ahmad ibn'Abdul-Ijalim ibn Taymiyyah(1263-1328) was born in Ijarran. His father aný grandfatherwere themselvesleading scholarsof the Ijanbaliteschool of Islamic law. He grew up in Damascuswhere he masteredat an earlyage the various Islamic disciplines. Much of his time andeffort wasspent defending the orthodox Islamic position againstthe various deviationswhich were currentat that time. A great dealof his latter life was spentin jail dueto theologicaland philosophical clashes with scholarsof his time. He wasa prolific writer evenwhile in jail. Someof his more famous publishedworks areas-Siy&ah ash-Sbar'jyý, a]-hnjn, Mrihijas-Sunnah, Majmo' RasjR, wal-Wasilah Majmal A]- al-FuTqjn, at-Tawaspl and a]-Fatjw9 .( A'I&n, vol. 1, p. 144.)

43 Majma ' Rasjil al-Munj)iy), ý, vol. 2, p. 47.

13 DEATH

Many Sunnite scholarsmaintain that the soul actually dies basedupon the obvious meaningsof the following verses:

"Every soul will taste death." Qur'An,3: 185

"Everything in the world will vanish leaving only the face of

your Lord, the Glorious, the Noble." Qurln, 55:26-27,

"Everything wiU perish except His face." Qur'An,28: 88

It is alsostated in theQur'An:

"rrhe people of Hell say]: 0 Lmd, You have causedus to die

twice and brought us to life twice." Qur'An,40: 11

They interpret this verseto be referringto the first deathwhich we witnesshappening to the body in this life, andthe seconddeath referring to the deathof the soulin the .44 Furthermore,they argue that if the angelsdie, the human soulmost certainlywill die.45

Other scholars,among them Ibn Ijazm,46Ibn Taymiyyah47and Ibn al-Qayyim, hold that the soul does not actuallydie. The soulwas created to exist eternallyand

44 Bmzakb is a Persianand Arabic word meaning"obstacle, " "hindrance"or "separation." It is found three times in the Qur'An(23: 100,25: 53 and55: 20). In ,the word bxzakb is usedto describethe intervalbetween the presentlife and that which is to come,from the periodof deathto the Resurrection,upon which he who diesenters. (SbotlerEncyclopaediaof1slam, p. 59. Seealso Arabic-English Lexicon,vol. 1, p. 187.) 45 Sbarb al-AqIdab ýkt-T4,fwiyyah, p. 395. Seealso ar-ROP,p. 70.

46 AI-Fýsalffal-Milal wa al-Ahwj'wa an-Nffial, vol. 5, p. 88.

47 Ma #no' al-Faawj, vol. 4, p. 279. .

14 only the body actuallydies. Theyclaim that the traditionsreferring to the pleasuresof the righteous soul and the torturesof the evil soulafter its extractionfrom the body until AM returns it to its body indicateits eternalnature. Accordingto them,the "death"of the soulis only its extractionfrom the body. In supportof this positionthey cite the following Qur'Anicverses:

"In it [i. e., Paradise] they will not tastedeath beyond the first death." Qurln, 44:56

Here the peopleof Paradiseare described as dying only once. If therewas a deathof the soul alsoat the time of the blowingof the trumpet,it would meanthat two deaths were decreedfor them.

Regardingthe verse mentioningtwo deathsused as evidenceby thosewho hold that the souldies,

"[71be people of Hell say], '0 Lmd, You have causedus to die

twice and brought us to fife twice: " Qur'An,40: 11 it is explainedby the followingverse:

"How can you disbelieve in AM when you were dead and He

brought You to life, then He causedyou to die, then he brought you back to life? " Qurln, 2:28

Those who advocatethat the souldoes not die explainthat theseverses refer to man being dead (i. e., nonexistent)while in the stateof spermin his father'sloins andovum in his mother'swomb. He is then broughtto life, causedto die a bodily deathand revived on the .In this sequencethere is not a deathof the soul prior to resurrection;otherwise, there would be threedeaths. 49

48 Sbaqhal-'Aqfdah kt-T4jwi"4ah, pp. 395-396. Seealso ar-RO, pp. 71-72.

is The stunning (p'q) of the souls at the time of the blowing of the horn (for) does not necessitate their death. Mankind will be stunned on the Day of Resurrection when Allah comes to judge them and the earth will be illuminated with FEs fight, but this will not be their death. Similarly, when Prophet Moses was thunderstruck, he did not die. Only those of creation who are not already dead will die at the blowing of the horn, while those who died previously and those not destined to die, among the damsels and youths of Paradise, will not. 49

THE SOUL'S ABODE AFTER DEATH

Muslim scholarshave disagreed regarding where the soulsdwell afterthe death of the body. Some specifiedactual locationson earth, such as at-Jabiyah" in Damascusor the well of Zamzamfor the soulsof believers,and Burhats' in Yemenfor the disbelievingSOUIS. 52 However, these opinions are based upon fabricated traditions. Other scholars,like Ibn Ijazm, heldthat theyreturn to the barZakbMwhere they had been created and kept before being blown by angelsinto the human embryoS.54 Authentictraditions support the opinionthat the soulsof the deadin the bamakbare in different locations accordingto their faith or lack of it andaccording to the qualityor

49 Sbarb al-Aqldah kt-T4j%tyah, p. 396. 50 Ablyah literally meansa watering trough which collects water (Arabic-EngHsh Lexicon, vol. 1, p. 379). 51 A well in Hadramaut (SbarbýaI-'Aqj'dahkt-TapjwIýyah, p. 4540). According to Ibn al-Athir in an-Nihiyah, vol. 1, p. 122, it can also be written BarahiDt,and it refers to a well in Hadramaut so deepthat it is not possibleto reach its bottom.

52 Ar-Rap, pp. 154-155. Seealso Sbarhýa]-AqIdahkt-Ta#J wi)yah, p. 454.

53 Literally, "a thing that intervenesbetween any two things; a bar or an obstruction." In the Qur'An23: 100, it refersto "the intervalbetween the presentlife and that which is to come,from the periodof deathto the Resurrection,upon which he who diesenters" or the actualstate itself (Arabic-EngflshLexicon, vol. 1, p. 187).

54 Al-Fisal il- al. Milal, vol. 5, pp. 88-89.

16 quantity of their good deedsand their sins.55

Souls of the

The abode of the souls of the prophetsis ar-rariq al-allj, 56in the uppermost part of the 'jJjjyyCW,57 the highestlevel of the seventhheaven. Prophet Mulýammad's wife, 'A'ishah, reported that at the last moment of his fife the Prophet (4) called out,

0 Allah, forgive me, have mercy upon me and admit me to ar-]-a'Jj. " 59

Souls of the Mailm

Some of the souls of the martyrsreside inside green birds in Paradise,while others are held at the gatesof Paradise.Ibn 'Abbasreported that AllaWsMessenger (4) said, "When your brethren werekilled [on the dayof Ubud], Allah placedtheir souls inside greenbirds which drink from the riversof Paradiseand eat from its fruits. Then they retire to goldenlamps hanging from the shadeof the ."59 On another occasiona mancame to the Prophet(4*) andasked, "0 Messengerof AHA what will I get if I amkilled in the pathof Allah?" He replied,"Paradise. " Whenthe manturned to walk away, the Prophet (4*) added, "Except [if you have a] debt. Jibriljust confidedit to me." 60

55 The following classificationcan be foundin Sbarbýa]- -kt-;r4Jw! "Wh pp. 402403 andin'Umar al-Ashqar'sa]-Yawm a]-Akbir: d-QiYffmah9--YughrA, PP. 102-104. 56 Rarjq hererefers to a groupof prophetswho occupythe uppermostpart of the seventhheaven (An-Nihiyah, vol. 2, p. 246).

57 A place in the seventhheaven to which ascendthe souls of the believers (Arabic-EngHsbLexicon, vol. 2, p. 2147).

58 Sa&b al-Bukb&f, vol. 7, p. 392,no. 578 andýWb Muslim, vol. 4, p. 1301, '' no. 598ý.

59 Collectedby Aba Dawad,Mmad andal-IjMdm and authenticated by a)-Alban! in SbarbaI-'Aqidahkt-T4Jwiýyyah, p. 455,ftn. 3. 60 Collected by an-Nasd'iand Abmad and authenticated by al-Albarain R4 a]-

17 Soub of TheBefievers

The souls of the righteousbelievers will also be in Paradisebut in the form of birds and not inside birds. Yet these soulswill not be freeto roamas those of the martyrs. Ka'b In Malik related that the Prophet (4) said, "The believer'ssoul [becomes]'a bird which feedsupon the fruits of the treesin Paradiseuntil Allah returns it to its body on the day he is resuffected."61 On the other hand, the soulsof disobedientbelievers are held in their gravesand punished for minorand major sins. Ibn 'Abbas reported that the Prophet (4) passedby the graves of two menand commented,"Surely, they arebeing punished right now -but not for a majoroffense. One of them was not careful to protecthimself from the splashof his urine,and the other used to spread rumors."62 Duringthe Prophet'sascension he was showna Bar with a hookedbar with whichhe would continuouslytear down oneside of his mouth to the nape of his neckand then the otheruntil theDay of Resurrection.Adulterers and adulteresseswere seen naked in an oven-likepit with a fire blazingunder them. The one who dealtin interestwas seenin a river of blood. Wheneverhe attemptedto climb out, a largestone was thrown in his mouthcausing him to fall backin the river.63

'ouls of TheDisbeNeveis

The souls of those who rejectfaith in Allah will be confinedto the graveand tonnented there until their resurrection.The Prophet (4) statedthat beddingsof fire would be spreadfor themto lie on anda door to Hell would be opened,allowing its

'AqIdah, kt-T4jwjyyah, p. 455, fln. 1.

61 Collected by an-Nasa'i, Ibn Majah and Malik and authenticatedby al-Albard in Sbarb al-'Aqj'dah At-T4jwiyyah, p. 456, ftn. 1.

62 Sa&b a]-Bukbiff, vol. 1, p. 141, no. 215 and yaAb Muslim, vol. 1, pp. 171- 172, no. 575.

63 See YaAb al-BukhAff, vol. 2, pp. 262-265, no. 468.

is scorchingwinds to roast them until the Resuffection.64

The souls of the righteousbelievers meet eachother, according to the orthodox

Islamic view. This position is basedupon the PaSth in which Masraq reported that on one occasion the companionssaid to All&s Messenger,"It is not right for us to part company with you in this world becausewhen you die and are raisedup [into the heavens], we will not be able to see you." Then Allah, the Exalted, revealedthe following verse: "Whoever obeys Allah and the Me&sengerwill be in the company of those whom Allah has shown favor - the prophets,the affirmers of truth, the mar" and the righteous. What a wonderful companythey are."65

According to Ibn al-Qayyim,this "wonderfulcompany" is establishedin this life, in the barzaM and in the Hereafter.Man is with whomhe lovesin thesethree stagesof his soul's existence,since thereis no evidencerestricting it to this life and Paradiseonly. The followingprophetic tradition leaves no doubtthat the pioussouls are ableto meetand converse with eachother after their death. Abu Hurayrahquoted the Messengerof ARA (4) as saying, "Verily, whenthe soulof a [dead]believer soars up to the heavens,the soulsof otherbelievers come to greetit, seekingnews aboutthe peopleof the earth."66

CONTACT WITH-rHE LIVING

There were someBaIinite (esoteriC)67 "Muslim" philosophers and mystics, Eke

64 Collected by Aba Dawad, Ibn Majahand an-Nasa'! and authenticated by al- Albani in Apk&n id-JanXim

65 Ar-Rap, p. 28, ftn. 2. The Qur'Anic referenceis 4:69.

66 Authenticatedby as-Suyall andconfirmed by al-AJbw in Silsilah ap4jsth M-&Ahah, no. 2628. Seeal-Ayjt al-ftying p. 105,fln. 2.

67 The namecomes from the Arabicterm bminwhich means "unapparent, hidden, concealed,intrinsic, esoteric" (Ambic-EnglishLexicon, vol. 1, p. 221). It is usedto refer to thosewho claimedthat the apparentmeanings of the Qur'Anand Sunnah were

19 Ibn Sina and the Mwin as-pa, who claimed that when perfect souls leave their bodies, they appear to the living, conversingwith them in order to educatethem and polish their confined souls. However, the consensusof opinion among orthodox scholars is that the human soul releasedby bodily death cannot cornmunicatewith or influence living beings in this world. The ability of humans to act righteously or unrightýously ends with death, according to the texts of the Qur'An and the Sunnah.

The following are among the more common evidencesused to support the above mentionedposition:

"rIbey will continue in falsehood] until when death comesto

one of them, he says,'O my Lmd, sendme back so that I may do

righteousness in the flags I neglected: But no! It is only a

word he says. And behind them there is a barrier [bm7.akhj until

the day they are resurrected." Qur'An,23: 99-100

When faced with the realityof the nextlife, the disbelieverswill wishto returnto this world to do sufficient goodto avertthe punishmentwith whichthey areconfronted. However, Allah informsthat thereis no opportunityto returnand that the way backis blockedby a barriererected between the soulsof the deadand this world.

Aba Hurayrah reportedthat the Prophet(4*) said,"When a mandies all of his deeds cease except in three [cases]: charity of continuousblessing, beneficial knowledge,and a righteouschild who praysfor him." 68 The implementationof human

not the intendedmeanings but were symbolsfor concealedtruths. The hidden meaningsare like the kernelin relationshipto the shell. The obviousmeanings were for the ignorant masses,while the intendedmeanings were hiddenfrom themand revealedonly to a specialgroup of intellectuals.(Aba Ijamid al-Ghazzah,FaVilift a]- BAýtini)qvah[Kuwait: Dar al-Kutubath-Thaqafiyyah, n.d. ], p. 11.)

68 Collectedby Muslim (ýWb Musft vol. 3, p. 867,no. 4005),Abil Dawad, andal-Bukhad in a]-Adaba]-Mufrad

20 freewill in choosingbetween doing goodor evil ceaseswith death,although further good deedsmay be addedto his recordas a resultof the continuingbenefit of someof his charitabledeeds.

The Prophet (4) was also quoted by Abo Hurayrah as saying, "Verily, when the soul of [a dead] believer soarsup to the heavens,the souls of the other believers come to greet it seeking news about the people of the earth."69 And another companion, Sahl ibn Sa'd, related that the Prophet (4) said, "Verily, I Will precede you to the fountain [in Paradise]. Whoever passesby me will drink and never again experiencethirst. Somepeople whom I will know and they wiH know me wiU come to me but a barrier will appearbetween me and them. I wiH say, 'Verily, they are among my followers! It will be said to me, 'You do not know what innovations they introduced after you.'"70 Both of the latter two texts from the prophetic traditions indicate that the dead souls, including. those of the prophets, are unawareof the happeningsin this world. That is, they do not have contact with this world.

This is further supportedby someQur'Anic texts wherein the faculty of hearing by the dead is categorically denied:

"Verily, you cannot make the dead hear and y(xi cannot make

the deaf hear the call when they turn their backs and retreat." Qur'An,27: 80

"T'he living and the dead are not alike. AM makeswhoever He

wishes hear, but you cannot make those in their graveshear. " Qur'An,35: 22

69 Authenticatedby as-Suy0p andconfirmed by al-Albardin Silsilah aj-4jdFth M,,VaAhah, no. 2628. Seeal-Ayjt al-Ba.ýyinJt, p. 105,ftn. 2.

70 Collectedby al-Bukhariand Muslim. Seefil-Hadis, vol. 4, p. 125,no. 33.

21 CONCLUSION

Since the human soul enters the barzakbupon the deathof the body andthe state of the barzakbprevents any contact with this world, it would not be possiblefor disembodiedhuman spirits to possessliving human beingsor to communicatewith them. The precedingtexts clearly indicatethat the human soul is barred from knowledgeof what transpireson earth after its bodily deathand is preventedfrom performing any acts in this life, whether good or evil. Consequently,according to orthodox Islam, the human soul has to be ruled out as a potentialsource for the phenomenonof spirit-possessionamong human beings.

THE ANGELS

The second major classificationof spiritual beings in the orthodox cosmologicalview is angels.In Islamicliterature the Arabicterm oftenused for angels

is maZak(pl. malff'ikah) which is believedto be a contractionof mal'ak or ma'lak, both of which are derivativesof 'alak, meaning "a message."71 Thus,the original meaningof malakis takento be "messenger"72which seemsto be consistentwith the Qur'Anicdescriptions of them-

"AllAh chooses messengersfrom the angelsand from men. For

AIM is He who hearsand sees[all things]." Qur'An,22: 75.

"And when Our messengers[i. e., angels)came to , he was

grieved on their accountand felt himself powerless[to protect] them..." ,11: 77

71 Lisin al-'Amb, vol. 10, p. 496. Seealso SboiIarEnqycIqpae&a ofIslam, p. 318 and Tah"b al-Lugbah, pp. 496-503. 72 Messenger is also the basic meaningof the Greek word angelosfrom which the English word "angel" is derived. (MeNewEncyclopaedia Bdtannica, vol. 1, p. 399.)

22 ORIGIN

Cl=tcd

Many referencesto angelsýan be foundthroughout the Qur'An;however, very little information about their actual origin may be deduced from these verses.

According to Qur'Anic texts, angels are not consideredto be of the sameessence as

Allah. This conclusion maybe deducedfrom the verseswhich deny the claimof the paganArabs that the angelswere daughtersof Allah:

"And they assigndaughters to AM! Glory be to Him! And for

themselveswhatever they desire?" Qurlan,16: 57

According to ash-Shawkw,the tribesof Kinanahand Khuza'ah used to claimthat the angelswere daughtersof Allah. Yet they,like all the otherArabian tribes, preferred sons for themselves. This verseis a statementof amazementabout the absurdityof their claim:73

"... And they falsely attribute to 11imsons and daughters. Glory

be to Him, for He is far above what they attribute to Him. " Qur'In, 6:100

In the two versesfollowing this versethe Qur'anemphasizes that the angelsand all other beingsbesides Allah arecreated. This is doneby statingand restating that Allah is the Creatorof all things:

"To Him is due the primal origin of the heavensand earth. How

could He have a son when He has no consort? He createdall

things and He has full knowledge of all things. That is AllAh,

your Lord! There is no but He, the Creator of all things. So

73 Mubammadibn 'Ali ash-Shawkw,Fat-.. h al-Qadfr (Beirut: Dar al-Ma'rifah), vol. 3, p. 170.

23 worship Him, for He alone is the managerof all affairs." Quean,

6: 101-102

Light

Although there are no versesin the Qur'An whichidentify the origin of the angels,there are canonicaltraditions whichspecifically address the originalmaterial from which angelswere created. Angelsare originated from fight accordingto the following statementof the Prophet (4) to his third wife, Wishah, the daughterof AbO Bakr, "The angelswere createdfrom light, thejhm from fire andAdam from what hasbeen already described to you."74Because the Prophet(4) did not give any more details as to the origin of the Ught or its characteristics,any such pronouncementsare consideredmerely speculative and are rejected by the majorityof scholars. Included in this categoryare statementsfalsely attributed to someof the Prophet's companions(ý4jbjj and their students (dbi'll. For example,the companion,'Abdullah ibn 'Amr, wasfalsely reported to havesaid, "Allah createdthe angelsfrom the light of Efisforearms and His chest." And the tabl'i, 'Ikrimah, was fikewise falsely quoted as saying, "The angelswere createdfrom the fight of the Almighty, and [the name of Satan in Arabic]was created from the Almighty's fire."75

BehomMan

The time whenangels were created has not beenspecified in eitherthe texts of the Qur'An or the Sunnah. However,it maybe deducedfrom someQur'Anic verses that theywere createdbefore mankind. In onesuch statement Allah informsthe angels that He would createin the future a khaYfah (successor)on earth:

74 P? ýO MusKm, vol. 4, p. 1540,no. 7134.

75'Umar Sulaymanal-Ashqar, 'Alarnal-MdVikall al-AbrJr (Kuwait: Maktabah al-Falab, 4th ed., 1983), pp. 9-10. "When your Lord said to the angels, 'Surely, I will make on

earth akhalffah..: " Qur'An,2: 30

FORM

In visible

Although the angels are madefrom light, as previously indicated, it cannot be

said that they appearas light as some have supposed,because they havenot been describedas such in eitherthe Qur'Anor the authenticSunnah. In their naturalstate they areinvisible to humaneyes. This is provenby the fact that AngelGabriel used to bring revelationsto the Prophet(4) while he wasin the companyof his companions and noneof themwould seeGabriel. Abil Salamahquoted 'A'ishah as saying,"AllWs Messenger(4) [once] said to me, '0 Wishah, here is Gabrielgreeting you with peace! I said, 'And may AllWs peaceand mercy be uponhim. For he seeswhat I cannot!"76 However,angels are visible to someanimals. Aba Hurayrahreported that the Prophet (4) said, "If you heara roostercrow, askAllah for His grace,for it has 0 seenan angel."77

Non-Human

In theirmormalstate angels are not human-likecreatures with a pair of birdlike wings, as portrayed in Greco-RomanlegendOg and Christian influencedworks of aft. 79

76 Sa&b d-Bukhjff, vol. 5, p. 75, no. 112 and Sahjh Muslim, vol. 4, p. 1302, no. 5997.

77 Collected by Abil Dawad (Sunw Aba Dj; wd, vol. 3, p. 1415, no. 5083), al- Bukhari and Muslim (.Fakh Muslim, vol. 4, p. 1428, no. 6581).

78 Cupid, ancientRoman god of love, was the counterpart of the Greek god Eros. According to myth, Cupid was the son of Mercury, the winged messengerof the . He usually appeared as a winged infant carrying a bow and a quiver of arrows. (The NewEncyclopaedia Bfitannica, vol. 3, p. 796.) 79 (pl. cherubim) in Jewish and Christian literature are portrayed as

25 Instead, they are normally huge in size and their wings may number anywherefrom two to severalhundreds:

"... making the angelsmessengers, with wings two and diree and

four, He increasesin the creation as He wills... " Qur'An,35: 1

The companion,'Abdullah ibn Mas'ad, reportedthat the Prophet (4) sawAngel (Fibril) in his natural statein whichhe hadsix hundredwings, each of which filled the horizon. And therewere multicolored drops like pearlsand coral falling from the wings.80 In anothernarration the Prophet (4) was reportedto havesaid the following about Angel Gabriel,"I sawhim descendingfrom the heavensand his great size filled the spacebetween the earthand the sky." 81 Jabiribn'Abdullahquoted the Prophet (4) as saying, "Allow me to speakabout one of the thronebearers. 92 The distancebetween his earlobeand his shoulderis [what a bird would fly in]93seven hundredyears. " 94

celestial, winged beings with human and birdlike characteristics. (Tbe Now EncyclopaediaBiitan&ca, vol. 3, p. 175.) In art the four-winged cherubimare painted blue [symbolizingthe sky] andthe six-wingedseraphim red [symbolizingfire]. (Tbe New EncyclopaediaBiftannica, vol. 10,p. 644.) 80 Collectedby Aýmad. Ibn Kathir ratedits chainof narratorsofjayyld (good). Seeal-Bidjyah waan-Nibiyah, vol. 1, p. 47.

81 Reportedby 'A'ishah andcollected by Muslim ($aAb Muslhn,vol. 1, pp. III- 112,no. 337).

82 Qur'.1n, 69:17, statesthat on the Day of JudgementAlldws throne will be borne by eight angels.

83 This explanationwas given by Ibn Abi Ijatim who collectedthe Padfth. See also the authenticnarration of Anasibn Malik collectedby a!-Tabarard in a]-Mu:jam al-A wsktin which the distanceis describedas that flown by a bird.

84 Collectedby Aba Dawad(Sunan Aba Djwvd, vol. 3, p. 1323,no. 4709) and authenticatedby al-Albardin SlIsilaha]-AP-1dah g--YaAbah, vol. 1, p. 72, no. 151.

26 Beaudfid

It is generallyheld that the angelswere created in a beautifulfonn, basedupon the following Qur'Anicdescription of Gabriel:

"He [i. e., Muýammad] has beentaught by one mighty in power

[i. e., Gabriel], enduedwith beauty83..." Qur'An,53: 5-6

Furthersupport may also be foundin the Qur'Anicstory of the rich womeWsattempt to seduceProphet Yasuf They are reported to have called him an angeldue to his unusualbeauty:

"... When they saw him, they exalted him and cut their hands [in

mnazcmcnt] and cricd out, 'ARah forbid! This is not a man!

Ibis can only be a noble angel.'" Qur'in, 12:31

Visible

According to accountsfrom the Qur'Anand the padah,angels may take human form on certain occasions.An examplefrom the Qur'anmay be foundin the caseof Mary when Angel Gabriel cameto inform her of her impendingpregnancy:

"And mention in the scripture [the story of] Mary, when she

withdrew fnxn her family to a place facing east. She placed a

screen between herself and them. 'Men We sent to her Our

angel who appeared before her in the form of a man in all

respects." Qur'An,19: 16-17

85 The Arabic word usedhere is mbyahwhich Ibn 'Abbasexplained as meaning "man?arpasan" (a beautifulappearance) and Qatadahexplained askbaIqlawf1pasan (a tall and-beautifulform). Mujahid, on the other hand, explaineditasmeaning quwwah (power). See Ibn Kathies TafsIr a]-QurJn aPA?! m (Beirut: Dar al- Ma'rifah, 1980),vol. 4, p. 384.

27 It is also recordedin authentictraditions from the Prophet(4) that Angel Gabriel used to visit him in various humanforms. Sometimesthe Prophet'scompanions witnessedhim visiting ProphetMuýamrnad (4) in the likenessof a handsomef4jbi by the name of Dibyah ibn Khahfahat-Kalb!, and at othertimes in the likenessof an unknown bedouin. 'Umar ibn al-Khallabl6said,"One day while we were sittingwith the Messengerof Allah (4), there appearedbefore us a manwhose clothes were exceedinglywhite andwhose hair wasexceedingly black. No signsofjourneying were to be seen on him and none of us knew'him. He walkedup andsat down by the Prophet (4). Resting his kneesagainst his andplacing the palmsof his handson his thighs, he said,'0 Mubammad,tell meabout Islam... '" In the remainderof the Padah the man asked about! min (faith),ffisin (piety)and the signsof the Last Hour. After the man left, the Prophet(4) informedhis companionsthat the questionerwas Angel Gabriel who had come to teach them about their .87 On anotheroccasion 'A'ishah, the wife of the Prophet, reportedthat shesaw him placehis handon the mane of Dihyahal-Kalb-i's horse while talkingto him. Whenshe asked him aboutit he repliedthat it was Gabrieland that he hadsent his greetingsto her.89

Neuter

In spite of the angelstaking male, human forms, they arenot consideredto be male or female89nor is there any evidence in islarnic texts to indicate that they

86 The secondcaliph (d. 644). SeeSboilerEncyclopaedia ofislam, pp. 600-601.

87 Sa&h al-Bukhw, vol. 1, p. 17, no. 7 and Sa&h MusKm, vol. 1, pp. 9-10, no. 18.

88 Collected by Aýmad in a]-Musnad,vol. 6, p. 146 and Ibn Sad inkt-Tabaqft and rated authentic (pasan) by al-Alban! in Silsilah a]-APJdFth9--YaMbah, vol. 3, p. 105, no. II 11.

89 The stories of HMt and Marat yielding to sexualtemptation, like those collected by Ibn Ab! Shaybah,'Abd ibn H.umayd, Ibn Ab! ad-Dunya(in Kitjb a]. 'Uqobjt), Ibn Jadr, Ibn al-Mundhir,Ibn Abi Hitim. and al-Bayhaqi-(in Shu'aba]- Imin) from the Jewishconvert Ka'b al-Ahbar(see as-Suyali's ad-1)uff al-Mantharly

28 reproduce. In the Qur'An the paganArabs are rebukedfor referring to the angelsas daughtersof Allah or evenfemale:

"Now ask thern their opinion, 'Does your Lord have [only]

daughters and they have sons? Or did We createthe angels

female and they were witnesses?'" Qur'An,37: 149-150

"And they made into females the angels who are themselves

servants of the Most Merciful [Le., Allah]. Did they witness

their creation? Their evidencewill be recorded,and they will be

called to account." Qur'&n,43: 19

Although many nameshave been attributed to angelsin Muslim folklore, 90only a very few of their nameshave been verified according to authenticIslamic traditions.

AMI

Jibril (Gabriel) is the angelof revelation.Ibn 'Abbassaid, "Allah's Messenger (4) was the most generousperson, and his generositywould be the greatestduring Rama4anwhen Jibril met him. Jibril used to meethim everynight in Rama4anto teach him the Quran."91 He is referred to in the Qur'Anby a numberof honorific titles:

at-Tk&T al-Maltbar [Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1983], vol. 1, pp. 239-240), have led some Muslim theologians to conclude that angels have sex but do not use it to propagate their kind. (See SboaeT Encyclopaedia of Islam, p. 319.) However, all of these narrations are inauthentic. The elements of the stories are mainly found in a Jewish midrasb as well as in the New Testament. Vbortcr Encyclopaediaof Islam, p. 135. )

90 Dictionmy ofIslam, pp. 15-16.

91 ýWb al-BukbW, vol. 1, p. 6, no. S.

29 "Verily, this is a revelation from the Lord of the Worlds, brought

down by the Trustworthy Spirit [ar-Rj* a]-Aminj. " Qurln,

26: 192-193

"...We gave Jesus, son of Mary, clear signs and supportedhim

with the [Raft a]-Qudusl"92 Qur'in, 2:87

Mika'il

(or Nfikal, Eng. )93is responsiblefor rain.94 'Abdullah ibn al-

Wahd related that when a group of Jewsasked the Prophet(4) abouthis [angelic] companionand he told them that it was Jibril, they said, "Jibrill The onewho descendswith war, fighting and punishment.He is our enemy.If only you had said MikWil, the onewho bringsmercy, rain andplants, it would havebeen better. ""

Aý

IsrAril96 is the angel who will blow a hom (for) signalingthe endof the world.97 The Prophet (4) was quoted by Abu Sald as saying,"How canI enjoy when the horn blower hasplaced it in his mouth,inclined his foreheadand turned his

92 Tafsir a]-Qur'jn a]-Agm, vol. 1, p. 122.

93 SeeQur'An, 2: 97-98. 94 Sbarh al-'A qj-dahkt-T4j wlj)ýwh,p. 336.

95 Collectedby at-Tinnidiv, an-Nasa'!and Abmad and rated authenticby at- Tirmidhi. SeeTaftiral-Qur'an a]-Agm, vol. 1, p. 130,the exegesisof 2:97-98.

96 A loan-word with another dialectical variant "Isrifin" (MukbtAr M-&ftjý, p. 296), probably from the Hebrew word "Serafim" (SboneTEnq:ycJqpaedja of Islam, p. 184). It should be noted that descriptionsof this angel, such as those found in the Sborter Encyclopaedia of Islam, p. 184, have no basisin authenticIslamic texts and are the product of legend and myths.

97 Al-Bidjyah wa an-Nihiyah, vol. 1, p. 45.

30 ear to hear, awaiting the commandto blow... "99 mg&

Malik is the nameof the main guardianangel of Hell. His nameis mentionedin theQur'an as follows:

"They wiH cry 'out: '0 Malik! Let your Lord put an endto us.' He Will say, 'Surely you will stay [as you are]: " QurAn,43: 77

Munkarand

According to authenticnarrations, Munkar and Naldr99are two angelswho will question each person following their death. TheProphet (4) wasreported to have said,"When a deadman is buried,two bluish-blackangels will cometo him. One of them is called Munkar andthe otherNaldr. Theywill ask,Vhat did you usedto say about this manT If he wasa believer,he will reply,'He is the servantof Allah and His messenger...'" 100

H&WtandMAnit

H=t'O' and Marat102were two angelssent to the peopleof Babylonas a test

98 Collectedby at-TirmidiV, Ibn Majah andAbmad (al-Hadis, vol. 4, p. 92, no. 21) andauthenticated by al-Albaniin SilsflahaPAP. 4dah M-, YaAhah, vol. 3, pp. 66-68.

99 Both namescome from the Arabicroot nakirawhich means "to becomebad, evil, abominableor foul." The word munkarliterallymeans "any action deemed or declaredfoul, hateful or hideous"and naA!r means"disapproval or the Eke and manifestationthereof" (Arabic-EnglisbLexicon, vol. 2, pp. 2849-2851.)

100 Narrated by Abe Hurayrah, collected by at-Tirmidhi, and rated authentic(Pasan) by al-Alban!in Silsilahal-4jdah g-, $aAhah,vol. 3, no. 139 1, pp. 379-380. SeeMlsbkAb al-Mgjblbý, vol. 1, chap.5, pp. 35-36and a]-Hadfs, vol. 3, pp. 85-86,no. 40.

101 Generallyheld to be a foreign name.(Arabic-Engfish Lexicon, vol. 2., p. 2890.)

31 of their faith:

"... But it was the devils who disbelievedby teaching the people

magic and what was revealed to the two angels, Harat and

Marat, in Babylon. However, the two would not teach anyone

anything until after they had warned them, saying, 'Surely, we

are only a test and a trial, so do not disbelieve...'" Qur'lin,2: 102

Othem'

There are somenarrated statements from the companionsand their studentsin which the angel of death is namedas 'Izra'il; 103however, there are no narrations #). 104 concerningthis which can be authenticallyattributed to ProphetMu ýamm ad In fact, the origin of these recordedstatements seems to have beenfrom Jewish literature, where similar descriptionscan be found.105 The custodianof Paradisehas also beenidentified as RiOwan'06in some narrations attributed to the Prophet(&), but noneof themare authentic as far asI havebeen able to determine. ,'

Some scholarshave also claimedthat thereare two angelsnamed Raq-ib and 'AtId, basedupon the followingQur'Anic text:

"Behold, two [recording angels] appointed to learn and note

102 According to Arabiclexicographers, this word is eitherof foreignorigin or it is derivedfrom muratahwhich refersto the conditionof a landwhich is desertwithout water or herbage.(Ambic-Engfish Lexicon, vol. 2, p. 2703.) 103 7kfs!ra1-Qur'. 9na1-'A;! mvol. 3, p. 458, exegesisof Qur'An,32: 11.

104 Al-Bidjyah waan-Nihiyah, vol. 1, p. 47.

105 The name appearsto be a corruption of which is given by Eisenmenger,Entdoclaes Judenthum, 11.333, as the name of the princeof Hell. (ShortcrEncyclopaedia of Islam,p. 190.)

106 A]-Bjdjyah waan-Nihiyah, vol. 1, p. 50.

32 [man's doings], one sitting on the right and one on the JefL Not

a word does he utter but there is besidehim a guardian [ragibj

preparcd ['atfd]. " Qur'An,50: 17-18

However, the two terms are not the actual namesof angelsbut descriptionsof the recordingangels who takenote of all mandoes. 107

ABILITIES conftvl

The angels arein chargeof the heavensand the earth. Thus,every movement which takes place in the world is a result of the [activitiesof the] angels.109 The Almighty states:

"By those [angels] who an-Angethe implementation of [AIIANsl

commandL" QurAn, 79:5

"And those [angels] who distribute and apportion by [AJIWsl

command." Qur'In, 51:4

DLO-ýUts

Some angelsare able to readhuman minds. Accordingto authentictraditions, the recording angelsare aware of humanintent and record some deeds that are intendedbut mayor maynot havebeen fulfilled. TheProphet (4) wasquoted by Aba Hurayrah as saying,"The angelssay [to Allah], 'Thatman intends to do evil.' And He is morevigilant than them. ThenHe replies,Vatch him. If he comn-dtsevil, recordit in kind; but if he abandonsit, recordfor him onegood deed. For surelyhe gaveit up

107 'Alam al-Mall7kah al-Abar, p. 18.

108 Sbatbýa]-A qIdah ýkt-Taft. 4 wjýyah, p. 335.

33 for My sake. "' 109

Mobility

The angels are able to traverse huge distancesat speedsbeyond our comprehension: I

"Tbe angelsandIbe Spirit ascendto Him in a day whose length

is like fifty thousandyears. " Qur'An,70: 4

Ohc&cnce

Angels are,by nature,obedient servants of Allah anddo not havethe ability to disobeyAllah accordingto the Qur'anictexts:

"All that is in the heavensand earth prostrateto Allah, whether

crawling creatures or angels,none are arrogant. Iley fear their

Lord, high above thern, and they do all that they are conunandcdL" Qur'An,16: 49-50

RELATIONSHIPS WITH HUMANS

According to various texts from the Qur'An and the Sunnah,angels are in constant contact with man. They are reported to play a variety of roles at all stagesof human existence-from birth to deathand even beyond the grave.

BM

Angels have been assignedto the wombfrom the beginningof eachhurnares conception until his birth, implementingAllah's commandswith respectto each individual. Anasibn Malik reportedthat the Prophet(4) said,"Allah, the Exaltedand

109 Yagh Muslhn, vol. 1, p. 75, no. 235.

34 Glorious,has appointed an angelas the caretakerof the womband says, My Lord,'it is like an oily drop; my Lord, it is now like a leech;my Lord, it hasbecome like a chewed clump! And then, if Allah wishesto completeits creation,the angelwill ask,My Lord, will it be a maleor female?..."' 110'Abdullih ibnMasad quotedthe Messenger of Allah (4) as saying,"Each one of you is collectedin his mother'swomb for forty days, and like a leechfor a similarperiod. ThenAllah sendsan angeland orders him to record four things: his livelihood,his life span,his deeds,and whether he will be wretchedor happy. The angelthen breathes the soulinto him..." III

InSRAm-dov

From his birth until his death,each person has been assigned an angel,inspiring him to do good andguarding him from evil. 'Abdullahibn Mas'iDdrelated that AllWs Messenger(4) said, "Everyoneof you hasbeen assigned a companionfrom among the firm and one from among the angels..." 112 These angels are entrusted with the responsibility of guiding and advising each individual, by AHWs will, to righteousness.113 The Qur'Analso speaks about the guardianangels as follows:

"For each [person] there am [angels] in succession'14 before and

bdiM him They guardhirn by AUWs conxmnd..." Qur'An,13: 11

110 -YaAb a]-BukhW, vol. 8, no. 594, p. 388 and YaAhMusIhnvol. 4, p. 1391, no. 6397. 111 YaAh a]-BukW, vol. 8, no. 593, p. 387 and.YaAh Muslim, vol. 4, p. 1391, no. 6390.

112 Collected by Mmad in a]-Musnadand Muslim (referred to by number only in 4, 1472, 1472). Seeyagh Muslim Shafhý ,FaAb MusIhn, vol. p. no. an-Nawa%!,vol. 17, p. 158 for the full Arabic text, the English of which has been deleted in the aforementionedtranslation.

113 See a]-Bjdjyah wa an-Nihiyah, vol. 1, p. 52. 114 The Arabic term used in the verse is muaqqibjt which Ibn 'Abbas interpreted to meanangels who would protect eachperson until somethingdestined by Allah is afflicted upon him. Seeal-Bldg[ph wa an-Mh4ph, Vol. 1, P. 50.

35 However, according to the recorded statementsof the Prophet (4), these guardian angelsleave him on certain occasions. For example,AbID Talbah reported that Prophet

Mubammad (4) said, "The angels do not enter a housein which there is a dog or pictures, or statuesof ." 115

Recording

Two angels are also assignedto every humanbeing with the duty of recording their deeds.The Qur'Anrefers to themin the fbIlowingverses:

"But verily, watchingover you [areappointed angels], Idnd and honorable, writing down [your deeds]." Qur'An,82: 10-11

"Behold, two [recording angels] appointed to learn and note [his

doings], one sitting on the right and one on the left. Not a word

does he utter but there is beside hirn a guardian prepared. "

Qur'An,50: 17-18

Aba Umamahreported that ProphetMuýammad (4) describedthem asfollows, "Surely, the [angel on the] left raisesthe pen [from the record]of a Muslimwho commits an error for six hours. If he repentsand asks AlMs forgiveness,the deedis castaside, otherwise it is written downas one [evil deed]." 116

BER

According to Prophet Mulýammad(4), there are also angelsthat pray to Allah on behalf of man on specificoccasions. For example,he wasreported to havesaid, "As long as any one of you is waiting for , he is in prayer, and the angels

15 yWh a]-BukbAff, vol. 4, pp. 297-298, no. 448.

116 Collected by al-Tabaran!in a]-MU:jam al-Kabirand authenticated (Pasan) by al-Alban!in YaMbal-AmP as-,ýagh[T, vol. 2, p. 422, no. 2097.

36 [continue to] say,'0 Allah,be mercifulto him andforgive him, ' aslong ashe doesnot leavehis placeof prayeror passwind. " 117

BL-ath

Some angelshave been assignedthe of extractinghuman souls from their bodies at the time of their death.Reference is madeto theseangels in the Qur'Anas follows

"Say, The Angel of Death, put in chargeof you, will take your

souls. Iben you will be retumed to your Un%L'" Qur'An,32: 11

"He is the Irresistible, far above His servants. He setsguardians

over you until death comesto one of you, then Our angelstake

his soul without fail. " Qur'an,6: 61

Yet others havebeen given the duty of takingthe extractedsoul on a spiritual journey out of this world andback into it. Al-Bara' ibn 'Azib statedthat the Prophet (4) said, "When a believer is leaving this world andentering the next,angels with faces shining brightly Eke the sun descendfrom the heavenscarrying a shroudand embalmingfragrance from Paradise,and [then they] sit downwithin sight-range.The Angel of Deaththen approaches, sits by his headand says, 10 good soul,come out to AllWs forgivenessand pleasure.' It will thencome out flowing like a drop of water from a water-skin, and he will catch it. But, within the blinkingof an eyeafter he catchesit, they will take it and put it in the shroudand fragrance. There will then come from the soul a fragrancelike that of the sweetestmusk found on the faceof the earth. They thenascend with it andevery group of angelsthey pass ask, Vho is this good soul?' to whichthey reply,'So andso, the sonof so andso, ' usinghis bestnames by which people called him onearth. Theythen bring him to the lowestheaven and

117 pAbal-Bukb&f, vol. 4, p. 299, no. 452.

37 ask that the gate should be openedfor him. This is done,and ftom everyheaven its archangelsescort him to the nextheaven until he is broughtto the seventhheaven, and All* Most Greatand Glorious, says, 'Record the book of My servantin the Iffyyan [register of the righteous]'18and take him backto earth,for I createdmankind from it, and I shall returnthem to it, andfrom it I shallbring them forth agaýin.'119 His soul is thenrestored to his body..." 120

Questioning

Another two angels,Munkar and Nakir, arecharged with questioningthe soul in the grave. In a continuationof the previouspa&th theProphet (4) went on to say, "Two angels cometo him, makehim sit up andask him, Vho is your LordT He [the believing soul] will reply, My Lord is Allah! They will then ask, Vhat is your religionT andhe will reply,My religionis Islam! Theywill ask,Vho is this manwho was sent among youT andhe will say,He is the Messengerof Allah! Theywill then ask, Vhat wasthe [sourceofl your knowledgeTand he will reply,! haveread AUWs Book, believedin it anddeclared it to be true.'" 121

Guarpyan

An angel by the name of Malik is assignedto light the Hellfire andguard it,

insuring that no one escapes. The companion,Samurah, reported that the Prophet

118 "But, verily the record of the righteous is [preserved]in 'iWyyfm. And what will explain to you what 'iftyan is? It is a book of records." Qur'An, 83: 18-20

119 This statement coincides with the following Qur'Anic verse: "From it We created you, into it We wiH return you, and from it We wifl bring you forth again." Qur'An, 20:55.

120 Coflected by Aýrnad (Mishkib al-Mgjbffi, vol. 1, pp. 340-342) and Aba Dawad (Sun-w AM Djwwd, vol. 3, p. 1330, no. 4735) and authenticatedby al-Alban! in, YaAh ahAmPMyaghir, vol. 1, pp. 344-346, no. 1676.

121 Seealso $*P al-BakbAff, vol. 2, pp. 257-258, no. 456.

38 (4) said, "Last night I saw [in a dream] two men approachingme. One of them said,

'The person who will light the Hellfire is Malik, the guardianof Hell; and I am Gabriel and this is Michael! " 122

CONCLUSION

There is nothing in the precedingcollection of texts on the origin andform of the angelsto rule out the possibilityof angels takingpart in the possessionof the bodies or mindsof humanbeings. However, the materialon their abilities,categories and relationshipswith mankind clearlyindicates that the angelslack the independent ability to possesshumans. According to the orthodoxIslamic view of the texts quoted in this chapter, angelsdo not possessfreewill -they only do what Allah commands them which does not includetaking possession of humans.Consequently, the angels maybe ruled out as a possiblesource for spirit-possessionof humans.

THE JINN

The third and last categoryof createdbeings belonging to the spiritualworld which could possibly play a role in the spirit-possessionof humanbeings is thefirm. The Arabic word "finn" comesfrom the verbjanna yajunnu123 which means"to hide or conceal." 124 Therefore, the hearthidden in the chestis calledjanin, andthe embryo concealedin the wombis calledjmin. Furthermore,jw7nah is anythingwhich screens, veils or shields. The Prophet (4*) was reportedto havesaid, "Fasting is a shield

122 4, 302, 459. ,FaAb a]-Bukb&f, vol. p. no. 123 Arab lexicographers explain the word finn as a derivative of #Unan which means"to be concealed." (Lisin aPArab, vol. 13, p. 95.)

124 The suggestion in the Sborter Encyclopaedia of Islam, p. 90, that this derivation is etymologically difficult is without foundation and the speculationthat jhm may be a loan-word from genius is evenmore strange.

39 Uunnahl from desire." 125 And a firm of people means "most of them" because one who enters among them is concealed by them. 126The singular form of the word finn is firw (Eng., genie or genii), and j&M127 is used synonymously withfinn. 128 The word

"jhwr' is not found in the Qur'An, but both firm and jinn are found:

"Say, It has beenrevealed to me that a group offirm listened and

said, "Verily, we have heard a marvelousQue an."'" Qur'An,72: 1

"On that Day no questionwiH be askedof man or j&m as to his

sins. " QurAn, 55:39

Arm is alsoused as a collectivenoun as are the wordsfinjn129 and fitmah: 130

"Among thefinnah and men." Qur'An,114: 6

In addition, accordingto some scholars,the term "finnah"is usedin the Qur'Anto refer to the angelssince they are also concealedfrom humaneyes: 131

125 Reported by Mu'Adh ibn Jabal,collected by at-Tirýnidh!,Ibn Majah and Ahmad (Mishkjh al-Mgibffi, vol. 1, pp. 11-12),and authenticated by al-AlbW in &fto Sunan at-TbmidV, vol. 2, pp. 328-329,no. 2110. It is alsoreported by Abu Hurayrahin ýWh al-Bukhm, vol. 3, pp. 65-66,no. 118. 126 Arabic-Engflsh Lexicon, vol. 1, p. 463. 127 Ann also meansa ,as in the verse: "...but when he saw it moving like a snake Ujnn], he turned back in retreat..." Qur'An, 28:31

128 Sbo.IlerEncyclq raedia ofIslam, p. 90.

129 Anin is also used as the plural of jinn, meaninga snake. (Arabic-English Lexicon, vol. 1,464. )

130 Lis.In al. 'Ar,ab, vol. 13, p. 95. See also Mukbtjr aý-,yffijp, p. 114 and Ambic-EnglM Lexicon, vol. 1, p. 463. 131 Taflir al-Manar (Beirut: Dar al-Ma'rifah, 2nd ed.), vol. 8, p. 342. Seealso Lisin al-'Amb, vol. 13, p. 95.

40 "And they have invented kinship betweenHim and the angelý

UirmA; but the angelsUinnA know that they will be brought beforCMM [forjUdgeMCnt]."132 Qur'An,37: 158

REALITY

With respect to the existenceof the fing, Ibn Taynýyyahsaid, "No one in any of the Muslim sectsdenies the existenceof thefirm or that Allah sentMuýammad (4) to them. The vastmajority of disbelievers,whether pagan or other Semites,133 IndiansI34and other Hamites,most Canaanites and Greeks, 135 and other descendants

132 This versehas been translated according to the aforementionedinterpretation; however, the majorityof Qur'Anicexegetes understand finnah hereto referto thejkn and thus the translationmost commonly found would be asfollows: "Andtheyhave invented a kinship betweenHim and the fiw, but thefinn know that they will be brought beforeHirn. " With regardsto this verse,Ibn Kathir andIbn Jarir both quoted Ibn 'Abbasas saying,"The enemiesof Allah claimedthat He andlbhs werebrothers. " SeeTMAT al-QuTin al-'Agm, vol. 4, p. 23. 133 In the Mesopotamianreligion amongthe ancientAssyrians and Babylonians, demons were of two kinds: non-humanbeings and the vengeful dead. The first were of many types, including those which lurked in dangerousplaces, e. g., desertsand graveyards and the labartu, a female of mountains and marshlands which attacked children in particular. The sedu and lamassuwere ambivalent,being both evil and guardian-spirits. Lilitu was a (a beautiful, nude, female demon) who visited men at night and had intercourse with them. The secondwere the ghosts (edn=q) of those who died by mischanceand were greatly feared. Sicknessand misfortune were attributed to demonic attack, especially of the ethmu- (S.G. F. Brandon, gen. ed., A Dicdohxy of Cbmp=dve Religion [London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2nd ed., 1971], p. 232). 134 Among Indians, demonsare either of non-humanor humanorigin. (a) Non- human spirits or fiends are endowed with superhumanpowers and possessmaterial bodies of various kinds, which they can change at will and which are subject to destruction. As free agents,they can choosebetween good and evil, but a disposition towards evil preponderates in their character. (G. Oppert, Onginal Inhabitants of Bbamtavana ofindla, 515ff. ) The Asuras, Danayas,Dairyas and Raksasasbelong to thisgroup. (b) Human spirits, or ghostsof humanbeings, collectively known as bbuta are always evil. They originate from souls of those who have died untimely or Violent deaths..., and the dissoluteor wicked during fife. The most dangerousof these are the have spirits of the murdered, those who left the world with unsatisfieddesires, and (James spirits of foreigners. Hastings ed., Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics

41 of Japheth,136 confirm the existenceof thefinn. As for the Jewsand Christians, they recognizethat thefirm existin muchthe sameway that Muslimsdo, 137although there may be amongthem some individuals who denythe existenceof thefirm. Individuals who deny the existenceof thefinn mayalso be foundamong orthodox Muslims and Muslim sectslike the Jahmites138and Mutazilites, althoughmost Muslims do not deny

[Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 4th ed., 1959], vol. 4, pp. 601-603.) 135 The English word "demon" is derived from the Greek daimon (pl. daimenes). The 8th century B. C. Greek poet, Hesiod, in his accountof the Four Ages, explains that after death, those of the golden agebecame daimones (Works andD,?ys, 109 ff. ). They were described as kindly guardiansof men, distributors of property and wealth, but wrapped in darkness so as to be invisible while they wander over every region of the earth. So long as they were treated with respect,they were expectedto show favor. Thesewere the good demons. Evil spirits were conceivedas ghosts of heroes, as they were consideredincapable of conferring blessingsand only powerful to work ill. Some evil demonswere representedas specificallyattached to eachindividual from birth until death. Others were conceivedas avengingdemons and were the instrument appointed to punish the crimes of a particular family and bore the specialtitle of "Alastor. " (Encyclopaedia ofReligiba andEthics, vol. 4, pp. 590-593.) 136 A son of Noah mentioned in Genesis 5:32. From the Hebrew Yepbeth meaning "increase." (Jess Stein ed., The Random House Dictionary [New York: Random House, 1966], p. 763.) 137 In pre-Exilic Hebrew literature, demonswere conceivedas fim-like beings. For example,in Isaiah 34: 14, referenceis madeto so'him, i. e., "hairy ones" (translated in the Revised Standard Version of the Holy as "satyrs"), which were demonic beings inhabiting ruins and desert wastes. After the Exile, the origin of demonsis found in Genesis 6:24, wherein they are representedas fallen angels. Christianity inherited Old Testament and leading figures like Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) endorsed the traditional view that demonswere fallen angels,fallen from their original state through pride and envy. They abide both in Hell, where they are tormented and damnedand in the air, where they trouble men. Apocryphal literature, such as Apocalypse of Peter and Apocalypse of Paul and Coptic History of Josephthe Carpenter, describe demons and their activities. (A Dictionmy of Comparative RaUglon, pp. 230-23 1.)

138 The founder of this theological school, Jahmibn ýafwan (d. 745), denied all of Allalfs attributes except that He was omnipotent and the Creator. He also claimed that as long as one believed,bad deedswould not affect him nor would he be punished for them. He further affirmed an extremeform of predestination,denied fteewill and asserted that Paradise and Hell were not eternal. His followers, calledjahmiyyah (Eng. Jahmites), survived down to the II th century around the city of Tirmidh, but

42 their existence."

On the other hand, Fakhruddin ar-PLM said, "According to the obvious meanings of narrated statements from the philosophers,it [i. e., the existenceof the firm] is denied. That is so becauseAbil 'Ah ibn SInAI39statedin his treatise on the parameters of existing things that the finn are ethereal[bawJ7] creatureswhich may take different forms. He then said, 'This is an explanationof the name! His statement,

'This is an explanation of the name,' indicatesthat the explanationis of the intended meaning of the word Uinn] and that it doesnot havean eternalreality. 140 As for the majority of those following religions and those believing in prophets,they confirm the existence of the finn. A large group of early philosophers141and followers of sacred " 142 texts affirmedtheir existenceand called them lower spirits[,? rW ,V SUfliýý].

they adopted the doctrinesof the mostpopular theological school of that time,'that of the Ash'arites. (ShonerEncyclopaediaoflslam, p. 83.) 139 Known as Avicenna(d. 1037) in the West,Aba 'Ah al-Ijusaynibn Slnl was born in Bukhara. He wasa Persianphysician, the mostfamous and influential of the philosopher-scientistsidentified with Islam. He was particularlynoted for his contributionsin the fields of Aristotelianphilosophy and medicine.He composed Kitib asb-SAYY(Book ofHeaLing),a vastphilosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and a]-Qjnan ffkt-Tibb (Canonof Medicine),which is amongthe mostfamous books in the historyof medicine.(Tbe Now EncyclopaediaBMannica, vol. 1, p. 739. ) 140 Sborte 9 1. ,rEnc ,yclopaedia ofIslam, p. 141 Like W-Farabi (d. 950), (Sborter&c yclopaediaofIslam, p. 9 1) kn own by . the Latin name Alfarabius or Avennasar, Muslim philosopher, was one of the preeminent thinkers of medieval Islam. Al-Farabi's philosophical thinking was nourished in the heritage of the Arabic Aristotelian teachingsof 10th century Baghdad. Consequently, he saw human reason as being superior to revelation; and, to him, religion only provided truth in a symbolicform to non-philosophers,who were not able to it in its more pure forms. (TbeNewEnc yclopaediaBfitamica, vol. 4, p. apprehend . 680.)

142 See "Appendix I, " p. 222, where the author quoted from at-Tafsrral-Kabir (Tehran: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ihniyyah, 2nd ed., n.d. ), vol. 30, p. 148.

43 ORIGIN

There are numerousreferences in the Qur'anwhich specificallyidentify fire to be the origin of the fim. However, the expressionsreferring to this vary from verse to verse, giving slightly different shadesof meaning:

'Me jm were createdfrom the fire of a scorchingwind [n& as- SaMaM]. "143 Qur'An,15: 27

"And He created the finn from a flame of fire [m&ij min

n&]. "144 Qur'an,55: 15

"He said, I am better than he. You createdme from fire [n&j

and createdhim from clay. " Qur'An,7: 12

The sameterminology is usedin the canonicaltraditions to describethe fiery origin of the firm. Prophet Mubammad(4) was quotedby his wife, 'A'ishah (614-678),as saying, "The angelswere createdfrom light andthe finn from a flameof fire [m&ij n1innjr]. " 145

However, it is the view of most Sunnitescholars, past and present, that the relation of thefinnto fire is like the relationof manto earth. Althoughmares origin is from the elementsof earth, man is not himselfcomposed of earth. SimilarlY,Ann

143 Ibn 'Abbas is quotedby al-Tabarias explainingthat sxnam is an extremely hot wind which can kill and that nAr satnOmis smokelessfire. (Jkni' a]-Bayin fl, Tafirr al-Q& an,vol. 14,p. 30. )

144 In explaining the meaning of m&ij, al-Tabar! referred to it as the tongue of the fire and quoted Ibn 'Abbas as saying so, as well as sayingthat it was theflame itself (J&W' al-Bayln, vol. 27, p. 126). Ar-Razi definesit as smokelessfire (Mukhur as-,yffiAft, p. 620) while Ibn al-Athlr considersthe phraseto mean "flame mixed with & black substance of fire" (an-Mbiyah, vol. 4, p. 3 15). This interpretation is based upon the fact that m&Yj means"a mixture." SeeArabic-English Lexicon, vol. 2, p. 2704.

145&Ah Muslim, vol. 4, p. 1540,no. 7134. (father of the jinn)146was createdfrom the elementsof fire, but neitherhe nor his descendantsare any longer composedof fire. Accordingto someof thesescholars, proof for this can be foundin the Prophet'sstatement, "Satan appeared before me in my prayerand I chokedhim andfelt the coldnessof his salivaon my hand..." 147They arguedthat if Satanwas himself a fiery being,then how couldhis salivabe cold or how couldhe evenhave saliva? 149

It is generallyheld that thefinn, like the angels,were created before mankind. This beliefis basedupon the apparentmeaning of the followingQur'Anic verse:

"Verily, We created man from dried clay, from black putrid

mudL And We created the jbw before that from the fire of a

scorching windL" Qur'An,15: 26-27

This mayalso be deducedfrom the followingQur'Anic text in which'thecreation of the finn is mentionedbefore that of man:

"I have not created the finn and mankind except for My

worship." Qar'An,51: 56

In addition, Ibn Kathir (1300-1373) quotesa narration from the Prophefs companion,

'Abdullah ibn 'Umar (d. 693), wherein the Prophet (4) stated that the finn,

descendantsofjjnn, were on earth two thousandyears before the creation of Adam.149

DEATH

The fifm arecreated beings, consequently they die asdo humans.Evidence for

146 Mukhtjr,? s-.yffi4, p. 114. Seealso Ambic-EngUshLexicon, Vol. Ip 462.

147 Collected by Abmad (al-Musnad, Vol. 3, p. 82).

148 Mubammadibn 'Abdillahash-Shibli, Aftk&n a]-Ann, p. 27.

149 Tfifffraj-Qurjnfij-'A?: EFM,Vol. 1, P. 108.

45 this belief maybe foundin the generalstatements from the Qur'anwhich indicatethat all of creationwill ceaseto exist:

"EverYthing [that exists] will vanish except His [i. e., AUWsj

face. " Qur'in, 28:88

"All that is on earth will pe&h. " Qur'an,55: 26

Furthermore,there is a versewhich addressesthe issuedirectly:

"Those are the ones against whom is justified the sentence

afnong the previous generationsof finn and men that have passed

away. Surely, they arc the losers." Qur'An,46: 18

Al-Alas7i'50 said, "The statement of [Allah], Most Great and Glorious, '... among the previous generationsof finn and men that have passedaway, is usedto prove that the finn die, generationafter generation, like humans." Is I

Proof can also be found in authentictraditions of the Prophet (4). For example,Ibn 'Abbas (d. 688) reported that the Prophet(4) said,"I seekrefuge in - Your power. Thereis no god besidesYou, [You arethe One]who doesnot die, while thefinn andmankind die. "152

SATAN (Ar. Shaylin)

The word "shayjad' (pl. shaykffn) is of the measurefay'Al, from the root verb

150 Malýmfid ibn 'Abdillah al-Altisl (1802-1854),a greatQur'Anic exegete and scholar of prophetictraditions, was born in Baghdadwhere he becamea leadingjurist, until he resignedfrom his post and devotedhimself to acquiring knowledgeand writing. His most significantwork washis commentaryon the Qur'An,Rap al-Ma'jnf, which hasbeen published in ninelarge volumes. (A]-A'I&n, vol. 7, p. 176.)

151 Rop al-Ma'J& (Beirut: Dar Ibya'at-Turathal-'Arabl, n.d. ), vol. 26, p. 21.

152 y*p al-Bukh&f, vol. 9, p. 357, no. 480.

46 sAktana signifying "he was or becamedistant or remote from the truth and the mercy of Allah. " This term is equivalentin meaningto the words "" or "demon" when used indefinitely or in the plural, but with the definite article "al, " it specifically refers to the devil, i. e., Satan.153

It is clearly apparentfrom the authentic,canonical traditions that Satanwas a jhw and not an angel. Whentaken by themselves,some verses of the Qur'Animply that he mighthave been an angel;however, there are also many others which infer that he was a jLW, andone which explicitlystates that he wasa jbw.

"It is We who createdyou andgave you shape.And We told the angels, Tiostrate yourselvesto Adam: and they prostzaW themselves,except Iblis. He refusedto be of those who prostrate." Qur'An,7: 11

The above verseindicates that Ibhs'54(thepersonal name of Satan)'55was amongthe angels. It also seemsto imply that he was an angel, otherwisethe commandto prostrate would not have applied to him and he would not have been wrong in disobeyingit. 156 There are some who supportthe view that Satanis an angel. A]-

153 Ambic-Englisb Lexicon, vol. 2, p. 1552. 154 Iblis is derived from ablasa,which means"he despairedor gave up hope of the mercy of Allah. " However, some Arab philologists considerit a foreign word (Arabic-English Lexicon, vol. 1, p. 248) and Orientalistsconsider it a corruption of the Greek diabolos (slandereror accuser)(ShoneTEncyclopaedia of1slam, p. 145 and The New EncyclopaediaBiAannica, vol. 6, p. 216).

155 SboitcTEncyclopaedia of Islam, p. 145.

156 This opinion has been attributedto Ibn 'Abbas, Ibn Mas'ad and other companionsof the Prophet(a) in a numberof narrationsdescribing Iblie life among the angels prior to his disobedienceof Allah. For example,they arequoted as saying, "When Allah finished creatingwhat He wished and rose above the throne, He appointedIblis over the angel of the lowestheaven. He was from a tribe of angels called Jinn` becausethey werethe guardiansof Jannah(Paradise). " (A]-Bjdjyah wa an-Nihiyah,vol. 1, p. 55 andAftkkn al-J&2n,pp. 201-202.)

47 QurtubV57 said, "It is the opinion of the majority of scholars,like Ibn 'Abbas (d. 688) and Ibn Mas'ad (d. 654) [from among the companions of the Prophet (4)]; Ibn

Jura)j, 159Said ibn al-Musayyab,159 Qatadah160 and others. It was the choice of Abla al-Ijasan al-Ash'ari, 161Ibn Qudamah162and the leading scholars of the Malikite school. AJ-Tabar!163 favored it [over the opposingview] and al-Baghaw!164 said that

157 Mu4ammad ibn AbMad al-Qurtub! (d. 1273),born in Cordova but traveled to , is one of the leading Qur'Anic exegetesof all times. He is known for his taflir in which he concentratedon the legal import of the verses. The taflir, publishedin 20 volumes, is known as Tafskal-Quilubi; however, he entitled it al-Ang'11AAkam a]- Qur'Jn Me Compendiumof Qur'jnIcLaws). (A]-A'I&n, vol. 5, p. 322.)

158 'Abdul-Malik ibn 'Abdul-'Aziz ibn JuraA (699-767),a Makkanjurist, was the leading scholar of the ViJaz in his time and the first to write Islamicworks in Makkah. Although born in Makkah,he wasa freedslave of Byzantineorigin. (A]- A'l&n, vol. 4, p. 160.) 159 Sa'Id ibn al-Musayyab (634-713), the leading tJbPr, was among the seven leading jurists of Madinah. He was a scholarin Padfth andjurisprudence and was a noted aesthetic. He was also the leading narrator of Caliph 'Umar's rulings. (A]- A'I&n, vol. 3, p. 102.) 160 Qatadahibn Di'amah (680-736),blind from birth, was the leadingPadFth scholar of his time in Basrah. He wasalso a highlyrespected Qur'anic exegete and Arab philologist. He diedin Wasil duringthe plague.(A]-A'I&n, vol. 5, p. 189.) 161 Abil al-Ijasan 'Ali ibn Ismalil al-Ash'ari (874-935) was a famous theologian born in Basrah. Until his 40th year, he was a zealous pupil of the Mu'tazilite theologian, al-Jubba'l; however, his study of Padah elucidatedfor him the error of that school of thought. He henceforth championed the orthodox views against the Mu'tazilites and composeda large number of works refuting their views. The number of his books amountedto around 300, the most significant of his publishedworks are aMbinah fj' Up] ad-DiyAnah and MaqVit al-IslamiyyIn, a catalogueof heretical movements, thý first work of its kind in Islamic literature. (SboneTEncyclopaediaof Islam, pp. 4647. )

162 'Abdullah ibn Mulýammadibn Qudamah(1146-1223), born in , becameone of the leadingjurists amongthe scholarsof the Ijanbalite schoolof jurisprudence. His most noted publishedworks are al-Mugha in jurisprudence, Rawdtah an-MVir in the scienceofjurisprudence and a]-Muqna'. (AI-A Un, vol. 4, p. 6ý.) 163 Abe ja'far Muýammadibn Jarir al-Tabari(839-923), the Arab historianand exegete,was bom at Amul in the provinceof Tabaristan.He traveledextensively to

48 it was the position of most exegetes.It is also the obvious meaningof the verse: 'So the angels prostrated all together,except Iblis, who was haughty and becameone of thedigbelievers. ' [Qur'An,38: 73-741. "165

When Iblis was asked why he did not prostrate,he repliedthat he wasbetter than Adam:

"[ARAhl said, 'What prevented you from bowing down when I

commanded youT He replied, I am better than he. You created

me from fur and him from clay.'" Qurin, 7:12

The reason which he gavefor his superioritywas that he wascreated from fire. Since the angelswere createdfrom light, aswas previously narrated from the Prophet(4), and the finn from fire, thisjustification of superiorityon the part of Satanimplies that he was a jbmi andnot an angel. Ibn Kathir said,"When Almighty Allah commanded the angelsto prostrateto Adam,Ibfis wasincluded in the address,even though he was not from the sameorigin as them, becausehe resembledthem and had become characterizedby their deeds. Consequently,he wasincluded in the addressto them and cursedfor disobeyingthe command." 166 Az-Zamakhshari (1075-1144) said, "The

Baghdad,Ba§rah, KOM, Syria and Egypt in searchof knowledgein his earlyyears; later he spent his time mainly teachingand writing. I-Esgreat commentary on the Qur'an, JAmP al-Bayin D' Tafsiral-Qu.?in, is the earliestextant work of its kind. It becamea standardwork uponwhich later commentatorsdrew. The othermajor work was his 12 volume history of the world, Taffkh al-Umamwa al-Mulak. (Sboiler Encyclopiediaoflslxn, pp. 556-557.)

164 Al-Ijusayn ibn Mas'ad al-Farra' al-Baghaw! (1044-1117), from a town in Khurasan between Herat and Marw called Bagha, became a leading scholar in jurisprudence, PaSth science and taftir. His best known publishedworks are Shatt as-Sunnah, a 14 volume collection of the Sunnahand AnwArat-TanzfI waAsriTat. Ta'%V, a4 volume exegesisof the Qur'An. (A]-A'lArn, vol. 2, p. 259,)

165 Aj-jjmi, jiAtkgm al-Qurjn, Vol. 1, p. 294.

166 Tafstra]-Qur'jn al-'Agm, vol. 1, p. 117.

49 command included him even though it was specificallyfor the angels,because Iblis was in their company and he used to worship Allah, Almighty, the way they worshipped 11im. So when they were commandedto prostrate to Adam and humble themselves in his honor, it was evenmore appropriatethat theftwff [i. e., Ibhs], who was with them, humble himself " 167

Furthermore,quoted Qur'anic textsin the precedingsection have shown that the angelsdo not have a freewill but do whateverAllah commandsthem. Thereis anotherverse from the Qur'Anwhich addressesthe issuein no uncertainterms:

"And when We told the angels, Trostrate to Adam, ' they

prostrated, except lbhs. He was one of the film, so he broke his

Lord7s command. Will you then take him and his children as

protectors besides Me? And they are enemies to you!... " Qur'An,

18:50

Ash-Shanq-ij-068said, "The apparent[meaning of this verse]shows that the reasonfor his disobedienceto his Lord's commandwas his beingajbW. For it is an established principle in the basicrules of Qur'Anicexegesis with regardto the treatmentof a clear text, implicationsof a text andrecommendations of a text, that fa-[then, therefore, for, because,so that], is amongthe conjunctionswhich indicate 'cause... For example,in Almighty AllaWs statement: "Me thief, maleor female,[fa-I cut off his or her hand:

'p. 167 A]-KasbshJf 'an gaqff'iq at- Tanzfl, vol. 2, 555.

168 Mu4ammadal-Amin ibn Mu4ammadal-Jakah-i ash-Shanq-ill (d. 1974), a famous Arabic scholarand Malikite jurist in his homeland,Mauritania, taught taftir in the Prophefs in Madinah and the scienceof jurisprudencein the Islamic Universitiesof Riyadh and Madinah. 11isbooks are used in the collegesof shafi'ah. The most notable of his writingsis Afti'al-Bayinli TkfAraI-Qur.tn bial-Qur'in, an exegesis of the Qur'an. (AftVal-Bayin [Beirut: 'Alam al-Kutub,n. d. ], vol. 10, appendixpp. 18-55.)

50 [Qurln, 5:381 That is, their hands are to be cut off because of their act of theft. 169 His disobedience was because of his being a jbW. 'He was one of thefina, so [fa-] he broke his I.And's commandL' It is this characteristic which distinguishes him from the angels. They all obeyed the command, and he did not. " 170

In Ibn Ijajar al-Haythami'sl7lopinion, "It is obviousthat the evidence[for Iblis being a jhwi] found in the phrase,'He was one of the jbw, ' is strongerthan the evidence for him being an angel found in the exception[they (i. e., the angels) prostratedexcept Ibhs], becauseexceptions [in Arabic] often come in the broken [munqkti'] form'72asin the Almighty'sstatement:

lie [Le., Abraham] said, "Can you see whom you have been

worshipping, you and your forefathers? For they are [all]

enemies to me, except the Lord of all the worlds who createdme

and guides me.'" Qur'An,26: 75-78

'Me Lord of all the worlde is not from the preceding [group from which He is excepted]. " 173

It has also been pointed out by some commentatorsthat the verse given previously(Qur'dn, 18:50) refers to Satan's"children, " yet the angels,being without

169 Aqwj'al-Bayin, Vol. 4, p. 119.

170 Ibid.

171 Mmad ibn Muýammad ibn IjaJar al-Haythan-d(1504-1567) was a leading jurist from Egypt who studied at al-Azhar University and died in Makkah. He wrote a number of books in a variety of fields, amongthem are M-$awJ'Iq al-MvAdqah and al-Faawi al-ya&thlj)ýwh. (A]-A'I&n, Vol. 1, p. 234. )

172 An exception in which the thing exceptedis disunitedin kind from that which the exception is made. (Arabic-EngEsb Lexicon, Vol. 2, p. 2990.) See also W. Wright, A Grammar of tbe Arabic Language,Vol. 2, p. 336. 173 A]-F5tJwJ al-RacViblyyah,p. 125. Seealso Rt* a]-Ma '&ff, Vol. 1, p. 210.

51 sex,do not procreate.174

Concerning the widespread opinion among exegetesthat Ibhs was an angel, ash-ShanqII-isaid, "What has been attributed by the exegetes to many of the early scholars, like Ibn 'Abbis and others, to the effect that he [i. e., Iblis] was from the most noble group of angels who were guardiansof Paradise,that he was in charge of the lowest heaven, and that - his name was 'Azdzil, 175are all from Jewish sources

[Ar-IVyyjt], which are unreliable." 176Thus, the more correct opinion is that Ibhs was present among the angels, but not one of them. How he got to be among them has been explained in a number of questionablenarrations attributed to the companionsof the Prophet (4) and their students.177

Whether or not Satanwas the forefatherof all of thefinn, asAdam was the forefather of man, has also been a subjectof debateamong some Muslim scholars. Some held that he wasjust oneamong the finn andnot their forefather.Furthermore, similar to Cainbeing the first wretchedhuman, they considered him the first wretched Jmm due to his disobedienceof AllWs commandto bow to Adam.179 Thefollowing versehas been cited as evidenceto supportthis view:

"When We told the angels to prostrate to Adarn, they all

prostrated, except Iblis. He was one of thefihm.. " Qar'in, 18:50

The apparentmeaning of this verseimplies that Satanwas just oneamong them and

174 Aftk&n al-Aim, pp. 199-202. 175 See also SborterEncyclopaedia ofislam, pp. 143-144.

176 Agwj'al-Bayffn, vol. 4, pp. 120-121. 177 A]-Bid, §Yahwa an-Nibiyah, vol. 1, p. 56.

178 Ahmad al-Bayannift, al-,rmjn bi al-Malf likah, p. 109.

52 not the first amongthem. 179

The other view wasexpressed by al-Ijasanal-Bag! in his interpretationof the phrase from the above-mentioned-verse, "He was one of the. W He stated, "Iblis was not one of the angelsfor eventhe blinking of an eye. He was the origin of the finn as Adam was the origin of mankind." 180 This was also the view favored by Ibn

Taymiyyah.191 However, regarding the issueof whether or not Satanwas indeedthe forefather of the finn, there is not any conclusiveevidence from either the Qur'An or the Sunnahto favor one opinion over the other.

FORM

Invisible

In their natural state the finn are invisible to humansbut visible to some animals. This is the positionof the majorityof scholars,past and present. Concerning seeing thefinn, MubammadRashid Ri4a wrote the following, "If angelsorfiýw take a dense form, like a human or other [animals],it becomespossible to see them. However, under normalconditions they cannotbe seenin their naturalstate. " 182The following are some of the authentictraditions used in supportof this position: Jabir ibn 'Abdullahreported that the Prophet(4) said,"If you hearthe barkingof a dog or the braying of a donkey at night,seek refuge in Allah from Satan,because they see what you do not." 193 And in anothernarration by Aba Hurayrah,he quotedthe

179 'Umar Sulayman al-Ashqar, 'Alam al-Ann wa asb-Sbayktin, (Kuwait: Maktabah al-Fallb, 4th ed., 1984), p. 18.

180 Arnial-Bayin, vol. 1, p. 226.

11See Majm il' al-Famwi, vo1.4, p. 23S.

182 Tafsk al-Manir, vol. 7, p. 525. 183 CoHected by Aýrnad and AN Dawad (Sunan AM DJ*Vd, vol. 3, p. 1415, no. 5084) and authenticated by al-Albw in ýWh SunanAb! Djwvd, vol. 3, p. 961,

53 Prophet (4) as saying, "Whenyou heara donkeybraying, seek refuge in Allah from Satan,for he hasseen a devil."184 In yet an additionalnarration Aba ad-Darda'said, "Allah's Messenger(4) stood -up [in prayer]and we heardhim say,'I seekrefuge in Allah from you.' Then he reachedout his hand as if he were catching hold of something,and he saidthrice, 'I curseyou by Allah'scurse. ' Whenhe finishedpraying, we asked him, '0 Messenger'of Allah, we heardyou saysomething in your prayer which we havenever heard you saybefore, and we sawyou stretchout your arm.' He replied, 'Indeed, Allah's enemy,lbhs, broughta fiery torch andtried to thrustit in my face...'"195

Their invisibilityhas also been deduced from the followingverse:

"... He [Le., Satan] and his tribe watch you from a position where

YOUCannOt See theM. " Qur'In, 7:27

Some scholarsof the past, like ash-ShAT1,186an-Nabbas'97 and Ibn Ijazmlgg used this

no. 4256. 184 Collectedby AbO Dawrad,al-Bukhad and Muslim ($aAh Muslhp,vol. 4, p. 1428,no. 6581). 185 $AAb Muslim, vol. 1, pp. 273-274, no. 1106. 186 Muhammad ibn Has ash-ShIfi'! (767-820) was born in Ghazzah,Palestine. He became one of the leading scholars of all time and one of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence was founded by him. His most famouspublished works are a]- Umm in jurisprudence and ar-RisVah in the science of jurisprudence. He also compiled a work of Padah called a]-Musnad. (A]-A']Arn, vol. 6, p. 26.)

187 Aýmad ibn Mubammad(d. 950), knownas an-Nabbas, was born in Egypt where he becamean outstanding Qur'Anicexegete of his time. He traveledto 'Iraq _ and met with the outstandingscholars of the region. His mostnoted published works are N&Ab id-Qur'jn Wa MansOkhuh, Taftir Abtyfft Sibawkyh and Shaiýha]- Mu'aIIaqjt,?s-Saba'. (A]-A'lArn, vol. 1, p. 208.)

188 'Ah ibn Abmad az-Mri (944-1064), born in Cordova, ýf was among the leading Muslim jurists all time. He revived the ZWrI school ofjurisprudence which was founded by Dawad and was a prolific write. Among his publishedworks

54 verse as proof that only prophetscould seethefinn. Al-Bayhaq-i189 narrated in his book, Manjqib ash-SU61%from ar-Rabl'that ash-Shafi'!said, "We will invalidatethe witness of anyonewho claims to have seenthe firm, unlesshe is a prophet." Ibn Ijajar'90 commentedon this quotation,saying, "This statementshould be takento refer to onewho claimsto haveseen them in the form in whichthey were created. One who claims to have seenthem in their adoptedanimal shapesand forms should not be discrediteddue to the manyreports with regardto their takingvisible forms. "191 Imam ash-ShIfi'! supportedhis ruling that only the prophetscould see the firm in their natural statewith the above-mentionedQur'Anic verse to whichIbn IjaJarcommented, "The Almighty's statement,'He andhis tribe watchyou..: specificallyrefers to when they are in the form in whichthey were created. "192 Al-Qurtub-i quoted an-Nabbas as saying, "[The phrase] 'from a positionwhere you cannotsee thene indicates that the finn cannot be seen,except during the missionof a prophet, so that it couldbe evidencefor [the truth ofl his prophethood.Allah, Most Greatand Glorious, created

are al-Fýsalin heresiology;a]-MuPaHj, an II volume work in Islamiclaw andal- lhýkarnK Usal a]-Ahkjtn in the scienceofjurisprudence. (A]-AVArn, vol. 4, pp. 254- 255). 189 Mmad ibn al-IjUsaynal-Bayhaq-i (994-1066) was born in oneof the viflages of Bayhaq in the region of Naysabor.He traveledto Baghdad,Kafah, Makkah and elsewherein searchof knowledge.He wasamong the greatestShaTite scholarswho becameeven morefamous as a masterof the Padahsciences. Among his mostnoted works are as-Sunanal-Kubri, al-Asmj' wag-&fa-t andManjqibasb-Sbjfj'I. (A]- A'Ijm, vol. 1, p. 116.) 190 Ahmad ibn 'Ah al-'Asqalw (1372-1449), commonly known as Ibn Ijaiar, was one oithe greatestIslamic scholarsof all time. He was born in Cairo, but traveled extensively to learn from the leading scholars of his time. He was a historian but became best known for his masteryof the scienceof Padah. He servedas a judge in Egypt on a number of occasions. His works are many, amongthem: Lisin al-, TahdUb at-Tah"b, al-ýsjbahfi' Tmnyizaý-.y4ibah, Bulogh al-Mar&n and his most famous work, Sbatbý,YaAb al-Bukh&f. (Al-A'I&n, vol. 1, pp. 178-179.)

191 In Ijajar, Fat-t al-Bw (Beirut: Dar al-Ma'rifah, n.d. ), vol. 6, p. 344.

192 Ibid., vol. 4, p. 488.

55 them in an invisible world, and theycan only be seenif they arechanged from their [natural] form, which is among the miracles which only occur during the era of the

prophets (May AllWs peace and blessings be upon them)." 193Ibn Ijazm. aZ-Z,,Ihiri

states, "They see us and we do not seethem. Almighty Allah has said, lie and his

tribe watch you from a position where you cannot sm them.' So if Allah, Most Great

and Glorious, has informed us that we do not seethem, anyonewho claims to see

them or to have seen them is a liar, except if he is from among the prophets (May

AH&s peace be upon them). For that was a miracle for them as in the casewhere

AM Messenger (4) stated that Satan appeared before him in order to break his for be prayer..." 114 And further on a?-ZaMri states, "There is no way there to any authentic report of the sighting of a fin& after the death of AllWs Messenger(4).

They are either narrations with broken chains (munqqPjt) or narrations,from

worthless [narrators]." 195

Different reasonshave been given by scholarsfor the invisibilityoffinn. Some held that theywere invisible because AIM did not createhuman eyes with an ability to see them, while otherswere of the view that theywere invisible due to the finenessof their bodies.196 Due to a lack of evidenceto supportthese opinions from eitherthe Qur'Anor the Sunnah,this issuecannot be resolved.

- Ylsible

There arenumerous authentic narrations which showthat someof thefinn, like

193 A]-Jjng'KAI&&n al-QurJn, vol. 7, p. 187.

194 AM4salffal-Mllal, vol. 5, p. 12.

195 Ibid., p. 13.

196 See the translatedmanuscript in the appendix,p. 231. Seealso Badruddin ash-Shibli'sGbanfib wa 'Ajj'ib al-Aim (Jiddah:Maktabah al-Khadamat al-Ijadithah, 1982),pp. 29-31.

56 the angels, can take visible human shapes and other various forms.' Some exist in permanent or temporary visible animal forms from this world. In one of his long narrations Abu Hurayrah said, "Allah's Messenger put me in chargeof the zakjh of

Ramajan.197 While I was doing so, someonecame and beganto rummagearound in the food, so I caught hold of him and said, By Allah, I am going to take you to All&s

Messenger!' But the man implored, 'Verily, I am poor and I have dependents.I am in great need.' So I let him go. The next morning the Prophet (4) said, '0 Abu

Hurayrah, what did your captive do last nightT I replied, He complainedof being in great need and of having a family, so I let him go.' The Prophet (4) then said, 'Surely, he fied to you and he will return..."' This incident was repeatedanother two times after which the Prophet (4) said, "0 Aba Hurayrah, do you know with whom you have been speaking these past three nights?" He replied that he did not and so the

Prophet (4) said, "That was a devil." 198

TEGORIE

According to variouscanonical traditions of ProphetMuýammad (it), thefinn may be dividedinto threebroad categories in relationto their modesof existence.,He said, "There are three types of finn: one typewhich ffies in the air all of the time, another type which existsas snakesand dogs, and an earthboundtype which residesin oneplace or wandersabout. " 199

Aerial

Among aerial jb2n are those who eavesdropon the angelswho arenear the

197 Compulsory charity given in the form of foodstuff at the end of the annual month of fasting, Rama4an,and distributed amongthe poorest membersof society.

198 VaMh 9, 492, no. 530. , al-BukbAff, vol. p. 199 Collectedby al-Tabari and al-Ijaldm (Mishkjh al-Mgibip, vol. 2, p. 883) and authenticatedby al-Albin! in his editionOf Misbklh al-MgJblhf,vol. 2, p. 1206, no. 4148.

57 lowest heaven. The jLw then convey this information to some fortunetellers.

'Abdullah ibn 'Abbas related an incident told to him by another companionof the

Prophet. He said that while they were sitting at night with All&s Messenger(4), a

[falling] meteor gave off a dazzlinglight, so the Prophet (4) askedthem, "What did you say in pre-Islamic days about such occurrences?" They replied, "Allah and His

Messenger know best [the truth], but we usedto say that on such a night a great man was born and a great man died." Allah's Messenger(4) then said, "These [meteors] are not sent at either the death or birth of anyone. When Allah, the Exalted and

Glorious, decidesto do something,He issuesa command. Then the angelsbearing the throne and those in the heavens next to them glorify and praise Him until the glorification of Allah reaches those in the heavenof this world. The angelsnear the throne-bearers then ask them [i. e., the throne-bearers], 'What has your Lord saidT

And they inform them of what He said, and those in the heavens[below] seek and

carry information from them [i. e., the angelsnear the throne-bearers]until it reaches

the heaven of this world. While the information is being transferred,[the finn] snatch

what they manage to overhearand carry it to their friends. When the angelsspot the finn, they attack them with meteors. If they [i. e., the finn] narrate only what they

overhear,it would be all correct; however, they add to it and mix it with fies."200

Prior to the beginning of Prophet Mubammad's mission, the finn, by

eavesdropping, were able to gather a considerableamount of information about the

future. However, after revelation began, Allah had the angelscarefully guard the

lower reaches of the heavens and most of the jbw were chased away. This

phenomenonis describedin the Qur'an through the statementof one of the jhm:

"We [Le., the fiml had sought out the heavensbut found it Med

with strong guardians and meteors. We used to sit on high

200 Collected by al-Bukhm and Muslim (,Y*p Muslim, vol. 4, p. 1210, no. 5538).

58 places in order to listen, but whoever listens now finds a flarne

waiting for him. " Qur'an, 72:8-9

And Allah I-Emselfsays:

"And We have guardedit [i. e., the heavens]from every cursed

devil, except the one who is able to snatcha hearing. And he is

pursuedby a brightly buming flarne." Qur'An,15: 17-18

The Prophefs comPanion,Ibn 'Abbas, further elaboratedon this changein which the finn could no longer eavesdrop,saying, "When the Prophet (4) and a group of his companions set out for the 'Uk4 market,201 the devils were blocked from hearing information in the heavens. Meteors were let loose on them, so they returned to their people. When their people askedwhat had happened,they told them. Some suggested that something must have happened, so they spread out over the earth, seeking the cause. Some of them cameacross the Prophet (4) and his companions while they were in prayer and they heard the Qur'An being recited. They said among themselves that this must have been what blocked them from listening. When they returned to their people, they told them: 'Verily, we have heard a marvelous QurAn.

It guides unto righteousness,so we believed in iL And we will never make partners with our Lord: it202

Animal

As for finn appearingas ,the Prophet'scompanion, Abil Sald al-

201 An annualfair of 21 days, whichwas held between TA'if andNakhlah and whichwas openedon the I st of Dhul-Qa'dahat the commencementof the threesacred months. It was abolishedby Prophet Muýamýnad.(Dictionar oflslam, pp. 649- 650.) .y 202 Collected by al-Bukhm (,YaAh al-Bukbw, vol. 6, pp. 415-416, no. 443), Muslim (Sa&h Muslim, vol. 1, pp. 243-244, no. 908), at-Tirmidhi and Ahmad. The Qur'Anic referenceis 72: 1-2.

59 Khudri, reportedthat the Prophet (4) said,"Madinah has in it a group offinn who becameMuslims, so whoeversees any snakes [in their homes]should request them to leave three times. If any of them appearafter that, he shouldkill it becauseit is a devil.11203

In a numberof canonicaltraditions the Prophet (4) spokeabout the finn appearingas dogs. Aba Dharr quotedthe Messengerof Allah (4) as saying,"When any one of you standsfor prayer, it shouldbe towardssomething that shieldshim, equivalent[in height] to the backof a saddle,otherwise his prayerwill be brokenby the passingof a donkey,a womanor a blackdog. " I [i.e., the narrator]asked, "0 Abil Dharr, what is the differencebetween a blackdog, a red dog anda tan-coloreddog? " He replied, "0 my nephew,I alsoasked Allah's Messenger as you areasking me and he said,7he blackdog is a devil."1204

It is alsobelieved by somescholars that camelsare finn. This opinionis based upon an authentictradition of the Prophet(4) reportedby al-Bara'ibn 'Azib in which he quoted him as saying, "Do not offer prayer in the camelpens because they are [created]205from the devils.11206However, other scholars hold that the descriptionis metaphoricaland not literal. Ibn ljibbin207said,"If the discouragementfrom formal

203 YaAb MusEm, vol. 4, p. 1213, no. 5557. 204 Collected by all of the six authenticbooks of Pa&th (g-. YffiV as-Sittah)with the exception of YaAb a]-Bukb&f. See$aAb Aýuslft vol. 1, pp. 261-262, no. 1032.

205 The word "created" occurs in the narration of this Pa&th collected by Mmad in al-Musnad, vol. 4, p. 86. 206 Collected by Aba Dawad (Sunan Aba Djwvd, vol. 1, pp. 4445, no. 184) and authenticatedby al-Albw inYaAb SunanA&Djwvd, vol. 1, p. 37, no. 169. 207 Muýamýnad ibn ]Uibban (d. 965), also known as Aba HAtim al-Busff, was a ýorn great historian, geographer, jurist and Padfib scholar. He was is Bust (Sijistan) but traveled extensively to Khurasan,Syria, 'Iraq, Egypt and Algeria. He was made the judge of Samarqand for sometime and is noted for his writings. His most noted published work is al-Musnadas-$a9b (known asYAOPIbn gibbin) which is said to

60 prayer in camel penswas actually due to camelsbeing created from firm, the Prophet (4) would not have prayedon the backof a camel[while riding it]. It is impossible that formal prayer not be allowed in areaswhere devils may be, but allowedon the devilsthemselves. The meaningof his [i.e., the Prophet's]statement, 'They are created from devils,' is that the devilsaccompany them. " 209

Earghbowd

The finn which stay in one area or wanderabout belong to the earthbound category and includesthose finn known as qaffn (literally, "companion"). One of these accompanieseach human, from his birth until his death. This jbW encouragesmaWs lower desires and constantlytries to divert him from righteousness.TheProphet(4) referred to this relationship,saying, "Everyone of you hasbeen assigned a companion from the jb=" The ý4jbah asked, "Even you, 0 Messengerof Allah?" and the

Prophet (4) replied, "Even me, except Allah has helpedme againsthim and he has submitted. Now he only tells me to do good."209

ABILITIES

EatandDrink

According to explanationsrecorded in canonicaltraditions, the finn consume food anddrink. The companion,Ibn Mas'ad,reported that the Prophet(4) said,"An emissaryfrom the firm cameto me [andasked me to accompanyhim], so I went with him andrecited the Qur'Anto them. Theytook me andshowed me their tracksand the remnantsof their fires,and they askedme to specifyfood for them. I said[to them], 'You may have asmeat every bone on whichAHWs name has been mentioned which

be more authentic than SunanIbn Mijah. (Al-A. Mn, vol. 6, p. 78.)

208 yagh An ýfibbjn, vol. 3, p. 157.

209 ýaAb Muslim, vol. 4, p. 1471, no. 6757.

61 falls into your hands,and for your animalsevery animal dropping."' The Prophet (4) then said [to 'his companions],"So do not wipe yourselvesclean [istinjj'] with them, for they are the provisions for your brothers.11210 This ability of thefirm to ingest substancesis further supportedby the Prophet'sedict concerningeating and drinking.

Ibn 'Umar quoted the Prophet (4) as saying,"If any one of you eats,let him eat with his right [hand], and if he drinks let him do so with his right, for surely Sataneats and drinks with his left. " 211

Some of the earlier scholarshave debated as to how thefinn eat,whether by sniffing or by chewing and swallowing.One side argued that thefirm wereinvisible becausethey wereincorporeal and the processof chewingand swallowing could only be doneby corporealbeings. The otherside base their argumenton the implicationsof a PaSthcollected by AN Dawad212and reported by Umayyahibn Makhshi. He stated that the Prophet (4) wassitting by a manwho continuedto eatwithout mentioning AllWs name until only a single morselwas left. Whenhe raisedit to his mouth,he said, "In the name of Allah in the beginningand the end." TheProphet (4) laughed and said, "Satan continuedto eatwith him,but whenhe mentionedAllWs name,he vomited what wasin his stomach." However,this Padfthis not authentic213and there is not sufficientcanonical evidence to determinethe correctnessof eitheropinion. 214

210 Sa&h Muslim Vol. I p. 244, no. 903. 211 FaAb MusArn, Vol. 3, p. 1115,no. 5008. 212 Sunan Aba Djwvd, Vol. 3, p. 1064, no. 3759. It is also collected by an- Nasa'!, ad-DaraquIn!and al-Tabaraniin a]-Mv jam a]-Kabk, p. 268. 213 The Padah is only reported by Jabir ibn Subh from al-Muthanna ibn ý . al- Khuza'i (Awn al-Ma'bad, vol. 10, p. 243), and al-4uthanna is classifiedmajbal (unknown). Thus, it is classified(Iazf(unreliable) accordingto the scienceof Padah criticism. See Taqffb at-Tah"b, vol. 2, p. 228, no. 913 and al-Jarhýwa at-Ta'dfl, vol. 3, p. 435, no. 7062. 214 'Abdul-Karim 'Ubaydat, 'Alam a]-.&2n J7 paw, al-Kitib wa as-Sunnah

62 Cobabita I

The majority of Sunnitescholars hold that the finn are capableof having sexual relations and bearing offspring. This opinion is basedupon the existenceof male and femalefinn alluded to in the following verse:

"True, there were men among humanswho soughtrefuge from

men among the finn, but they only increased them in folly. " Qur'In, 72:6

The usage of men in reference to the finn implies that there must also be women among them.215 Female finn are spokenabout in Padahsfrom the Prophet (4) and his companions. For example,Anas ibn Malik statedthat wheneverthe Prophet (4) went into the toilet area,he would say, "0 Allah, surely I seekrefuge in You from evil male and female finn. " 216 'Umar ibn al-Khallab once asked a question of a former fortuneteller who had converted to Islam, "Tell me the strangestthing which your

femalejbW Uinnjjqýwh)told you?11217

Further support for this opinion is foundin the implicationsof the following two versesfrom the Qur'An:

"[Maidens of Paradise] whom no man or ffiW before has deflowered.." Qur'An,55: 74

(Riyadh: Dar Ibn Taymiyyah,I st ed., 1985),p. 49.

215 A]-Aqi'dah a]-IsIjrWyyahwa Ususuhi,vol. 2, p. 27.

216 The Arabic terms used in this Padf1hto referto maleand female finn are ,kbubuth and khabj'Ah. Ibn IjaJaral-'AsqaM, said,"Khubuth is the plural of khabith, and khabj'ith is the plural of kbabithahwhich meanthe maleand female devils as stated by al-Khaltabi, Ibn Ijibban and others." (Fat-Pal-Bw, vol. 1, p. 243.) The Padrthwas collected in all the six booksof Padah. See$aAh al-Bukhw, vol. 1, pp. 105-106,no. 144; 9*P Muslim, vol. 1, p. 205,no. 729 andSunan Abo DIwvd, vol. 1, pp. 1-2, no. 4.

217 yaAb a]-Bukb&f,vol. 5, pp. 131-132,no. 206.

63 "Will you then take him [i. e., Satan] and his children as

protectors besides Me? And they are enemiesto you! " Qur'An,

18:50

The sexual act of cleflowering and the possession of offspring attributed to thefinn in theseverses imply that they procreatesexually. 218

F7=

The finn possessa freewill like humanbeings, as suchthey may be divided into two to their faith Muslims (i. believers) Icufjr main groups according - e., and A (disbelievers).The Qur'Anaddresses this distinctionin Sarahal-Aw.

"Say, It has beenrevealed to me that a group of jbw listened and

said, "Verily, we have heard a marvelous Qurlan. It guides unto

righteousness so we have believed in it. And we will never

make partnerswith our I.AnýL` Qur'An,72: 1-2

"And there are among us Muslims [in submissionto ARAN and

others who deviate from justice, and whoever acceptsIslam has

sought out the right path. As for those who deviate, they Will be

firewood for the Hellfire. " Qur'An,72: 14-15

The disbelieving finn are referred to in Arabic as sbaylin (pl. sbay4tin). The

Qur'An also calls human beingswho becomeenemies of righteousnessshayktIn (devils):

"Likewise, We have made for every prophet an enemy, devils

[sbay4bij from among mankind and thefim" Qur'An,6: 112

218A#kjmal-. Mmpp. 51-52. _

64 The powerful and crafty firm (especiallythe evil onesamong them) are called 219

"An 'ffift from mnong,- the firm said, I wiH bring it for you..: " Qur'An,27: 39

The Prophet (4) was reported to have said, "Verily, an 'i&t from among the jbw

"220 tried to break my prayer last night by spitting on me...

The lowest categoryof fitm in ternisof their poweror ability is referredto in Arabic as Xm. This categoryincludes the weakestof thefirm andalso those who appearin the form of dogswhich arecompletely black. 221

The firm that suddenly appear in horrible, rapidly changing forms in the presenceof humansare referred to in Arabicas ghal (pl. g&ljn). Mentionof themcan be found in the Pa&ths-For example,the Prophet(4) wasquoted as saying,"If the gWin appearand transform themselvesbefore you, call the adbin. " 222

Mobiffty

Jim have the ability to traversehuge distances instantaneously and transport objects without being detected. This fact is mentionedin the Qur'Anin the story of Bilq-lS, 223 Prophet Solomonand the queenof .Bilq-is was coining to seehim and

219 Ambic-Enggsb Lexicon, vol. 1, p. 2089. Seealso an-Nibiyah, vol. 3, p. 262 and Dr. I. Anis's al-Mu! jam a]-Wafft(Ca7iro: 1972), vol. 2, p. 611. 220 Sa&,h a]-Bukh&f,, vol. 1, p. 268, no. 75.

221 Lisin al-'Arab, vol. 13, p. 132.

222 AJ-Musnad,vol. 3, p. 305. 223 Bilq-is is the nameamong Muslims for the queenof Sheba.Her story is given in I Kings 10:1- 10,13 andin the Qur'An,27: 2045. The nameis not mentionedin the Qur'An, but according to Arab historiansshe is identified as the daughter of al-Had-had,the son of the Himyarite king, Shuraýbfl(or Shur*l) of Yemen. Ibn

65 prior to her arrivalhe askedthe finn to bring herthrone from her land:

"An 'Adl from among the finn said, I will bring it to you before

you can get up from your place. Verily, I arn strong and

trustworthy for the assigrunent: " Qur'in, 27:39

RELATIONSHIPS VITH HUMANS

According to numerousstatements of ProphetMuýammad (4), thefinn arein very close contact with humans. The qaffn, mentionedearlier, is an evil jbwthat accompanieseach and every humanbeing from birth until death. This demon encouragesmaWs lower desiresand constantly tries to diverthim from righteousness.

The finn ý contact with man goes even deeper. ý afiyyahreported that the Prophet (*) said,"Verily, Satanflows in the bloodstreamof Adam'sdescendantS. "224 The finn are able to affectthe subconscioushuman mind according to the Prophet's statement,"Verily, the dreamswhich a man seesin his sleepare of threetypes: a dream from the Most Merciful [Allah], a saddream from Satan,and a subconscious dream."225 In anothernarration the Prophet(4) wasreported to havesaid, "If oneof

Khaldan (1332-1406)gives her name as Balqamahin al-Muqaddimah,and the first century Jewish historian, Flavius Josephus(original name, Josephben Matthias, d. 100), regardsher asthe ruler of Egypt andEthiopia and records her nameas Naukalis. Among Ethiopianhistorians, she is knownas Makedah. See SbonerEncyclopaedia of Islam, p. 63; The New EnqyclopaediaBiitandc;, vol. 10, pp. 713-714 and a]- Mawsa'ahal-Arabij)ýwh al-Muyassarah, vol. 1, p. 400.

224 Coflectedin the six booksof PaSthwith the exceptionof at-Tirrnidhi. It is by Anas in 5aAh Muslim, 3, 1188, 5404 in Sunw AM narrated , vol. p. no. and DjwVd, vol. 3, p. 1390,no. 4976.

225 Reported by Abu Hurayrah, collectedby Abu Dawad (SunanAM Dfwwd, vol. 3, p. 1395, no. 5001), andauthenticated by al-Albw in Silsilah id-ApiSth aý- &Ahah, vol. 4, p. 487, no. 1870.

66 you seesa dreamvAich pleaseshim, it is from Allah, so let him praiseAllah andspeak about it. But if hesm otherthings which he dislikes,it is from Satan,so let him seek refugein Allah andvwl mentionit to anyoneand it will not harmhim. "226

BLogghts

They canaim affect the consciousmind by introducingdeviant thoughts. Abo

Hurayrah quoted 11wProphet (4) as saying,"Satan will come to all of you and say,

Vho createdthis wd thatT until he asks,Vho createdyour LordT Whenhe comes to that, oneshould swek ýrefbge in Allahand keepaway [from suchidle thoughts]." 227

Homes

They may Armp it the imusesof bumans wd eatwith a manwhile he eats. Jabir ibn 'Abdulhlhmw= W. Thatthe Prophet (4) said,"If a manenters his houseand remembersAllah wMe cmtmingand while. eating, Satan says[to his companions], 7here is no placeam pass the might and no dinner! But if he enters without rememberingAll& WHIr entering Satan says,'You havecaught a placeto passthe night! And if he d= mcttmenfon Allah'sname before eating, he says,'You have caughtboth a placefx the mýghtand finner. '"228

They may Am came Inows to bum down through the agencyof animals presentin the ham. The Prqld (4) wasreported to havesaid, "When you go to sleep, put out yew hmVs, becauseSatan may guide something like this [rat] to that

226 Naffated by AM Sald al-Khudriin. ýaAh al-Bukb&f,vol. 9, pp. 95-96,no. 114.

227 yWb MvfAiAwg&. 1, p. 77, no. 244. 228 Collectedby SAwffirn,Ibn Majahand Aba Dawad(Sunan Aba Diwad, vol. 3. p. 1063,,no. 3756)=dauffienticatedbyal-Albai-dinýWhSunanAblDjwvdvol. 2,, p. 717,no. 3200.

67 [lamp] and causeyou to be bumed."229

Bigh

At birth, every child is not only assigneda devil to accompanyit throughout life, but it is also touched by Satan. It was reported that Prophet Muýammad (4) said, "Satan pricks with his finger every newborn child of Adams descendants.They all begin screaming from Satan's jab, exceptMary and her son [i. e., Jesus].11230 The reason given by Abil Hurayrah for their protection is the supplicationmade by Mary's mother at the time of Mary's birth.231 It is recordedin the Qur'An:

"I commend her and her offspring to Your protection from

Satan,the rejcctcdu Qur'An,3: 36

SiCI07CSS

Somephysical human sicknesses are caused by the effectsoffinn. The Prophet (4) was quoted as saying, "[One of the causesfor] the destructionof my nationof followers will be [assassinationby] stabbingand the plague,which is harassmentfrom your enemiesamong the firm. [Death],by eitherway, is martyrdom."232 In the caseof a womanwho complainedof vaginalbleeding at timesother than her menstrualperiod, the Prophet(4) calledit "oneof the kicks of Satan."233 Zaynab, the wife of 'Abdullah

229 Narrated by Ibn 'Abbas,collected by Abu Dawad(Sunan Aba Ditwd, vol. 3, p. 1147, no. 5227)and Ibn Hibban,and authenticated by al-Albw in,,VaAh Sunan Ab.iDjwvd, vol. 3, p. 985,no. 4i69. 230 Collected by al-BukhArl (%SaAhal-Bukh&f, vol. 4, p. 324, no. 506) and Abmad.

231 See yWb al-Bukb&f, vol. 4, p. 426, no. 641. 232 Reported by Abu Masi al-Ashari, collectedby A4madand al-Tabarw, and ruled authenticby al-Albw in &Ah a]-JJmi'as-$qghiT, vol. 2, p. 779, no. 4231. 233 Reported by Ijamnah bint Jaýsh,collected by Abil Dawild, at-Tiffnidhi, an- Nasa'! Ibn Majah, (Pasan)by in and and authenticated al-Albani -FAMbSunan Abi

68 ibn Mas'ad, reported that once when he saw a cord necklacearound her neck and he

asked what it was, she replied, "It is a cord in which a spell hasbeen placed to help

me." He snatchedit from her neck, broke it and said, "Surely, the family of'Abdulm

has no need for sbirkl I heard Allah's Messengersay, 'Verily, spells,talismans and

charms are ."' Zaynabreplied, "Why are you sayingthis? My eye used to twitch

and when Iý went to so and so, the Jew, he put a spell on it and it stoppedtwitching! "

Ibn Mas'ad replied, "Verily, it was only a devil prodding it with his hand, so when you had it bewitched,he left... "234

Dca&

At the time of death, the evil finn try their utmostto causethe believersto stumbleand go astray. It wasreported by Abil al-Yasarthat the Prophet(4) usedto pray for refuge from that moment asfollows, "0 Allah...I seekrefuge in You from Satancausing me to fumbleat the time of death..."235

Cphabitadon . Scholarsof the past have debatedabout the possibilityof humansand finn having sexualrelations. The debatecovered two basicpoints: (1) whetherit was physically possiblefor intercourseto take place, and (2) whether it was legally permissible236within the boundsof marriage.

Dj; wd, vol. 1, p. 56, no. 267. 234 Collected by Abo DAvvQd(Sunan AM Diwad, vol. 3, p. 1089, no. 3874), Ahmad, IbnMAjah and Ibn Ijibban and authenticatedby al-Alban! in,,VaAhSunanAbI DýtWd, vol. 2, pp. 736-737, no. 3288. 235 Collectedby Abu Dawad,an-Nasa'! and al-]Ualdm (Mishkah al-Mgjbýb, vol. by in 1, p. 526) and authenticated al-Albw 4FAAha]-J&ni'as-$aghir, vol. 1, p. 275, no. 1282.

236 Aftk&n al. jjnn, p. 9 1.

69 Those who hold that - sexualrelations are possiblesupport their position with the implications of the following verse:

"[Maidens of Paradise] whom no man or fin& before them has deflowered." Qur'Ari,55: 74

Al-Alasi said, "The negationof humans malesdeflowering the maidensof Paradise (par 'in) is obvious. As for its negationoffirm defloweringthe maidensof Paradise, MqjAhid237and al-VaSan239were reported to havesaid that thefinn areable to have sexualintercourse with humanfemales when their husbandsdo not mentionthe name of Allah [beforeengaging in sex]. Thus,the negationhere includes both of thosewho engagein sex. It has also been said by others that there is no needfor suchan explanation,as the negationof deflowermentof the maidensof Paradiseby finn is sufficient to indicatethat it is possiblefor themto do so. Thereis no doubtthat male finn arecapable of independentlyhaving sex with humanfemales without the presence of their husbandsif the husbandsdo not mentionAllWs name."239 Ar-RM wrote in his taftir, "What is the benefitin mentioningthe finn if theydo not engagein sexual intercourse? This is not the case.The finn do haveoffspring and descendants. The differenceof opinion [amongscholars] is whetherthey are able to engagein sexwith

237 Mujahid ibn Jabr (642-722), born in Makkaha freedslave of the Makhzam clan, he becamethe leading Qur'anic exegeteand authority on recitationsamong Makkans. He was a tibl'! (studentof the companionsof the Prophet[4]) andthe main pupil of the well-known commentatoramong the Prophet'scompanions, Ibn 'Abbas. He later traveledand settled in Kafah. Thework whichhe composedin taflIT was avoidedby other commentatorsbecause he used to rely uponnarrations from Christianand Jewish sources. (A]-AVAm, vol. 5, p. 278.)

238 Al-Ijasan ibn Yasar al-Baýri (643-728), a tabi'land the leading scholar of Baýrah, was perhaps the most outstanding scholar of his time. He was born in Madinah and raised there. As a transmitter of prophetic traditions, he was highly esteemed, and as a ascetic, he was greatly renowned. (A]-A'I&n, vol. 2,226 and Sborter Enc:ydopaedia of Islam, p. 136. )

239 Raý al-Ma'Jni, vol. 27, p. 119.

70 human females or not. The best known position is that they are able to do so.

Otherwise, there would not be amongthe firm genealogyand family ties. Itisasifthe human deflowerment [of the maidens] is like that of the firm with regard to the implication of their negation [in the verse].01240 Ibn al-JaWZ1241states the following concerning the above mentioned verse, "The verseis proof that aftwican have sex with women in the sameway that men do." 242

Those scholarswho deny the possibility offirm havingsexual relations with humansrely on the implicationsof the followingverse:

"And among His signs is that He createdfor you [men] mates

fi'om among yourselvesin order that you may live with them in

tranquillity, and He has put between you love and mercy..." Qur'An,30: 21

According to them, men are blessedby Allah with wives from within their own species and of a similar form wherein they find tranquillity, love and mercy. Consequently,the divinely ordained goals of marriage cannot be achieved with mates from another species who exist in another form.243 Al-Marwardi244also said, "...The mind rejects

240 At-Tafslral-Kabk, vol. 29, p. 130.

241 'Abdur-Rahmanibn 'Ali al-Jawzi (1114-1201)was born in Baghdadand leading became oneof the scholarsof histime in historyand Padfth. He was a prolific writer, producing over 300 works. Amongthe mostnotable of his publishedworks are Rap al-Arwaft, Talbis IbAs, &yd al-Khktir, andZW a]-Mas!T fl, 'Ibn at-Taftir. (A]-A'I&n, vol. 3, pp. 316-317.)

242 Z:ffd a]-Magr P- 'IN at-Taftir (Beirut: al-Maktabal-Islarni, Ist ed., 1965), vol. 8, p. 122.

243 Apk&n aMinn, p. 93.

244 'Ali ibn Muýammad(974-1058), known as Abul-Ijasan M-Marwardi-, was the leadingjudge of his time anda prolific writer. He wasborn in Bavah andtransferred to Baghdad. He was madechiefjudge during the rule of the 'Abbaside,al-QI'irn bi Amrillah, and used to leantowards some of the opinionsof the Mu'tazilites. Among

71 [the possibilityof sexbetween humans and firm] dueto the differencesin their species, naturesand senses. Man is corporealand the finn incorporeal,and man was created from clay while the fitm werecreated from fire. Thus,mixing would not be possible with suchdifferences, and offspring would be inconceivable." 245

As-SUyar, 246 was of the opinion that sexual relations occur between humans and finn. He mentioned many narrations from the early scholars and those of later generations indicating this. Ibn Taymiyyah wrote the following, "Aw and humans may also have sexual intercourse with each other and beget children. This is a frequent occurrence which is well-known to many. #'247

Assuming that sexualrelations can occur, the vast majority of scholarsopposed it even within the bounds of marriage. There is a lack of evidenceto pronounce it parffin (forbidden); however, somescholars ruled it to be mabvh (disliked). Sa'd ibn

Dawad az-Zubaydi reported that some people from Yemenwrote a letter to Imarn

Malik ibn AnaS249asking him about marriageto the jb2n. He respondedsaying, "I do not seein it any religious objection, but I considerit detestable. For if a woman found

his publishedworks are Adib ad-Dunyff waad-Dfn, al-Atk&n as-SuttJniyyahand AVNn an-Nubuwwah.(A]-A'Ijm, vol. 4, p. 327.)

245 A]-JAmP11 Aftk&n al- Qur'jn, vol. 13,p. 211.

246 'Abdur-Ra4minibn Abi Bakr (1445-1505),known as Jalaluddin as-Suy1DJ1, is among the leading Muslim scholars of all time. He grewup in Cairo. At the ageof 40., a leadingscholar in all of the variousIslamic disciplines, he secludedhimself from his studentsand devoted himself to writing. Amonghis mostnotable published works are al-ltqffnfl' ' Ulam al-Qur'jn, Ta&!-b ar-RJ%T, Tahsir id-JaWayn, a]-. Ikni' g-$agbir andad-Durral-ManLhoriiat-Tafsirbial-Ma'tbar. (A]-A'I&n, vol. 3, pp. 301-302.)

247 Majma, al-Fatjwj, vol. 19, p. 39. Seealso Ibn TaymeeyahýEssay on the Jinn, p. 3 1.

248 (712-795),born in Madinah,became its leadingscholar and founder of one of the four main schoolsof Islamic jurisprudence. He was an outstandingscholar of Padfth and composedthe earliestextant collection which he namedal-Muwgta. (A]-A'I&n, vol. 5, pp. 257-258.)

72 pregnant is asked, Who is your husbandTand shereplies that he is a jLW, this will lead to much corruption in [the principles ofl Islam."249 Qatadahand al-vasan were also reported to have ruled that marriageto the jbw is MIknM. 250,

Other scholarsprohibited sexual relationsbetween humans and non-humans, within or without marriage. Among leadingIjanafite scholars,Jamaluddin as- Sijistani251stated, "Marriage betweenhumans and finn or manateeS252isprohibited due to the differencesin their species."253 Among Shafi'! scholars, a]-Barm254also ruled that suchmarriages were ParArn because Almighty Allah informedmankind that He blessedus by creatingwives for us from amongourselves (Qur'an, 30: 21). If marriageto finn were permissible,there would not be anyblessing in the creationof humanwives. 255

249 Quoted in Aftk&n aMinn, p. 92 from a]-Ilh&n wa al- Waswasahby Sa'Id ibn al-'Abbas ar-Rizi. 250 Aýkffm aMinn, p. 97. 251 yasuf ibn Mmad as-SiJistw (d. 1240) was the outstanding scholar of Ijanafite jurisprudence of his time. His most notable publishedliterary contributions are Muqyah al- and Ghunyaha]-FuqahX. ('Umar Ri4a Kat4alah, Mu: jam al- Mu'allifm' [Beirut: Maktab al-Muthanna, 1957], vol. 13, p. 270. Seealso Kashfaz- 7, 2, 1887.) , uncin,vol. p. 252 The Arabic term used is "insan ahmalll (literally, "man of the water") which has been used due to the resemblanceof the manatee to humans when seenat a distance.

253 This was mentioned in Munyah a]-MuNand attributed by the author to al- Fatjwj as-SirJjiyyah. SeeA? &&n al-JAhn,p. 98. 254 Ibrahim ibn al-Muslim al-Barizi (1184-1271), a leading Shafi'i jurist, was born in Ijamah. He was madethe judge of Ijamah and was also a teacher and writer. (Mu jam al-WaIllim', vol. 1, p. 112.)

255 A]-Fatjwj al-ýIadfthlyyah, p. 69.

73 CONCLUSION

From the precedingpresentation of the origin,characteristics and capabilities of the finn, it is clearthat theyrepresent the only possiblesource of spirit-possession of humansfrom the orthodoxIslamic viewpoint. The canonicaltexts clearlyindicate that the finn are able to enterthe humanmind and body, and they canaffect human beingsboth physicallyand psychologically.The fact that a minorityof scholarshave interpreted these texts symbolicallyand have ruled out the possibility of spirit- possessionis of no legalconsequence. The generalrule followedby orthodoxscholars is that the apparentmeanings of texts are to be acceptedand that symbolical interpretationsshould only be resorted to whenapparent meanings either contradict other authentictexts or are logically impossible.Since neither condition is fulfilled here, symbolicalinterpretation is rejected. Consequently,the following chapterson possessionand exorcism will specificallyrefer to thefinn vis-i-vis humans.

74 Chapter Two

I SPIRIT-POSSESSION

The most commonlyused term for spirit-possessionin Arabicis f='. This term is also applied to epilepsyand the fits associatedwith it. The possessedperson is called mafra. ' Theseterms come from the root faraa ygra'u which basicallymeans

"to throw down on the ground." The passiveform of this verb fuli'ayufra'u meansto be affectedwith epilepsy,diabolical possessionor madness.256

Another frequentlyused term is ,coming from the root massayamussu which literally means"to touchwith the hand." Massis alsoused to meanmadness or diabolical possession,as in the phrasebLiff mass "in him is madness." And one 257 possessedis tennedMaMSIIS.

Among the m6anings of the term ".khabtaff (literafly, "a strike or hit") is "a touch, strokeof diabolicalpossession or insanity."259

In Arabic the insane personis cafledmajnan, which is derivedfrom the same root as the word finn, thereby indicatingthat insanity, at leastin somecases, was consideredto be the productoffiwi-possession. E. W. Lane!s entryfor majnanreads: "Possessedby a jLwI or by finn, or by a devil,or demon;a demoniac:and hence meaningbereft of reason;or mad, insane,unsound in mindor intellector wanting therein: (seejunan: ) it maygenerally be renderedpossessed; or mad,or insane." 259

256 Arabic-Engfisb Lexicon, vol. 2, p. 1678.

257 Ibid., pp. 2711-2712.

258 Ibid., vol. 1, p. 698.

259 Ibid., p. 464.

75 REALITY

According to the Islamic conceptionof the world of createdspiritual beings, the conclusiondrawn from the evidencepresented in the previous chapterwas that the only possiblesource which could be involved in the spirit-possessionof humanswould be the finn. This is the view held by the majority of Sunnitescholars, past and present.

However, there is a minority of Muslim scholars, philosophers and scholastic theologians who have questionedthe possibility of possession.Some have deniedthis possibility all together, while others have offered different explanations for the phenomenonof madnessand epilepsy.

Among the many statementsfrom outstanding classicalscholars confirming possessionis that of Imam Mmad. 260 'Abdullah reported that when he askedhis father, Abmad ibn Ijanbal, "There are somepeople who claim that a jLW cannot enter the body of a human," his father replied, "0 my dear son, they are lying; for that is one

UhW] speaking with his tongue." 261 Ibn Taymiyyahexpressed the position of the majority of Muslim scholars, stating, "The existenceof the finn is an establishedfact according to the Book [i. e., the Qur'An], the Sunnahand the agreementof the,early scholars. Likewise, the penetrationof ajbw into a humanbody is also an established fact by the agreementof the leading Sunnitescholars. And it is a fact which has been witnessed and experienced by anyone who reflects on it. It entersthe one seizedby fits and he speaksincomprehensible words, unknown to himself; if he is struck a blow sufficient to kill a camel, the one seizedby fits does not feel it. " Elsewherehe also

260 Abmad ibn Mubammadibn ]Uanbal(780-855) was born in Baghdadbut his travels in searchof knowledgetook him to Kafah,Bgrah, Makkah,Madinah, Yemen, Syria, Maghrib, Algeria, Persia,Khurasan, etc. He is the founderof one of the four main schoolsof Sunnitejurisprudence and is mostnoted for his Padrthcompendium called al-Musnad,which containedover 30,000 traditions. However, he wrote a number of otherworks. Amongthose which have been published are ar-Radd'all az- Zanjdiqahand az-Zuhd (A]-A'I&n, vol. 1, p. 203.)

261 4dAftad-DIINah il" Umilm ar-RisNah, p. 6.

76 said, "There is no one among the major Muslim scholars who deny the [possibility of] a jbW entering the body of one seized by fits and others. And whoever denies that and claims that the divine law [shar] belies it has lied against the divine law. For there does not exist among the evidences of the divine law anything which repudiates that. " 262

Even some of the leading scholarsof the Mu'tazilites have confirmedthe occurrenceof jLw,-possession of humans. For example,al-QAOI 'Abdul-Jabbar al- HamadhW263 was reported to havesaid, "There is nothingto preventthem [i. e., the finn] from entering our bodiesjust as air and shiftingbreath -which is the soul- enters our bodies by penetrationand rarefaction." 264 Further on he commentedon Abil 'Uthman 'Amr ibn 'Ubayd's;65 statement, "Surely, one who deniesthat firm can enterthe bodiesof humansis an atheistor will givebirth to an atheist." Al-Hamadhat-d remarked,"He [i. e., Aba 'Uthman] only said that becauseit is aswell-known and obvious as information about formal prayer [faM], fasting, PqEYand zakah. And whoever deniesthis informationis an apostateand whoever denies knowledge which mayonly be obtainedthrough the Messengeris a disbeliever." 266

262 MJiMCJ'aI-FaMwff,vol. 24, p. 277. 263 'Abdul-Jabbar ibn Mmad al-Hamadhan! (d. 415 A. H. ) was a prominent Mu'tazilite theologian and an outstandingShafi'ite jurist. He was chiefjustice of Rayy and a prolific writer. Among his most famouspublished works are Tanzfh al-Qur'jn ,w al-MaWin and Sharh al- UsOlal-Kbamsah. (Siyar AV &n an -Nuball', vol. 17, pp. 244-245.)

264 Akjm al-Murjffn ff Ahk&n al-jjnn, p. 108.

265 'Amr ibn 'Ubayd al-Baýfi (699-761) was the leadingMu'tazilite theologian of his time, a competent jurist and ascetic. Due to his knowledge he was popular with the 'Abbaside caliphs, especially al-Manpr (rule 754-775). He wrote a number of books and treatises, the most important amongthem were at-Tafstrand ar-Radd 'ala al-Qadadyyah. (A]-A'Urn, vol. 5, p. 8 1.)

266 Ak&n al. Murjjnq Aftkjm fil-jjnn, p. 109.

77 EVIDENCE FOR POSSESSION

-Q-ueffnic Evidencefor spirit-possessioncan be foundin both the Qur'Anand the Sunnah. From the Qur'an the most commonlyquoted support for jLry,ý-possession is the following verse:

"Those who devour intmrst rise up Hke one stumbfing frorn

Satatfs touch. " QurAn, 2:275

Al-Qurlub! commentedon this verse in his exegesis,saying, "This verse contains proof of the incorrectnessof those who deny possession[fara'] byway of the firm, claiming that it is a result of natural causes,as well as those who claim that Satandoes not enter humans nor does he touch them."267Abil Ja'far ibn Jafir269said the following in his commentary on the verse, "He [i. e., Allah], whose praiseis great, said to those who deal in interest: He whom We have describedin this fife will rise up in the next life from their graveslike one stumbling from Satan'stouch risesup. He meantthat Satan drives him insane in this life. He is one whom Satan causes to stumble,and he knocks him overpowers and down from the touch -that is madness."269 Ibn Kathies views on the interpretation of the verse were as follows, "That is, they rise up from their graves on the Day of Judgement unbalanced like an insaneperson in a fit of madness. His fumbling around under Satan!s touch means that he will rise up unbalanced. Ibn Ab! VatiM270reported that Ibn 'Abbas said, 'One who devours

267 Al-JknFIjA-ftk&n al-Qur'An, vol. 3, p. 355. 268 He is also known as al-Tabari and his biographical data can be found in footnote no. 161. 269 Arni'al-Bayin 'an TaWfil-QueJn, vol. 3, p. 101. 270 'Abdur-Ralýman ibn Muýammad Abi Vatim (854-938) was among the major scholars of Padrth criticism. He contributed many works in various Islamic disciplines. The most famous publishedworks are al-Jarh wa at-Ta'dfl in eight volumes, ar-Radd

78 interest will be resurrected on the Day of Judgement insanein a suffocating fit of madness.' Ibn Ab! Ijatim also saidthat similar commentarieS271werenarrated from 'Awf ibn MMik, 272 Sa'id ibn Jubayr,273as-Sudd!, 274ar-RabiV ibn AnaS,275 MuqAtil ibn

Ijayyin276 and Qatadah."277 In a treatise on this subjectIbn Taymýiyyahstated the following, "Although some Mutazilites like al-Jubba'i279 and Aba Bakr ar-Rm,

lala al-Jahmijýmh, 'Ila] al-ýIaSth and al-Mar&! ]. (A]-A'I&n, vol. 3, p. 324.)

271 See JknP al-Bayin, vol. 3, p. 102 for naffations of their commentson this verse. 272 'Awf ibn Malik al-Ashja'i al-Ghalafani (d. 692) was a companionof the Prophet (4*), and he took part in the and the conquestof Makkah. He lived in Damascus and is known to havetransn-dtted 67 recordedtraditions from the Prophet (4). (A]-A']Arn, vol. 5, p. 96.) 273 Sa'Id ibn Jubayr (665-714), the most learnedof the tjbiis, was of Ethiopian origin. He was a pupil of both Ibn 'Abbas and Ibn 'Umar, the leading scholarsamong the companions of the Prophet (4). His home was in Kafah, and he was executedby al-1JaJjaJ(661-714) for taking part in the revolt of 'Abdur-Raýmftn ibn al-Ash'ath (d. 704) againstthe Umayyad caliph, 'Abdul-Malik ibn Marwan (646-705). (A]-AVArn, vol. 3, p. 93.) 274 Isma'il ibn 'Abdur-ltaýiman as-Sudd!(d. 745) was a tibl'! originally from the Ijijaz but settled in KOM. He was a noted Qur'anic exegeteand a historian and was a leading scholar of the time. (A]-A']Arn, vol. 1, p. 317.) 275 Ar-Rabl' ibn Ziyad ibn Anas al-Ijanthi (d. 673) lived during the time of the prophethood, but did not meet the Prophet (4) before his death. He was a successful leader of the Muslim annies during the righteous caliphateand was madethe governor of Bahrain and later SiJistan. (Al-A', Mn, vol. 3, p. 14.) 276 Muqatil ibn Ijayyan ibn Dawal Dar (d. 150 A. H. approx.) was a reputable narrator of prophetic traditions from the major scholars among the pupils of the Prophet's companions. He fled Khurasanduring the reign of Qulaybahibn Muslim and settled in Kabul where many converted to Islam at his hands. (SiyarAUn an- Nubalff', vol. 6, pp. 340-341.)

277 Tafsfra]-QurJn a]-A? lm, Vol. 1, p. 487. 278 Mubammad ibn 'Abdul-Wahhab al-Jubba'i (849-916) is consideredamong the leading Mu'tazilite theologiansand the most outstandingscholastic theologian of his time. He held a number of opinions which differed from those of the theological school to which he belonged,so much so that his views formed an independentbranch. (A]-A'IArn, vol. 6, p. 256.)

79 erroneouslyrejected the possibilitythat finn enterthe bodiesof madmen,they did not deny the existenceof thefinn, becausethe formeris lessevident than the latter. Thus al-Ash'ar!mentioned among the doctrinesof orthodoxMuslims [Ahl as-Sunnahwa al- Jam.Vah] that theybelieved that thefinn enteredthe bodiesof madmenas statedby the Almighty in the verse, 'Those who devour interestrise up like one stumblingftm Sat&s touch."' 279

Ef idence fmm TheSumab

In the authentictexts of the Sunnahthere area numberof traditionswhich indicate that the finn may and do enterthe humanbody. Someof thesePad[Lhs are rather general, while othersare quite specific.The mostwidely quotedof the general texts is onein whichthe Prophet(ý*) wasreported by hiswife, ýafiyyah,to havesaid: "Verily, Satan flows in the bloodstreamof Adads descendants."280 According to the Sunnite scholarswho usethis Pa&thas evidence, it clearlyindicates that Satan,and by extension,the jLw, areable to invadethe humanbody and permeate its variousparts similarto the way blood circulateswithin the limbs.

Ya'Id ibn Murrah said,"I sawA. UWs Messenger (4) do threethings which no one before or after me saw. I went with him on a trip. On the way we passedby a woman sitting at the roadsidewith a young boy. Shecalled out, '0 Messengerof Allah, this boy is afflictedwith a trial andfrom him we havealso been afflicted with a trial. I do not know how manytimes per dayhe is seizedby fits.' He said,'Give him to me.' So she lifted him up to the Prophet(4). He thenplaced the boy between himself and the middle of the saddle,opened the boy'smouth and blew in it three

279 Mýjma' a]-Faljwj, vol. 19, p. 12. Seealso p. 7 of Ibn Taymecyabý Essay on the Jim The Qur'Anic quotation is 2:275.

280 Collected in the six booksof Padfthwith the exceptionof at-TimidM. See 5404. is ,YaMb Musibn, vol. 3, pp. 1187-1188,no. It alsonarrated by Anasin $aýffi MusHm,vol. 3, p. 1188,no. 5405.

80 times, saying, 'In the nameof Allah, I am the slaveof Allah, get out enemyof Allah!

Then he gave the boy back to her and said, 'Meet us on our return at this sameplace and inform us how he has faired! We then went. On our retum, we found her in the same place with three sheep. When he said to her, How hasyour son faired?' she replied, Sy the One who 'sent you with the truth, we have not detectedanything

[unusual] in his behaviorup to this time..."' 291

Umm Aban narratedfrom her father,al-Wazi', that her grandfather,az-Z&H' ibn 'Amir al-'Abdi, went to Allah'sMessenger with his son(or nepheW)282who was insane(majban). She reported that hergrandfather said, "When we reachedAllalfs Messenger(4), 1 said, 'I havewith mea son[or nephew]with mewho is insane.I , have brought him to you so that you maypray to Allah on his behalf' He said,Bring him to me.' So I went to get him from the groupof riding animals[among whom I had left him]. I took off his travelingclothes and dressed him in his good clothes. I then took him by the handback to the Messengerof Allah (4). He said,13ring him closer to me andturn his backto me.' He thengrabbed the boys garmentand began to beat him on his back so vigorously that I saw the whitenessof his [i. e., the Prophevs] armpits. While doingso, he said,'Get out enemyof Allah! Enemyof Allah, get outV The boy then began to gazein a healthymanner quite dfferent from his earliergaze. Aflah's Messenger(4) then sat him down directly in front of him, calledfor some water for him and wiped his face. Thenhe prayedfor him. After the Messengerof hiM. "283 Allah hadprayed for him, therewas no onein the delegationbetter than

These and other authenticnarrations portray the Prophet (4) apparently

281 Collected by Mmad (al-Musnad, vol. 4, p. 170) and al-Ijildm, who declared it faAh, and adh-Dhahabiagreed with his assessment.

282 Doubt on the part of the narrator.

283 Collectedby Mmad and AN Dawad al-Tayalag-ifrom Matar ibn 'Abdur- Raýrndn.See Usud al-igblbah, vol. 2, p. 245.

81 commandingan entity,within theseboys seized by fits of "madness," to leave. If there was nothing really possessingthese boys, it would meanthat the Prophet(4) was involved in folly and deception.Since he knewthat his actionswould be imitatedby his followers, he would not engagein suchdeviation. The ideaof him beingdeceitful is totally inconsistentwith the Islamicconcept of prophethoodand its responsibilities- that of clarity and guidance. Consequently,the vastmajority of orthodoxMuslim scholarsconclude that such narrationsconfirm the conceptof diabolicpossession of humans.

&dcalEfidence

The Mu'tazilite judge, 'Abdul-Jabbaral-Hamadhm, 294 was reported to have rationally argued in favor of spirit-possession. He said, "If what we have proven concerning the fineness and delicacyof their [i. e., thefirmý] bodies and that they are gaseousis correct, there is nothing to prevent them from entering our bodiesjust as air and shifting breath - which is the soul - enters our bodies by penetration and rarefaction. And that does not lead to the [impossible]combination of two substances in a single location, becausethey only combineby being adjacentto eachother and not by one occupying the place of the other. They penetrateour bodies the way thin bodies enter crevices. If it is said that the entranceoffinn into our body orifices would necessitatethe orifices being torn apart or the dismembermentof the devils -because whenever bodies enter narrow locations the penetratingbody is alwaysbroken; then it

may be said that the breaking of the penetratingbody would occur if the penetrating

body is denselike iron or wood. As for a gaseous,penetrating body, this would not be

the case. [Therefore], it may be similarly said of devils that they are not dismembered

284 'Abdul-Jabbaribn MMad al-Hamadhw (d. 415 A.H. ) was a prominent Mu'tazilite theologianand an outstandingShafi'ite jurist. He was chiefjusticeof Rayy and a prolific writer. Amonghis mostfamous published works are Tanz[ba]-Qur'jn dan a]-Mktj'in andSbarb al- Usalal-Kbamsah- (Siyar A'I&n an-Nuball', vol. 17, pp. 244-245.)

82 by enteringhuman bodies, because they will eithercompletely penetrate as onebody or partiallypenetrate as one cohesive whole without beingtom apart."295

EVIDENCE AGAINST POSSESSION

The body of Muslim scholarswho deniedthe possibilityof demonicpossession also used Qur'Anic versesand logic to supporttheir arguments.Although most of them belongedto the deviantMu'tazilite philosophicalschool of thought,some were and are to this dayfrom amongthe Sunnites.Al-Alosi recordedthe following in his exegesisof the Qur'An,"The Mu'tazilites and al-Qaff' al 286 from amongthe Shafi'iteS297 statedthat the claimthat epilepsy[pra] andinsanity Uunan] were from Satanis false, becausehe does not have the abilityto do that."289 Fakhruddin ar-RM quotedthe Mu'tazilite scholar, al-Jubbl'i, as saying, "Peoplesay the reasonfor the stateof the epileptic is that Satantouched him or possessedhim. This is falsebecause Satan is weakand unable to possessor kill humans." 289

k2ic Eýidcncc

The verse most commonlyquoted by thosewho denythe possibilityof spirit- possessionis the following:

285 Ak&n al-Murjln il- Aftkjm al-j&w, p. 108.

286 Muýammadibn 'Ali al-QaffW(904-976) was amongthe leadingscholars of his time in law, Padah,grammar and literature. He wasfrom the town of ash-Shashin Transoxiana(ma wara' an-nahr) and was responsiblefor the spreadof the Sha:fi'l school of jurisprudence in the entireregion. His travelsin searchof knowledgetook him to Khurasan,'Iraq, Ijijaz andSyria. Thebest known of his publishedworks are Usala]- and Shazýh RisNah ash-SbWN. (A]-A'ljtn, vol. 6, p. 274.)

287 The Sunnite school of legal thoughtfounded in the 9th centuryand named afterits founder,Has ash-Shafi'!.

288 Rap a]-M,?'Jnf, vol. 3, p. 49.

289 At-Tafs1ral-Kabir, vol. 7, p. 89.

83 "And Satan will say when the matter is decided,It was Allah

who gave you a truthful promise. I too promised you, but I

broke my promise to you. I had no authority over you except to

call you, but you answeredmy call...'" Qur'An,14: 22

Fakhruddinar-RM madethe followingcomment in his Qur'anicexegesis of this verse, "This is unambiguousand unequivocal evidence that Satandoes not havethe ability to possess,kill or harm[humans]. "210

Regarding the verse, "Those who devour interest rise up like one stumbling from Satan7s touch, "291 az-Zamakhshari stated, "That is, they rise up when they are resurrected from their graves like one thrown to the ground in convulsions [takbabbkt] by Satan, i. e., the possessed. jThe concept of] satanic convulsions is among the erroneous claims of the Arabs whereby they falsely assert that Satan can throw a person down in convulsions and possess him. The word khakt refers to an aimless journey, as in the phrase 'khabt aPashwa' [reckless], ' but it is mentioned [in the

Qur'An] according to their beliefs. The word 'mass' means 'madness,' and a man in that state is mamsas. It is also among the Arab fables that ajhWcan touch a man and cause his mind to become mixed up. Similarly, the phrase junna ar-rajul means that a jLW has struck him. I have observed them [i. e., the Arabs] regarding [their ideas about] the fikm [as mentioned in their] stories, reports and remarkable tales.

According to them, denial of these fables is the same as denial of visually observable phenomena." 292

Two well-known SunniteQur'Anic exegetes,al-Bay4aw! and Aba Su'ad,293

290 Ibid., p. 88.

291 Qur'An, 2:275.

292 Tafgral-KashAM, vol. 1, pp. 398-399. 293 Muýammad ibn Muýammad (1493-1574), a famous Qur'Anic exegeteand

84 both followedaz-Zamakhshati's view. Thesescholars were of the opinionthat firm do not have powers of possession.They thought that only in orderto get pointsacross, the Qur'an addressedthe Arabs in expressionsfamiliar to themand in termsof their beliefs and claims. According to al-Qaffa'l,the Arabshad a habitof describingugly things in terms of the devil. For example,they used this claim to explain the descriptiongiven by Allah for the Treeof ZaqqQm,which grows from the bottom of Hell and which will be amongthe sourcesof tormentfor sinners:"The shootsof its firuit-stalksare like the headsof devils." Qur'An,37: 65294

Fakhruddin ar-Razi was of the opinion that the "madness" (takhabbRt) mentioned in the verse (Qur'An, 2:275) was not directly from Satan,but from his touch

(mass) by way of harniful whisperings which, in turn, cause convulsions and subsequentmadness (pra'). He further likened the meaningof this verse to another in regard to Prophet AyyiDb:

"Remember when Our servant AyyUb cried out to his IAn%L

'Satan has afflicted rmassa& literally, 'touchedl me with

distress and suffering! '" Qurln, 38: 41

And he added,"The madnessoccurs with thesewhisperings because Allah, Most I-Egh, createdman with a weak disposition, the blackbile [as-sawdj']295being victorious over him whereby he becomesfearful when the whisperingsoccur. And by pot being

poet, wasborn in Constantinople.He wasfluent in both Arabicand Persian as well as his native Turkish, and he was a judge in Turkey. He is mostwell-known for his Qur'Anic exegesis,Irshidal-'Aqlas-SaYmiliMazayial-Kitibal-Kadm, which came to be knownas TafsIrAb[Su'ad (Al-A'Ikn, vol. 7, p. 59.)

294 Quotedfrom at-Taftiral-Kabir, vol. 7, p. 89.

295 As-Sawdj, (melancholy)was consideredto be one of the four humors (akhl4t) of the body. The others are yellow bile or choler(as-safrj% blood, and phlegm (al-balgham). (Arabic-EnglishLexicon, vol. 1, p. 1463.) Seealso TheNew Encyciopaedia Biitannica, vol. 6, p. 145. .

85 courageous [enough to withstand the mental pressure] he goes mad, just as the cowardly are driven mad by vacant locations. Due to that, this form of madnessdoes not happen to noble humanswho have attainedperfection and those who are resolute and intelligent, but it exists amongthose possessinga weak temperamentand mental imbalance."296

Lo,dcaMidence

Fakhruddinar-Razi quotedin his Qur'Anicexegesis the mainarguments of the Mu'tazilite theologian,al-Jubb, 1'1, which later becamethe standardline of logical reasoningused by thosewho rejectedspirit-possession:

"Satan can be said to have either a densebody or a fine body. If he hasthe former, he mustbe visible. For, if it werepossible for him to havea denseform andbe presentbut invisible, it would also be possiblefor suns,peals of thunder,flashes of lightning and mountainsto be in our presencewithout us seeingthem - that would be greatly irrational. If he hada denseshape, then how would it be possiblefor him to enter into the insidesof a humanbody? If on the otherhand he werefine-bodied fike air, such a being could not be solid or powerfuland could not be ableto possessa humanor kill him.

If Satanwere able to possessand kill [humans],it would alsobe possiblefor Satanto do actssimilar to the miraclesof the prophets.This would leadto defamation of the prophethood.

If he were able to do that [i. e., possess],why doeshe not possessall of the believers? Why doeshe not sendall of theminto convulsionsconsidering the severity of his enrnity towards the faithful? Why doeshe not stealtheir wealth,corrupt their affairs, exposetheir secretsand drive them all mad? All of that is obviouslynot taking

296 At-Tafsiral-Kabir, vol. 7, p. 89.

86 place.

Those who claim that Satan can do these things may bring as evidence the report concerning the devils who used to do hard labor during the era of Sulayman ibn

Dawod (may peace be upon him). This is based upon what Allah told about them [i. e., the devils] making whatever he [i. e., Prophet Sulayman] wished of arches, statues, basins large [cooking] fixed in 297 If this is as as reservoirs , and cauldrons place. brought as proof, the response is that ARAN Most Hgh, charged them with such tasks during Sulaymans era and gave them the power to do those works indicating a miracle for Prophet Sulayman (peace be upon him). "298

Among modem scholars following the symbolic approachtowards the finn of

ar-RM and others, al-Ghazalihas presentedan interpretation of the Padftb of ýafiyyah

in which she quoted the Prophet (4) as saying, "Verily, the devil flows in the bloodstream of Adam's descendants." He claimsthis is not the actual occupying of the

human body but refers to demonicwhispering [waswasah].299 Another recent Muslim

scholar, Muýammad Rashid Rioa,300 considered epilepsy ($ara) and other mental

illnesses to be sicknessesof the nervous system. He claimedthat theseare causedin

part by microbes,and due to their invisibility he consideredthem to be a speciesof the

entities known in Islam asfirm. 301

297 This is in referenceto Qur'An,34: 13.

298 At-Tafska]-Kabg, vol. 7, pp. 88-89.

299WýammadGhazall, as-Sunnah an-Nabawijywh, p. 94 and96. 30OMubammadibn Rashid ibn 'Aft Ri4a (1865-1935),born in Tripoli (in Lebanon),was a writer andscholar inh. adfth, literature, history and Qur'Anic exegesis. He was a student of Mubammad 'Abduh (1849-1905)and the editor of the Islamic magazinea]-Manm-. His mostnotable literary contribution was his Qur'Anicexegesis, Tafsir a]-Qur'jn a]-Kafim,which came to be knownas Tafsrral-Manar. (A]-A'I&n, vol. 6, p. 126.)

301Tafliral-Mang, vol. 3, pp. 95-96.

87 ANALYSIS OF THE ARGUMENTS

From the aforementionedarguments, it maybe concludedthat thosewho deny the possibilityof diabolical possessionrely on onlytwo sources- Qur'anictexts and logic - while thosewho affirm it rely on three- Qur'anictexts, texts from the Sunnah and logic. Accordingto the correctmethodology of Qur'Anicinterpretation outlined by Ibn Katl-drin the introductionof his exegesisof the Qurlan,302 the interpretationsof the Sunnahare essentialfor determiningthe correctunderstanding of the Qur'Anic text. Ibn Kathir wrote, "If it is askedwhat the bestmethod of interpretationis, the reply is that the most correctmethod is that of [interpretationof] the Qur'Anby the Qur'an. This is becausewhat hasbeen generalized in oneplace has been specified in another. If an explicitexplanation is not foundin anotherverse, then the answersare foundin the Sunnah,for it explainsand clarifies the Qur'An. In fact, ImamMubammad ibn ash-Shafi'!said, 'Whatever the Messengerof Allah (4) ruledwas based upon what he understoodfrom the Qur'dn. The Almightystated:

"Surely, We revealed the Book to you in truth that you may

judge between people by what Allah has shown you. So do not

plead for the treacherous." Qur'An,4: 105

"We have only revealedthe Book to you in order that you clarify

for thern the thinp about which they differ... " Qur'an,16: 64

"Verily, We have revealedthe Reminder [i. e., the Quean] to you

[0 Mubammadj so that you may explain to the people what has

been revealed to them..." Qur'An,16: 44

Due to this fact, the Messengerof Allah (4) stated,"I havebeen given the Qur'Anand

302 TafffTaj-Qur'jnaj-'Ag im, vol. 1, pp. 3-6.

88 something similar to it along with it. "303He meantthe Sunnah,because the Sunnah was revealed to him as the Qur'An was revealed,except that it was not recited as the

Qur'an was recited."' 304

If oneapplies the Sunnahto the interpretationof the Qur'Anictexts in question, then it canonly be concludedthat spirit-possessionof humanbeings by thefinn is not only possible,but real. Thus,it is not surprisingto find that the majorityof orthodox scholarssupport this view.

REFUTATION OF THE EVIDENCE AGAINST POSSESSION

Qu?ffnic

The clearmeaning of theverse concerning Satan's denial of authorityover man (Qur'An, 14:22) is in referenceto his inability to forcethem to do evil. He is only capableof makingthe evil way seemattractive to man,while the actualact of evil is of man'sown choosing. In this verse"authority" (suttin) hasbeen interpreted by some classicalexegetes as meaning"evidence. " That is, Satanstated that he did not have any authority (i.e., proof) for the false promisesthat he madethose who followed him.305 Therefore,in this verse the devil's denial of authorityover man,whether physicalor psychological,does not rule out the possibilityof demonicpossession.

It is not necessarilytrue that the Qur'an only "appears"to confirm jLw,)- possessionby usingthe fan-dliarstyle, terms, and false pre-Islarnic beliefs of the Arabs in order to assistthem in their comprehensionof a point. In referenceto the

303 Narrated by al-Mqdam ibn Ma'dikarib, collectedby Aba Dawad andIbn Majah (see al-Hadis, vol. 1, pp. 165-166,no. 106),and authenticated by al-AlbW in 3, 870-871, 3848. ,YaAb Sunan Ab! D.I%Vd, vol. pp. no. 304 TafIrr a]-Qur'jn al-'Agm, vol. 1, p. 3.

3 05 TafIrr al-Qur'jn &-Agm, vol. 2, p. 529.

89 comparisonof thelruit of the Zaqqomtree of Hell to the imaginaryheads of devils, someexegetes and Arab lexicographershave pointed out that "headsof devils"(". ru'as asb-sbayAtin")was the nameof a treewhich grew in the regionbetween Makkah and Yemen. Othersused this term to describea speciesof ugly crestedsnakes which were called sbayktin.306 Therefore,the comparisonwas not to somethingimaginary but to somethingreal and seenby the Arabs. Furthermore,in respectto normalhuman tastes, thereis nothingto indicatethat finn, in general,are not extremelyugly. Justas angelsare describedin the Qur'Anas being beautiful and were customarily held to be so by the Arabs, it could also logically be said that the comparisonof someone possessedwas to be associatedwith somethingknown and real, just fike manyother similes in the Qur'An. This was the positionof thosescholars, fike Ibn Taymiyyah, ash-Shinq-iliand others, who heldthat whateverthe QurAnused for comparisonis real and true, becausethe Qur'Anemphatically describes itself asa book of truth, free from anyfalsehood:

"It is He who revealed to you the Book in truth, confirming

previous [scriptures]. And it is He who revealedthe and the Gospel." Qur'in, 3:3

"Those who reject the Message when it cornes to thern [are

Imown]. And indeed, it is a Book of exalted power. No

falsehood can approach it from before or behind it. It is sent down by the Most Wise, Most Praised." Qur'[Ln,41: 41-42 jBj&w=hvmHadjZh

Shaykh Ghazah's interpretation of ýafiyyaWsPadah to mean demonic whisperingand not to referto the actualability offinn to penetratethe humanbody is

306 Ibn al-JawzI,Zjd al-Masir A 'llm at-Tafs[r,vol. 7, pp. 63-64. Seealso ah J&nFffAPk&n al-Qur'jn, vol. 15,pp. 86-87.

90 somewhatfar-fetched. For demonicwhispering is consistentlydescribed in the Qur'An and the Sunnahas taking place in the humanheart or chestand not throughoutthe limbsof the body:

"Who whispersinto the chestsof men." Qur'An,114: 5

Lod,;dcaMidevce

In the first argumental-Jubba'! soughtto prove that film must have fine bodies, otherwisethey would haveto be visible. He thenclaimed possession could only take place iffinn haddense bodies. He furtherconcluded that iffinn haddense bodies they could not enterhuman bodies because the humanbody does not haveenough room to hold a jhw. 'Abdul-Jabbaesargument refutes this presentationusing the samerules of logic. It mayalso be saidthat al-Jubbl'i'sargument assumes that manis capableof understandingthe laws whichgovern the unseen.This is not the case.For example, we are informed that angelsblow the humanspirit into the embryoin the womb,307 that they sometimesfight along with the believers,but only Allah knowshow these things take place. Likewise, this could be the case of demonicpossession. Also questionableis al-Jubba'i's point that iffinn werefine-bodied like air, they would not have the solidity or power necessaryto possesshumans or kill them. The ability to knock down a humanis not limitedto densebodies. The force of a powerfulgust of wind or a jolt of electricity which knocks over a man is morepowerful than that producedby manydense bodies.

The secondargument claimed that if Satanwas able to possesshumans it would enable them to imitate the miraclesof the prophets,which would be a defamationof prophethood. However, the differencebetween miracles and satanic acts is great. The formerare supernatural occurrences granted to prophetsin order to

307 Seechapter one, "The Human Spirit."

91 confirm their prophethoodand the divineorigin of their message.Yet the latter are illusions and tricks performedby the evil humancohorts of the devils. It shouldalso be noted that this argument.is quitefarfetched, because possessed individuals do not exhibit any abilities even remotely resemblingthe miraclesof the prophets. Furthermore,through deceptionmagicians of the pastand present have done tricks which have convinced the massesthat theypossess supernatural abilities. According to prophesy,the false-Christ(Masffi ad-Dayll) apparentlywill have supernatural abilitieswhich will deludemany.

In the third argumentthe question wasraised that iffirm hadthese abilities, why do theynot concentratetheir attackson the true believers.Since the evilfinn are the avowedenemies of the God-fearing,they shouldexclusively possess the piousand ruin their social and material lives. However, those who seemmost frequently possessedare not from the true believers.The reasonfor this phenomenonmay be due to the protection which Allah grantedthe believersagainst much of thefinn ý harm. True believersclosely follow the propheticinstructions for seekingrefuge in Allah and shieldingthemselves in righteousnessand piety throughout their daily lives:309

"He has no authority over those who believe and put their trust

in their Lord. His authority is only over those who take him as a

patron and who join partnerswith Allah. " Qur'An,16: 99-100

"Can you not seethat We have set the devils on the disbelievers,

excitedly prodding them [to and disbelief]. " Qur'An,19: 83

The fact is that thefinn fearthose who arestrong among the righteousand therefore avoid them. On one occasionthe Prophet (4*) said, "Surely,I cansee the devils

ý 308 'Alam al-Annfj', Paw'al-KAjb waaý-Sunnah, pp. 284-286.,

92 amongthe firm and among mankindfleeing from 'Umar. "309

REASONS FOR POSSESSION --

Muslim scholarsof the past recognizedthat somecases of apparentpossession

(i. e., madness/convulsions)were a result of biological imbalance. In this regard Ibn al-

Qayyim stated, "Fits of madness[or epileptic seizures]are of two types: fits resulting from evil, earthly spirits [i. e., thefinn] and fits resulting from bad humors.310 Doctors have spoken about the causes and remedies of the latter. Leading scholarsand intellectuals acknowledge the occurrence of spirit-possessionand do not attempt to treat it. They recognize that its treatment requires that noble transcendentspirits counter, neutralize,and expel the evil spirits. I-Eppocrateshimself spoke on this matter at length in someof his books, wherein he mentionedsome remedies for epileptic fits and then said, 'These [medicines] are beneficialin the caseof fits due to humors and other biological causes. As for fits resulting from the effects of spirits, these remedies are of no use.' Only ignorant doctors and those pseudo-intellectuals,who consider heresy a virtue, deny spirit-possessionand their effects on the body of the insane.

They have no evidencefor their denial excepttheir ignoranceof its occurrence. There is nothing in the field of medicinewhich rejects it, while the sensesand experiencesof people worldwide confirm it. Their ascribingit to the preponderanceof somehumors is correct in someinstances, but not in all."311

Ibn al-Qayyim went on to describethe biologicalcauses. He said,"Regarding madnessdue to humors (akb],kt), it is a sicknesswhich partiallyprevents the limbs from feeling, moving and straighteningout. It is causedby a viscous,sticky humor

309 Collected by at-Tirinidhiand authenticated by al-Albaffiin &Ah a]-jang, aý- &ghir, vol. 2, p. 329, no. 2492.

3 10 Any fluid or serni-fluidsubstance in the body.

311 Zid a]-Ma'jd (Cairo: al-Maktabahal-Msriyyah, n. d. ), pp. 67-69.

93 partly blocking the pores inside the brain, resulting in a fractional inhibition of sensory influence and movement within it and within the limbs. Or it could be from other

causes. For example, it could be from the trapping of a viscid odor in the outlets of from the spirit, or the rising of bad gases- to the brain from someof the organs... causing the brain to contract in order to ward off the pain. This is followed by

convulsions and twitching. in all of the limbs. The man is not able to remain upright but falls down, and froth usually appears in his mouth. This Hinessis considered among the periodical sicknessesrelative to the [short] time frame of its painful occurrence. It is also considered among the chronic Hinessesrelative to the long period of its presence and the difficulty of curing those afflicted, especially if it continues beyond the age of twenty-five. It is an illnessof brain matter, and such a fort'n of epilepsy is persistent,as I-Eppocratessaid, Epilepsy remainsin such persons until death.' "312

With regard to the causesfor spirit-possession,Ibn al-Qayyim said, "Evil spirits mostly gain control of those having little religious inclination and those whose hearts

and tongues faith has deserted. Those whose soulsare desolateof the remembranceof

Allah and of the formulas for strengtheningfaith. When evil spirits meet a man who is

isolated, weaponless and naked, they are easily able to attack him and overcome hiM.01313

Ibn Taymiyyah suggested the following three circumstances to be the main

reasonswhy firm may possesshumans:

1. "The occasionalpossession of man by the finn maybe dueto sensualdesires on the part of thefinn.. or evenlove, just asit

312 Al-Tibb an-Nabag! (Beirut: Mu'assasahar-Risalah, 9th ed., 1986), p. 55. 313 7-jdal-Ma'jdp. 69.

94 maybe amonghumans. "314

2. Demonic possession sometimes also occurs as a result of

horseplay, jest or plain evil on the part of the finn, just as evil and

mischief occurs among humansfor similar reasons.01315

3. However, possessionis most often a result of the finn being

angry because some wrong has been done to them. Thus, the

finn punish those who wronged them. For example, when

humans accidentally harm or hurt them by urinating on them, by

pouring hot water on them, or by killing someof them, the fian think that they havebeen intentionally harmed. Although humans

may not realize what they have done, the finn are by nature very

ignorant, harsh and volatile in their behavior,so they may

vengefully punish humans much more severely than they deserve."316

Thus, in the view of Ibn Taymiyyah, possessionmay occur with relative frequencyto practicingMuslims as well asto weakand non-practicing Muslims.

PARTIAL-PO SSE SSION

MEDIUMSHIP

In occultism the medium is a personreputedly able to makecontact with the world of spirits, especiallyin a state of trance. Disembodiedvoices speak either directly or indirectly throughthe medium,and materialization of a disembodiedspirit

314 Ibn Taymccyabý Essay on LhcAnn, p. 3 1.

315 Ibid., p. 32. 316 Ibid.

95 may take place.317 The practice of communicatingvAth incarnatespirits is ancient and widespread. Although those involved claim to be in contact with the spirits of dead humans, from an Islamic point of view they could only be involved with the firm.

Authentic cases of mediumship would be interpretedas the voluntary acceptanceof spirit-possessionby the finn. From the Islamic point of view this remainsthe only possible explanation. When humanspirits enter the world of the barzakb after they are removed from their bodies, they cannot return to this world, communicatewith the living, or have an affect upon any eventstaking place.318

Ibn Taymiyyah spoke about,- this phenomenonnearly nine hundredyears ago, saying, "The fitm usually communicateby either visions or voices with those seeking information among the idol-worshippers,Christians, Jews and hereticalMuslims driven astray by the devils... The devils will often respondwhile taking the form of the one besought, whether dead or alive... This frequently happensto Christianswho call upon those whom they edify, whether dead or alive... It also occurs to heretical

Muslims who call upon the dead or those not present,and the devils take the form of the "319 Elsewhere he "And them [i. e., disbelievers, one called upon... said, among pagans, magicians, etc.] are those who believethat when someonedies he can return

and communicatewith them, pay their debts,retrieve their lost items, and advisethem.

Images of those who die come to them [doing thesethings], but they are actually

devils taking their forms...$' 320 He also said, "And amongthem are those upon whom

the devils descendand speakusing their tongues about things which they do not know

317 The New EncyclopaediaBfitan&ca, vol. 7, p. 1008.

318 'Alamal-Ann wa fiSb-Sbqy4tfn,p. 103.

319 MajMa' al-Fjtjwj, vol. 19, pp. 4647. Seealso Ibn Taymeeyahý Essay on the Ann, p. 4345.

320 Quoted in 'Alam al-Ann wa asb-Sbaykffn, p. 102 from Ibn TaymiyyaWs J&ni'ar-Ras, Vil, pp. 194-195.

96 or things which they do not understand. Sometimesthey may reveal what is in the hearts [and minds] of those presentor they speakin differentlanguages and voices similarto the way that a jLwI speaksusing the tongueof the possessed."321

POSSESSION OF OBJECTS

Jinn maypenetrate and control animate and inanimate objects in orderto harm humansor to misleadthem. An exampleof the possibilityofjLT2-induced harm could be deducedfrom the Prophet'sinstructions concerning lamps. Ibn 'Abbasquoted him as saying, "When you go to sleep,put out your lamps, becauseSatan may guide somethinglike this [rat] to that [lamp]and cause you to be bumed."322 Evidence for the demonicpossession of objects to purposelymisguide humans may be extracted from the Qur'Anicaccount of ProphetMoses and the goldencalf.

"And in his absenceMoses! people made out of their ornaments

the statue of a calf which mooed. Could they not seethat it

neither spoke to them nor showedthem the way? They took it

for worship and they were wrong." QurW 7:149

"Then Moses returned to his people in a state of anger and

sorrow. He said, '0 my people, did your Lord not make you a

good promise? Did the promise seem to you too long in

coming? Or did you wish that your Lord's punishment would

fall upon you so you broke your promise to meT Iley said, Ve

did not break our promise to you by our own choice. We were

forced to carry the weight of the people'sornaments which we

321 Ibn Taymiyyah, al-FurqJn Bayna Awliyj' ar-Raftmin wa Awliyj' ash- Sbaylan (Cairo: Maktabah Muýammad 'Aft ýab!ý, 2nd ed., 1958), p. 14.

322 Collected by Aba Dawad (Sunan Aba Djwvd, vol. 3, p. 1147, no. 5227) and authenticatedin Y*p SunanAb! Djwwd, vol. 3, p. 985, no. 4369.

97 threw into the fire as suggested by as-Sandfl. ' 323 Then he

extracW for them the statue of a calf which mooed, so they said,

"I"his is your god and the god of Moses, but he forgot: Could

they not see that it could not answer them and that it was neither

able to harm them nor do good for them? " QurAn, 20:86-99

The mooing of the idol could have been caused by a jhw entering it.

Concerningthe phenomenonof demonicpossession of animateand inanimate objects, Ibn Taymiyyahwrote, "I know peoplewhom the plantsgreet and inform themof their beneficialingredients; however, it is, in fact, Satan who hasentered the plantsand spokento them. I also know of others to whom stonesand trees speak, saying, 'Congratulations,0 Allah II have saint of ... amacquainted with yet otherswho gone bird-huntingand the sparrowsaddressed them, saying, 'Take me so that the poor may eat me.' Suchare cases of evilfirm possessingbirds in the sameway that theypossess humansand talk throughthem. " 324Hefurther wrote, "Thefinn alsoenter idols, speak to thosewho worshipidols andfulfill someof their needs." 325

DEMONIC VIS

According to Islamicbeliefs, one of the waysby whichthe devilslead humans astray is to appearto themin imageswhich reinforce their falsebeliefs. Theybecome visible as apparitionsor visions. In his thirty-six volume compendiumof Islamic rulings called Majma' a]-Faijwj, Ibn Taymiyyahstated, "The devilsmay appear to

323 As- (the Samaritan)is the Qur'Anic name given to the man who seducedthe Israelitesto idol-worship. The storynot only absolvesAaron of blame (leveled at him in the Biblical accounts)and points out how Satansometimes leads the believersastray, but it alsogives the reasonwhy the Samaritansare secludedfrom the others, namelyby way of punishment. S ee Moiler Encyclopiediaof IsImn,pp. 501- 502. 324 A]-FwVjn Bayna A wllyVar-Raýmln wa A wliya'ash-Shayljn, p. 87.

325 Majma ' al. F,?tjwj, vol. 19, p. 4 1.

98 those who worship them in forms which humansmistakenly identify as heavenly spirits... Jirw mayalso make humans hear the voiceof thosewhom they call uponwho are far away. Suchcases are frequent among idolaters, Christians, Jews and ignorant Muslimswho seekrefuge in thosewhom they consider holy. Whensome devotees call upon their spiritual mastersfor help, saying,'0 my lord so andso, 'theA -will addressthem in the voice of their masters...The devilswill oftenrespond while taking the form of the one besought,whether dead or alive,even if he is unawareof those who call upon him. Thosecommitting idolatry in this fashionbelieve that the person beseechedhas actually replied, when, in fact, it is thejhw replying. This frequently happensto Christianswho call upon thosewhorn'they edify, whether dead or alive, like Georgeor otherholy figures.326 It alsooccurs to hereticalMuslims who caUupon the deador thosenot present,and the devilstake the form of the onecalled upon even without him realizing it. I know of manycases where this hasoccurred. Although those beseechingthem for help sawtheir imagesand were convinced that it wasthe actual person,the people called uponhave told methat theywere not awareof this. More than one person has mentionedthat theycalled upon me in timesof distress, each telling a different story abouthow I responded.When I told themthat I never answeredany of themnor did I know that theywere calling upon me, somesaid that it must have been an angel. I told themthat angelsdo not benefitthose committing idolatry andthat it was actuallya deviltrying to furthermisguide them. Sometimesthe firm will even take the form of thoseadmired and stand at 'Arafat,327and those who

326 Divine grace (salvation) is felt to be especially potent in placesvisited by Jesus Christ or saints or by Mary; where they have appeared in visions. Major pilgrimage centersinclude Lourdes where visions of the Virgin Mary were first seenin 1858 and where healing has been occurring sincethat time. (John R. Iiinnells ed., Dictionary ofReligions [Middlesex, England: PenguinBooks Ltd., 1984], p. 254.) 327 A plain 12 miles from Makkah where pilgrims performing Paftather on the 9th day of Dhul-Vijah (the 12 month of the lunar calendar),perform the midday and afternoon prayers, listen to the sermonand busy themselvesin personalprayers until sunset. See SbotterEncyclopaedia oflslam, p. 44.

99 believewell of him will think that he actuallystood in 'Araftt. "329

MAGIC

TERMINOLOGY

Magic may be definedas the seemingcontrol or foresightof naturalforces or events by ritual invocation of supernaturalbeings. It includesthe belief that men can coerce nature by the use of certain rites, formulas and actions.329 In Arabic the term sffir (magic) is defined as whatever is caused by hidden or subtle forceS.330 For example, the Prophet (4) was reported to have said, "Verily, someforms of speech are magic [Sipr]."331 The speeches of an eloquent,charismatic speaker who makes right seem wrong and vice-versa, fall into this category. Thus, the Prophet (4) referred to some aspects of speech as being magical.332 The pre-dawn meal taken before fasting is called s4at or SUhM33because its time is in the darknessat the end

of the night. The magicianis called saftirand the one spellboundmashar.

In addition to the above-mentionedterms, a bewitchedperson is describedas m.ktbab from the verb jubbameaning to becomebewitched. 334 A magicianis termed

328 Majmo' al-patawff, vol. 19, pp. 41 and 45.

329 Readerý DI gest Crmt Encyclopedic Dictionary (New York: Funk and WagnallsPublishing Co., 10th ed., 1975), p. 813.

330 Arabic-English Lexicon, vol. 1, pp. 1316-13 17.

331 Collected by al-Bukhad ($aAb a]-Bukb&f, vol. 7, p. 445, no. 662), Muslim, Aba Dawad (Sunan Abu DJ*vd, vol. 3, p. 1393, no. 4989) and at-Tirmidhi.

332 'Umar al-Ashqar, 'Alam as-Sffir wa ash-Sha'wadbah (Kuwait: Dar an- Nafa'is, I st ed., 1989), p. 69.

333 Arabic-Bnglish Lexicon, vol. 1, p. 1317.

334 pat-b al-B&f, vol. 10, p. 228. Seealso an-Nibiyah, vol. 3, p. 110.

100 mu'azzirn, and a spell is called 'azimah.335

According to Islamic law, magic hasbeen defined as "a contract or incantation, spoken or written, or somethingdone which will affect the body, heart or mind of the one bewitched without actually coming in contact with him." 336 It has also been defined as "the occurrenceof extraordinary[kh&iq] eventswhen somethingprohibited in the divine law [shar] is said or done. Allah, Most Glorious, has permitted this occurrenceto take place spontaneouslywhenever such acts are said or done."337

REALITY

Orthodox Islam rejects the effectsof charmsand amulets with regardsto the preventionof misfortune andthe attractionof goodfortune. However,most Sunnite scholarsrecognize that there are otheraspects of magicwhich arereal andthat they are not all casesof illusion.339 Al-Qarlfi 339stated, "Magic is real. The bewitched person could die or his natureand habits could change even if it [i. e., the magic]did not touch him. This was the positionof ash-Shafi'land Ibn Ijanbal. The Ijanafites held that if smokeor somethingsimilar reached the personsbody, it [i. e., magic]could have an effect,otherwise it couldnot. The QadaritesI40held that therewas no reality

335 Arabic-EnglAh Lexicon, vol. 2, p. 2038. 336 ,al-Mughni(Cairo: I-lijr, Ist ed., 1990), vol. 12, p. 299. 337 Mubammad 'Ah al-Faru-q!at-Tahanawi, Kashf4gMat a]-Funt2n(Cairo: al- Hay'ah al-Migiyyah al-'Ammah B al-Kutub, 1972), p. 152.

338 A]-Jjml'l! Aftk&n al-Qur'jn, vol. 2, p. 46.

339 Mmad ibn Idris al-Qarafi (d. 1275),of Moroccan-Berberorigin, wasborn and raised in Egypt. He was one of the leadingscholars of the Malikite schoolof jurisprudence.Among his manybooks on canonlaw areAnwJraI-Bun7qJ? AnwJ'fiI- Furaq, a4 volume work; al-14AmA TamyIzal-Famwi and Sharhý Tanqffi al-Fupl. (A]-A'I&n, vol. 1, pp. 94-95.)

340 Qadariyyah(Eng. Qadarites), a nameused regularly as a descriptivesurname for, the Mu'tazilites. (SboilerEnqyclopaedia of Islam,p. 200.)

101 to magic." 341

EWence for ffic Roft

The ma ority of Muslim scholarshold that magic is real becauseof its prohibitionsin the Qur'anand the Sunnah.There are severe warnings for thosewho practiceit and a practitionercan be punishedaccordingly in this life aswell asin the next. Allah has also revealedhow to seekrefuge from magic. Accordingto these scholars,it is illogical for Islamiclaw andthe revealedtexts to treat something(e. g., magic) in such a seriousand severe manner if it is unreal. Thereis specificevidence usedby the orthodoxmajority to provethat thereis sucha thing asmagic.

The first proof is the followingQur'Anic verse:

"... But it was the devils who disbelievedby teachingthe people

magic and what was revealed to the two angels, HArOt and

Marat, in Babylon. However, the two would not teach anyone

anything until after they had warned them, saying, 'Surely, we

are only a test and a trial, so do not disbelieve.' But the people

went aheadand learnedfrom the two of them what would cause

the separationof a man from his wife. However, they could not

harm anyone except by AllWs permission. Ibcy learned what

would harm their own souls and not benefit them." Qurln, 2:102

If thereis no realityto magic,what werethe devilsteaching and what werethe people learning? The fact that the magicianis referredto in this verse asbeing able to separatea man from his wife andto harmpeople (by Allah'spermission) is sufficient evidencethat magicis real.

341 Abmad ibn Was al-Qarafi, a]-Buraq i? Anwj' al-Furi7q(Beirut: Dar al- Ma'rifah, n.d. ), vol. 4, p. 149. Seealso a]-Mughni, vol. 12, p. 299.

102 AnotherQur'dnic verse states as evidence:

"And [I seek refuge] from the evil of the witches who blow on knots." Qur'An,113: 4

Blowing on knotted materialwas a meansby whichspells were cast. The Qur'Anic 342 commandto seekrefuge from this act indicatesthat thereis a realityto magiC.

Also, al-Qarafi used as proof the consensusQfinj') of Muslim scholars.He mentionedthat since differencesof opinionabout the realityof magicoccurred after the consensusof the Prophet'scompanions, these later-day differenceswere of no consequence.343 In regard to the Mu'tazilite opinionthat all magicis deception,Ibn al-Qayyimsaid, "This [opinion] contradictsthe numerousaccounts related from the ý4jbah andearly scholars, the agreementof scholarsofjurisprudence, the scholarsof Qur'anic exegesisand Padith, and that whichis knownpractically to scholarsof law in general.11344

Support for the reality of magic is also found in the Padrthsdescribing the time when Prophet Mubammad (4) was bewitched. In various, authentic narrations it is related that a Jew, Labib ibn A'§am, cast a spell upon the Prophet (4). 345The

Qur'Anic exegete, al-Qurtubi, referred to the statementmade by the Prophet after the breaking of the spell, "Allih cured me," as indicating that magic is real, becausecure

342 AI-Mughn4 12, 299. See 'Alam , vol. p. also as-Sffir wa ash-Sba'wadbah, 91.

343 A]-Furcjq, vol. 4, p. 150. 34_4 Mu4ammad Uways an-Nadwi, at-TaIsiraI-QayyIm (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al- '11miyyah,Ist ed., 1978), p. 571. 345 See, for example, YaAh a]-Bukbw, vol. 7, pp. 443-444, no. 660 and,ýAAh Muslim, vol. 3, pp. 1192-1193,no. 5428.

103 only follows an actual sicknessor disease.346

In addition, the following Qur',Finic verses indicate that magic is real:

Miey bewitched the people7seyes... " Qur'an,7: 116

'"Meir magic caused it to appear to him that they were

crawling. " Qur'An,20: 66

Ibn al-Qayyimstated with regard to these two verses,"If it is possiblefor the magiciansto bewitch all the people'seyes, in spiteof their largenumbers, to sucha degreethat they all sawsomething in a way differentfrom what it actuallywas -which is a changein their senses-then what preventsits [i. e., magic's]effect from changing the [a'ad of humans[like] their abilit i es and their someof nonessentialcharacteristics .] temperament? And what is the differencebetween changing what is actually seenand the body For if the changing reality of someother characteristicof the and the soul? ... sensesare changed to the degree that they perceive the stationary as moving, the connected as disconnected, and the dead as living, what, then, preventsthe actual changing of characteristics whereby that which is loved becomeshated and the hated becomesloved, etc.?" 347

Scholarsalso use the occurrenceof magicas evidencefor its beingreal. Ibn al- Qayyim stated, "Magic exists for its effects causeillness to the dimwittedand the intelligent, love and hate, and even bleeding. It is knownto the massesand many know it from personalexperience. " 348 Ibn Qudamahadded, "So muchinformation about magicianshas been narratedthat it is virtually impossiblefor all thosewho

346 Al-j&W' liAftk&n al-Qur',In, Vol. 1, p. 41.

347A t- Tafsir al- Qayyim, p. 571.

348 Ibid.

104 Re. 11349 narratedthem to conspireto conveysuch a

EWdenceAgabast the

There were a few early scholars and a numberof more recent scholarswho considermagic to be merely an illusion createdby tricks. They considerthat any effect it might have on humans was purely psychological. Among the early scholarswho denied magic's reality was al-Jai"4.350 He defined magic in its linguistic meaning according to Islamic law, saying,"The philologists mention that its [i. e., magics] basic linguistic meaningincludes everything whose causeis hidden or subtle. This term was then transferred to everythingwhose causeis hidden- anythingwhich is imaginedto be other than it is in reality and anythingwhich occursby tricks and deception."351 Ibn

Ijazm352 and Fakhruddin ar-lUzi were among the later scholars who acceptedal-

Ja§§4' view. Ar-RM quoted al-Jaý§4' definitions and arguments verbatim in his exegesis of the Qur'an.353 And after mentioningthe eight different types of magic, he said, "The Mu'tazilites unanimously reject all of these types [of magic] except the types caused by deception, and by sowing dissension and slander."354 Among the more recent Muslim scholars, Sayyid Qu1b355echoed this view, stating, "Magic is

349 AI-MugjW vol. 12, p. 300.

3 50 Mmad ibn 'Ah ar-Razi (917-980), known as Abo Bakr al-Jassas,was born in Rayy and was educatedin Baghdad. He becamethe leading ljanafitý*Iegal scholar of his time. His most noted publishedwork is AAk&n al-Qur',In. (A]-A'Ikn, vol. 1, p. 171.)

351 Al-Jassas, Ahk&n a]-Qur'jn (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-'Arabi, Ist ed., 1335 A. H. ), vol. 1, pp. 41-43.

352 AI-Fýsal, vol. 2, p. 2.

353 At-Tafsiral-Kabir, vol. 3, p. 205.

354 Ibid., p. 213.

355 Sayyid In QuIb ibn Ibral-drn (1906-1966), a leading 20th century Islan-fic thinker, was a graduate of Dar al-'Ulom in Egypt. He wrote for newspapersand

105 deception of the sensesand the nerves,and it is a suggestionto the mind and feelings.

It neither changes the reality of things nor doesit createany new realities for them.

But the sensesand feelingsimagine whatever the magicianwishes. " 356

Following is someof the evidencebrought by thosewho believedthat magicis only deception. Concerningthe Qur'anic verses7: 116and 20: 66, al-Jassasstated, "Whenever it [i. e., the word magic) is used unrestrictedly[miqlaq] it refers to somethingfalse -having no realityor stability. AlmightyAllah said,"Ibey bewitched [saýaraj the people!s, eyes.'357 Theydeluded them into thinkingthat their ropesand staffs were crawling. And [Allah also] said, "Ibeir magic causedit to appear [yukhayyalul to him that they werecrawling. 958 He informedus that that which they thoughtwas crawlingwas actually not. It wasonly an illusion.00359

AlJgý4 logically argued, "If the magicianand charmer [mu'azzirn]were actually able to causebenefit and harm in the way theyclaim - to fly, to know the unseenand information about [what is going on in] distant lands, to stealthings

[without beingseen], and to harmpeople in otherways - it would be possiblefor them

Islamic magazineslike ar-RisVah and was an Arabic school teacherfor sometime. He joined the Ikbwjn Musliman movement. Later he was jailed and executedduring the rule of Jamal 'Abdun-Nisir (1918-1970). During his imprisonment,he wrote many &m Islamic books. Among are an-Naqd al-Adabi, a]-AdJ)ah a]-1jtJmJ1))vah17 a]- Islam, MaWim ff kt- Taffq and his exegesisof the Qur'An, RZYJW al-Qur'jn. (See A]-A'I&n, vol. 3, pp. 147-148.)

356 al-Qur'jn, vol. 6, p. 4007.

357 "He [i. e., Moses] said, 'You throw [first]: So when they threw, they bewitched the peoplc!s eyes and struck terror into them, and they displayed great magic." Qur'An, 7: 116

358 "[Mosesl said, 'No, you throw [first]. ' And all of a suddentheir magic caused their ropes and staffs to appear to him that they were crawling. " Qur'an, 20:66

359 Aftk&n al-Qur'jn, vol. 1, pp. 41-43.

106 to seizeproperty, extract the treasuresfrom the earth,and conquer countries by killing the rulers without any harm befallingthem. Theywould be ableto preventanyone from hurtingthem, and they would haveno needto seekthe commonpeople's wealth. If this is not the case,they will [appearto] be in the worst condition,having the greatestdesire andfanciest tricks to takepeople! s money,and they would be the most obviouslypoor and impoverished. Thus, [since the latter is the case],you canbe certainthat theyare unable to do anyof that [whichthey claim]. "360

Some of these scholars als6 logically argued that if magicians were actually

able to do as they claim, their magic would become indistinguishable from the miracles

of the prophets. 361 Al-Jaýý4 said, "It is amazing to see those who combine belief in

the prophets (may peace be upon them) and their miracles with belief in similar acts by

magicians when the Almighty has said: "The magician wiU nevcr be successful, no

matter what amount of skiU he may anain. "362 Belief in them [is belief in] those

whom Allah has declared liars, and [He has] informed [us] that their claims are false. "363

Many of thosewho deniedthe realityof magicclaimed that the traditionsabout Prophet Mubammad(4) beingbewitched were false. A]-Jap4 said,"Such traditions are amongdisbelievers! fabrications in orderto play,by interpolation,with [the minds] of commonpeople and to dragthem into falsifyingthe miraclesof the prophets(peace

360 Ibid., p. 48.

3 61 Rap al-Ma'", vol. 1, p. 339.

362 This was statedby Allah to reassureProphet Moses (peacebe upon him) that the miracle which he had been given would overcomethe magiciane magic: "And throw what is in your right hand. It will swallow up what they have made! What they made is only a magician7s,trick, and the magician will never be successful,no matter what amount of skill. he may attain." Qur'an, 20:69

363 A#k&n al-Qur'jn, vol. 1, p. 49.

107 be upon them)."364 Others held that the assertionof a spellbeing placed upon the Prophet(4*) contradictedthe Qur'An. Fakhruddinar-RM quotedthe argumentof the Mu'tazilites, "If he [i. e., the Prophet(4)] becamebewitched, the disbelieverswould not deservethe rebukein the Almighty'sstatement: 365 'And the wrongdoerssay, "You are only following a bewitchedman. "'366 Yet othersfalsified the traditionson the basisthat they all had chainsof narration with individualreports [kbabar Aftad]367 which they [i. e., thosewho deniedthe realityof magic]argue cannot be usedas a basis for establishingarticles of faith."368

Andysis of the Arguments

The evidenceused by the majorityof scholarsis moresubstantial because it not only utilizesthe Qur'An,logic andhuman experience, but it alsofinds supportfrom the Sunnahand the consensusof earlyscholars. The minority,who aremainly from the Mu'tazifites (so-calledrationalist school of thought), follow their usual patternof human Consequently, is from preferring reasonover revelation.- their evidence only three sources: the Qur'An,logic andhuman experience. Their denialof the evidence from the traditions is not basedupon criticism according to the scienceof hadrth,but

364 Ibid.

365 Allah quoted the argument of the disbelievers against Muýammad's prophethood: "And they say, Vhy doesthis messengereat food and walk about in the markets [like ourselves]? Why is an angel not sent down as a warner along with him? Or why has treasure not been granted to him or a garden of Paradisefix)M which he may eaff And the wrongdoerssay, "fou are only following a bewitched man.'" Qur'an, 25: 8

366 At-Tafsiral-Kabir, vol. 3, p. 214. Seealso Aftk&n a]-Qur'jn, vol. 1, p. 49.

367 Khabar 4id are traditions which were transmittedduring the first three generationsof Muslimsby oneto four transmittersonly. (MuýammadZubayr ýiddiql, Vadah Literature[Calcutta: CalcuttaUniversity Press, 196 1 ], p. 194.) 368 See at-Tafliral-Kabir, vol. 1. p. 214 and 'Alam as-Sjhrwaasb-Sba, wadhah, pp. 180-181.

108 upon their own logic. There is an establishedprinciple in the scienceofjurisprudence

(ksill a]-flqh) to favor the view supported by a preponderanceof evidence. It is thereforeapparent that the view of the majority is the correct Islamic view.

Refutadon of &c Eiidcncc Aggkst the RggW

The two Qur'anicverses (7: 116 and 20: 66) addressillusionary magic, and this form of magic is not deniedby anyone. However, the Qur'An'sdescription of some magic as being trickery does not exclude the possible existence of real magic as indicated by another verse (2: 102).369 Furthermore, the discussion previously presented by Ibn al-Qayyim regardingthese two versessupports the possibility of real magic. It could also be said that evenreal magic is illusionary from a particular point of view, for whatever magicians produce of real magic is not from their power but from the help of thejiM. 370

In respectto the powersof magicians,the logicalargument assumes that they must be able to do all they claimin orderfor themto be ableto do any. However, their abilities are very limited so they resort to trickery to capture customers, . concentratingon the easilydeceived, ignorant masses. Since magic is usuallyillusion and most magicians tricksters, the majority of them wiU be impoverishedand dependentupon people. However,there have been many instances in humanhistory whenmagicians have held very high andpowerful positions in society.

The other logical argumentproposes that if magicis in fact real,miracles will becomeindistinguishable from it. This is not sufficientto denythe reality of some magic becauseestablished Islamic principles clearly distinguish between n-dracles and magic. The following are four such principles:

3 69 F,? 10, 225. t-h al-B&j,, vol. p. 3 70 'Alam as-Sibr wa ash-Sha'wadbah, p. 99.

109 NEraclesare divine gifts and not skillswhich may be learnedby anyonewho 371 studiesthern, as in the caseof magiC.

Miracles are eventswhich go againstthe natural laws, while acts of magic stay

firm. 372 within the abilitiesof humansand

Miracles are only performed by those close to Allah, whereas magic is

devil. 373 perfonnedby the friendsof the

- Magic may be counteracted by prayers, recitations or magic, but miracles

cannotbe counteracted.374

The claim that the narrationsof the Prophet'sbewitchment are fabricated is incorrect becausethey were reported by both al-Bukhariand Muslim (muttafaqun 'alayb), which Muslim scholarsunanimously agree to be the mostauthentic category of Padfth.

The assertionthat these Pa&ths contradictthe Qur'An is false, and these padahs do not supportthe pagansidea that ProphetMuýammad (4) wasbewitched. The pagansclaimed that whateverthe Prophet(4) t; ught andrecited from the Qur'An was a result of madnessor bewitchmentand not revelationfrom Allah. The fact that on oneoccasion he wasbewitched in a way whichdid not affecthis prophethooddoes not confirm the pagans'claim. It shouldalso be notedthat ProphetMoses (peace be upon him) was bewitchedalong with the otherpeople present and saw the rods and

371 See Fat-h al-BAff, vol. 10, p. 223 and Ibn Khaldon's al-Muqaddbnah (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-Luýnan!, 2nd ed., 1979), p. 932.

372 A]-Furcjq, vol. 4, p. 168 and Aýý a]-Qur'jn, vol. 1, p. 49.

373 See a]-Furaq, vol. 4, p. 170; Fat-P al-B&f, vol. 10, p. 223 and Majmo'al- Fatjwj, vol. 11, p. 173.

374 'Alam as-Sffir wa ash-Sba'waAah, p. 78.

110 staffs of the magiciansmoving like snakes.375 Therefore, it is clearthat anyonecan be affectedby magic.

Because the Padith of the Prophet'sbewitchment was a single report (khabar

4ftio), it was rejectedas a meansfor establishinga doctrineof faith. However,the vast majorityof Muslim scholarsand the companionsof the Prophet(4) wereknown to have promulgatedboth' doctrinesof faith andreligious rituals based upon single reports.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MAGIC AND POSSESSION

Real magic is the product of satanicintervention. Both the acts of magic and the effectsof spellson humansinvolve the agencyof thejhm. Al-Alas7iaddressed this issue, saying, "What is meantby magicis an act whichresembles a miraclebut is not becauseit [i. e., magic] is learned.And in orderto performit the helpof the devil is sought by pleasinghim with abominableacts. [These actsmay be in the form of] statements,Eke incantations containing phrases of sbirk andpraises of Satan;acts, like planet worship and an adherenceto crime and licentiousness;and beliefs, like the preferenceand love of whateveris necessaryto please[the devil]." 376A]-Ghazzili was quoted as defining magicas follows, "Magic is somethingwhich is derivedfrom knowledge of the specialcharacteristics of elementsUawjbir] and mathematical calculationsrelated to the time of the risingof celestialbodies. From thesespecial characteristicsa form is maderesembling the bewitchedperson, and a particulartime of the rising of celestialbodies is awaited.When the time arrives,words of disbelief and obscenity, which contravenedivine law, areuttered to obtainaccess to the devil's assistance. The combinationof these factors results in - accordingto normal

375 SeeQur'An, 20: 67.

376 Rap a]-Ma'Anf, Vol. 1, p. 338.

III procedure- strangeconditions within the bewitchedperson. " 377During his discussion on the type of sihr in which the devil's help is employed,ar-Righib said, "The second

[type] is that in which the devil's help is attractedby acts which will gain favor, as in the Almighty's statement: 'Shall I inform you about those upon whorn the devils descend?They des=d on every lying sinner.' 41379

Dr. 'Umar al-Ashqar explicitly stated, "...Real magic is that in which the magician relies upon the devil. Our Lord, whose knowledge encompassesall things, has informed us that it was the devils who taught mankindmagic: '... Sulayman did not commit disbelief, but it was the devils who disbelieved and taught manidnd magic."1379

A good exampleof the relationshipof magicto possessioncan also be seenin the incident in which 'Abdullah ibn Mas'iDdfound his wife wearinga knotted,cord necklaceand askedabout its purpose.She informed him that it wasgiven to her by a Jewish magician andthat a spellhad been placed on it to stopher eyefrom twitching, which it did. Ibn Mas'ad snatchedit from her neck,told her it was an act of shkk and informed her that the twitching was causedby a fiWwhich stoppedwhen the spell wasplaced on her." 390

377 Quoted in Sidd-iq IjasanKh&s ad-LYn&-Khgis (Cairo: MaktabahDar al- 'ArTabah,1960), vol. 2, p. 324.

378 Ar-lUghib al-Asfahw, a]-Mufradit ij'Gbaffb al-Qur'. fn (Cairo: Mugafa al- Babl al-Ijalabi, 1381 A. H. ), p. 226. The Qur'aruc quote is 26:221-222.

379 'Alam as-Sffirwa asb-Sbawadbah, p. 152. The Qur'anicquote is 2: 102. 380 See Sunan Aba Djwvd, vol. 3, p. 1089, no. 3874. The whole text of this hadah was mentioned earlier on page 71 and its authenticationin footnote no. 232.

112 -THE EVIL EYE

A part of Islamictraditional belief is the conceptof a type of glancecapable of causingharm to thoseupon whom it befallS.391 Ibn 'Abbasreported that the Prophet (*) said, "The effect of the evil eye [&-'ayn] is real,382for if therewere anything which could overtakedestiny, it would havebeen [the effectofl the evil eye."393 The word an-nafsis synonymouswith al-'ayn.394 The evil eyeis includedin the studyof possessionbecause, like magic,its effectsmost likely takeplace through the agencyof jbw, and it is a type of demonicpossession requiring treatment. Ibn al-Qayyim referred to the role of spiritspertaining to the evil eye,"Due to the closeconnection with the eye, its [i. e., the evil eye!s] effect is attributedto it, but the eyeis not the perpetrator.The effectis causedby spirits."

The evil eye is a form of jealousy (Pasad). In al-Qayyim said, "Every possessor of the evil eye is jealous, but not everyjealous personpossesses the evil eye.

Since the category ofjealousy is generaland the evil eye specific, seekingreflige from jealousy includes seeking refuge from the evil eye."385 This is the reasonwhy the

Qur'Anic text addressesthe jealous and not specificallythe evil eye:

"Say, I seek refuge in the Lord of the dawn, ftm the evil of

what He has created.. and froin the evil of the jealous one when

he is envious.'" Qur'In, 113:1,2 and5

381See Dictionary of Islam, p. 112. 382 This portion is also narrated by Abo Hurayrah and collected by al-Bukhazi (,YaAb a]-Bukhaff, vol. 7, p. 427, no. 636) and Muslim (,YaAh Muslim, vol. 3, p. 1192, no. 5426).

3 83 &Ah Muslim, vol. 3, p. 1192, no. 5427.

384 Al-Tibb an-Naba", p. 168.

385 Ibid, p. 167.

113 According to In al-Qayyim,there aretwo typesof evil eye: the humanevil eye and the jhW evil eye. He said, "It is authenticallyreported from Umm Salamah that the Prophet (4) saw a girl in her housewhose face had becomedark386and said,

Recite over her incantations,for shehas [the effect ofl the glance [an-naprah].'397 Al-

1jusayn ibn Mas'ad al-Farra"399said, '...napah is from the finn. He said that she had

an evil eye causedby the glanceof a jLWwhich is more penetratingthan the point of a spear.' 11389

FORMS

According to Islamicunderstanding, it canbe concludedthat spirit-possession of humansmay take a varietyof differentforms. Possessionis not definedby anyone set of symptoms. Possessionmay be partial,affecting only certainparts of the body, or it may be complete,affecting the whole body -thereby resultingin convulsive disorders like epilepsyand hystero-epilepsy. However, it shouldbe recognizedthat in some casesthe origin of these disordersmay be purelybiological. Theymay also include the variouscategories of what havebeen termed by modemmedical science as "mental illness" like hypochondriacalneurosis, schizophrenia, hysteria and other dissociativedisorders. 390

/

386 The Arabic term usedhere is sufah, which is definedin an-Nihiyah,vol. 2, p. 374 as "changingtowards black. "

387 YaAh al-BukhM, vol. 7, p. 426, no. 635. 388 He is most commonly known by the title al-Baghawi. Biographical notes are given for him in footnote no. 162. 389 AI. Tibb an-Nabatq, p. 164. 390 See Prot 'Ah MuýammadMujAwi'M. D., MadAWIiij at-Tibb aI.jsjjmj P. 201, quotedby the authorin an articlefor RisVahaMmAm, no. 5,1`986.

114 EXORCISM

TERMINOLOGY

The English term "exorcism"is derived from the Greek word "exorkizd' meaning"to bind with an oath," "to adjure," anddenotes the expulsionof malevolent spirits from possessedpersons, objects and places. The general definition states that expulsionis usuallyachieved by the utteranceof an adorationin which the name(s)of more powerful spirits or deities are invokedand their aid sought.391 This definition generallydescribes the processby whichthose who areill dueto spirit-possessionare treated, except accordingto Islamic law, only the name of Allah maybe invoked. Cureis usuallyeffected by the useof religiousformulas, prayers and/or artifacts.

Recited formulas are collectively referred to in Arabic as ruqj (pl. zvqyah) which is derived from the verb raqjyarqi'meaning "to charm [someone]by invoking

Allah. " Ruqyah is "a charm or spell either uttered or written by which a person having an evil affection, such as fever and epilepsyetc., is charmed."392

Originally ta'tqdb, Vdbah and ma'jdbah all meant the sameas ruqyah.393

Later theseterms almost exclusivelyreferred to "a kind of amulet or charm bearing an inscription which is hung upon a man [or woman, child, horse, etc.] to charm the wearer against the evil eye, against fright and diabolical possession.394 The root of theseterms is the verb 'idba ya'adbu meaning"to seekprotection or refuge."395

391 Vergilius Fenn ed., Encyclopedia of Religion (Connecticut, USA: GreenwoodPress, 1976), p. 268.

3 92 Ambic-Englisb Lexicon, vol. 1, p. 1140.

393 Lisin a]-Arab, vol. 2, p. 923.

3 94 Arabic-Engfisb Lexicon, vol. 2, p. 2192.

395 Ibid.

115 Charms or amulets used for curing a sick, possessedor mad person are

collectively called "nuskuh, " derived from the verb nasbsbarawhich means"to charm

awaysickness, diabolical possession or madnessby a charmor amulet." 396

The Arabic term "da'waff (literally, "invitation, calling") in the Indian

subcontinenthas come to mean"a systemof incantation."397

VALIDITY

Accordingto Islamiclaw, treatmentby exorcismis dividedinto two categories: prohibited techniquesand permissibletechniques. Prohibited techniquesare those which include statementsor acts which are contrary to Islamic law. Permissible methodsare those which confonnwith the guidelinesfound in the sourcesof Islamic jurisprudence. In this regardIbn Taymiyyahsaid, "Idolaters use talismans and chant formulas containing glorification and worship of the finn, and most [of the] incomprehensibleincantations, talismans and charms399in use among the Muslim massescontain shirk [associatingpartners with Allah] by way of thefirm. As a result, Muslim scholarshave prohibitedthe use of incantationswhose meaningsare not understandablebecause there is a possibilityof shirk beinginvolved, even if it is not so in actuality. 'Awf ibn Malik al-AshJa'Isaid, "We usedto makeincantations during the times of ignorance,so we said, '0 Messengerof Allah,what is your opinionon this

396 Ibid., pp. 2793-2794.

3 97 Dictionmy oflslam, p. 72.

398 See, for example, Aýmad Sa'Id Dehlvi, Prophetic Medical Sciences(Tbe Savior) [DeH: Dini Book Depot, 3rd ed., 1988], Ganjeena-e-Asrar,p. 36. VEIN- SEALING: (1) In case somebody has sealedthe vein of somebodythrough some [magical] trick, etc. due to which he is unableto perform sexualintercourse, write on a' sword the formula given below and cut an egg of a black hen right from the middle to turn it into two pieces. One piece [should] be eatenby himself and one by the woman. blessings formula, 'Allah-willing - due to the of this the vein will get released. It is very well-tried. Bk= ]a ]a wm ma ma la ]a ]a hhh.

116 matterT He replied, Iet me hearyour incantations,for incantationswhich do not have

11399 s]Vrkin themare fine. '

"Most of what is recited by those preparingamulets and talismanshave shirk in them. In an attemptto hidethe shirk, Qur'Anicverses are often added throughout the recitation.400 There are sufficient cures prescribed by Allah andI-Es Prophet to remove any need for methodsinvolving shirk andany need for thosewho practiceit. Some Muslims may dispute the permissibilityof using medicinescontaining forbidden substanceslike pork andparts of animalswhich die of themselves.401 However, there is no differenceof opinionwith regardto the prohibitionof treatingsickness with acts of shirk and kufr [disbeliefl, becauseit is prohibitedunder all circumstances. Performingacts of shirk and Icufrare not the sameas only sayingstatements to that effect under duress,for the latter is allowedif one!s heartis full of faith. Speaking words of shirkand kufronly hasan effectif it [i. e., disbelief]already exists in the heart of the one sayingthem. Thus,if onesays them while his heartis at peacein faith, it has no effecton one'slevel of belief. Oneunder duress does not intendto utter words of disbelief,but is forced. If Satanknows that the oneusing prohibited amulets or

399 YaAh Muslim, vol. 3, p. 1197, no. 5457. 400 See, for example,the quotationsfrom Jawahir al-Khamsahby AN al- Mu'ayyid of Gujerat(d. 956 A.H. ) in the Dictionaryof1slam, pp. 72-78.

401 Although scholars have differed with regard to treating illnesseswith prohibited substances,the authenticevidence supports the position of those who disallow it under circumstanceswhere neither life nor limb are threatened. For example,WIT al-Ha4ram!reported that Tariq ibn Suwayda]-Jufi questionedA1lWs Messenger(4) about wine. The Prophet(4) forbadeits useand expressed hatred that it should be prepared. Tafiq remarked,"But I prepareit as a medicine?" He replied, "It is not a medicinebut an ailment." (,YaAb Muslim, vol. 3, p. 1099,no. 4892.) In anothernarration Aba ad-Darda'quoted the Prophet(4) as saying,"Allah hassent down both diseaseand cure, and He hasappointed a curefor everydisease; so treat yourselveswith medicinebut do not use anythingprohibited. " (SunanAba DJ*Vd, vol. 2, p. 1087, no. 3865.) On the subjectof usingwine as a medicine,the Prophet'scompanion, Ibn Mas'ad,said, "Allah hasnot madea curefor your sickness in what He hasprohibited. " ($aAb al-Bukb&f,vol. 7, p. 357, no. 15.)

117 incantationsdoes not takethem seriously, he will not aid him. Therefore,one may not use sbirk on the basisthat he or shedoes not believein it. It shouldalso be notedthat there is no necessityto treat an afflictedperson with sbkk or kufr from at leasttwo other points of view: First, there may be no effect, for mostof thosewho treat illnesseswith amuletshave no success. Instead,they may even make the affliction worse. Second,there are sufficient, authentic methods of cureavailable to makefalse methodssuperfluous. 01402

In order for rvqj to be legitimate according to Islamic law, Ibn Ijajar said,

"The scholars are in unanimous agreementthat ruql is permissibleif [the following]

threeconditions are met:

1. Only AllaWswords [i. e., the Qur'an],names or attributescan be used.

2. It must be in [comprehensible]Arablic or intelligiblewords in another language.

3. Those taking part must believethat the incantationcannot have

an independenteffect, but it is Allah who causesit to have 403 effect."

Somepeople considered unintelligible mqf permissiblebecause of the narration of Jabir. He reported that when All&s Messenger(4) prohibitedincantation, the 'Amr ibn Ijazin family cameto him andsaid, "We know an incantationwhich we used to recitefor curingscorpion stings. " Theyrecited the incantationfor him, andhe said, "I do not seeanything wrong with it. Whoeveramong you is ableto helphis brother

402 Ibn TaymecyahMssay on lbeAnn, pp. 93-95.

403 Fat-p a]-B&f,. Vol. 10, P. 195.

118 should do SO.11404 However, Ibn Ijajar pointed out that 'Awfs narration in which the

Prophet (4) said, "... incantations which do not have shirk in them are fine,"405 indicates that any ruqyah which leads to shirk is prohibited, and there is no way of knowing if incomprehensibleruql contain shirk or not. Therefore, suchruq. 1 are also prohibited as a precaution.406

THE EXORCIST

There is no official position known as the "exorcist" under Islamic law. However, in various parts of the Muslim world, titles havebeen given to those who practice exorcism. For example,in and Pakistanan exorcist is called an Ivng.407

According to sbad'ah, exorcismis merely considereda method of treatment for the ill and for helping the needy. As such, it is required of all Muslims who are capableof treating those afflicted. In addressingthe generality of this responsibility, Ibn

Taymiyyah said, "The fundamental principle on the basisof which this subject [i. e., exorcism] should be understood is that it may be permissible,recommended or even compulsory to defend or aid one who is possessed,because helping the oppressedis a duty according to one's ability. There is a narration in both $aAh a]-BukbW and Muslim in ibnAzib, 'All&s ,Y*P which the Prophet's companion, al-Bara' said, Messenger commandedus to do seventhings and prohibited us from doing seven. He enjoined upon us visiting the sick, following funeral processions,wishing well for one who sneezes,fulfilling oaths, helping the oppressed, respondingto invitations, and spreading greetings of peace. He forbade us from wearing gold rings, drinking from silver vessels, using silk brocade saddle blankets, wearing silk blend clothes, silk

404 YaAh Mus,16n, Vol. 3, p. 1197, no. 5456.

405 Y*p Muslim, Vol. 3, p. 1197, no. 5457.

406 Fat-p fil-B&f Vol. 10, P. 195.

407 DictionW of. 1slam,p. 73.

119 brocade.1409 In [exorcism] is clothes, velvet or silk ... there alsO'ýIleviationof the oppressedperson's grief and suffering. AllWs Messenger(4) is reported by Aba

Hurayrah in $aAh Muslim to have said, Vhoever relievesa believer of one of the tragedies of this life, Allah will relieve him of one of the calamitiesof the Day of

Resurrection.0409 Jabir was also reported in YaAh Muslim to have said that when

Allah's Messenger(4) was askedabout incantations,he replied, Vhoever among you is able to help his brother should do So.# 11410

"A to leaving [possessed] him, it is ItX0 a one's companionwithout treating the same as abandoningsomeone who is oppressed.And aidingthe oppressedis fwkifkyah (a group obligation) on everyoneaccording to his ability,based upon what the Prophet wasreported to havesaid, 'A Muslimis a brotherto everyother Muslim, he does not leavehim in harmnor doeshe harmhim... '411 If he is unableto helphim or is busy with somethingmore obligatory or someoneelse has gone to helpthe possessed individual, it is no longerobligatory on him to do so. Iý on the otherhand, he is the only one presentwho is able to help and he is not busy with somethingmore obligatory,it thenbecomes a compulsoryduty to exorcisethe possessed." 412

CONDITIONS

According to some Islamic scholars,both partiesto the exorcismmust fulfill certain spiritual and legal characteristicsfor effective treatmentto take place. In

408 ýFaAjhal-Bukb&f,, vol. 8, p. 156, no. 241 and YaAh Muslim, vol. 3, p. 1139, no. 5129. 409 ýVaAbMuslim, vol. 4, p. 1366, no. 6250. 410 Sa&b MusAin, vol. 3, p. 1197, no. 5456. The quotation is from Ibn Taymeeyah Essay on theA2n, pp. 60-62.

411 by 'Abdullahibn in This Padfthwas narrated 'Umar -YaAhjd-BukbM, vol. 3, p.373, no. 622 andby Salimin $aAh Muslim, vol. 4, p. 1366,no. 6250.

412 Ibn Tayrnecyahý Essky on the Am, pp. 80-8 1.

120 describingthese necessaryattributes, Ibn al-Qayyimsaid, "Treatmentof fits dueto spirit-possessionrequires two factors on the part of the possessedand on the part of the healer.

1. On the part of the possessedit requires(a) personalstrength and

turning to the Creator of these spirits truthfully, and (b) the correct method of seeking reýge whereinthe heartand tongue will be in harmony. Indeed this type of treatment is, in fact,

warfare and the warrior will not be able to defeathis enemy unless he possessestwo qualities:that his weaponitself be good and sharp and that his arm be strong. If eitherof thesetwo conditionsare not met,a long swordwill be of no value. And if both are missing?The heartwhich is in a stateof desolationand ruin with respect to tawftid[belief in the unity of Allah], trust in Allah, fear of Allah andturning to I-Em,will haveno weapon.

2. The requirementon the part of the exorcistis that he alsopossess both [of the above-mentioned]factors. " 413

Ibn Taymiyyah warned, "If the possessingdemon is an 'ffiit among the finn and the exorcistis weak,it couldharm him. Consequently,he shouldshield himself by reciting prayersthrough which he seeksrefuge in Allah,the MU'fiWWjdbatjn414and Ayah a]-Kurs!, by performingformal prayer (faM); by making supplicationsand doing other similarthings which strengthenhis faith; andby puttingaside sins through which the evilfinn maygain control over him. Sucha personis a soldierof Allah, and since exorcismis amongthe greatestforms offihad, he shouldbeware not to helphis

413 7-id a]-Ma'jd, p. 69.

414Chapter numbers 113 and 114.

121 enemy overcome him by his own sins. If the circumstanceis beyond his capacity, he should remember that ' 'Allah doesnot burden a soul beyond its capacity: He should not exposehimself to tribulation by taking on what he is unableto handle." 415

METHODOLOGY

The following steps of exorcism have been deduced from the texts of the

Sunnah, the practice of the Prophet's companions and early scholars. The order in which the steps are mentionedis not intendedto be unalterablyfixed, but merelya possiblesequence which may be followed.

Egg Siwz-.(a) Undo Qatm

In cases where possessionis a result of magic the most effective method of canceling its effectsis by findingand undoing the charmused in the bewitchment.Ibn al-Qayyimstated, "Removingthe charm and neutralizingit is the , mostprofound treatment.11416 Once the charmhas been found and dismantled, the spellwill be broken and the jhW connectedwith'it will leavethe personalone. This wasthe methodused by Prophet Mubammad(4) on the occasionof his own bewitchment. Zayd ibn Arqarn reported that a Jew,by the nameof Labib ibn N§am [ftorn the Zuraq Clan],417 cast a spell on the Prophet(4). Whenhe beganto sufferfrom it,,Tibril cameto him and revealedthe two chaptersfor seekingrefuge (mu'awwIdhatjn) and then saidto him, "Surely, it was a Jewwho castthis spellupon you, andthe magicalcharm is in a certain well." The Prophet (4) sent 'Ali ibn Ab! Talib to go andfetch the charm. Whenhe returnedwith it, the Prophet(4) told him to untiethe knots,one by one,and

415 Ibn Taymecyabý Essay on the Ann, pp. 69-72.

416 Zid al-Ma'jd, vol. 3, p. 104. Seealsokt-Tibb an-Nabawi, p. 124.

417 What appearsin bracketswas mentioned in id-Bukharilsnarration. See&gh al-BukhAff,vol. 7, pp. 443-444,no. 660.

122 to recite a verse from the two chapterswith the undoingof eachknot. Whenhe did so, the Prophet (4) got up asif he hadbeen released from beingtied up. Although destroyingthe charm is the.best method of breakingthe spell,it is the most difficult, unlesssomeone confesses or the charmis discoveredaccidentally. The Prophet(4) only found out the location of the charmby revelation.Consequently, the casesof fian-possessioninduced by magic may be treated by the usualmethod for general demonicpossession outlined below.

"RstI JA d&vss

It wasthe practiceof ProphetMuýammad (4) to addressthe possessingspirit and commandit to leave. In his narration Ya'11ibn Murrahreported that on one occasiona woman brought her dementedson to the Prophet(4). The Prophet(4) said [to the boy], "Get out enemyof Allah, I amthe Messengerof Allah." The boy recovered,and she gave the Prophet a gift of two malesheep, some aqkt (dried curd)418and fat. AllWs Messenger said,"Take the aqkt,the fat andone of the sheepand return the other."419

According to someearly scholars, an attemptshould be madeto communicate with the intruding spirit, encouragingit/them to leave by giving advice and admonishment.This procedurewas proposedby Ibn Taymiyyah,who said,"In the

first instance,where possessionis dueto sexualdesire on thejLwiý part - evenwith the consentof the humanpartner -it [i. e., sexualrelations] is asforbidden by Allah as it is among [unmarried]humans. Without the possessedhuman's consent it becomes an evengraver case of atrocityand oppression. In suchcircumstances the fina should

418 A preparationmade from sheepor goat'smilk which hasbeen churned and the butter removed, thencooked and left to dry until it becomeshard like stone. It is usedin cooking. SeeAmbic-Engfisb Lexicon, vol. 1, p. 70.

419 Collectedby Abmad and ratedauthentic by al-Ama'al in his editionof Zid a]-Ma'jd, vol. 4, p. 68, ftn. 1.

123 be addressedand informedthat their actsare either abon-dnable and prohibited or vile and tyrannical. They are informed[of this] so that evidencemay be broughtagainst them on the Day of Judgementand that theyare made aware that they havebroken the lawsof AIM andHis Prophetwhom He sentto bothworlds -that of menand finn.

In casesof the secondcategory wherein the [possessed]human was unaware that he had harmeda jka, the jbW should be addressedand informedthat the human'sact was unintentionaland thereforenot deservingof punishment.If it [i. e., the accidentalin . ury] took placein the manshouse or on his property,the jhW should be informedthat the houseand property belong to the manand as suchhe is permitted to usethem in allowableways as he pleases.The firm shouldalso be told that they do not have the right to inhabit humanproperty without permissionof the occupants. They only have a right to dwell in placesnot occupiedby humans,like abandoned buildingsand open country. t'420

"[In summary],if the finn attack a human,they should be informedof ARA and His Messengersruling on the matter,and proof of their error shouldbe pointed out. They shouldbe instructedto be righteousand to abstainfrom eviljust asis done with humans,based upon AllWs statement:

Ve will not punish [the wayward] until a messengcrhas been

sent [to thefnl. ' Qur'An,17: 15

As a result of this obligation,the Prophet(4*) forbadethe killing of snakesfound in housesuntil afterthey have been told to leavethree times. In $Wh MusIhn andother books of Padith thereis a narrationfrom Aba Sa'id al-Khudriin which he statedthat the Prophet (4) said, Madinah has in it a groupoffinn who becameMuslims, so whoever seesany snakes[in their homes]should request them to leavethree times. If

420 lbr, TgymccyaO Essay on lbeAnn, pp. 32-33.

124 anyof themappear after that, he shouldkill it becauseit is a devil.' "421

SecondSte T.,

If the jhwi refusesto respondappropriately by leaving,the exorcistmay then use harsh languagewherein AllWs curse is invoked uponthe jbw. This stepwas specificallyreferred to by Ibn Taymiyyah,and he broughtevidence in supportof it in one of his works, saying, "The commandingof a jLwff to righteousnessand its prohibition from evil should be carried out in the sameway that humansare admonished.Whatever is allowablein the caseof humansis alsoallowable in the case offinn. For example,the repellingoffinn mightrequire scolding, threatening and even evoking AllWs curse. Aba ad-Darda'narrated, 'Allah's Messenger (4) stoodup [in prayer] andwe heardhim say,"I seekrefuge in Allah from you." Thenhe reachedout his handas if he werecatching hold of something,and he saidthree times, "I curseyou by AllaWscurse. " When he finishedpraying, we askedhim "0 Messengerof ABA we heardyou saysomething in your prayerwhich we havenever heard you saybefore, and we saw you stretch out your arm." He replied,"Indeed, Allah's enemy, Iblis, brought a fiery torch andtried to thrustit in my face,so I soughtrefuge in Allah and cursedhim by Allah's perfect cursethree times. But he did not retreat. So I caught hold of him and,by Allah, hadit not beenfor the prayerof our brother,Sulayman, 422 he would havebeen tied up for the childrenof Madinahto playwith. " '423This Padah provides the foundationfor the practiceof seekingrefuge in AHahfrom thefinn and

421 Majma, 19, 42. The Padith be found in $aAb Muslim, aj-Fatjwj, , vol. p. can vol. 4, p. 1213, no. 5557.

422 Prophet Sulayman () askedAllah for a unique miracle to be granted only to him. Consequently, Allah gave him control over the animals,the finn and many forces of nature. SeeQur'an, 38:36-38.

423 yagb Muslim, vol. 1, pp. 273-274, no. 1106.

125 cursingthem by AllaWscurse. " 424

S (a) Redladons -7hird PLIC,-Rý Sincethe time of the Prophet(4) recitationof the Qur'Anfor the sick hasbeen an acceptedpractice amongMuslims. Textualevidence for the useof the Qur'Anin curingillnesses is basedupon the followingverses:

"We revealedin stagesof the Que an that which is a healing and

mercy for the believers. But to the unjust it only addsto their loss." Qur'An,17: 82

"0 mankind, there has come to you [in the QurIAnj an

admonition ftom your Lord and a heating for the [diseases] in

your hearts. And for the believers, a guidance and mercy. "

Qur'An, 10:57

Sarah al-Fatihah

The companionsof ProphetMuýammad (4) usedto recitechapters and verses of the Qur'an asa curefor possessionas well asother illnesses. The uncleof Khadjah ibn aý-ýalt reportedthat he went to the Prophet(4) andembraced Islam. During his return journey, he came acrossa tribe whichhad among them a madmanfettered in iron chains. The madmansfan-dly said to him, "We havebeen informed that your companion[i. e., Prophet Muýammad(ý*)] has come with good. Do you have anythingwith which to treat illnesses?" He recitedover him Roah a]-Kitib, 425and he got well. [In another narrationit stated: "He recitedover him Fitffiah al-KiMb every morningand evening for threedays. Wheneverhe would finishhis recitation,he

424 ibn Taymecyahý Essay on the Ann, pp. 64-65.

425 The first chapter of the Qur'An.

126 would gather his saliva and spit. And he got well. "] They gave him one hundred sheep [but he was in doubt about whether he should acceptthem] so he went back to

AllWs Messenger and informed him of the incident. The Prophet (4) askedhim,

"Did you recite anything elsebesides this? " He replied that he had not. The Prophet

(4) then said, "Take them, for by my religion, whoever devours the paymentfor a false incantation will be destroyed. Indeed, you have eatenthe price of a truthful incantation." 426

Abu Sa'id al-Khudri said, "While we wereon ajourney,we dismountedat a place whereupona servantgirl came to us andsaid, 7he chiefof our tribe hasbeen stung by a scorpionand our menare not present.Is thereanyone among you who can recite incantationsT A man from amongus, whom no one suspectedknew incantations,got up andwent with her. He subsequentlyrecited over him. Whenthe chief got well, he gavehim thirty sheepand gave us milk to drink. On his returnwe asked him, Did you have previous experienceat recitingincantationsT He replied, 'No, I only recitedover him Umma]-KAjb. 427Weagreed not to speakabout it until we reachedMadinah and sought the Prophefsadvice. When we arrivedand asked the Prophet (4) about it, he said, 'How did he know that it exorcises?Distribute the sheepamong yourselves and set aside a sharefor mealso. ' 00429

426 Collectedby Abe Dawad(Sunan Aba Djwvd, vol. 3, p. 1093,no. 3892) and authenticatedby al-Alban!in YaAhSunan AbI Djwvd, vol. 2, p. 737, no. 3297.

427 Anothername for the first chapterof the Qur'An. 428 Sa&,h a]-Bukh&f,,vol. 6, p. 490, no. 529 and-Y*P Muslim, vol. 3, p. 1198, no. 5460.

127 Ayah al-KUrS, - 429

Among the greatest weaponswhich may be usedto exorcisethe firm is Ayah al-Kursi, as confirmed in AN HurayraYs narration, "All&s Messengerput mein charge of the zakjh of Ramadan.430 While I was doing so, someonecame and began to rummage around in the food, so I caught hold of him and said, 'By Allah, I am going to take you to AllaWsMessengerl' But the man implored, 'Veffly, I am poor and

I have dependents. I am in great need.' So I let him go. The next morning the

Prophet (4) said, '0 Abo Hurayrah, what did your captive do last night?' I replied,

'He complained of being in great need and of having a family, so I let him go.' The

Prophet (4) then said, 'Surely, he lied to you and he will return.' SinceI knew that he was going to return, I laid in wait for him. When he returned and beganto dig about in the food, I grabbedhim and said, 'I am definitely going to take you to Allah's

Messenger.' He again pleaded,'Let me go! Verily, I am poor and I have a fanfdy. I will not return.' So I had mercy on him and let him go. The next morning AU&s

Messenger said, '0 Aba Hurayrah, what did your captive do last night?' I said that he complained of being in great need and of having a family so I let him go. The Prophet

429 Qur'An, 2:255. Ayah al-Kursf literally means"Verse of the Footstool." Prophet Muýammad(4) declaredit to be the greatestverse of the Qur'Anrelative to man. Ubayy ibn Ka'b said,"AllaWs Messenger asked me, '0 Abul-Mundhir,do you know whichverse of Allahs Book is the greatestrelative to youT I replied,'Allih and His Messengerknow best.' He askedagain, '0 Abul-Mundhir,do you know which verse of AllWs Book is the greatestrelative to youT I replied,'Allah, there is no goil but He, the Living, the Eternal.' Thereuponhe patted my chest and said,May knowledgealways be pleasantfor you, 0 Abul-Mundhirl'" ($aoo Muslim, vol. 2, p. 387, no. 1768.) The full text of the verseis asfollows: "Allah, thereis no god but He, the Living, the Eternal. Neitherdrowsiness nor sleepovertakes Him. All that is in the heavensand earth belongs to Him. Who canintercede [on behalfof others]to Him except by His permission? He knows what is in front of them andwhat is behind them. They will not graspany of His knowledge,except what He wills. His footstool extendsover the heavensand earth, and He is not madetired by governing them [i. e., the heavensand earth]. He is the Transcendent,the Magnificent." 430 Compulsorycharity given in the form of foodstuffat the endof the annual monthof fasting,Rama4an, and distributed among the poorestmembers of society.

128 (4) replied, 'Surely, he lied to you and he will return.' So I waited for him and grabbed him when he began to scatterthe food around. I said, By Allah, I will take you to Allah's Messenger. This is the third time, and you had promisedthat you would not return. Yet you come back anywayl' He said, 7,et me give you somewords by which Allah will benefit you.' I said, Vhat are theyT and he replied, Vhenever you go to bed, recite Ayah al-Kuisi from beginning to end. If you do so, a guardian from

Allah will remain with you and Satanwill not come nearyou until the morning.' I then let him go. The next morning the Messengerof Allah said, Vhat did your captive do last night?' I said that he claimedthat he would teach me somewords by which Allah would benefit me, so I let him go. When the Prophet (4) askedwhat they were, I told him that they were sayingAyah al-Kurs[before going to bed. I also told him that he said that a guardian from Allah would remainwith me and Satanwould not come near me until I awoke in the morning. The Prophet (4) said, 'Indeed he has told the trutk although he is a compulsiveliar. 0 Abil Hurayrah, do you know with whom you have been speaking these past three nightsT I replied No, ' and so he said, 'That was a devil."'431

RegardingAyah &-Kursi Ibn Taymiyyah .....The said. countlessmany who have experiencein this field unanimouslyconfirm the incredibleeffectiveness of this verse in wardingoff the devilsand breaking their spells.Indeed, it is greatlyeffective in repelling the evilfinn from humansouls and exorcising them from the possessedas well as those prodded by devils like tyrants, those easily enraged,the lustful and lecherous,musicians, and those who ecstaticallywhistle and clap enraptured by their music. If this verse is sincerely recitedover them, it will drive awaythe devilsand neutralize their illusions. It will also disrupt satanicvisions and devil-aided, supernaturalfeats performed by humans."432

431 9, 492, 530. .5aAh al-Bukhaff, vol. p. no. 432 Majmo' al-Fatjwj, vol. 19, p. 55.

129 Sarah al-Bi!qarah

Another meansrecommended for repellingthe devil is reading the second chapterof the Qufti, Sarah a]-BJqarah(the Cow). Aba Hurayrah quoted the Prophet(4) as saying,"Do not makeyour houseslike graveyardS.433 Verily, the devil flees from a housein which Sarahal-Baqarah is read."434According to the prophetic traditions,the last two versesof this chapter alsohave special merit for exorcism. ProphetMuýammad (4) wasreported by an-Nu'manibn Bashirto havesaid, "When the last two versesof Sarah al-Baqarahare read in a homefor threeconsecutive nights,the devil will not comenearit. Of 435

Basmalah436

Also reported to have preventiveand curative propertiesis the basmalah. This is written before each chapter of the Quran, excludingthe 9th chapter, and is also found in verse 30 verse of chapter27 (Sarah an-Wam]). Abu al-Malib's father quoted the Prophet (4) as saying, "Do not say,May Satanbe degraded,'for surely, he will grow until he becomesthe size of a houseand he will say,By my power, I wiH possess him.' Say instead, 'BismillO ['In the nameof AllW]. If you do that, he will shrink until he becomesthe size of a fly. 11437

433 The Qur'An may not be recited in graveyards.Thus, a homein which the Qur'anis not readresembles a graveyardin that respect.

434 Collected by at-Tirmidh! and Muslim (,YaAh MusIhn, vol. 1, p. 337, no. 1707).

435 Collectedby at-Tirmidhi and Ibn Ijibban andauthenticated by al-Albw in 123, .YaMb al-J&nP M-&ghir, vol. 2, p. no. 436 This is the verbal noun meaningto saythe phrase,"BJsmi11jhir-Raýminir- R*m" ("In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent,the Most Merciful"). SeeArabic- EnglishLexicon, vol. 1, p. 206.

437 Collected by Aba Dawad, an-Nasi'l and Mmad andauthenticated by al-

130 'Uthman ibn Abulal-'A§ ath-Thaqafireported that whenhe complainedto the Messengerof Allah (4) about a pain which he felt in his bodyfrom the time he acceptedIslam, the Prophet(4) said,"Place your handat the placewhere you feel the pain in your body and say, 'BismillW three times. Thensay seven times, Wadhu billih! waqudratiftimin sbat7imaajidu wa uhjdbk. ' [I seekrefuge in Allah andHis powerfrom the evil that I find and(from the evil) that I fear.']"439

Ta'aVVVVUdh439

Seekingrefuge in Allah has been prescribedin some Qur'Anic versesas a meansof wardingoff the devils:

"If Satan touchesyou, seekrefuge in Allah, for verHy, He is the

Hearer and Knower." Qur'An,41: 36

"Say, Wy Lord, I scck refuge in You from the prodding of

Satan, and I seekrefuge in You, my Lord, from their presence."

Qur'An,23: 97

In regardto onewhose face had become red with anger,the Prophet(4) said, "Verily, I know some wordswhich would causehis angerto subsideif he saidthem. He should say, A'qdbu bRJMin2inasb-sbayj&ik-rqftm.' ['I seekrefuge in Allah from Satan,the cursed.']"440 Beforethe recitationof the openingchapter of the Qur'an in formal prayer, the Prophet (4t) usedto say, Wadbu billAhiminash-sbaylinir-rajim n2in bamzLIffwa na&ft&i wanafat&& " CI seekrefuge in Allah from the touch,pride

Alban! inYaAb al-ADni'as-,yaghir, vol. 2, p. 1234, no. 7401.

438 Muslim, 3, 1198-1199. -YaAb vol. pp. 439 To seekrefuge in Allah.

440 Narrated by Sulaymanibn ýard and collectedby al-Bukhm andMuslim ($aAh Musbýn,vol. 4, p. 1377, no. 6317).

131 andpoetry of Satan,the cursed.")441

Among the most powerful Qur'Anic formulas for seekingrefuge are the last two chaptersof the Qur'An,collectively referred to asthe mu'awwIdbatin. According to theProphet (4), thesetwo chapterswere specifically revealed to breakthe magical spell which hadbeen placed upon him. 442 The Prophet's wife, 'Aishah, alsoreported that wheneverany of the -membersof the householdfell ill, Allws Messenger usedto blOW443overthem by recitingthe muWwjdbatjn. 444

Adhan and Lqa:xnah445

Both callsto prayerhave been defined by the Prophet(4) ashaving the ability to drive away the devils. Aba Hurayrahreported AUWs Messenger (4) as saying, "When the adhin is made,Satan runs away and breaks wind to drown it out. Whenit is finished,he returns. But whenthe ! q&nahis proclaimed,he turnsback again and runs away. When it is finished,he returns to distract a man [praying], saying, 'Remembersuch and such; remembersuch and such, ' referring to somethingthe man did not haveon his mind. As a result,he forgetshow muchhe hasprayed. "446 Suhayl

44 1Collected by Abil Dawad (Sunan Aba Djwvd, vol. 1, p. 196, no. 763) and authenticatedby al-Albw in Ima'al-ObaYI, no. 342. 442 ýWb a]-BukhAff, vol. 7, pp. 443-444, no. 660 and $agh Muslim, vol. 3, pp. 1192-1193,no. 5428.

443 The Arabictenn usedhere is nafath,which refers to the act of blowingwith a spitting sound producedby placing the tip of the tonguebetween the fiPsprior to blowing. The actual term for blowing is nafakband for light spittingis tafal. See Ambic-EngfisbLexicon, vol. 2, p. 2819.

444 VWb Musibr, vol. 3, p. 1195, no. 5439.

445The adhin is the general call to prayer recited at the beginning of the time period for each prayer, and the jq&nah is the prayer call proclaimed when the congregationalprayer is about to begin. 446 Sahjh BI.Bukh&i, vol. 1, p. 336, no. 582 and.,9Wh Muslim, vol. 1, p. 211, no. 756.

132 reportedthat his fathersent him to the Ijanthah clanalong with someone.On the way there, a voice from an enclosurecalled him by his name.When the personwith him looked into the enclosure,he saw no one. Upon his return,he mentionedit to his father, who said, "Had I known that you would havemet sucha situation,I would never have sent you. But wheneveryou hearsuch a call, pronouncethe adhin, for I have heard Abu Hurayrah say that he heard Allah'sMessenger say, 'Whenever the adbin is given,Satan runs away vehemently! "447

It was also the practice of the Prophet (4) to recite the adbanin the ears of children at the time of their birth. AN! Rdfi' said,"I sawAllah's Messenger (4) call the adUn in the earof [his grandson],a]-Ijasan ibn 'Aft, whenFalimah gave birth to him."449 This was to neutralizeor reduce the effectof the devil'sinfluence on the newborn. Accordingto ProphetMulýammad (4), all newbornchildren are touched by the Devil. He was reported by Aba Hurayrahto havesaid, "Satan pricks with his finger every newborn child of Adanfs descendants.They all beginscrean-dng from Satan'sjab, exceptMary andher son[Jesus]. "449

Pmphr,Li ic 1ý[ayers

The Prophet(4) taughta numberof prayersfor a varietyof occasions.Some cure illnessescaused by the finn and others ward them off The following area selectionof them:

TlsmiUabi yubifka wa mm kulli d.Vin yasbfika wa mm sbam hisidin jdhi Pasad45O

447 ýagb Muslim, vol. 1, p. 211, no. 755. 448 Collected by Ab(kDamid (Sunan AW Djwvd, vol. 3, p. 1415, no. 5086) and at-Tinnidhi and authenticated by al-Albaffi in&Ah Sunanat-Tim! ", vol. 2, p. 93, no. 1224.

449 $Wb al-Bukbm, vol. 4, p. 324, no. 506. 45OThe phrase,"waniinsbanit&idinidbitasad, " is the last verse of the 113th

133 wa sbani Icu]Hdbi'ayn. " ("In the nameof Allah, may He make you well and may He cure you from every ill, from the evil of the jealous when they envy, and from the harm of the evil eye.11)451

Tismill, ahi arqjka mm kulli shayk yu'dbika nun sbaz7l kulli naftin aw 'aynin

PAsidin. A1Muyasbfz'ka. Bismillihiarq& "("In the name of Allah I exorcise you from everything which harms you, from the evil of every soul or jealous eye. May

Allah cure you. In the name of Allah I exorcise yoU.11)452

'A'adbu b! kalhnjdJMjt-t&=ali min kulli sh,?Yijnin wa b&=adn wa n2inkuM

aynk lkmab. seek refuge with the perfect words of Allah from every devil,

")453 poisonouspest and every harmful evil eye.

Wb-hibil-ba'sa rabban-nis! wasbfj- antasb-sbVl-jashl&'a illa shifa`uka shifj'an ]a yughidirubu saqama." ("Remove the suffering, 0 Lord of mankind, and heal it perfectly, as You are the true healer. There is no cure except Your cure -a cure which is not followed by sickness.")454

chapter,the first of the two chaptersknown as the mu'aw%idhatAn- 451 The Prophet's wife, 'A'ishah, reported that Angel Gabriel used to exorcise the Prophet (4) with thesewords wheneverhe complainedof illness. YaMhMuslim, vol. 3, p. 1192, no. 5424. 452 Abu Sa'Id reported that Angel Gabriel cameto the Prophet (4) and asked him, "Mubammad, have you fallen ill? " He replied, "Yes," and Gabriel said the above- mentionedprayer. YaAb Muslim, vol. 3, p. 1192, no. 5425. 453 Ibn 'Abbas reported that the Prophet (4) used to seekrefuge with Allah for his grandsons,al-Ijasan and al-Ijusayn, saying, "Your forefather, [i. e., Abraham], used to seek refuge in Allah for Ishmaeland Isaac by reciting, Wadbu bi kalimatillihi... ' &Mh al-BukhW, vol. 4, pp. 385-386, no. 590. 454 'Aishah, the wife of the Prophet, reported that whenever someoneamong them fell ill,, AllaWsMessenger (4) used to wipe him with his right hand and then say the aforementionedprayer. &Ah MusIhn, vol. 3, p. 1194, no. 5432.

134 "Whoever says, Zj llffba illaflAb wahdahO14 sbaffka Jah, lahul-mulku wa Mul-pamdu wa buwa 'all Iculli sbayin qadfT' ['There is no god but Allah who is alone without partner. The dominion and praise are His, and He is able to do all things! ] one hundred times per day will have a reward similar to freeing ten slaves, one hundred good deeds will be recorded for him, and one hundred of his sins erased. And he win have a charm against Satan for the whole day until the night. No one can do better than that except one who does it more often. "455

"If one of you goes to his wife and says, Allabumma jandbnasb-sbaypna wa jannibisb-sbagina ma razaqtmP['O All* keep Satanaway from me and keep Satan away from what (offspring) You have bestowed upon me. ] and they have a child,

Satanwill not harm him or gain control over him." 456

"If a manenters his houseand remembers Allah while enteringand while eating,Satan says [to his companions],7here is no placeto passthe night andno dinner.' But if he enterswithout rememberingAllah while entering,Satan says, 'You havecaught a place to pass the night.' And if he doesnot mentionAllalfs namebefore eating, he says, 'You havecaught both a placefor the night anddinner. '"457

&cm (b) Medicines

The Prophet(4: ) prescribedcertain natural medicines for sicknessesassociated with thefirm.

455 Narrated by AbO Hurayrah andcollected by al-Bukhariand Muslim ($aAh Muslhp, vol. 4, p. 1415,no. 6508).

456 Reported by Ibn 'Abbasand collected by al-BukhM (&Ah al-Bukhm, vol. 1, p. 105,no. 143and vol. 7, p. 74, no. 94) andMuslim.

457 Narratedby Jabiribn 'Abdullahand collected by Muslim, Aba Dawad (Sunan Aba Diwad, vol. 3, p. 1063,no. 3756)and Ibn Majah.

135 Dates

For protection against magic or for its treatment, the Prophet (4) recommendedthe eatingof datesin the morning. Sa'dquoted the Messengerof Aflah (4) as saying, "Whoevertakes seven[Ma"te]459 'ajWah459datesin the morning, neither magic nor poison will hurt him that day." 460

Thiffles

The Prophet (4) was reportedto have said,"Truffles are a form of manna [mann]and their wateris a curefor the eye."461

Bath

In cases of suffering from the evil eye the Prophet (4) recommendedtaking a bath with water used by the source of the evil eye. Ibn 'Abbas quoted AHWs

Messenger (4) as saying, "The effect of the evil eye is real, for if there were anything which could overtake destiny, it would havebeen [the effect ofl the evil eye. So if you are asked to take a bath [as a cure] for the evil eye, doit. " 462'A'ishah also said that the Prophet (4) used to instruct the possessor of the evil eye to perform ablution

(wuVa') and then for the one suffering to bathe from its water.463

458 What appears in brackets was mentionedin Muslims narration. See 540 MusAin, vol. 3, p. 1129, no. 5080.

459 The best kind of Madinitedates coming from the U-nahpalm-tree. (Ambic- EnglishLexicon, vol. 2, pp. 1968-1969). 460 Sa&h al-Bukh&f vol. 7, p. 446, no. 664 and,ýakh Muslim, vol. 3, p. 1129, no. 5081. 461 Reported by Sa'Id ibn Zayd in YaAh al-Bukhm, vol. 7, p. 409, no. 609. 462 YaAh Muslim, vol. 3, p. 1192, no. 5427. 463 Collected by Abil Dawad (SunanAba Djwvd, vol. 3, p. 1088, no. 3 87 1) and authenticatedby al-Ama'at inkt-Tibb an-Naba", p. 163, ftn. 1.

136 Fowith Ste Beadw ,w- -

If the above-mentionedthree stepsfail to bring the desiredresults, the exorcist may then resort to striking the possessedindividual in order to inflict pain on the possessingspirit and to elicit a response to commands,prayers or recitations. Ibn

Tayn-ýiyyahspoke on this subject,saying, "... Curing a possessedperson and removal of the Jmn may require that the afflicted individual be beatenseveral times. However, the blows fall upon the jh2n and the possessedhuman does not feel them. When a demented person regainshis sensesafter a beating,he often informs those presentthat he did not feel anything, and that they [i. e., the blows] did not have any effect on his body. Even when someare struck over three or four hundredtimes with severeblows on their feet, the effects of which would normally kill a man, only the jh2n feel it. The finn will scream and yell and inform those present about many things. We have ourselves experiencedsuch casesin the presenceof crowds on so many occasionsthat it would take a long time to describethem all."464

Ibn Taymiyyah'sstudent, Ibn al-Qayyim,described an exorcismperformed by his mentor in which he struck the patient. He said, "Often the shaykb[i. e., Ibn Taymiyyah)would recitein the earof the insane,Afa fiasibtumarmam! 'aba&an wa annakwn Bayn.! 11 turja'Cw.,rDo you imaginethat We createdyou in jest and that you will not returnto Us?'1465 He told methat on oneoccasion he read this verse in a madmaWsear and the possessingspirit repliedin a drawn-outvoice, 'Yeeeeeees.' So he took a stick andbeat the manon the veinsof his neckuntil Ibn Taymiyyah!s arm becamefatigued from hitting him andthose present were surethat that man was dead from the beating. Duringthe beatingthe fiWff cried out, 'I love him.' The shaykbsaid,! He doesnot love you.' It said,'I want to makePqywith him.'

464 Ibn Taymecyahý Essay on the Ann, p. 93.

465 Qur',ki, 23: 115.

137 He replied, He does not want to make PqYwith you.' It said, 'I will leave him in your honor.' He replied; No2' do so in obedience to Allah and His Messenger! It said,

'Then I will leave him.' The madmansat up,,looked left and right and said, 'Why did I come to the honorable sbaykhT Those present saidto him, What about all of the beating you have receivedT He asked,Why would the shaykb beat me when I have not committed any sinT He was not at all awarethat he had beenbeaten. " 466

The practice of beatingwas attributedto ProphetMulýammad (4) in a narrationrelated by Umm Aban from her father,al-Wazi', that her grandfather,az- Zari' ibn 'Amir al-'Abdi, went to Allah's Messenger(4) with his son(or nephew) who was insane. She reported that hergrandfather said, "When we reachedAllah's Messenger(4), 1 said, 'I have a son [or nephew]with mewho is insane.I have broughthim to you so that you maypray to Allah on his behalf' He said,Bring him to me.' So I went to get him from the groupof riding animals[among which I hadleft him]. I took off his travelingclothes and dressed him in his good clothes.I thentook him by the handback to the Messengerof Allah (4*). He said,Mring him closerto me and turn his backto me.' He thengrabbed the boy'sgarment and began to beathim on his back so vigorously that I saw the whitenessof his [i. e., the Prophets]armpits. While doing so, he said,'Get out enemyof Allah! Enemyof All* get outt' The boy then beganto gaze in a healthymanner quite different from his earliergaze. Allah's Messenger(4*) then sat him downdirectly in front of him, calledfor somewater for him and wiped his face. Thenhe prayedfor him. After the Messengerof Allah had prayedfor him, therewas no onein the delegationbetter than hiM. "467

466 Z§dal-Ma'jd, vol. 4, pp. 67-69.

467 Collected by Mmad and Abu Dawad al-Tayalagi.

138 Chapter Three

MODERN MUSLIM EXORCISTS

The main purposeof this chapteris to investigatethe currenttrends in the practiceof exorcismamong Muslims in orderto determinethe degreewhich they have either adheredto or strayedfrom propheticguidelines. The secondarypurpose is to compareMuslim exorcist traditionwith that of Christiantradition. SinceChristianity can be an exampleof exorcisttradition among other nations and religious systems, an Islamic rationaleis necessaryto explainthe apparentsuccess of practitionerswhose theologyIslam considers false.

METHODOLOGY

A field researchwas undertakenin order to gathera samplingof ideasand methodsused by Muslim exorcistsfrom various segmentsof the Islamic world.

Approximatelythree exorcistsfrom each country - Egypt, SaudiArabia, Bahrain, ,India andTrinidad -were interviewed.All of thesemen claimed to treat the possessedaccording to the Qur'Anand the Sunnah.Additionally, data was obtained from an unpublishedM. A. (Psychology)thesis on the techniquesof Muslim exorcists in Sudan.469

PROCEDURE

The interviewswere conductedusing a questionnairewhich had been prepared beforehand. The questionsdealt with biodata, experienceand training, theological conceptsand practical observations. These interviewswere taped, transcribed and translatedinto English when necessary,and are compiledin appendixtwo of this thesis. Included within this appendixis the dataextracted from the M. A. thesison

468 Abdel Rahim Elmahi Elnour, Fagara Techniques of Mental Healing (University of Khartoum, Faculty of Arts, Department of Psychology,March, 1987).

139 Sudaneseexorcists.

The informationfrom theseinterviews was subsequentlyplaced in tablesto facilitate analysis of the data and to develop a profile of the modem Muslim exorcist.

The results are followed by a discussionin which modem practicesare comparedand contrastedwith thoseof earlyMuslims.

Lastly, a brief history of and the theories behind exorcism in Christianity

(RomanCatholicism in particular)are combined with modemChristian concepts and analyses.Furthermore, they are discussedin the light of Islamic beliefs and practices.

140 QUESTIONNAIRE: EXORCISTS

NAME: DATE OF BIRTH:

PLACE OF BIRTH: NATIONALITY:

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND:

1. Whenand why did you beginto practiceexorcism? 2. Whatpercentage of thecasesyou meetare actual possession? 3. Identifythe mainsigns of realpossession. 4. Fromyour own experience,what arethe mainreasons why peopleare possessed? 5. Whatpercentage of your casesof possessionare women? 6. Do male finn possesshuman malesand females and vice-versa? If so, what are the percentages? 7. Is it only disbelievingfinn which possesshumans? If not, identify the percentages.

8. Have you treated casesof peoplewho are possessedby more than onefinni at a time?

9. Is possessiona swift or a slow process(taking months or years)?

10. Do thefinn speakin the voiceof the possessedperson or in anothervoice? 11. Have you ever experienced the finn speakingin languagesother than that of the possessedperson?

12. Which part of the humanbody do finn enterand leave by, andin what part do -theydwell? 13. Do the possessingfinn havenames or titles that theygo by? 14. During ,do the possessingfinn try to possessyou? If so, how do you avoidit? 15. After you began practicing exorcism,have any of your family membersbeen affected? 16. Describethe stepsinvolved in a typicalexorcism. 17. Doestreatment usually involve more than one session? 18. Describethree of your most distinctcases of exorcismin detailwhich you have performed,mentioning names, ages, dates and backgrounds of patients(whenever possible).

141 RESULTS

Length Reason for Real Female Number Country Age Education469 of of Practice Beginning Cases CaMS470 Jinn

EGYPT A 41 university 9 study 50% >75% multi B 73 university 40 accident >75% 70% multi C 47 diploma 10 accident <50% 95% multi

SAUDI A 29 university 2 study not all 55% multi B - university 3 accident not all >75% multi C 28 primary (S) 5 months accident 80% multi D 55 non-formal 30 accident >75% multi

PAKISTAN A 35 secondary(S) 17 study 70% one B 68 university 20 study few >70% one C 36 university 18 study 85% one

INDIA A 62 secondary 33 inherited 10% one B 69 university 50 inherited 20% 40% multi C 71 university 33 study 8% 70% multi

TRINIDAD A university >10 inspired not all 70% multi B 42 secondary 2 study >75% multi

BABRAIN 52 university 33 study >75% one

SUDAN 52 non-fomml 21 inherited not all

469 By "education"is meant "formal Islamic education." Seculareducation is indicatedby (S) afterthe level.

470 The maj ority or mostly is representedby >75%.

142 RESULTS

Kifir Male Jinn Voice Foreign Names Attack Country Enter/Exit Cases Human F/M Change Language /Titles Exorcist

EGYPT A usual both usual rare any yes no B both both at times often orifices no C both usual at times yes son

SAUDI A both 90% 40% - feet no B both both at times - feet yes C usual both rare - big toe yes D both both - orifices no

PAKISTAN A both 95% 20% rare any yes yes B rare both rare rare any yes son C both both at times

MIA A usual both usual at times yes no B both both rare rare any C usual usual rare rare mouth/nose yes no

TRINIDAD A both both at times at times orifices yes no B both both usual

BAHRAIN both usual at times pores son

SUDAN

143 COUNTRY SIGNS OF POSSESSION

EGYPT A uneasiness;unintelligible speech;convulsions, preternatural knowledge B preternatural strength; swift mood shifts; recurring nightmares; insomnia; depression; n-tigraine headaches; inexplicable loss of faculties of speech, hearing or sight; paralysis; epileptic convulsions C reaction to Qur'inic recitation; untreatable,continual vaginal bleeding; loss of speech; nightmares; feelings of suffocation; infertility; regularly spending - unusually long time on toilet; anesthesiato pain

SAUDI A reaction to oil rubbed or water drunk over which Qur'An has been read; reaction to Qur'Anic recitation; preternatural strength; depression;headaches; nightmares; movement within the body; bad odors; hypochondria; inexplicable loss of faculties B suffocation; reaction to Qur'inic recitation; unusual movements;unconscious talking; nightmares; a stateof immobility when going to sleep; mood shifts; love of seclusion; dislike for filthy things and places; extreme depression; epileptic fits; partial paralysis; preternatural knowledge; spontaneousfires C uneasiness;going to toilet often; strangesmile; weird laugh; laughing without reason; unnatural movements;reaction to Qur'Anic recitation; constriction of chest; severeheadaches; hearing sounds;foul odor D unusual way of walking; reaction to Qur'Anic recitation; epileptic convulsions; whispering

PAKISTAN A erratic actions;plain wateror sugarover which Qur'Anis readtastes bitter, if cotton cloth changesin length; preternaturalstrength; reaction to Qur'Anic recitation;fits; contortionof face B particular eye movements;shoulder pains; uneasiness;unnatural actions; shouting;facial expression C bilious complexion; red eyes;unintelligible speech;excessive laughter, animalistic behavior-,dislike for artificial lights; reaction to Qur'Anic recitation(Samb a]-JizW); preternatural strength

144 COUNTRY SIGNS OF POSSESSION

INDIA A prayer of choice performed during three consecutivenights diagnosis shown in dream; weight on shoulders;palms smell foul; unusual behavior-,ability to speakdifferent languages;spontaneous fires B Darad Sharif and a]-Rtipab recited seventimes, blow once in patient's left palm then patient makes a fist, Sibab an-NjS recited three times and blow over patienfs fist, if palm smells fishy, patient possessed;The numerical value of patienfs mother's name addedto the numerical value of the day (in Persian) and divided by four. If the remainder is one, it means fijul- possession. CA piece of the patient's clothing is removedand measured,Qur'lin is then recited over it and the patient asked to wear it. It is then taken off and remeasured, and if it decreasedin length the person is possessed;Something is written in black ink on a piece of clay and put in fire. If the letters tum white or red, the person is possessed;preternatural strength

TPJNIDAD A eye movements;reaction to Qur'Anic recitation; preternatural knowledge; loss of faculties; unnatural swelling of affectedlimbs; suicidal tendencies B uneasiness;nightmares; fim3-rape; fits; uncontrolled, violent movement

BAHRAIN unnatural movements; falling-, unintelligible speech; reaction to Qur'Anic recitation

SUDAN speaking in loud voice; quick speech;incoherent speech; uncoordinated movementof limbs; staringin odddirections

145 COUNTRY REASONS FOR POSSESSION

EGYPT A retaliation for harming the fiw, no fortifying prayers; walking about house naked;fijup- B retaliation for harming the fiw, extreme fear; extreme anger; extreme jealousy; fina-love; human devotion to lust c retaliation for harming the Jmr. human error, no fonif)ing prayers; iffeligiousness; fian-love

SAUDI A retaliation for harming the fiw, jb2n-love;magic; evil eye; mischief; irreligiousness B retaliation for harmingthe fiw, magic;mischief; jh2n-love; sleeping alone in desertedplaces; traveling alone; extreme fear-, excessive merry-making C retaliation for harming the fiw, iffeligiousness;abuse of parents;extreme fear D retaliationfor harmingthe fiw, evil eye;magic; n-dschief

PAKISTAN A retaliationfor harmingthe finn or their property;fizukove; mischief B mischief;retaliation; jh2u-lust C retaliationfor harmingthe finn or their property;mischief; jLwp-lovc

INDIA A unknown B retaliationfor ham-dngthe fiw, jAur-lust c retaliationfor harmingthe fing, fizup-lust;n-dschief

TPJNIDAD A fizup-love;retaliation for harmingthe fiw, devil worship;magic B fina-love; mischief; envy; greed

BAHRAIN fijw-love; retaliationfor harmingthe fi=, mischief

SUDAN retaliationfor hanningthe finn

146 COUNTRY METHOD OF EXORCISM

EGYPT A Qur'Anicrecitation; crushed lotus leavesin waterand Qurjin readover it: drinkingand bathing;beating; communication with fim andconunand , to leave B Qur'Anic recitation;calling adbin in right earand iqAwah in the left; Qur'An read over water and olive oil: water drunk and oil rubbed;beating; communicationwith finn: commandto leave C Qur'Inic recitation; communication with finn and command to leave; calling adbin

SAUDI A Qur'Anic recitation; grasping the neck; beating; Qur'An read over olive oil and water: oil rubbed and water drunk; string tied around fingers and toes; beating; communication with fiw, command to leave B Qur'Inic recitation; grasping the throat; communication with filul, bound with an oath to leave C Qur'! knic recitation; blowing; grasping the neck; Qur'An read over olive oil or water: oil rubbed and water drunk; rarely beating; string tied around fingers and toes; communication with fiw, bind with an oath to leave; command to leave D Qur'Anic recitation; Qur'fLn read over rose water, communicate with fiW, bind with oath to leave; slapping

PAKISTAN A scentedoil poured on cotton and Qur'An read over it and givento smell; Qur'Anic versesrecited in the patientsear, blow in car, shakingthe patient;a lock of hair from the foreheadof femalepatients wrapped around cxorcisfs finger; beating; amuletswith Qur'Inic versestied aroundarm; Qur'Anread over water and drunk; nails overwhich Qur'Anicverses read hammered in four comers of house;communicate with fizu4 scoldand commandto leave; incantationbefore lighting lamps and blow overlamps causes finn to leave patient,enter lamp andbe consumed B Qur'iLn recited over water anddrunk; Qur'Anrecited over oil andpoured in patient's cars; knot tied in patient'shair to imprisonthe fiW, communicate with fiw, bind with oathto leave C tic patient; Qur'An recited; amulet put around patient'sneck or right arm; bum charm and inhale the smoke;communicate with fim and commandor pcm-dtit to leave

147 COUNTRY METHOD OF EXORCISM

INDIA A patient recites Qui'An; Qur'An recited over water: drunk and bathed with; tic patient down; talismans made of lines, numerology and knowledge of names; charms written in saffron ink on plate, washedwith milk and drunk B Qur'in recited over patient; blowing; amulet with Qur'Anic verses given; communicate with fiw, a lock of hair grabbedto arrest the fiW, knot tied in patient's hair, prayers C Qur'An recited over water and drunk; amulet worn around neck for seven days

TRINIDAD A Qur'An recited over water and drunk; Qur'An recited and blown In face; supplications; communicatewith the jbzn and command it to leave B Qur'An recited over water and drunk; mustard oil put in patient's right palm and Qur'An recited over the patient and blowing; tie lock of hair, mustard oil placed in patients car and sealed;pinch nostrils closed and hold palm with mustard oil in front of mouth; massageand presspatient's limbs to determine location of fiw, communicatewith fiw, drive jAw upward to head and hair, cut off tied lock of hair, beating

BAHRAIN patient faces Makkah and line drawn in front of him and another drawn around him along with supplications; Qur'Anic verses are recited; light beating; communicatewith finn and command it to leave

SUDAN touch aching part of body with hand; QurAnic versesrecited; blowing at point of pain; adn-dnisteredonly at sunriseor sunset;Qur'Anic verses written on tablet or bowl and washedwith water:solution drunk and rubbedover body; Qur'Anic versesor their numericalvalue written on paperand burned, patient inhales fumes; amulet of Qur'Anic verseshung on ankle,waist or neck;beating-, fast from meat,milk and dairy products

148 PROFILE OF THE 20TH CENTURY MUSLIM EXORCIST

BACKGROUND

The contemporaryMuslim exorcist is about 50 years old, likely to have memorizedthe whole Qur'an during childhood,and a university graduatehaving specializedin oneof the Islamicdisciplines. He hasprobably been practicing exorcism for about20 years,although this is not his mainjobbut somethinghe doesin his spare time due to his reputation.If he is from India or Sudan,knowledge of exorcismwas probablypassed on to him from his father. But, if he is from elsewhere,particular circumstanceshave probably drawn him into the field, inspiring him to make a thoroughstudy of exorcismbefore undertaking treatment of others.

CASES

Not all casesbrought in for treatmentare real casesof demonicpossession. In most countries the seemingfrequency of real casescan only be due to the inclusion of other types of illnesses(psychological or biological) seenfor treatment by an exorcist.

Or it could be due to the exorcist'shigh rate of cure. Only in India and Pakistan is the percentage of real cases extremely low. The vast majority of patients are women possessed by a singlejmm-or a group offinn. The possessingentity may be a male or a femalejhW, a Muslim or non-Muslim.

IGNS OF POSSESSI

According to the experienceof most Muslim exorcists,the signs of possession

471 areasfolloWS:

471 The format used here is one developedby JohnRichards in his book, But Doliver Usfrom Evil, p. 156.

149 (A) Changeof Personality

(i) Rapid mood shifts; uncontrolled laughter or crying (ii) Depression

(iii) Prefers solitude (B) P-hiysicalChanges

Preternaturalstrength

(ii) Epileptiform convulsions

(iii) Catatonic symptoms;falling

(iv) Clouding of consciousness;anesthesia to pain

(v) Changedvoice

(vi) Psychosomaticpains, especiallymigraine headaches

(vii) Loss of certain faculties (C) Mental Changes

(i) Glossolalia;understanding unknown languages (ii) Preternaturalknowledge

(iii) Recurrentnightmares; insomnia (D) Spiritual Changes

(i) Strongreaction to Qur'Anicrecitation or the adbin (ii) An adversereaction when touched by oil on whichthe Qur'Anhas been read, or when bathedin water over which Qur'Anhas been read, or whenwater overwhich Qur'anhas been read is drunk. (iii) Abandomnentof religiouspractices

Muslim exorcists from the subcontinent,especially those from India, diagnose their patientsby ratherunusual means, most of which seemto borderon the magicalor supernatural.Most of themdo cite someof the above-mentionedsigns, but they seem to preferto rely on other "mysterious"methods to verify possession.

ISO REASONS FOR POSSESSION

ContemporaryMuslim exorcists have identified four mainreasons for demonic possessionof humans:

(1) Retaliation harming the - This occurs when humansinadvertently -for _Ann harm the finn and are therefore possessedby them out of revenge. In this

circumstancethe possessingspirit may be either male or female.

(2) ArY24ove or lust -Under somecircumstances, ajhwmay possessa human being becauseof "carnal" love. In such casesthe sexof thefin&will be differentfrom that of the human.

(3) Mischie - The evil disbelievingfinn or corruptMuslim firm maypossess a humanbeing due to their pervertedlove of sin.

(4) Magic - Demonic possessionmay be a result of bewitchment causedby jealousy,hatred, etc. on the part of otherhumans.

In the view of Muslim exorcists,the peoplemost likely to be possessedare those who areirreligious and those who becomespiritually weakened by enteringinto statesof extremefear andanger. Also opento attackare those who do not practice the meansof protection prescribedby the Prophet (4).

METHOD OF EXORCISM

The methodof exorcismdeveloped by modemMuslim exorcistsoutside of the

Indian subcontinentand Sudanis free from the use -of talismans,amulets and numerology,and may be summarizedin the following steps:

(1) Qur'anic versesare read over the patient, punctuated,by blowing on the patientor on the part of the bodywhich ailshim. Qur'anic versesmay be recitedover water and given to the patientto drink. Olive oil over which the Qur'anhas been read may be rubbedon the aching limbs.

151 (3) Once communicationis establishedwith the possessingspirit, informationis sought concerningits nameand its reasonfor possessingthe patient.

(4) Through admonition, scolding and/or persuasion,the jhwI or group offinn

arethen encouraged to leave. (5) If the possessingjbw refuses to leave through encouragement,it is then

tortured by furtherQur'Anic recitation. It is commandedto leaveand to take an oathnot to return.

(6) Beating may be resorted to in order to inflict pain on the possessingentity

only when the human personality is not conscious. This is used in conjunctionwith commandsto theftwl to leave. (7) Water over whichthe Qur'Anhas been recited is usedfor drinking,and olive oil over which the Qur'Anhas been recited is usedfor rubbingon the aching partsof the body.

ADDITIONAL TECHNIQUES472

(1) The patientmay be madeunconscious by depressinghis jugular veinsin order to force the jhmito exposeitself

(2) A forelock of the patient'shair maybe wrappedaround the exorcistsfinger or tied in orderto arrestthe fim. (3) Thread may be tied aroundeach of the patient'sfingers and toes in orderto trap thejbw within the patient. (4) Amulets containingQur'anic versesmay be either worn by the patientor burnedand the fumesinhaled. (5) The adhin may be called in the patient'spresence.

(6) Inscriptionsfrom numerologyand other occult sciencesmaybe contained within charmswhich are worn or such inscriptionsmay be written then washedand the resultingsolution imbibed.

472 Theseare methods used by two or moreof the exorcistsinterviewed.

152 POSSESSION AND EXORCISM IN CHRISTIANITY

DEFINITION

The English term "exorcism" is derived from the Greek word, "cxoTkizo," meaning to bind with an oath or to adjure, and it denotesthe expulsion of malevolent spirits from possessedpersons, objects and places.473 In its proper and technical sense, exorcism refers to a ceremony used by the Christian church to expel demonsfrom personswho have come under the demotfs power.474

Exorcism is also described in the Exeter report, which states,"... In Christian usage the verb to exorcize applies strictly only to demons. It is possibleto speak loosely about exorcizing personsor places,but what is meantis the exorcizing of the demonic forces of evil in those personsor places. Exorcism is an exerciseof exousia. it binds. This be to humans And in commands and ...must never applied as such. dealing with places it is well to exorcize over the place,in order to releaseit from the domination that be there. Christian is the binding of any evil powers may ... exorcism of evil powers by the triumph of Christ Jesus,through the application of the power demonstratedby that triumph, in and by his Church H475

John Richards,who was secretaryof the Bishopof Exeter'sStudy Group on Exorcism for nine years andhelped to bring out its valuablereport'476explamed that "...Christian expulsionof demonshas nothing to do with enteringinto anyrelationship them, the term [Christian The or pact with as exorcism] suggests. ... avoidanceof any

473 Vergilius Ferm ed., Encyclopaedia of Religion (Connecticut, U. S.A.: GreenwoodPress, 1976), p. 268.

474 Encyclopaedia B.Htannica '(U. S.A.: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., 1967), vol. 8, p. 972.

475 Dom Robart Petitpierre O. S.B., Exorcism (London: SPCY.,1972), p. 16.

476 Morris Maddocks, The Qhstian Heahng Ministry (London: SPCK, 1981), p. 128.

153 sort of pact or agreement between minister and spirits is sound and essential...

Christian exorcism may be either a petition to God, as in the Lord's Prayer and [as in the meansused within] the tradition of the EasternChurches; or a commandaddressed to the demoniacbut to the demon(s) 10477 not ...

DEVILS, DEMONS AND FALLEN ANGELS

Devils are frequentlymentioned in literature about possession. The term denotes'non-human, wicked spirits, usually fallen angelsof God. When the expression

"the devil" is used, it refers to one of the leadersof the fallen angels,often called

Satan, Beelzebubor . Usually, lesser,non-human spirits are not namedbut are simply referred to as "devils" or "demons." In general,the latter word has evolved to signify "evil spirits" and also can include the spirits of wicked, incarnate human beings.478

The term "demon" is derived from the Greekword daimon(pl. daimones), which meansa "supernaturalbeing" or "spirit." Although it has commonlybeen associatedwith an evil or malevolentspirit, the term originallymeant a spiritualbeing that influenceda person'scharacter. 479 The 8th centuryB. C. E. Greekpoet, Hesiod, in his accountof the Four Ages,explains that afterdeath those of the goldenage became daimones(Works andDays,109 ff. ). Theywere described as kindly guardiansof men and distributorsof propertyand wealth, but theywere wrapped in darknessso asto be invisible while they wanderedover every regionof the earth. So long asthey were treated with respect,they were expectedto show favor. Evil spirits were also

477 John Richards, But Deliver Us from Evil (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1974), pp. 160-161.

478 Adam Crabtree, Multiple Man (Toronto: Grafton Books, p.b. ed., 1989), p. 135.

479 The Now EncyclopaediaBiitannlca, vol. 17, p. 409.

154 conceivedas ghostsof heroes. They were consideredincapable of conferring blessings yet were powerful enough to work ill. Someevil demonsspecifically represented those attached to eachhuman being from birth until death. Others were perceivedas avenging 'demons and were the instrumentsappointed to punishthose who committed the crimesfrom a particular farnfly. They bore the specialtitle of ".AJastor. "490

In pre-exilic, Hebrew literature, demonswere believed to bejLW. -like beings. For example, in Isaiah (34:14) referenceis madeto se'irim, i.e., "hairy ones" (translatedin the RevisedStandard Version of the Holy Bible as "satyrs"),which were demonicbeings inhabitingruins and desertwastes. After the Exile, referenceto the origin of demonsis found in Genesis6: 24, whereinthey arerepresented as fallen angelS.491 The hierarchyof demonsin Judaismis quitevaried. It is rootedin ancient Middle Eastern and Zoroastriandemonology after the post-exilicperiod (after 538

BQ. The of evil forceS482wascalled by Merent, names- Satan (the Antagonist), (the spirit of perversion,darkness and destruction), (Enmity or Opposition)and others. Althoughthe Old Testamentrefers to Satanas the prosecutorof God'scelestial court (Zech.3; Job 1-2),he wasalso considered the head of a hierarchyof demonsor other of evil. This ideawas developedwithin Testamentliterature and later Judaism.

Christianityinherited Old Testamentdemonology, and leading figures like

ThomasAquinas (d. 1274) endorsedthe traditional view that demonswere fallen in angels- fallen from their original statethrough pride and envy. Theyabide both

480 James Hastings, ed., EncyclopaediaofReligion andEthics (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 4th ed., 1959), vol. 4, pp. 590-593.

481 S.G. F. Brandon, A Dictionary of Comparative Religion (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2nd ed., 1971), pp. 230-23 1.

482 Forces of evil are known in Hebrew as "," meaning"demons. " This term applied to foreign gods who were often believedto inflict humanity with various physical, psychologicaland spiritual disorders.

155 Hell (where they are tormentedand damned)and in the air (where theytrouble men).483 Developedlater was the conceptof a hierarchyof demons,based upon various sources including Jewish, Zoroastrian,Gnosticism, and the indigenous religionsthat succumbedto Christianmissionizing. In the New TestamentJesus speaksof Beelzebubas the chiefof demonsand equates him with Satan.During the EuropeanMiddle Agesand the Reformationperiod, various demonic hierarchies were developed,such as the one associatedwith the sevendeadly sins: Lucifer (price), Mammon (avarice), Asmodeus (lechery), Satan (anger),Beelzebub (gluttony),

Leviathan(envy), and Belphegor (sloth). 484

ORIGIN: OLD TESTAMENT AND APOCRYPHA

There is little direct reference to possessionand exorcismin the Old Testament. King Solomon,who is identifiedas having great knowledge and wisdom, was describedas a skilled exorcistonly by the first-centuryJewish historian, Flavius Josephus. Writing in his monumentalAntiquities ofthe Jews,Josephus stated that Solomon!s gifts were so varied that "God alsoenabled him to learnthat skill which expelsdemons, which is a scienceuseful and healingto men." Accordingto this historian,King Solomon "left behind him the mannerof usingexorcisms, by which they drive away demons,so that theynever return and this methodof cureis of great forceto this day."

Josephusalso cited severalpeople who weredemoniacal in the presenceof the Roman emperor, Vespasian(rule 70-79), his sons, his captains,and the whole multitude of soldiers. An exorcistnamed Eleazar took a root mentionedby Solomon and attachedit to a ring. Thenholding this to the nostrilsof the possessedperson,

483 A Dictionxy of ComparativeReligion, p. 23 1.

484 TbeNewEncycicpaedla Bfitandca, vol. 4, p. 7.

156 drew out the demon through this person's nostrils. Eleazar, seeing the man fall to the ground, warned the demon not to return to the man again, while at the same time mentioning Solomon and reciting the incantation which he composed.493 Rabbi

Johanan ben Zakkai, a contemporary of Josephus, once prescribed the following technique to expel demons: "Take roots of herbs, bum them under him [i. e., the possessed person], and surround him with water, whereupon the spirit will flee. "

(Pesik. dRK 40W486

The only allusion in the Old Testament to an evil spirit which actually took possessionof a man and tormented his mind is found in the story of (I Sam.

16:14-16; 18:10 and 19:9). The shepherdboy, David, drove away the evil spirit from

King Saul by playing his lyre.487 In the Book of Tobias"11there is the story of Sarah, whose seven,successive husbands were eachkilled by a demonon their wedding night.

When Tobit and Sarah prayedto God for deliverance,the angel,, instructed

Tobit (6: 7,16-17; 8:3) to ban the evil spirit from the marriagechamber by making a

485 See Andq. VIII. ii. 5 (Selby Vernon McCasland,By the Finger of God [New York: Macmillan, 1957], p. 79, ff. 16) and Martin Ebon, Exorcism Past and Present (London: Cassell& Co. Ltd., 1975), pp. 8-9. 486 Emory Stevens Bucke, ed., The Intcrprctcrý EVcdonaty of Lhe Bible (Nashville: Abingdon PressNew York), p. 199.

487 Ibid.

488 An apocryphal work (non-canonicalfor Jews and Protestants)that found its way into the Roman Catholic canon via the Septuagint. This is a religious folktale primarily concerned with the problem of reconciling evil in the world with divine justice. Tobit and the daughter of his nearest relative, Sarah, are pious Jews unaccountably afflicted by malevolent forces, but their faith is finally rewarded, and God is vindicated as both just and omnipotent. Historical inaccuracies,archaisms and confused geographical references indicate that the book was not actually written at Nineveh in the early 7th century B. C. but possiblyat during the reign (175- 164 B. C.) Antiochus IV Epiphanesof Syria. (TbeNewEnq YclopaediaBdtaanica, of , vol. 11, p. 813.)

157 fire and then placing on the embers the heart and liver of a fish. "And TobiaS499 rememberedthe words of Raphael and took the liver of the fish and the heart out of the bag which he had, and put them on the ashesof the incense. And the smell of the fish baffled the demon, [Asmodeus],490 and he ran away into the upper parts of Egypt "491 JubileeS492(10: 10-14) the Jewishlegend ... preserves that all of the secret herbs which were used to control demonswere given to Noah by an angel and that he passed the information down to his eldest son, Shem. Jubilees(69: 14-15) relatesthat the archangel,Michael, revealeda hidden namewhich was to be enunciatedin an oath, together with other secrets, for protection against demonS.493 In Palestine the secretariesof Qumran recorded in the GenesisApoc7ypbon494the tale of Abraham

489 The son of Tobit.

490 By the Finger of God, p. 77.

491 Tobit 8: 1-3.

492 The Book of Jubilees,also called "Little Genesis"(not included in any canon of scripture), is most notable for its chronological schemaby which eventsdescribed in Genesis through Exodus 12 are dated by jubilees of 49 years, each of which is composed of sevencycles of sevenyears. In its final form, Jubileeswas likely written about 100 B. C., although it incorporatesmuch older mythological traditions. Several fragments of the original, Hebrew edition of Jubilm were found in the Qumran library. However, it is preservedin its entirety only in an Ethiopian translation which was derived from a Greek translation made from the Hebrew. (Tbe Now EncyclopaediaBiftannica, vol. 6, p. 635.) 493 By the Finger of God, p. 102.

494 A pseudepigraphal work (not acceptedin any canon of scripture) which was one of the most important works of the Essenecommunity of Jews, part of whose library was discovered in 1947 in caves at Qumrannear the Dead Seain Palestine. The contents of the scroll, the last of sevenscrolls discoveredin Cave 1, comprise four major sections: the story of Lamech,the story of Noah, the table of the Peoples,and the story of Abraham. It is a good exampleof Essenebiblical exegesisand shows striking similarities to the pseudepigraphalBook ofJubflees. Becausethe scroll also contains material related to that found in First Book of Enocb, the Genesis Apoqypbon was possibly the sourceof both Jubileesand I Eno& It was written in Aramaic and datesfrom either the Ist century B. C. or C.E. (TbeNewEncyciopaedla Bjitannica, vol. 5, p. 177.)

158 exorcising the Pharaohin Egypt. "I prayed for him... and I laid handson his head; and the scourge departed from him, and the evil spirit was expelledand he lived." 495The

Jewish theory about exorcism may be gatheredfrom the TestamentofRuben (3: 2) among the Testamentsof the Twelve Patfiarcbs.496 It statedthat the spirit of deceit sends seven other spirits upon a man: lust, gluttony, anger,flattery, pride, lying and graspingat injustice.497

NEW TESTAMENT

In the narratives of demonicpossession within theNew Testament,Jesus and his disciplescommanded evil spiritsto departand never again to afflict their victims. To the demon in the Capernaumsynagogue, Jesus said, "Hold your peaceand come out of himl" (Mark 1:25) At Gerasa,Jesus said; "Come forth you uncleanspirit, out of the man!" (Mark 5:8) His wordsto a demonwhich afflicted an epilepticboy were, "You dumb and deafspirit, I commandyou, comeout of him andenter no moreinto him!" (Mark 9:25) Jesuscast out sevendemons from Mary Magdalene(Luke 8:2) and his disciplesexorcised on many occasions(Mark 6:13; Acts 5: 16; 8:7; 19:12). According to Mark (6:7) whenJesus sent his twelvedisciples forth on their milssion,

495 Dom Robart Petitpierre 0. S.B., ed., ExorcArn (London: SPCK, 1972), p. 11

496 A pseudepigraphalwork (not in anybiblical canon) purporting to presentthe last words of the 12 sonsof -founders of the twelvetribes of Israel. It contains lengthymoral exhortations based upon the supposedsin or virtue of eachpatriarch. In its extantform, the book is a Jewishwork, probablyof the late 2nd centuryC. E., with Christianinterpolations. The work is extant in severalGreek manuscriptsand in Armenianand Slavic translations. The Testamentsare connectedhistorically and ideologicallywith the Essenesect at Qumranand their DeadSea Scrolls, among which fragmentsof the testamentsof Levi (in Aramaic) and Naphtali (in Hebrew)were found. (TbeNewEnqvc1qpaedja Bfitannica, vol. 12,p. 78.) . 497 Exorcism (London: SPCK, 1972), p. 11.

159 the power over demonswas their only specificduty or power which he gave them.499

However, the disciples sometimesfailed in their exorcismsduring the time of Jesus

(Mark 9: 18). They felt that the power which they had over demonscame from Jesus, and they expressly acknowledgedhis authority. On this point, Luke (10: 17) testifies,

"And the seventyreturned with joy, saying,Iord, eventhe demonsare subjectunto us in Your name."' The exorcismsrecorded in the Acts of the Apostlesare done in the nameof Jesus. An example of this is the soothsayingmaid at Philippiexorcised by Paul (Acts 16:16 f.). To the demonthat possessedher, Paul said (16: 18), "1 charge you in the name of JesusChrist to come out of her." Anotherexample is In the attemptto exorcise by the sevensons of Scevaat Ephesus,who appliedJesus' name, saying,"I adjureyou by Jesuswhom Paul preaches. " (Acts 19:13) However,they not only failed to cast out the demonbut were themselvesalso severely beaten by the possessedman (Acts 19:14).

It seemsfrom the evidenceof theNew Testamentthat the essentialelement within the techniquesof earlyChristian exorcists was to adjurethe demonto departin the name of Jesus. At the sametime, there is evidenceeven in Mark (9:29) that this simple procedureexpanded early. When the disciplesasked Jesuswhy they were unableto cast out the demonfi7om the epilepticboy, he replied,"This kind cancome out by nothingexpect prayer. " To this passagein Mark manyancient manuscripts add "and fasting." This shows that long ago, fasting and prayer were regardedas necessarypreparations for the exorcistto performhis work.

DEVELOPMENT: SECOND CENTURY

The procedureof exorcisingin the nameof Jesusis alsocharacteristic second century Christians. Exorcism was familiar to them. Justin499gives much attention to 0

498 Seealso Matthew 10:1 andLuke 9:1. 499 Justin (c. 100-165),bom in Nabulus [Israeli-occupiedJordan], was one of the

160 this "... devils by phenomenonusing such expressionsas, the ...are overthrown men through the name of JesusChrist..., "500 and "... every demon, when exorcised in the nameof this very Sonof God...is overcomeand subdued. "501 Tertullian502 writes that "...the authorityand power we haveover them is in our namingthe nameof Christ." 503 And OrigenSO4states, "... It is not by incantationsthat Christiansseem to prevail[over

most important Greek philosopher-Apologistsin the early Christian Church. A pagan raised in a Jewish environment, Justin studied Stoic, Platonic and other pagan philosophies and then became a Christian in 132 at Ephesus. At first, he wandered from place to place proclaiming his newfound religion. Then he spent considerable time in Rome where he was denouncedas a subversiveand condemnedto death. The authentic works of Justin are two, Apologles and Dialogue with Trypho. JustiWs concrete description of the sacramentalcelebrations of Baptism and the remain a principal source for the history of the primitive church. (The New Enq,y, cIqpaedja Biftannica, vol. 6, p. 663.) 500 SecondApology viii, quoted in By the Finger of Crodp. 105, ff. 28. 501 Mlogue bcxxv,quoted in By the Finger of God, p. 105, ff 29.

502 Quintus Septimus Florens Tertullianus(c. 155/160-after220), born in Carthage[now in Tunisia],was an importantearly Christian theologian, polemicist and moralist. As the initiator of ecclesiasticalLatin, hewas instrumental in shapingthe vocabularyand thought of WesternChristianity. His parents werepagan, and he becameexposed to Christianteachings during his studiesin Rome. Sometimebefore 210, Tertulfian left the orthodoxchurch tojoin a newprophetic, sectarian movement known as Montanism,which had spreadfrom AsiaMnor to Africa. He later broke with them and founded his own sect. This group existeduntil the 5th centuryin Affica. He was a prolific writer. Amonghis works areApologeticum (Defense), in defenseof the faith; Adversus Marclonern,against heresy; Do Resunralone Ounis (ConcemingResunralon of the Flesb); Do Baptismo,the first Christianbook on baptism;and Do anima(Conceming the SM), dealingwith the Christiandoctrine of man. (The New EncyclopaediaBViannica, vol. 11,pp. 652-653.) 503 Apology xxiii, quoted in By the Finger of Cwd,P. 106, ff. 32.

504 Oregenes Adamantius (c. 185-254), born in Alexandria, the , was most important theologian and biblical scholarof the early Greek church. His greatestwork is the Hexapla, which is a synopsis of six versionsof the Old Testament. Origen's exegetical writings consists of commentaries(scholarly expositions for instructed Christians), homilies for n-dxed congregations and scholia (detached commentson particular passagesor books). He also wrote Do AincipEs, an ordered statementof Christian doctrine on an ambitious scale; and Contra Celswn, a vindication of Christianity against pagan attack. In his lifetime he was often attacked, suspectedof

161 evil spirits], but by the name of Jesus,accompanied by the announcementof the narrativeswhich relate to him; for the repetitionof thesehas frequently been the means of driving demonsout of men,especially when those who repeatedthem did so in a soundand genuinely believing spirit... " 505

THIRD AND FOURTH CENTURIES

The developmentof numerousritualistic andsacramental acts in connection with exorcismoccurred within the third andfourth centuries.The passagein Mark 9:22, to whichreference has already been made, shows that the tendencyfor ritualism beganeven in the first century. Origen's referenceto readingthe narrativesabout Jesusin connectionwith exorcismshows this expansion. Also, the sacramental developmentis clearly evident in the belief that, althoughdemons may deceive the Christianexorcist and defy his spokenwork, the watersof baptismexert a powerfrom which the devilsflee in terror. This ideais clearlyexpressed in the following words of Cyprian:506

adulteratingthe Gospel with pagan philosophy.After his death,opposition steadily mounted. In the 6th century, JustinianI issueda long edictdenouncing Origen and those who supportedsome of his views. The chiefaccusations against his teachings are the following: making the Son inferiorto the Father,thus being a precursorof Arianism; spiritualizingaway the resurrectionof the body,and denying Hell. (The NewEncyclopaediaBiitandcq, vol. 8, pp. 997-999.) 505 Against CelsusI. A. Cf I. xivi; 111.=dfl, quoted in By the Finger of God, p. 106, ff. 33.

506 Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus (c. 200-258), born in Carthage,was an early Christian theologian and bishop of Carthage who led the Christiansof North Africa during a period of persecution from Rome. Upon his execution,he becamethe first bishop-martyr of Africa. He was born of wealthy, paganparents and was educatedin law. Before his conversion to Christianity in 246, he practiced as a lawyer in Carthage. His major writing was a treatise, On the Unity of the Catholic Cburrh, in which he promoted the central idea of the unity and uniquenessof the church, stating, "He no longer has God for his Father who does not have the Church for his mother." (772cNe w EncyclopaediaBiftannica, vol. 3, pp. 826-827.)

162 "But if any one is moved by this, that someof thosewho are baptized in

sickness are still tempted by unclean spirits, let him know that the

obstinate wickedness of the devil prevails evenup to the savingwater,

but that in baptismit losesall the poison of its wickedness... And this is

also done in the presentday, in that the devil is scourged,and burned,

and tortured by exorcists, by humanvoice, and by divine power; and

although he often says that he is going out and will leave the men of

God, yet, in that which he says he deceives... When however, they

come to the water of salvationand to the sanctificationof baptism we

ought to know and to trust that there the devil is beatendown, and the

man, dedicatedto God, is set free by divine mercy."507

The earliest descriptionsof exorcismsin relation to Christian baptism are those of Rome in the early third century, preserved in the Aposto& Tradition of

I-Eppolytus.508 Candidateswere exorcisedby their sponsorsat the end of eachweekly instruction by their teacher and immediately before baptismby the bishop.509 This practice was mentioned at the Council of Carthage in 255.510 Thus, the ancient

507 Epistle LXXXV. xv, quoted in By TheFinger of Crod,p. 106, ff 34. 508 Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170-235), a Christian martyr and the first antipope (217-235), was a controversialtheologian who was the first Roman priest to produce a theologico-philosophical work on dogma. He was a leader of the Roman Church during the pontificate (c. 199-217) of St. Zephyrinus. His most monumentalwork is considered to be PhIlosopbumena(Refutation of All Herales), which seeksto show that all Christian heresiesare traceableto false paganphilosophies. The church order Apostolic Tradition is now generally attributed to him and illuminates liturgical practice around 217. (TbeNewEnq.-ycIq paedia Biltannica, vol. 5, p. 940.) 509 Michael Perry, Deliverance.- Psychic Disturbancesand Occult Involvement (Plymouth, G.B.: SPCK, Latimer Trend & Co. Ltd. ), p. 110. See also Exorcism (London: SPCK, 1972), p. 18. 5 10 J.D. Douglas Gen. ed., The Now Intemationalafctionwy of the OVislian Cburcb (Grand Rapids, Michigan: ZondervanCorporation, 1974), p. 365.

163 liturgical books, which datefrom the third centuryand deal with baptism,disclose the prevailingChristian doctrine about Satan and his interventionin the affairsof man. In the devil's hatred for God, he turned on man, who was madein God'simage. In concurrencewith "original sin" men were no longertemples of the Holy Spirit; but rather, they were now habitationsfor the demon.There is not muchof a distinction betweenthe possessedand the unbaptized.St. Isidoreof Seville"' placedboth classes on the samelevel when he statedthat exorcismis the ceremonyof banishingthe most wickedinfluences of the devil from catechumensand possessed alike. 512

Asceticism became a further device for driving out demons. It was believed

that demonstook possessionof humanbodies in order to enjoy food, indulge in sexual

pleasures or satisfy other cravings. Naturally, therefore, the practice of rigid

asceticism was thought to make the human body unattractiveto demons. It was a

means of driving them out. This belief is expressedwithin the Gamcntinc HoMiliCS513

511 Isidore of Seville (c. 560-636) was a theologian,the last of the Western Latin Fathers, archbishopand an encyclopedist.' His Etymologies, an encyclopediaof human and divine subjects, was for many centuries one of the most important reference books. (The New EncyclopaediaBiitannica, vol. 6, pp. 407408. ) 512 Diabolical PossessionandExorclsm, p. 93 quoting from Rev. Philip Wellees introduction to the modem version of the Roman Ritual. 5 13 Clement I (d. c. end of I st century C.E. ) was the first Apostolic Father, pope from 88-97 and supposed third successorof St. Peter. Bishop St. Irenaeusof Lyon fists him as a contemporaryof the Apostles and a witness of their preaching. Letter to the Cburcb of Cofinth (I Clement) hasbeen traditionally ascribedto him. Still extant, his Letterachieved almost canonicalstatus and was regardedas scripture by many 3rd- and 4th-century Christians. (Tbe New EnqyclopaediaRdtannica, vol. 3, p. 371.) The Second Letter of Mment (11 Clement), which was not a letter but a sermon,was accepted as a genuinework of Clementby some. It was regardedas canonicalin the Codex Alexandrinus (a 5th century manuscript of the Greek Bible) and by the later Syrian Church. The HomMes (preservedin the Greek original) attempt to exalt the position of the Oriental churchesin relation to Rome and were basedupon an earlier work, the Circuits of Peter, attested by Epiphanius. They are important for the information they give on Jewish-Christianheresy in the early centuries of the church. (Tbe Now EnqyclopaedlaBdtannica, vol. 3, p. 3 76.)

164 as follows: "...They enter into the bodies of men,in orderthat, gettingorgans to ministerto them, they may obtain the thingsthat theyArish,whether it be meat,by meansof men'steeth, or sexualpleasures, by meansof mensmembers. Hence, in order to put the demonsto flight, the mostuseful help is abstinence,and fasting, and sufferingaffliction. For if theyenter mens bodies for the sakeof sharingpleasures, it is manifestthat they are put to flight by suffering."514 But this samedocument proceedsto say that some of the more malignantdemons can be expelledonly by "recourseto God by prayer and petitions." Additionally, in otherwritings of this period, Jesushimself is no longer regardedas the solemeans of exorcismnor is he central in the procedure. This new attitudeappears clearly in the following quotes from Lactantius:"... When they [i. e., demons]seize upon the bodiesof menand harass their souls, they are adjuredby them, and at the name of the true God areput to flight..." 515and "...they fear the righteous,that is, worshippersof God, adjuredby whose name they depart from the bodies of the possessed..." 516 Therefore, by the beginningof the fourth century,the chiefmeans of Christianexorcism was no longer simple adjurationin the name of Jesus.The nameof Godhimself had now become central in the procedure,and includedvarious, other complementarytechniques. Ritual, sacrament,prayer and asceticism all assumedplaces of importance.517

There was no separateorder of exorcistsin the EasternChurch, and exorcism againstthe evil eye was performedby "charismatic"lay people(male or female)or monastics. In contrast,the Churchof the Westregularized exorcism by makingthe second office of the minor ordersthat of "exorcist." This officewas first madeofficial

5 14 IX x, quoted in By the Finger of God, p. 107, ff. 35. 515 The Divine Institutes V. xxii, quoted in By the Finger of God, p. 107, ff. 37.

516 Ibid. H. xvi, quoted in By the Finger of God, p. 107, ff. 3 8.

517 By be Finger God, 103-107. of , pp.

165 in the mid-third century and was retainedwithin the Roman until the reforms of the ordinal which took place in the 1960's.518 In Rome in 25 1, Pope

Cornelius retained a team of fifty-two men as exorcists, and they worked in the fourteendivisions of Rome.519

MIDDLE AGES AND REFORMATION

By the Middle Ages, exorcism was part of infant baptism. The service also includedthe exshufflate,the thrice-repeatedbreathing on the faceof the infantwith the accompanyingwords, "Depart from him, thou unclean spirit, andgive placeto the Holy Spirit." 520The mainpurpose of exorcisms,apart from curingthe demoniac,also seemedto have becomea demonstrationof the sanctityof the exorcist. After the Reformationbegan, exorcisms were used by onegroup of Christiansas propaganda againstanother. For example,in Franceexorcisms were utilized by the Catholicsin order to convert, or at least confute,the HuguenotS521and also to confirmthe faith anddevotional practices of the RomanChurch. Catholicexorcisms were designed,not only to demonstratetransubstantiation, but alsoto vindicateother practices and beliefs that were under attack from Protestants.Catholic practices were considered purely magicalsuperstitions, and utilizing relics,holy waterand other blessed objects, the sign of the cross,the powerof names,etc., were criticized. Consequently,the exorcismsof this era were accompaniedby deliberatelyencouraged publicity, both at the time by

5 18 Deliyenwce.- Psycb1cDisturbances and Occult Involvement, p. I 11.

519 Sybil Leek, Eýiving Out the Devds (London: W. H. Allen, 1976), p. 123.

520 J.D. Douglas Gen. ed., The New Intemational Eyctionary of the Qd Sti.an Cburcb, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Corporation, 1974), p. 365.

521 Huguenot areany of the Protestantsin Francein the 16thand 17thcenturies. The origin of the nameis uncertain.(The New EncyclopaediaBfitannica, vol. 6, p. 127.)

166 attracting large audiences and afterwards by publishing printed accounts.522

Sometimes during the public exorcismsin Loudun523there must have been as many as

7,000 spectators. And the exorcisms of Nicole de Vervins (1566) were also great spectacles.Catholics and Protestantscame in crowds from the surrounding districts to the cathedralof Laon, and civil authoritieswere also present.524 There was at this time a great variety of publishedexorcisms from which a priest could choose,but they all followed a similar pattern of adjuring the evil spirit by Almighty God. This diversity can be seen in the practicesof the following saintsfrom the beginningof the Middle

Ages to the end of the fifteenth century. To effect a cure St. Augustine525lay his hands on the possessedand implored God.526 St. Bernard527prayedinwardly, put wine from the chalice [used in the Eucharist] on his fingers and applied it to the

522 D. P. Walker, Unclean spidis: possession and exorcism in France and England in Me late sixteenth and early seventeenthcenturies (London: Scolar Press, 1981), p. 4. 523 A great seventeenth-centuryepidemic of possessiontook place at Loudun and several of the exorcists taking part were themselvesinfected. LVKstoim des diables de Loudun, Amsterdam, 1716, quoted in Possessionand Exorcism, pp. 50 and 92. 524 Possessionand Exorcism, p. 103.

525 Augustine of Hppo (3 54-430) was the bishop of I-Eppoin Roman Affica [what is now Algeria] and the major Christian theologian of the Western Church. Although his mother was a devout Christian, during his studies of philosophy he converted to Manichaeismand later went on to Neoplatonismbefore being converted to Christianity in 386. I-Usbest known works are Confessions,the story of his restless youth and his conversion;and The Oty of God, which espouseda religious philosophy of predestination. (The NewEncyclopaedja BViannica, vol. 1, p. 700.)

526 Acta Sanctomm, Augusti, vol. vi, p. 439 (August 28), quoted in Possession andExorclsm, p. 177. 527 Bernard de Clairvaux (1090-1153), a Cistercianmonk and mystic, was the founder and abbot of the abbeyof Clairvaux and one of the most influential churchmen of his time. Among his works are Ihises ofthe Virgin Mother on Mariology, and his greatest literary endeavor, Sermons on the Canticle of Canticies. (The Now EncyclopaediaBiAannica, vol. 2, pp. 144-145.)

167 possessedperson's lips. He allowed somedrops of wine to fall onto the person'sbody in one of his exorciSMS.528 In anotherhe madethe sign of the cross with the sacred

Host (bread usedin the Eucharist), read the Lord's prayer and commandedthe demon to leave, saying, "By the terrible power of His majestyI commandthee, evil spirit, to come out of His servant and dare to touch her no more thereafter." 529 On one

occasion, St. FranciS530was reported to have cured a possessedperson by praying,

signing the possessedperson with the cross and blessinghim. 531 On another occasion,

he addressed the demon directly and ordered it to leave, saying, "In' virtue of

obedienceI bid thee to go out of her, thou uncleanSpiritl"532 In one exorcism St.

Norbert533commanded the unclean spirit to depart. Then he instructed that the

possessedwoman be plunged into exorcisedwater and he had her hair cut. He then

fasted for a day and night, read severalpassages from the Gospelsover her head and

attacked the demon by prayer until it fled.534 It was reported that St. Francis of

528 Acta Sanctonim, Augusti, vol. iv, p. 281 (August 20), quoted in Possession andExorcism, p. 178.

529 Ibid., p. 282, quoted in PossessionandExorrism, pp. 179-180.

530 Francis of Assisi, original name, Francescodi Pietro di Bernardone (1181- 1226), was the founder of the Franciscanorders of men and women and a leader of the church reform movements of the early 13th century. His fraternal charity, consecrationto poverty and dynamicleadership drew thousandsof followers and made him one of the most veneratedreligious figures. He is (along with Catherineof Siena) the principal patron saint of Italy. (Tbe Now Encyclopiedia Biitannlca, vol. 4, pp. 926-927.)

531 Thomas of Celano, The Lives of St. Francis ofAssisi (London, 1908), First Life, part i, chap. xxv, p. 66, quoted in PossessionandExorcimn, p. 181.

532 Ibid., p. 69, quoted in PossessionandExorrivn, p. 182.

533 Norbert of Xanten (1080-1134) was the archbishop of Magdeburg and founder of the Premonstratensians(Norbertines or White Canons),a congregation of priests. (TbeNewEncyclopaedja Biitannica, vol. 8, p. 757.)

534 Joseph von Gorres, Die chfistficbe Mystik (Regensburg:,1842), vol. iv, part i, p. 332, from the Acta Sanctorum,June 6, c. viii, p. 834, quoted in Possessionand Exorcism, pp. 182-183.

168 Paola535exorcised by adjuring the spirit and commandingit to leave the body of the possessedwhich it did after numerous,lengthy discussions.536

The growth of exorcism finally came to an end at the time of the Counter-

Reformation. This was due, in part, to the publication of the Rituale Romanum (Tbe

Roman Ritu4 in 1614 at the repeatedrequest of Pope Paul V. 537However, this was not the only text written on the subject during this era. In 1626, Maximilian van

Eynatten produced his 1,232-page Manuale Exorcismor=539 in which he covered every eventuality,each one with. an appropriaterite, ranging from a conjuration against the "antique serpent," noxious pests, the evil spirits that wreck matrimony, and any demon causingvexation in a house.539 Preparation of the Ritual and the Manual were essential because this period of time preceding and accompanyingthe witchcraft persecutions had been one of doctrinal confusion. Rules were evolving, but haphazardly. A French, priest, Grosbal, recorded on April 6,160 1, that he was beginning an exorcism casebut the proceedingshad not beencompleted by September

10. Other priests, including travelers from Limoges and Savoy,tried to help. One

pilgrim from Spain sought to questionthe demonin Spanish,but was not understood.

535 Francis of Paola (1416-1507) was the founder of the Minim Friars, a severely ascetic Roman Catholic order that does charitablework and refrains from eating meat, eggs or dairy products. Francis was namedpatron of Italian seamenin 1943 by Pope Pius XII becausemany of the miraclesattributed to him were related to the sea. (Tbe NewEncyclopaedia Biitannica, vol. 4, p. 927.) 536A cta Sanctomm, Aprili s, vol. i, p. 144, cited in Possessionand Exorcism, pp. 184-185.

537 Traugott I. Oesterreich, Possessionand Exorcism (New York: Causeway Books, 1974), p. 101. 538 The 1947 New York edition of the Rituak Romanwn reproducedverbatim the text as written by Maximilian van Eynatten together with an introduction by Francis Cardinal Spellman. (EViving Out LheDevils, p. 127.) 539 Sybil Leek, Ddving Out the Devils (London: W. H. Allen, 1976), p. 127. Seealso PossessionandExorcism, P. 102.

169 Two visitors from Scotlandaddressed him in Gaelic and othersin Breton. It was useless. Grosbal concludedreluctantly that conceivablyit was not a caseof demonic possession.540

SURVEY OF CHRISTIAN EXORCISTS

The precedinginformation answers the first questionof the surveyused while interviewing the Muslim exorcists: " 1. When and why did you begin to practice exorcism?" The Roman Ritual, the ExewRepon and other studiesmade by Christian researcherswill be usedto answerthe remainingquestions.

2. Whatpercentage of the casesare actual possession?

Father Ugo Saroglia,72, who retired in 1984 after almost ten years as a Turin exorcist, told the newspaperConiere Delia Sera that only aboutten percentof the caseshe was involved in dealt with "authenticpossession. The otherswho came... were simply afflicted by nervousor psychiatricdisturbances. "541 In hisItbook, Exorcising Devils,Dom RobartPetitpierre said that possessionin which an individual is "controlled" by a demonis "extremelyrare, estimated at no morethan one percent of all the cases comingforward. "542However, Canon John D. Pearce-Higgins,who treated about 3,000 casesin England duringan eighteen-monthperiod in 1971and 1972,found that five percentwere genuine cases of possession.543

3. Identifythe mainsigns of realpossession.

540 Exorcism Past and Present,p. 89.

541 The Sunday Star, November 24,1985, HS.

542 Dom Robart Petitpieffe O.S. B., Exorcising Devils (London: Robert Hale, 1976), p. 37.

543 Exordsin Past andlýrscnt, p. 20 1.

170 (A) Changeof Personality

(i) Resulting in change of intelligence, character, demeanor and

appearance

(B) PhnysicalChanges

(i) Preternaturalstrength (ii) Epileptiformconvulsions; foaming (iii) Catatonicsymptoms; falling (iV) Cloudingof consciousness;anesthesia to pain (V) Changedvoice (vi) There will be physicalsigns suchas a biliouscomplexion, wasting of. the body andpsychosomatic pains, all unassociatedwith anyparticular illness;an evil or frighteningexpression will becomehabitual. 544

(C) MentalChan=

(i) Glossolalia;understanding unknown languages (ii) Preternaturalknowledge

(iii) Psychicand occult powers, e. g., clairvoyance,telepathy and prediction (The theologicaltheory behind these symptomsis the doctrine that devils, being fallen angels,retain their angelicintelligence; their minds areimmeasurably quicker and more experiencedthan those of men, and their knowledgetherefore enormouslygreater. )545

(D) SpiritualChanges

(i) Reactionto andfear of Christ;causing blasphemy, etc. (ii) Affectedby prayer546

544 Symptom number 6 hasbeen taken from Deliverance: Psychic Msturbances and Occult Involvement, p. 86.

545 Unclean Spirits, p. 13.

546 But Dclivcr Us from Evil, p- 156.

171 (iii) Horror and revulsionof sacredthings, at hearing scripture,being touchedby relics,the host,holy wateror otherblessed objectS547

4. How can a distinctionbe made betweendemonic possession and bodily and/or mentalills?

One of the few piecesof diagnosticwriting relating to this subjectis an essay by Dr. Lechler.548 It includesthe following five points:

a. Although the possessedperson may be restlessand even driven into a rageat times,he still remainssane in his thoughts,whereas one with mentalproblems doesnot. b. The mental patient will speakin extravaganttones of demonswhich he allegesto be living insideof him. However,the possessedperson avoids all mentionof demonsas long asno oneapproaches him on a spirituallevel. c. The voices which a mental patient claims originate from strangepeople are

usually of a pathologicalnature. The satanicvoices heard by a possessed person are of a completelydifferent nature. If the voicesare demonicin origin, they will attempt to lure the personaway from God, whereasif they are the result of some mental abnormality,they will speakabout unnatural andnonsensical things. d. Schizophrenicswho continuallytalk about being possessedare deluding themselves. On the contrary,a personwho is reallypossessed will neverlet the idea of possessionenter his head, even if there is no other logical explanationfor his condition. e. A person who blasphemeswithout the slightestremorse is mostlikely to be

547 Unclem Spirits, p. 12.

5481n "Part Il" of Kurt KocWsOccult Bondage and Deliverance (Grand Rapids, Michigan: KregelPublishing House).

172 possessed. The mental depressivewill lament the fact that he thinks such things and will try not to expressthem. 549

5. What are the main reasonswhy people and placesare possessed?

Peopleand placesare possesseddue to the following:

a. Accident, e.g., heredity, place, occult experience and healing, occult transferenceand curses

b. Invitation -knowingly, e.g., devil subscription

c. Invitation -unknowingly, e.g., mediums550

Possessionis not as common as the media likes to portray. It cannotjust

"happen" unwittingly. Man cannot catch demonsas he catchesthe common cold. He

has to put himself at risk and in a vulnerableposition. The greatestrisk is that of

straightforward invitation. This can occur knowingly by becoming a memberof a voodoo, witchcraft, magic or Satanistgroup; by "do it yourself" magic experiments,or

by the deliberate invitation extended from a despairing soul. It can take place unknowingly by fhnge occultism of various kinds, such as the OuiJaboard, planchette,

or other "sessions" like seancesin which the operator exposeshimself to possible

invasion by some external spirit. Although rare, there may be cases when the

invitation is very indirect in which the victim may be an empty soul with no particular

faith to withstand stray, spiritual influencesof a malign kind. This is one who has put

himself in a position of dangerwithout realizing the dangerin which he stands. Also,

possessionmay sometimes occur through some kind of occult transferencefrom a

Satanist group or witch coven, by cursing, or perhapsgenetically, through long family

occult traditions.551

549 But Deliver Us fTom Evil, pp. 158-159.

550 Ibid., p. 157. 551 Deliver-WC0.7PsYchic DisturbWCOS Jwd Occult Involvement, pp. 82-83.

173 Places,such as churches,houses, towns and the countryside,may be strained and influencedby a varietyof causes- frequentlyby morethan one at a time. Among thesecauses may be the following:

1. Souls of the departed(ghosts proper) - Most often of those who have recentlydied

2. Magicians- They'claimto be ableto instigateand operate "haunts, " andthis canbe in somemeasure substantiated.

3. Human sin - Human sin opensthe door for other forces to enter. For example,a house or site used for sexualmisbehavior. The office of an organizationdevoted to greedor dominationcan also often incur troubleor act as a dispersalcenter.

4. Place memories - Theseaccount for somenine-tenths of what are popularly called"haunts. " Theyare impersonal traces of personalaction and seem to be caused either by habitual actions or by actions accompaniedby violent emotion. 5. Poltergeist and the accompaMdnizapparitions- levitations and other

phenomena- These remain a mystery. Thereis the possibilityof psychic action similar to table-turningor perhapsplanchette. This maybe dueto some uncontrolled subconsciousof a humanin the house,to the interference of magicians,or even perhapsto some form of non-human,mischievous sprite.

6. Demonic interference- This is commonon desecratedsites such as ruined sanctuaries,and in connectionwith seances.This kind of activity andthat of magicians frequently revivifies ancient,pagan sites, thereby causinga general

senseof "buzz"or strainwhich canbe disturbing,but rarelydangerous.

There are, therefore, at least three quite different types of forces which may

174 possibly be operating at any given place: those which are purely human (1,2 and 3); thosewhich are impersonal(4 and perhaps5) and those which are demonic (6). 552

6. What percentageof casesare women?

So far as age is concerned,the first appearanceof possessionis not connected with any given time of life. But in regard to sex, possessionoccurs predominantlyin women. Out of thirteen casesrelated by Kerner (Nachdcbt, etc.), somewhich were observed by him, there were only two men. These numbers are essentially in agreementwith percentagesderived from other sources, except that perhaps the number of males is slightly more. The epidemicsof possessionhave almost always affected convents of nuns or correspondingestablishments. However, men are only occasionallyaffected in similar communities.553

7. Do only male spirits possesswomen?

Traugott said, "...The femininevoice is transformedinto a bassone, for in 0 the casesof possessionwhich it hashitherto been my lot to know the new individuality was a man.Of On the otherhand, Adam Crabtree cites the caseof AnnaEcklund (b. 1882), who was exorcisedby FatherTheophilus Riesinger, a Capuchinmonk from the communityof St. Anthony at Marathon,Wisconsin, in 1912 and again in 1928. During the exorcism,a possessingfemale demonby the nameof Mina appeared.554 Mr. Crabtreealso cited the caseof the threeday exorcism of KarenKingston (b. 1960) in April, 1974, in which femaledemons by the namesMariana, Jeanne and Elizabeth were expelledfrom her.515 In fact, thereare numerous other cases in which female,

552 Exorcism, pp. 21-22.

553 Possessionand Exorcism, p. 121.

554 Adam Crabtree, Multiple Man: Explorations in PossessionandMultiple Personety (Toronto: Grafton Books, 1989), pp. 138-143.

555 Ibid., pp. 145-148.

175 possessingentities were involved.

8. Can than more one spirit possessa single person?.

Jesus is recorded in Luke. (8:2)'as casting out sevendemons from Mary of

Magdala. When he asked the demon possessingthe man in Gerasenesits name,it replied, "My name is Legion;for we aremany. " And whenhe permittedthem "...the the 11556 uncleanspirits cameout and entered swine... "The Roman Catholic manualsof exorcisminstruct the priest to interrogate the possessingspirit to find out if it has any other companions." 557The German authority,

Kerner, is quoted by Oesterreich as saying,"It often happensthat we recognizein a single individual not merely one demonbut severalat once or in succession..." Most

Pentecostalistliterature on the subjecttreats multiple possessionas the norm.559

In the twelve exorcism sessionsof Karen Kingston, who was mentionedearlier, thirteen demonswere expelled. Eachdemon had a distinctpersonality and a total of eight handwritingsamples were obtainedfrom the demons,each with a very distinct style. 559

9. Are theredifferent kinds of possession?

"...Possession -the dominationby the demonover man's bodily organsand his lower spiritual faculties;or in latertimes a distinctionis madebetween possession and obsession,the latter connotinga lessergrade of demonicdisturbance. " 560

556 Mark 5: 1-13.

557 Roman Ritual, Chapter 1:15, quoted in The Story Behind the Exorcist, p. 219. Seealso Uncleanspidis. possessionand exorcism in France and England, p. 8.

558 But Deliver us from Evil, p. 151.

559 MultipleMan, pp. 148-150.

560 Quoted from the introduction to Rite of Exorcism in the most modem version of the Roman Ritual (English translation by Rev.Philip T. Weller) in Rev.

176 It is generallythought that there is only one state of demonic assaulton human fives, but there is, in fact, a whole rangeof demonicinfluences. Writers on this subject have a vast array of terms for the more ordinary statesof possession.Among Catholic terminology "temptation" and "infestation" are commonly used (L. Cristiani), while among Pentecostalists"oppression" and "obsession" refer to less acute states(H.

Maxwell Whyte). Others use terms suchas "bondage"and "vexed." However, there are a number of people who feel that to be true to the Scripturesone must use

"demonized," as it is a literal translation of Greek terminology. Still others say that three terms may be used: for mild cases,demonic influence; for more serious cases, demonicoppression; and for acute demonicstates, demonic attack. 561

In his book, Ddiverance, Michael Perry divided the spectrum of demonic activityinto four categories:

1. Every Christianknows that he is subjectto temptation 2. Temptationmay becomeso intensethat it hasto be describedas demonic obsession.In this statetemptation and demonic interference increases to such a degreethat normallife beginsto becomeimpossible because of ideasin the mind,a preoccupationwith evil, or a senseof all-pervadingguilt or fear. 3. A further stage may be called in which there is an occult or demonicattack in dreamsor otherwise. 4. Possessionis the mostserious case. In this the person'swill is takenover by an intrudingalien entity. Whenthis happens,the personis incapableof asking for deliveranceon his own behalf It maybe a temporarystate, however, so that the personwhen he is not possessedmay know that he hasbeen, and so

John J. Nicola's Diabolical PossessionandExorclsm (Rockford, Illinois: Tan Books and Publishers,Inc., 1974), p. 92.

561 But Deliver Us from Evil, p. 9 1.

177 will come to a counselorexpressing a wish to be releasedfrom this recurring

condition. If a personis possessedby a demon,it can only be dislodgedby

exorcism.562

In one form of possessionthe possessedperson may be consciousof having been invadedand dominatedby an outside personalitybeyond his control, andthis now dwells within him together with his own spirit. The personat timesspeaks normally and does not lose his senseof identity. But he is awareof the intruder's presence,who maybe vicious,licentious and irrational. This intrudertakes possession of the victinfs speechorgans and of his bodyin general,making. the victim do andsay thingswhich he disapprovesof but is helplessto prevent.While the demonis speaking or performing,the normalself standsby asa helplessspectator. The personis aware of what is goingon, for reasonis not entirelyremoved. This type is sometimescalled lucid possession. In the extremeform of possessionthe abnormalpersonality compl. etely replaces the normal one. He is unawarethat his own spirit appearsto have been completely

routed by the invader, losing consciousnessof his true identity. The victim fully

identifies himself with the demonicego, and his normal self is forgotten. He is like a

sleepwalker, although he does not know that he is asleep. In fact, this strange

phenomenon has been identified as amnesia. But it is distinguishedfrom ordinary

somnambulism or amnesia by the intensity of its emotional and motor

accompaniments.563

Spirit-possession has also been categorized by other writers as either

temporary, intermittent or permanent.564

562 Deliverance: Psychic Disturbancesand Occult Involvement, p. 82. 563 By the Finger of God, PP. IS -19.

564 Ibid., p. 15.

178 10. Do the possessingentities speakin the voice of the possessedperson or in another voice?

One of the signsof true possessionis that the persoWsvoice changesto match that of the invading spirit. Oesterreichreferred to this, saying, "The second characteristicwhich revealschange of personalityis closelyrelated to the first: it is the voice. At the momentwhen the countenancealters, a moreor lesschanged voice issuesfrom the mouthof the personin the fit. The intonationalso corresponds to the characterof the newindividuality manifesting itself in the organismand is conditioned by it. In particular the top register of the voiceis displaced;the femininevoice is transformedinto a bassone... In othercases the timbreof the voiceis not changedto an extremedegree... But the mostimportant particular in which 'the invasionof the organism by a strangeindividuality' is manifested,is the third: the newvoice doesnot speakaccording to the spirit of the normalpersonality but that of the new one. Its 'ego'is the lattees,and is opposedto the characterof the normalindividual. " 563

11. Do spirits speakin languagesunknown to those possessed?

The ability to understand and speak in other languages was previously identified as one of the characteristicsof true possession.Under the heading,"The Signs of Demonicpossession, " Michael Perry wrote, "Whenblessed, or prayedfor, he may fall into a type of trance-statein which he will manifestone of the three characteristicsigns: (i) speakingin a voiceunlike his normalvoice; (ii) in a language, or languages,unknown to him in his normalstate; (iii) he will be ableto conversein that languageand answerquestions if they are put to him. He will be completely unawareof what hashappened when he recoversfTom that state." 566

565 Possessionand Exorcism, pp. 19-21.

566 DeI iverance: PsycbIc Disturbances Occult Involvement, 86. . and p.

179 12. Do the possessingentities havenames which they go by?

In Catholic manuals of exorcism,the priest is told to interrogate the devil and to ask its name. The following passagefrom the Roman Ritual illustrates this point. It "I by states, command you, unclean spirit, whoever you are, ... the mysteriesof the incarnation, passion, resurrection, and ascensionof our Lord Jesus Christ; by the descent of the Holy Spirit; by the coming of our Lord for judgement, that you tell me by some sign your name..."567 Thus, according to Catholic tradition, the devils or spirits have namesor titles.

13. During exorcisms,do possessingspirits try to possessthe exorcists?

The French mystic, Jean-JosephSurin, became a victim in the course of his exorcismsto the great seventeenth-centuryepidemic of possessionat the Ursuline conventat Loudun. He wasalready extremely exhausted by a long andrigorous life of asceticism.569 In spite of all of his torment,Surin escaped with his life. However, Lactanceand Tranquille,two of the otherexorcists involved in the strugglewith the epidemicof Loudun,succumbed to possession.569 Rev. John Nicola stated that the three principal dangersconfronting a priest during exorcism are "physical injury, perhapseven death; mental and spiritual intin-ddation,usually by the revelationof embarrassinginformation through the mouth of the energumen;and transference of the diabolicalpossession to the exorcist." 570

14. Does treatment usually involve more than one session?

567 Peter Travers and Stephanie Reiff, The Story Behind LbeExorcist (New York: Crown Publishers,Inc., 1974), p. 22 1.

568 PossessionandExorcAm, p. 50.

569 Ibid., p. 117.

570 Diabolical Possessionand Exorcism, p. 95.

180 Oesterreichpresented his view, Saying,"... Cures by a singleapplication of exorcismappear to have been rare;exorcisms last asa rule for days,weeks, months and even years."571 Dom Petitpierreexpressed that in the caseof a majorexorcism where "it becomesevident that therehas been an actualattack by a demon-a non- human be longish to in spirit ...there must a time, perhapsup a month, spent examinationand prayer for the personconcemed. "572

IS. Describethe stepsinvolved in a typicalexorcism.

The Roman Ritual

1. The priest first goes to confession. Then he wears a surplice and a violet

stoleand traces the signof the crossover the possessedperson (bound if he is violent), over himself, and thosepresent. He thensprinkles all presentwith holy water, kneels andsays the Litany of the Saints,with all presentmaking the response. 2. The priest then readsPsalm 53 ("God,by your namesave me") followedby specific prayers in which he implores God to give them courage,to strike

terror into the demon and to cast him out of the personby His mighty hand.

He then commandsthe demonand its helpersto reveal its nameand the time

of its departure,to strictly obey him and not to harm the possessedperson or the bystanders.

3. Then the priest reads over the possessedperson one or all of the following

selections from the Gospels: John 1:1- 14, Mark 16:15-18, Luke 10:17-20

and Luke 11:14-22. A prayeris thenmade to JesusChrist seeking pardon from sins,steadfast faith andpower to confrontthe demon. 4. Next the priest makesthe sign of the cross over himself and the one

571 PossessionandExorclsm, p. 103.

572 ExoTclskg IX-vils, p. 158.

181 possessed,places the end of his stole on the latter'sneck, and, putting his right hand on the latter'shead, he saysanother prayer to God the Fatherfor helpthrough Christ. 5. The priest then recitesthe First Exorcism: I castyou out, uncleanspirit, along with every satanicpower of the enemy,every spectrefrom , and all

your fell companions;in the nameof our Lord Jesus[t] Christ. Begone and

stay far from this creatureof God. [t] For it is He who commandsyou, He

who flung you headlongfrom the heights of heaveninto the depths of hell. It

is He who commandsyou, He who once stilled the seaand the wind and the

storm. Hearken, therefore, and tremble in fear, Satan,you enemyof the faith,

you foe of the human race, you begetter of death,you robber of life, you

corrupter of justice, you root of all evil and vice; seducerof men, betrayer of

the nations, instigator of envy, font of avarice,fomenter of discord, author of

pain and sorrow. Why, then, do you standand resist, knowing as you must

that Christ the Lord brings your plansto nothing? Fear I-1im,who in Isaac

was offered in sacrifice, in Joseph sold into bondage,slain as the paschal

lamb, crucified as man, yet triumphed over the powers of hell. (The

following three signs of the cross are traced on the forehead of the

possessed). Begone, then, in the nameof the Father, [t] and of the Son, [t]

and of the Holy [t] Spirit. Give placeto the Holy Spirit by this sign of the

holy [t] cross of our Lord JesusChrist, who lives and reigns with the Father

and the Holy Spirit, forever and ever.

6. Then the priest leads those presentin prayer to God imploring Him to repel

the devil's power, break his snaresand put him to flight, [saying], "By the sign

[t] (on the forehead)of your name,let your servantbe protected in mind and

body. (The following three crossesare traced on the chest of the possessed.)

Keep watch over the inmost recessesof his/her [t] heart; rule over his/her [t] his/her [t] through Christ Lord. " emotions; strengthen will; ... our

182 7. The priest then recitesthe SecondExorcism (I adjureyou, ancient serpent,by

the judge of the living and the dead,by your Creator, by the Creator Of the

whole universe, by Him who hasthe power to consignyou to hell, to depart

forthwith in fear, along with your savageminions, from this servant of God, (name the in the fold the Church ) of person),who seeksrefuge of ... 8. Those present are again led in prayer directed to God of heavenand earth,

God of the angels and the archangelsto deliver the servantfrom unclean

spirits through Christ.

9. The Third Exorcism is then recited by the priest (Therefore, I adjure you

everyunclean spirit, everyspectre from hell, everysatanic power, in the name of Jesus[t] Christof Nazareth,who wasled into the desertafter His baptism by John to vanquishyou in your citadel,to ceaseyour assaultsagainst the creaturewhom He hasformed from the slimeof the earthfor His own honor ) andglory ... 10. The priest repeatsthe above stepsas long as is necessaryuntil the one possessedis freed.573

The Exeter Report The Exorcism and Blessingof a Person

1. All present gather around the patient andjoin in the Lord's Prayer followed

by a reading from John 1:1- 14 and a silent prayer concludedwith: 0 God,

whose nature and property it is ever to have mercy and to forgive, grant that

the chainsof evil binding this personmay, by your mercy, be loosened,and let

no evil power harm any one. Through Jesus Christ your Son our Lord. Amen.

2. The exorcist standsbefore the patient [and] performs the exorcism by saying

a prayer like the following: I commandyou, every evil spirit, in the Name of

573 Roman Ritual, quoted in The Story Behind the Exorcist, pp. 220-227.

183 God the Father Almighty, in the Name of JesusChrist his only son, and in the

Name of the Holy Spirit, that hanning no one you depart from this creature of

God, (name), and return to the place appointedyou, there to remain forever.

3. Then the exorcist exhales deeply or sprinlýlesholy water on the patient and

repeats the exorcismover the patient (who shouldbe firmly held down) if, as

occasionally happens, there are violent physical reactions. It is also

recommendedthat on such occasions the exorcist recite someform of St.

PatriclesBreastplate, such as: _ Christ be with you: Christ within you;

Christ before you: Christ behindyou;

Christ on your right hand: Christ on your left hand;

Christ aboveyou: Christ beneathyou, Christ round about you.

4. The final prayer is then made to God asfollows: 0 God, the creatorand defenderof men, look uponthis your servant(name). Drive backfrom him, 0 Lord, the power of the demonsand banishforever their treacherous deceits. May the wicked tempers flee away. May your servant(name) be fortified in mind andbody by the powerof your Name. Guardhis innerlife, rule his desires,strengthen his purposes.May the powerfultemptations of the enemyvanish from his soul. Grantgrace, 0 Lord, by this invocationof your Name, that the prince of this world, who hasstruck terror until now, may himself flee in terror to his own place. And maythis your servantbe enabledto do your will with a firm heartand undivided mind: throughJesus Christyour Sonour Lord. Amen. 5. If contact with occultismwas involved, the BaptismalPromises are then renewedin anyof the official formsavailable. 6. A final blessingis theninvoked with handslaid on the persotfshead. 574

574 Exorcism, pp. 37-39.

184 Chapter Four

DISCUSSION

In the Muslim world today exorcism has, to a large degree, become the profession of an elite few. However, those practicing it have limited, Islamic education. In most cases in India and to some degree in Sudan,the practice is a closely guardedand inherited secret,handed down from father to son. For people like

Rana MOammad in Pakistan and ad-Dawsari in Saudi Arabia, it is their meansof earning a livelihood. Although there still remainsno officially designatedoffice called

"The Exorcist," certain names and titles (e.g., 'amfl, faqir, -p&, etc.) are now commonly used to identify professional exorcists. Unfortunately, most of the common, Muslim people today erroneouslyattribute the power to expel the firm to the exorcist himself rather than to the mercy of All* which is availableto any believer.

The basic principle of recitingverses from the Qur'anover possessedpeople forms the foundation of Islamic exorcism,past and present. Although Prophet Muýammad (4), like Jesus,was recorded to havecommanded the possessingspirit in those demonicallypossessed to leave, his companionsread Qur'anic verses over possessedindividuals in their treatments. The Prophet (4) personally approved treatmentby Qur'aruc recitation whencases utilizing the Qur'anwere related to him by his companions. Consequently,since the time of Prophet Muýammad(M) exorcismby Qur'aruc recitation becamean indisputablepart of canonical,prophetic tradition (the Sunnah). Communicatingwith the firm also has its foundation in prophetic practice,even though the Prophet(4) wasonly recordedto havesaid, "Get out enemyof Allah, I am the Messengerof Allah." 575He did not hold a two-way conversationwith the possessingspirit but, instead,gave it a firm commandto leave.

575 Collectedby Abmadin al-Musnadand authenticated by al-Arna'al in Ibn al- QayyinfsZjd al-MaW, vol. 4, p. 68, fln. 1.

185 Likewise, commanding the evil spirits to leavewas the recordedpractice of Jesus,but on someoccasions it was recordedthat he also questionedthe possessingspirit (Mark

5: 1-13). The Roman Catholic handbook on exorcism,Roman Rftual, instructs the exorcist to ask the nameof the possessingentity, the number of spirits inhabiting the patient, the cause of their entry, the time when it or they entered,and their intended time of departure.576 However, in the booles introductory directions the priest is also admonishednot to believewhat the possessingdevil says. Furthermore, as a result of the trial of Father Louis Gaufridi, who was convicted of conferring with and being possessedby the devil, a law was passedin 1620 which statedthat the testimony of devils should not be accepted in any court of law. The University of Sorbonnein

Paris, France,judiciously statedthat the devil could not be expectedto tell the trUth.577

Among early Muslim scholars, Ibn Taymiyyah advocated communication with possessingentities in order to persuade them to leave through admonition, etc.

Considering the perverse nature of possession,little credibility can be placed on the information relayedby possessingdemons. They shouldbe distrustedin the sameway as corrupt and irreligious humans sincethe reliability of their information is suspect.

Consequently,although communicationis permissible,it should be restricted to what is necessaryor useful in encouragingthe spirit's departure.

The practice of blowing over the demonicallypossessed patient or on the location where the patient complainsof pain is unanimouslyapplied by modem exorciststhroughout the Muslimworld at differentpoints during their exorcisms.This also hasits foundationin the Prophet'spractice. On oneoccasion, he wasrecorded as blowing in the mouth of a possessedboy before ordering the possessingspirit to leave.579 It wasalso his practiceto blow in his handsand wipe themon the partsof his

576 The Story Bebind The Exorcist, p. 219, no. 15.,

577 Lýiving Out IX. vils, p. 126.

578 Collected by Abmad in al-Musnadand by al-IjAim in id-Mustadrakand

186 body where he experiencedaches and pains. This correspondswith the early

Christian,baptismal tradition of exorcismwhich included the exshufflate-the thrice- repeatedbreathing on the face of the infantwith the accompanyingwords, "Depart from him, thou uncleanspirit, and give place to the Holy Spirit."579 It is also mentionedas a recommendedpractice in the Exeter Report on exorcism for the Churchof England.590

The additionalpractices of havingpossessed patients drink water overwhich Qur'Anicverses have been reador writing Qur'anicverses on a plate,washing it and having one drink the wash-water,seem to havebegun among the earlygenerations of Muslims. Likewise, having the demonicallypossessed bathe in water over which versesfrom the Qur'Anhave been read was recommended by someof the earlyMuslim scholars. This practice hasits counterpartor perhapseven its origin in Catholicand Anglicanexorcisms wherein holy wateris sprinkledon patients.581 During an exorcism performedby St. Norbert of Magdeburg(d. 1134), he instructedthat the possessed woman "be plungedinto exorcisedwater. "582 "Holy water" - if water on which Qur'anic verseswere recited could be describedas such -was not utifizedby the Prophet (4) or his companionsin their exorcisms.On the otherhand, the useof olive oil to anoint the body was recommendedby the Prophet(4) himself,although not specificallyfor treating the possessed.This recitationover bottles of olive oil andits use for diagnosticor therapeutictreatment is relatively new. A modemAnglican

authenticatedby adh-DhahabI.See Ibn Taymee yahý Essayon thc Ann, pp. 83-84. . . 579 J.D. Douglas, Gen. ed., The New Intemational Dictionaty of LheQýdstlan Cburcb (Grand Rapids, Michigan: ZondervanCorporation, 1974), p. 365. 580 Exorcism, p. 37.

581 Ibid. Seealso instruction no. 16 of The Roman Ritual (Tbe Story BebindILbe Exorcist, p. 219).

582 PossessionandExordsm, p. 183.

187 exorcist,Dom RobartPetitpieffe, recommended the useof blessedoil, saying,"I have known blessedoil, which is used to anoint the foreheadof the troubledperson, of considerableefficacy. "593 The use of "blessed"water and olive oil hasarisen from the unanimousbelief among Muslimsin the healingqualities of the divineword, which is itselfbased upon Qur'Anic verses (17: 82; 10:57) andprophetic traditions to that effect.

This belief has been further extendedto justify the useof amuletscontaining Qur'Anicverses, which is a predominatemethod for treatingthe possessedin Sudan. In India, numerology andother occult arts are widely used in the preparationof such amulets. However,the useof amuletshas been strictly forbidden by the Prophet(4) in a number of his authenticallyrecorded statements. For example,'Abdullah ibn Mas'ad quoted the Prophet (4) as saying,"Verily, spells,talismans and charms [by incantation]are shirk."584 'Uqbah ibn 'Amir reported that a group of ten, men approachedAllahs Messenger(4) to pledgetheir allegianceto him. He acceptedthe oath of allegiancefrom nineof them,but refusedone. Whenthey askedhim why he had refused oneof them,he replied,"Verily, he is wearingan amulet." The manwho was wearingit put his handinto his cloak,pulled it off andbroke it, andthen made the oath. TheProphet (4) thensaid, "Whoever wears an amulethas committed sJVrk. "585 In the case of incantations(mqa), the Prophet (4) made an exception.If, after hearingthe incantationfor himself,he determinedthat the ruql did not containshirk, theywere permitted. 51611owever, the exceptionin the caseof allowingmqj cannotbe legally extendedto amulets. Talismanswere also in vogueduring the Prophet'stime

583 Ekomising De vils, p. 37.

584 Coflected in Sun-w Abo Djwvd, vol. 3, p. 1089, no. 3 874 and authenticated in &Ab SunanA&Djwvd, vol. 2, pp. 736-737, no. 3288.

585 Collected by Abmadand authenticated in ýWh a]-JarW,ap&ghir, vol. 2, p. 1092,no. 6394. 586 See Musl&n, 3, 1197, 5457. .5aAh vol. p. no.

iss but he did not ask to seethem in order to distinguishbetween them. Sincetalismans and amulets were so closely associatedwith pagan beliefs and rituals, Prophet

Mubammad (4) left the prohibition of talismansas general,never specifying if and when permitted. Consequently,the use of Qur'Anic amuletsor talismansrepresents a clear deviation from the prophetic way. The Church succumbedto popular demand and allowed the use of amulets,although someChristian scholarsopposed this trend.

According to the opinion of Arnald of Villanova (d. 1311), a physicianand theologian,

even divine words, if carried on the body, would representmagic amulets. This was in

agreement with more rigorous churchmenlike St. Eligius, who thought them "fraught, not with the remedy of Christ, but with the poison of the Devil. " 597However, other physicians, like Bernard of Gordon (d. 1303), made the priest not only recite the biblical passagesfor epileptics, lunatics and demoniacsbut also write them down so that they may be carried by the patient as an amulet.599 As to the Indian practice of using numerology and other occult sciencesin the preparationof amulets,it is an even

greater deviation from Islam. Numerology hasno place in Islam becauseof its pagan

origin.589 In fact, the Abjadsystem of numerologyin use amongMuslims camefrom

the Jewish Cabalist system called gematda, in which each letter of the Hebrew

alphabet is given a numerical value.590 The Abjad is in the order of the old Hebrew

alphabet up to the number 400, the remaining six letters having been addedby the

587 Owsei Temkin, The Falling Sickness (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press,2nd ed., 1971), pp. 104-105.

588 Ibid. 589 The Greek origin of numerology can be found in the Pythagoreanphilosophy that all things can be expressedin numerical terms because they are ultimately reducible to numbers. Hence, in the Greek alphabet,each letter representeda number. (TbeWewEncyc1qpaedjaBfilannica, vol. 8, p. 829) 590 Ron Bailey, Into the Unknotm (U. S.A.: ReadersDigest Assn. Inc., 1981), p. 63. .

189 Arabs.391

On the otherhand, in voguein Sudanis the burningand inhalation of Qur'Anic verses which are written on paper. This is not consideredan obvious violation of

Islamic, canonical law, but it could be included in the samecategory as the practice of drinking the wash-water of Qur'Anic writings. However in India, using occult writings play an even bigger part than the use of Arabic, Qur'Anic versesin the practice of inhaling the smoke of burnt, paper amulets. These inscriptions make the Indian version of this practice a clear violation of Islamic law.

The use of beating during exorcismis a commonfeature among Arab Muslim exorcists. Those of India andPakistan (with the exceptionof RanaMubammad) did not use any form of what may be termedin somecases as "aversiontherapy. " The rationalefor its use is that the patientwho is in a stateof somnambulismor amnesia does not feel the blows,but the demonwhich has taken over his consciousnessdoes. Consequently,it constitutesa meansof punishingthe possessingdevil andforcing it out of the patient. In Sudan,flogging is alsoapplied to inhibitundesirable behavior by patients.592 This methodology,according to experiencedMuslim exorcists,should be applied sparinglyand judiciously in order to avoidhurting the patienthimself The origins of this practice canbe foundin a narrationattributed to ProphetMubammad (4) in which he beata youngboy while commandingthe possessingspirit to leave.593

591 A DictionaTy oflslam, p. 3. 5 92 Fugara TechniquesofMental Healing, p. 76.

593 Collectedby Mmad and Abu Dawad al-Tayalasifrom Majar ibn 'Abdur- Raýmanfrom Umm Abanfrom herfather, al-Wazi', from his father,az-Zafi" (Usudal- Obibah, vol. 2, p. 245). Thereis only onePadah narrated by az-Zari' in the six, main books of NdFth. That narrationis foundin SunanAbO DjwVdArith the samechain of narration as this Padith but the text only mentionsthat az-Zari' andothers kissed the PropheVshands and feet (Sunan Abo DjwWd,vol. 3, p. 1441,no. 5206). A]-Albk-d authenticated(pasan) the latter narration,excluding the mentionof the Prophet'sfeet (&Ab SunanAbi Djwvd, vol. 3, p. 981, no. 4353).

190 However,the authenticityof this narrationis suspect.594 Beating during exorcism has been attributedto some early scholars,like Mmad ibn Ijanbal,but suchnarrations needto be criticallyresearched. However, there is no doubtthat later scholarslike Ibn Taymiyyahused beating during their treatment. After exorcismsinvolving physical force, possessedpatients usually awakenwithout any recollection of or painfrom being beaten. However, there have been caseswhen people who werebelieved to have been possessedhave died during exorcisms after severe, excessive beatings. For example,a3 0-year old agriculturalengineer, 'Abdul-Fattab Khahl, diedin Cairo in 1988 after a violent exorcism.A relative,Ad-ham, and a friend,Faris, were charged with murder.595 In a villageoutside Zurich, Switzerland, a teenagegirl by the nameof BernadetteHasler died from a violentexorcism in 1966. Threeyears later, a Zurich court imprisonedMagdalena Kohler andStocker, co-founders 0'f the Christiancult to which Bernadettebelonged, for her death.596 A latercase (reported in The Timeson September4,1980) involveda preacherand his friendwho kickeda mentallyunstable womanto deathas they tried to rid her of an evil spirit,allegedly that of JudasIscariot, which was possessingher. 597 Evenmore recently in June1991,20-year old Kousar Bastdr was starvedfor eightdays, given chili powderto eat,and battered to deathin Manchester,England, by two pirs, 63-yearold MubammadNourw and55-year old Mubammad Bashir. During the exorcism,she suffered 16 fractured ribs and a

594 One of the principalnarrators, Hind, knownas Umm Aban' the daughterof al-Wazi', was classifiedby Ibn Hajaras acceptable (maqbalah) in Taqffbat-Tah"b (Beirut: Dar al-Ma'rifah, 2nd ed., 1975), vol. 2, p. 619, no. 1. However,this classificationis conditionalon there being a supportingnarration; otherwise, she is consideredweak Qqyyinah). Since there are no othersupporting narrations, the Padah is thenconsidered unreliable (Va7f).

595 Al-Muslimoon, vol. 4, issueno. 161,4/3/88, pp. I and 3.

596 The Devijý BWde,pp. 171-179.

597 Quoted in Deliverance.* Psychic Disturbancesand Occult Involvement, p. 112.

191 fractured breastbonefrom beatingswith a cane,broken ashtray,fists and from the p&s' jumping up and down on her stomach.599 Considering that there is no authentic basis from the Sunnah or the practice of the Prophet'scompanions for the use of beating during exorcism and considering the great dangersinvolved, this method cannot be justified. In spite of this practicebeing attributed to Imam Mmad, Ibn Tayrniyyahand other scholars, it cannot be condonedbecause they basedtheir actions on traditions which havelater proven to be false. Their claim that flogging was a reasonfor success in treatment cannot be used as a justification for its use. Inflicting unwarranted pain and bodily hann is prohibited. The issueis not whether the patient feels the pain or not, because battering a comatose person is as prohibited as battering a conscious person. The issue is whether it is allowable in Islam. And the Prophet (4) stated,

"Verily, Allah has sent down diseaseand medication,and [He has] made a treatment for every disease. So treat [your sicknesses]but do not treat [them] with what is prohibited." 599

Shaykh 'Ah Mushrif in Saudi Arabia seemsto have developeda unique techniqueof graspingthe patient's throatin orderto forcethe fin&to exposeitself According to him, this methodreplaces beating, which he feelscauses more harm to the patientsthan to the possessingspirit. I-Esgrasp is a firm, chokinggrasp which throws the patient into a state of frenzyor causeshim to faint. It is allegedthat in most casesthis techniquehas proven itself successful.The possessingspirits have revealedthemselves, leading to their expulsionand the curingof thosepossessed. Others have developeda mildergrasp by depressingthe jugular veins, which starves the brainof oxygenatedblood andcauses the patientto faint. The chokingor grasping

598 Q News,vol. 1, ed.0, Friday27th, March 1992,p. 4.

599 Reported by Aba ad-Darda', collectedby Aba Dawad (Sunw Aba Dj"d, vol. 3, p. 1087, no. 3865) and rated authentic(Pasan) by al-Ama'al in Ami'al-Usal, vol. 7, p. 512, no. 5626.

192 method introduced by Shaykh'Ali Mushrif of Madinah has spreadamong those who studied his methodology and subsequentlyset up their own practicesin Riyadh and other parts of Saudi Arabia. However, it is not employedin any other areasof the

Muslim world. The theory behindthis techniqueis that it causesthe possessingdevil to exposeitself by submergingthe humanpersonality. This practice has no foundation in prophetic tradition, and when people are hurt, it violates Islamic law. Some of

Shaykh 'Ali's patientswhom I interviewed complainedof severeneck pains after their treatment. There is also potential danger of brain damageby cutting off the blood

supply to the brain. An evengreater dangeris suffocationby strangulationof patients.

In spite of its reported successes,this method is Islamicallyundesirable. The Prophet

(4) said, "One should neither hurt himself nor others."600 He was also quoted as

saying, "The Muslim is one from whose handsand tongue other Muslims are safe." 601

One cannot correctly argue that the suffering causedby choking during exorcism is

like the pain involved in an injection againstdisease. That is, the greater good of the

injection outweighs the minor pain of a needlepiercing the skin. This argument is not

sound because, in some cases,injection is the only way by which inoculation against

certain diseasescan by given. However, exorcismmaybe accomplishedin other ways

which do not involve physicalharm to the patient.

Holding or tying the forelockto "arrest"thefinn andtying fingersand toes to "trap" the finn appearto be part of the psychologicaltechniques of autosuggestion used to help the patient cure himself Although it hasno foundationin prophetic

600 Reported by Tbadah ibn ýamit and Ibn 'Abbas, collectedby Ibn Majah, Malik, al-]Uakimand a]-Bayhaq-i(see EzzeddinIbrahim and Denys Johnson-Davies, An-Nawa"ý Forty Hadlffi [Salimiah,Kuwait: InternationalIslamic Federation of StudentOrganizations, 1991], p.106), and authenticated by al-Albw inYaAh Sunan Ibn Mijah, vol. 2, p. 39, no. 1896.

ý01 Reported by 'Abdullah ibn 'Amr ibn al-'Aý andcollected by Muslim (,VaAh Muslhn,vol. 1, p. 29, no. 64).

193 tradition,it doesnot seemto haveany apparent pagan roots, either in its theologyor in its ritual. However,it is basedupon the erroneousidea held by someMuslim exorcists in India,Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Trinidad that thefinn canbe imprisonedwithin the humanbody by such means.Consequently, it cannotbe consideredto haveany real value in the actual exorcism of thosewho areaffected by true, demonicpossession. When people'scomplaints may be basedupon psychological problems, like neuroses and psychoses,or biological reasonsto some degree,such techniquesmay have a positiveeffect. It dependsupon the strengthof the patient'sconfidence in the exorcist, as has been amply demonstratedin the use of placebosby Western,experimental psychologists.

The question which arises here is whether the methodology of exorcism is restricted to what was done by the Prophet (4) and his companionsor if the field is open for individual experimentation. In respect to ruqj and Qur'Anic recitation, it appears that the latter position was taken by the companionsof the Prophet (4). The numerous reports of them using different recitations and then asking the Prophet (4) about it afterwards seem to indicatethat the door is open for experimentationwithin the bounds of divine law. The basic principle appearsto be that one may experiment as long as what is done does not contain shirk, causebodily harin or contraveneeither the letter or the spirit of divine law in any way. A further principle is that experimentation cannot be done in areas which have alreadybeen specifiedby the

Prophet (4) becausethat would involve amendingwhat the Prophet (4) taught based upon divine revelation,602 which is inconceivable according to Islamic law and theology. It is stated in the Qur'an:

"Whatever the Pipphet gives you, take it; and whatever he has

forbidden you, leave it. " Qur'An,59: 7

602 -Ali al., Alyaffi, ar-Ruqj (Riyadh: Dar at-Walan, 1990), p. 47.

194 "He [i. e., the Prophet] did not speakfrom his own desires. What

he said was revelation." Qur'An,53: 3-4

Much of the theory and practice of exorcismin Islam agreeswith that of Christianity. This has alsobeen the observationof experienced,Christian writers on the subject. For example,John L. Neviuswrote the followingin his book, Demon Possessionand Affied Tbemes(New York, 1892): "Thereis alsomuch exorcism amongthe Moslems of Palestineand other sections of the Orient. The Dervishesare especiallynoted for it. But asidefrom the fact that theyuse Koran verses and Moslem terminology,their healingsare the samein principleas the Christian."603However, there is a fundamentaldifference with regardto the identityof the possessingentity. The ChristianChurch recognizestwo classesof angels(like some early, Muslim exegetes): those obedientto God who are generally calledangels and those who disobeyedGod and came to be referredto as fallenangels. Fallen angels are one sourceof demonicpossession according to the Christianview. The Churchalso acceptsthat the soulsof somedeparted humans can influence events in this world after their death (perhapsoriginating from the Greekconcept of demons).This represents the secondsource of diabolicalpossession from the Christianperspective. However, this categoryhas no Biblicalbasis and its validity hasbeen contested by someChristian scholars. One of the leading Christianauthorities on this subject,John Richards, stated, "Possessionby the departedis not mentionedin the Bible, andmany friends of mine, for examplePrebendary Henry Cooper andthe Rev.Dennis Peterson, would argue strongly, on quite different grounds for the impossibilityof 'earthbound' spirits.11604 Some Christian writers have also acknowledgedanother class of possessingspirits whichthey have termed "non-human sprites, " whoseoriginTemains

603 Quoted in By the Finger of God, p. 59.

604 But Deliver Us from Evil, P. 152.

195 unknown.605 Muslim theology, on the other hand, recognizesonly the firm as a source of spirit-possessionof humans.

CONCLUSION

The basic conceptsand methodsof exorcismhave changedlittle in the orthodox Islamic world over the pastfourteen centuries. There has been neither an official formulation of methodology,as took place in Christendom,nor hasthere evolved a position designatedas exorcist. However, in circleswhere people have deviatedfrom the prophetic path by utilizing methodsinvolving amulets and sbirk, standardmethods have evolved and are being taught.606 Eventhough there is no "official" methodology,there is continuityof practiceamong Muslim scholars.This is due to the great emphasisplaced upon closely following the Sunnahof Prophet Mubammad(4) andavoiding innovation in religiouspractices. Aba NaJibquoted the Prophet(4) as saying,"Keep to my Sunnahand that of the rightly guidedcaliphs after me. Bite on to it with your molarsand beware of innovations,for verily, they areall [forms ofl heresy,which are all misguidanceleading to the Hellfire."607 And the Prophet'swife, 'A'ishah, reported that he alsosaid, "Whoever introduces something new into our religionwhich doesnot belongin it will haveit rejected." 609

The practiceof exorcismis basedupon the beliefthat spiritscan enter, occupy or possessinanimate objects, places, animals and humanbeings. Oneidentifying

605 Exorcism, p. 22.

606 See for example, Propbetic Medical Sciences, Jawjhiru al-Kbamsah and Sbamsal-Ma&if.

607 Collected by Aba Dawad (Sunan Aba DjwVd, vol. 3, p. 1294, no. 4590) and at-Tinnidhi and authenticatediny*p SunanAbIDjawd, vol. 3, p. 871, no. 3851.

608 3, 535, FaAh al-Bukh&f, vol. p. no. 861 and -YAMhMuslim, vol. 3, p. 93 1, no. 4266.

196 feature of demonicpossession is that it involves a partial or completechange of personalityof the possessedperson. His normal self is replaced by an abnormal personalitybelieved to be that of a demon.609 Prior to the adventof modemscientific theories and methodologies,exorcism was more readily seen as a curefor personality disorders. The ideas about demonicpossession in the past often had the same respectablestanding that theoriesof sciencehave today. However,this oncereputable professionhas presentlyfallen into disreputein the Westand to a largedegree in the East. The modem person looksupon exorcism as superstition.This maybe dueto the radical changesin man'sideas about his own natureand the world in which he fives. These new conceptsform the body of modem science. Medicine today completelyrejects the notion that demonscan cause disease. Methods of treatment are basedupon newly developed concepts about personality. 610 The phenomenacalled "demon possession"now seemsto occur lessfrequently in thoseparts of the world where sciencehas beenfreely accepted. It shouldbe kept in mindthat in the pastthe exorcist was seen for any andall of the complaint'swhich today's physicians handle. The disappearanceof exorcism on a largescale has come about primarily because of the acceptanceof a new physiologyand psychology which treat man'sproblems and which rejectthe beliefthat spiritscan cause illnesses. In this new structureof thought, there is no placefor what appearsas irrational, and this includesthe beliefin demonic possessionand the practiceof exorcism.The exorcistwith his commands,incantations or charmshas todaybeen replaced by a physicianwho diagnosesdisease on the basis of naturalistictheories, and he thenproceeds with treatmentalong rational lines.

The mysteriesof personalitystill remain,but the approachto themis now different. The problemis that modemscience must allow a certainvalidity to exorcism

609 By the Finger of God, p. 12.

610 Ibid., p. 13.

197 with its demonological psychology. If science can assumethere exists a systemof psychology believing in demonology, exorcism becomes an inevitable means to healing., The therapy is just as soundas the underlying view of disease. The basic phenomenaof human life and the natural world remainthe sametoday as they were before. The change that has come about is in our ideas of them. While the old phenomenaremain unchanged, modem sciencehas given us new conceptsabout them.

The new terminology seems to be more efficient, but it still designatesessentially the same facts of life. To understanddisease more fully is not to alter its own nature. The modem physician still faces the samephenomena, but he brings a new understanding and new methodsof healing.

The exorcist was among otherthings a physician.It washis functionto cure disease;and, in general,disease was the samethen as it is today. It is a historicalfact that, at times,the exorcistcured the sick. Occasionalsuccess was sufficient to validate his procedure. In his evolvingefforts to treat patients,he stumbledupon principles of sound therapy whichworked in spiteof inaccurateinterpretations of them. Exorcism has been most successfulfor illnesseswhich yield to suggestion.The principleof suggestionprobably accountsfor most of the cures which were achieved.611 In modem times, medicineis rediscoveringthe virtue of suggestionas an instrumentof healing. Justhow this principleoperates in restoringderanged minds and ailing bodies still appearsto be a mystery,but the fact of its healingvalue cannot be denied.Healing by exorcismusually involves confidence,faith in the healer,and assurance that the demon will be driven away.612 Psychiatryhas come to be a recognizedbranch of healing,and every reputablephysician frequently utilizessuggestion in his ordinary treatmentof disease. Confidenceand faith are important aspectsof the, healing

611 Possession Exorcism, 100 and p- - 612 By the Finger of Cod pp. 16-18.

198 process,without which the physiciaWspower is greatly limited. This is not to discredit drugs, surgery and other procedures,but underlyingthem all is the elementof faith in the skill, especially in the knowledge of. the physician.613 The successfulphysician establishesconfidence in himself, and he deliberately builds up in the mind of his patient the belief that he is going to get well.

Specific characteristicsare exhibitedduring treatmentof possession. The demon recognizesthe exorcist, usually admitting the superiority of the exorcist's power. The exorcistin turn speaksto the demon,threatening him. After beggingfor mercy, which may or may not be granted,with visiblesigns the demondeparts from the afflicted person. Thetechnique of the exorcistusually consists of incantationsor adjurations involving divine names.614 These elementsare found in records of exorcisms performedworldwide by representativesof the major religions. The symptomswhich are associatedwith demonicpossession are generally classified by modem psychiatryas neurosesor psychoses,and these labels are further divided into organic, toxic andpsychogenic. Under organic are included psychoses resulting from syphilis, senHity,arteriosclerosis, head injuries, epilepsyand neurological disorders. Toxic psychosesresult from alcoholism,metal poisoning,drugs or certain bodily diseases. The third groupincludes classifications of paranoia,schizophrenia, mental deficiencyand psychoneuroses. This is subdividedinto stateslike hysteria,anxiety and compulsionneuroses. It is obviousthat the psychosesresulting from organicand toxic conditionsrespond best to medical treatment,while thosewhich arepsychogenic in origin (whichconstitute over fifty percentof all cases)yield only to treatmentwhich is primarily psychologicalin nature. However, there may be an advantagein using psychologicaltherapy as a supplementto othertherapies in treatingorganic and toxic

613 Ibid., p. 21.

614 Ibid., p. 20.

199 psychoses.615 It should be noted that the new psychologicaland psychiatric labels are more descriptions of symptoms than of causes,616 and as such, do not rule out the possibility of demonicpossession. Regarding such labels,Victor White in God and Lhe

Unconsciousconcludes:

"This writer's limited acquaintance [Fr. White was a foundation member

and lecturer at the Jung Institute of Analytical Psychology! ] with

psychiatric literature, confirmed by discussions with psychiatrist friends,

strongly suggests that the names by which mental diseasesare classified

are purely descriptive, and in no sense at all cover etiological

explanations; that is to say they are no more than labels for certain

syndromes or symptoms which are commonly associated together. To

the extent that their respective psychosomatic 'causes' are understood

(which would not seem, in most cases, to be to any great extent), this

would seem in no way to invalidate such conceptions of their diabolic

origin... '#617

Thus,the ultimatecause is not alwayswithin the sphereof medicineor psychiatry.For example,schizophrenia may be due to a chemicalimbalance or it maynot. In the body/mind/spiritunity of man, it would be logical to expectsome suffering, if not traceableto bodily or mentalfactors, to be dueto spiritualcauses. 619

Convulsivedisorders peculiar to demoniacshave beenidentified by modem scienceas epilepsy. However, epilepsyis itself an ill-defined group of disorders

615 By the Finger of God, pp. 25-26.

616 But Deliver Us from Evil, p- 106.

617 Ibid., p. 106.

618 Ibid., pp. 106-107.

200 sharingcharacteristic fits or seizures.When a causeof epilepsycan be detected,the conditionis termed "symptomaticepilepsy. " However,two thirdsof epilepticssuffer from what is called "idiopathic epilepsy"in whichthe causeis unknown. In the first case,the symptomsas well asthe causescan be treated,for they areknown. But in the latter case,only the symptomscan be treated. Apart from the fits, the individual can remain in perfecthealth. Yet, asmany as onefifth of epilepticsreceive no benefit from existing drugs.619 In addition,those diagnosed as epileptic in well-knowncases of exorcismdo not automaticallyexclude demonic possessionas the causeof their disease. Epilepsy,like most psychiatriclabels, is the name of a symptom,not a descriptionof its origin. Doctor JohnWilkinson, writing on "The Caseof the Epileptic Boy" in the ExpositoryTimcs, vol. lxxix, no. 2 writes:

"If demon possessionis a fact thereseems no reasonwhy it couldnot be the causeof somecases of epilepsy.We do not know enoughabout, the spirit world to disprove demon possession,nor enough about, epilepsyto denythat it maybe causedby suchpossession. " 620

Regardlessof the varietyof causeswhich lead to it, somnarnbul.ism or amnesia are also forms of demonicpossession which bring abouta changeof personality.621 The individual either temporarilyor permanentlyforgets his realidentity. It is a form of sleep. Hypnosis is also a form of sleep, a type of amnesiawhich the physician artificially inducesfor the purposeof his therapy. The suggestionmade by the physicianto the patient under hypnosis is thereforevirtually identical with the spell uttered by the exorcist to' the person supposedto be possessed.622 Thus, even this

619 But Deliver Us from Evil, pp. 98-100.

620 Ibid., p. 102.

621 Possessionand Exorcism, p. 39.

622 By the Fingerof Crod,p. 28.

201 favorite tool of modem psychiatryseems to be a case of new labels on ancient methodologies.

Various accountsof exorcismin pagan,Christian and Islamic sourcesmanifest a general uniformity in the symptomsof the possessed,in the conversationsbetween demons and the exorcists, and in the relief which the afflicted person enjoys after the demon has been driven out. This has beenverified by people who have witnessed successful exorcisms and by ancientstories describingtreatments. Uniformity exists because we are dealing with things which really occur, not with mere creations of the imagination.623 Does medical successin the treatment of the mentally deranged automatically mean that its physiological and psychological interpretations more accurately describe the phenomenathan the universaldescription of exorcismsfrom those who believe in demonic possession? Centuries ago Islan-dc scholars distinguished between psychoseswhose origins were biological and those which were spiritual. The authentic, Islamic traditions clearly indicate that some cases of derangement are a product of diabolical possession. Prophet Muýammad (4) addressedreal entities which he commandedto leave from the possessedpeople brought to him, and so did JesusChrist. Consequently,from the Islamic perspective, there is no room for doubt about the occurrenceof demonicpossession. However, that does not justify the extremesto which somemodem Muslim exorcists have gone in labeling all unusual psychological symptoms as evidence for possession. For example, W*d 'Abdus-SalamBali lists in his book, Wiqjyah al-Insin min a]-Ann wa ash-Sbaylin (Protecting Mankind from the Ann and Satan),the following thirteen symptoms which may occur during sleepas evidenceof possession: 1) insomnia;2) disturbed sleep; 3) seeingin a dreamsomething disturbing and wishing to call for help but being unable to call out; 4) nightmares;5) seeinganimals like cats, dogs, camels,

623 Ibid., p. 89.

202 snakes, lions, foxes or rats in dreams;6) grinding one!s teeth; 7) laughing, crying or screaming; 8) moaning; 9) sleepwalking;10) drean-dngof oneselfabout to fall from a high place; 11) having a dreamin which one seesoneself in a graveyard, in a garbage dump, or on a desolate road; 12) seeingstrange looking humanswho are extremely tall, incredibly short or black; and 13) seeingghosts in one'sdreams. 624

This Estcovers virtually all of the common,human sleep experiences, therefore indicating that almosteveryone is possessed-which is a grossexaggeration. Muslim and Christianexorcists unanimously indicated that only a minorityof patientswho came to themwere actuallydiabolically possessed. A list suchas W*d's placeswen over 90 percentof humanbeings in the categoryof beingpossessed.

The questionwhich remainsto be answeredregarding the Islamicview of exorcism is, "How does Islam explain the successfulexorcisms performed by Christiansover the centurieswhen it considersChristianity to be a falsereligion? " First and foremost,it mustbe saidthat Islamrecognizes the exorcismsof JesusChrist and his true followersas being in conformitywith Islamicand Mosaic tradition. That is, accordingto the Islamic view, Jesus exorcisedby the will of God andso did his disciples. Furthermore,it is believedthat the disciplesexorcised in the nameof God and not in Jesus'name, as recorded in the Gospels.As for thosewho exorcisein the name of Jesusor in the nameof Muýammad(4), they areconsidered within the same classificationas those who exorcisein paganreligions in the namesof their godsor by using sorcery. Since the possessingspirits are fundamentally evil, they will leaveif shkk is done in their presence.Their leavingreinforces in the mindsof the audience and the exorcist that their false beliefsand methods are correct. Consequently,the fitm leave the diabolicallypossessed during Christian andpagan exorcisms by their

624 Wabid 'Abdus-Salam Bah, Wiqjyah a]-Insjn min al-jinn wa,7sh-Shayp7 (Cairo: Dar al-Bashir, 1989), p. 77.

203 own freewill, having accomplishedtheir malevolent goal of misguiding mankind as promisedby Satanin the Qur'an:

"[Satan] said, 'BecauseYou have sent me astray,I will surely sit

in wait againstthem [i. e., manldnd] on Your straight path. Then

I will come at them from their front and from behind them, from

their right and from their left, and You will not find most of them dutiful to You. '" Qur'An,7: 16-17

"[Satan] said, '0 my Lord, becauseYou sent me astray, I will

surely beautify the path of error for them [Le., mankind] on

earth, and I wiR mislead thern aU: " Qur'in, 15:39

"[Satan] said, "Iben by Your might, I will surely mislead them aU.'" Qur'An,38: 82

Thus, the revulsion shown by the demonicallypossessed to the sign of the cross, the sprinkling of "Holy water," relics of the saints,etc., is all feignedby the possessing spirit. This is to delude the Christian exorcist into thinking that these symbolshave power over the spirits and to falsely assure these exorcists that their belief in the divinity of Christ - which is consideredby Muslims the greatestact of SjVrk [idolatry]

- is correct. The spirits exit may be quick, or it may be slow and torturous. When there is an opportunity for the spectacular, the finn will put on a show in order to create a lasting impressionon the witnesses.

The following eyewitnessaccount from the autobiographicalbook by Peter Goullart publishedin 1961 further illustratesthis point of view:

"We arrivedat a medium-sizedstone courtyard, halfway up the hill, situatedin front of a temple. There was a smallgroup of onlookersstanding in comersin the shadowof the wall, among them a distracted couplewho... werethe energumen's parents. The energumenhimself, a ratheremaciated man of abouttwenty-five... lay on

204 an iron bedsteadon a rushmat. He wasvery paleand there was a wild, roving look in his feveredeyes. The [Taoist]priest... was attired in full ritual robesand stood before a portable altar on which wasan incense burner, the smallimage of a god, a vaseof holy water, a ritual sword andother articles and a book from which he wasreading. Two monks were assistinghim, whilst four muscularmen watched the prostrate demoniac.

The Abbott was reading the [Taoist] scriptures in a monotonous, droning voice, repeatingmantras over and over againwith a great deal of concentration. Then he stopped and, taking an elongatedivory tablet, the symbol of wisdom and authority, he held it ceremonially in both hands in front of his chest and approachedthe bed slowly. There was a visible transformationon the energumen'sface. His eyeswere filled with malice as he watched the priest'smeasured advance with a sly cunning and hatred. Suddenly he gave a bestial whoop and jumped up in his bed, the four' attendants rushing to hold him. No! No! You cannot drive us out. We were two against one. Our power is greater than yours!' The sentencespoured out of the energumeds mouth in a strange,shrill voice, which soundedmechanical, inhuman - as if pronounced by a parrot. The Priest looked at the victim intensely,gathering all his inner strength; beadsof perspirationappeared on his thin face. 'Come outl Come outl

I command you to come outV He was repeatingin a strong metallic voice with great force. 'I am using the power of the One comparedto whom you are nothing. In His I ' The in the bed name command you to come out. ... man was struggling with incredible strength against the four men who held him. Animal growls and howls issued from from his I had impression time to time mouth, ... the that a pack of wild animals was fighting inside his body... Terrible threats poured out of the contorted mouth, now fringed in white foam, and interspersedwith such incredible obscenities that the women had to plug their earswith their fingers... Again the Abbott cried his command to the unseenadversaries to leave the prostrate man. There was a burst of horrible laughter from the victirds throat and suddenly with a mighty heave of his

205 supernaturallystrengthened arms he threw off the menwho heldhim andjumped at the priest's throat like a madbloodhound. But he wasoverpowered again. This time they boundhim with ropesand fastened the endsto the bedposts...

'Leave himl Leavehim! ' criedthe monkconcentrating harder... For an hour this continuedand then the energumen...seemed to come to rest, with his eyes watching the unmovedpriest who wasstill reading...The prieststopped reading; with sweat pouring down his face, he backeddown to the altar,laid downthe tabletand took up the ritual sword. Threateninglyand commandingly he stoodagain over the energumen.'The struggleis useless!' He cried,'Leave him! Leavehim, in the nameof SupremePower bodyl' A long the who never meantyou to stealthis mares ... time passedwith the Abbott readingand commanding interminably. At last he sprinkledthe inert manwith holy waterand advanced to him againwith a sword. His concentration was so deep that he did not seemto see anybody.He wasutterly exhaustedand swayedslightly. Two novicescame up to supporthim.

I havewon! 'he criedtriumphantly in a strangevoice. 'Get outl Get outl' The energumenstiffed and fell into dreadfulconvulsions. His eyesrolled up andonly the whites were visible... Damn youl Damnyoul'came a wild screamfrom the foaming Ups. We are going but you shall pay for it with your lifel' Therewas a terrible struggleon the bed,the poor mantwisting and rolling like a mortally-woundedsnake... Suddenlyhe fell flat on his backand was still. His eyesopened. His gazewas normal and he sawhis parentswho now cameforward. My parents!'he criedweakly. Where am I?' He wasfeeble and they carriedhim out in a speciallyordered sedan chair. The Abbott himself was in a terrible state of prostrationand was half-carried and half- draggedaway by his novices..."

The Taoist hosts stated that these exorcist priests sacrificed yearsof their mortal fives as the price for everyvictory of this kind, their vital forcesdrained and

206 spent.625

All of the elements of possession and exorcism are contained in this narrative.

And, like many Christian exorcisms, it is very taxing on the exorcist. The robes, relics and rituals are the same as within Catholic tradition, and the treatment is impressive.

The Taoist consider their supreme being, Tao, to be ineffable, eternal, and the creative reality which is the source and end of all thingS.626 He is called upon, but somehow it is the "power" of the exorcist which appears to exorcise the energumen. This is why he exclaims, "I have won! " Consequently, exorcism takes its toll on the Taoist exorcists. However, it is not his powers of concentration or spiritual training which overcame the demon, but his reliance on false rituals and idols which satisfied the devil's wish. Allah said in the Qur'an:

"I [i. e., Prophet Sulaymanj found her [i. e., the Queenof Sheba]

and her people worshipping the sun insteadof AM& And Satan

had made their deedsfair-seeming to them and barred them from

the path [of truth]... " Q6r'an,27: 24

In the case of orthodox Muslim exorcismsor thoseof otherreligions where only Almighty God is called upon without giving 11im associatesand without attributing His attributesto others,the evilfinn aredefeated and expelled by the force of truth. An illustration of a part of this conclusionmay be foundin a statementof JustinMartyr to Trypho,the Jew,with whomhe wasdebating the truth of Christianity:

"For demon, in the Son every -when exorcised name of this very of God..., is overcomeand subdued. But thoughyou exorciseany demon

625 Quoted in Diabofical PossessionandExorcArn, pp. 101-104 from Laurence G. Thompson, CbineseReligion: An Introduction.

626 TheNewbncyclopaedia Bfitannica, vol. 11, p. 551.

207 in the name of any of those who were amongst you -either kings, or

righteous men, or prophets, or patriarchs -it will not be subject to you.

But if any of you exorcise it in the name of the God of Abraham, and

the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, it will perhaps be subject to

you. 01627

Calling upon God alone was recognized by this second century,' Christian

scholaras a successfulmethod of exorcism.As wasnoted earlier, this methodbecame central to Christian exorcismby the beginningof the fourth century. Althoughthere are records of Muslimsappearing "successfiil" exorcising possessed people using the name of Prophet Mulýammad(ý*), suchexorcisms are looked at in the samelight as Christian exorcismsconducted in the nameof Jesusand pagan exorcisms performed in the name of other deities. For example,Yasuf an-Nabhw, headof the Beirut law courts, wrote, "While exorcising,I have tested swearingby the Prophet(4) along with [the recitation of] the Almightys statement,7Aubammad is the Messengerof ARah, and those with him are stein with the disbelievers-:629 tothe endof S" FaLft (48), on my two youngdaughters who hadfits, andthey became well. Among the most unusualincidents [which I have encountered]was that of Ghazal, our Ethiopian servant. She was seizedby demonic,epileptic fits on the Ijijaz road. [We were] on our way to Makkah afterreturning from a visit [to the Prophefsgrave] in 885 A.H. Egypt was our final destination.Her fits andconvulsions continued for some days, and I besoughtthe Prophet (4) for help. During a dream,the one possessingher was broughtto meby theProphet's command, and I scoldedhim. He swore not to returnto her again. WhenI awoke,her painhad disappeared; and from

that point onward, it did not return to her- a]-Hamdulillih. And sheremained in

627 Justin, Dialogue Ixxxv, quoted in By LbeFinger of God, pp. 87-88. 11 628 Qur'an, 48:29.

208 good health until I parted with her in Makkah in 894 A. H. "629 However, it needsto be pointed out that swearing by the Prophet'sname is strictly forbidden in Islam based upon the Prophefs statement,"Surely, Allah forbids you to swearby your fathers. So whoever has to take an oath, let him do so by Allah or be quiet."630 In fact, swearing by the Prophefs name is considered an act of idolatry (sbh-]ý according to another statement of the Prophet (4), "Whoever has sworn by other than Allah has associated partners [with Allah]. "631 Consequently,the cure could not have been becauseof an-

Nabhat-d'sact of sbirk. Similarly, calling upon the deadfor help is an idolatrous act because the deceasedcannot do anythingin this world after their death. TheProphet

(4) stated, "When a man dies, his acts cease..."632 So the cure which took place in an-Nabhard'sdream could not have been in the way he perceived. Inbothofthese cases it was not the nameof Prophet Muýammad (4) which affected a cure, but the possessingfinn left when idolatry was resortedto in order to convince an-Nabhaniof the validity of his actions.

Names such as Jesusand Mubammad are not magicalentities. They haveno specialpower. JohnRichards had the followingto sayin this regard:

"The Apostolic Church healedin theName of Jesus,not becausethey regardedit asmagically significant, but as signifyingthat it wasnot they who were healing,a fact that Petermakes very clearin Acts 3. It is

629 yasuf ibn Isma'il an-NabhAffi, a]-Anw-Ir al-Mapamm2dij3ýah min al- Mawa&b al-Laduniyyab CBeirut: Dar al-Tmki, 2nd ed., 1985), p. 457.

630 Reported by 'Abdullah ibn 'Umar in VaAh 8, and collected , al-Bukbaff, vol. p. 417, no. 642 and $aAh Muslim, vol. 3, p. 875, no. 4038.

631 Reported by Ibn 'Umar, collected by at-Tirmidh! and Mmad, and authenticatedby al-Albw in $aAh al-JAMP,vol. 5, p. 282, no. 6080.

6,32]ý. eported by Aba Hurayrah and collected in $aAh Musflm, vol. 3, p. 867, no. 4005.

209 well known that the Name in Babylonianand Assyrian demonologywas

of foremost importancein using 'words of power.' The fact that Jesus'

name could be usedin this way successfully(see Mark 9:38) does not

indicate that this was the Church'suse of it. The fate of Sceva!s son033

has already been referred to and illustratesthe dangersof confusion

about this." 634

However, the stressplaced on the nameof Jesusby the secondcentury, church fathers seemsto indicate otherwise. In conclusion,the Islamicview holdsthat the powerto exorcisecomes from Allah aloneand not from anyof His creatures.It is in His name alone that devils are actually driven out. In the namesof others,the devilsleave of their own freewill or they areobliged to exit dueto the humanbody/mind becon-dng uninhabitableas a resultof treatmentby drugs,electric shock or physicalabuse.

633 The sevenJewish sons of Scevatried to exorcisea possessedman at Ephesus in Jesus'namebut failedand were severely beaten by the energumen(Acts 19:13-14).

634 But Delive!r Us from Evil, p. 165.

210 APpendl*x I THE MANUSCRIPT

The following untitled manuscriptis the fourth of a collection of twenty treatises in manuscript form, someof which are in Persianbut most in Arabic. They were written by various scribesand were completedat different times between 1148

A. H. and 1211 A. H. The treatisesare all hard-boundtogether to form a single volume with pages numbered chronologicallyfrom beginningto end. They include a number of subjects. The first of the treatisesis a mHdcritique in Persianof Shiite views, the ninth treatise is the famous forty Padahsof an-Nawaw! (1233-1277),635 and the last treatise explainsthe Islamic ruling on listening to music. The leather-boundcollection is in the personal library of MaulanaIftikhar a]-Ijasan in the village of Kandla, and it was inherited from his father.

The name of the author of the manuscriptof the fourth treatise is not mentioned (but we know from the text [38B] that he belongsto the Ash'ariteschool), and its topic is the realityof thefinn. In orderto logicallyargue that thefinn arereal and not fictitious,the authorquotes extensively from Fahkruddinar-RM's Maratffi a]- Obayb, commonlyknown as at-Taftfral-Kabir. Persianwords and texts areused at four points in the manuscript,and a quotefrom al-Bayom's Qur'Anicexegesis, Rz*

'W-Ma6'ý wasadded by the scribeat the endof the manuscript.

The scribe'sname is alsonot mentioned,but it probablywas GhulamIjusayn ibn Nor Mu4ammad,due to the closesimilarity in the manuscript'scalligraphic style to that of the other treatisesin Persianand Arabic copied by him anddated 1206 A. H., 1209A. H. and 1211A. H. Sincethe addedquote from Rap W-Winiwas in the same handwriting as a note addedto manuscriptnumber five (written in 1148A. H. by Mu4ammadSa'Id) andsigned by Ghulam'Ali AMari in 1210 A.H., it is likely that this manuscriptwas written at oneof the earliertwo dates.

635 Al-A'I&n, vol. 8, pp. 149-150.

212 The first five anda half leavesare written in a fairly legibleShMdstah script, but the last four and a half are written in a poor Ta'&q Mudsmaj script which is virtually unintelligible in places. The text was written in black ink, and red ink was used to designatethe beginningwords of issuesto be discussed.

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222 TRANSLATION OF THE MANUSCRIPT

[The firm kasrah doubled paff 636 is word] with a and non means a , which different from "man." Its singularisjhwwith two kwahs according to aS-$ffi4.637

And in Tah"b al-KaljM, 639"The philosophers claim that angels are incorporeal

minds ['uqaImqjaaadah] and souls of the spheres[nufasýklakýyah], 639While the finn

are incorporeal spirits [arwAft mujaffadab] able to act independentlyin the elements,

and Satan is an imaginaryforce. There is nothing to prevent all, i. e., angels,firm and

devils, from being seenby someon certain occasions."640 So endshis statement.

"It should be known that people,past and present, have differed in regardto confirming or denyingthe [existenceof] the finn. It [i. e., their existence]is denied accordingto the obvious meaningsof narratedstatements from somephilosophers. That is so becauseAba 'Ah ibn Sinj641stated in his treatiseon the parametersof

636 Persian for a femalejbmi or a fairy. Seea]-IjAj Firazuddin's RzVz a]-Lughlt Fars! (Lahore: Firaz SonsLtd., 1973), p. 195. 637 ISMI-11al-Jawhari, as-Sihih: Tijal-Lughah wa,ýffiAft al-Arabjj, )ýý (Beirut: 4,1979), Dar al-'Ilm li al-Malayin, 2nd vol. 5, p. 2093. 638 The author was Sa'duddin Mas'ad at-Taftazani (d. 792 A. H. ) and he named the book Tah"b al- ff Taftffr al-Maqlq wa a]-Kalkn (Haji Khahfah, K" ,V-.? ýunan 'an As&ff a]-Kutub wa al-Funcm[Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1982], vol. 1, pp. 515-516).

639 This is the term most commonly usedby Neo-Platonic, Muslim philosophers to refer to the heavenly angels as distinct from earthly angelsand earthly souls, i. e., humansouls. (ShojTcrEnqyc1qpaediaof Islam, p. 435.) 640 See also Muýammad 'Ali at-Tahanawi,Kashshif4glaftit al-Funcin(Cairo: Maktabah al-Nah4ah, 1963), vol. 1, p. 374. 641 Known as Avicenna (d. 1037) in the West, Abil 'Ah al-IjUsayn ibn Sina was born in Bukhara. He was a Persianphysician, 'the most famous and influential of the philosopher-scientists identified with Islam. He was particularly noted for his contributions in the fields of Aristotelian philosophy and medicine. He composed , Kitab ash-Sbiff (Book ofHeaag), 4 vast philosophicaland scientific encyclopedia, and ai-Qjnon firq-Tibb (Canon of Medicine), which is among the most famous books in the history of medicine. (The New EnqvcJopaedj,?Bfitannica, vol. l, p. 739.)

223 things that a jLW is an ethereal[bawXI] creaturewhich may take different 'existing forms. He then said, 'This is an explanationof the name.' His statement,'This is an

explanation of the name' indicates that the "planation is of the intended meaningof

the word Uiim] and that it doesnot have an external reality.642 As for the majority of

those following religions and those believing in prophets,they confirm the existenceof

the finn. A large group of early philosophersand followers of sacredtexts affirmed

their existence and called them lower spirits [arwAft suflij)lah]. They claimed that the

lower spirits respond more quickly becausethey are weak, while the heavenlyspirits [arw,V falakiýyah] respondmore slowly becausethey are more powerful.

"Those who affirm [the existenceof thefinn] are of two opinions. Those [who

adhere to the first opinion] claim that they [i. e., the finn] have neither bodies Uism]643

nor do they dwell within bodies,but are substancesUawbar]644 existing independently.

They state that this [independent existence] does not make them of equal essence

[dh.#I] with Allah. Just because they are neither corporeal nor of negative [saldb]

corporeality nor do they sharein negativeattributes, this does not necessitateequality

in nature [mAbivyah]. 645 They [further] hold that although thesebeings sharein this

negative [attribute], they are of different naturesin the sameway that the natures of

642 Sborter.Enc yClopaedia OfIslam, P. 9 1. 643 According to philosophers, fism is a body composedof the four elements (fire, air, water and earth). Its essentialcomponents are prime matter (bayald) and form (pmh), which are themselves imperceptible and indivisible. The term "fism" refers to earthly bodies while its cognate fism refers to heavenlybodies which are made of a single element - the celestial element. (A EVctibnary of Muslim Pb ilosopby, p. 3 8.) 644 , The first of the Aristotelian categories. As, a general term it signifies everything that exists in, reality. (M. Saeed Sheikh's A Dictionary Muslim , of PJWosqpby[Lahore: Institute of Islamic Culture, 1976], p.40. ) 645 In this case mjhiy yah is equivalent to db-it, the "whatness" thing; its . of a essenceor quiddity. (A Dictionary OfMuslim Pbflosopby, p. 115.)

224 accidents'or [ 'arad]646 differ they in the nonessentialcharacteristics . although share need for a location [in which to exist]. Consequently,some of them are good and some are evil. Some are noble and desiregood things, while others are baseand desire evil and harm. Allah alone knows the number of their speciesand categories. They

[also] say that their existenceas incorporealbeings does not prevent them from being aware of information647andcapable of acts. Thesespirits are able to hear, see,know current conditions and do specific acts.

"As have we mentionedthat their natureis different- without a doubt- it is, [therefore], possible that amongtheir categoriesare those who are able to do extremelyarduous tasks beyondthe powerof humans.It is [also] not farfetchedthat each of the categorieshas a connectionwith a specific categoryof bodiesof this world. Medical evidenceindicates that the first thing connectedto the rationalsoul [nafs nktiqab] - which is noneother than man -is the spirit,which is a fine, ethereal [bukb&Yyyah]body producedfrom the finestparts of the blood andwhich existsin the left side of the heart. Then, by way of connectionbetween the soul andspirit, it becomesconnected with the body partsin whichthe spirit flows. It is alsolikely that each of thefinn hasa connectionwith oneof the partsof air andthat that part of air is the basic connection tothespirit. Then,when the air flows into anotherdense body, those spirits [with thefinn connected]gain an attachmentto the body andachieve an influenceover it.

"There aresome people who havementioned another way in regardto thefirm [i. e., how they becomeattached 'to man]. They say that whenhuman spirits and

646 'Araff, commonly translated as "accident," is a quality which adheresto a subject but it neither constitutesits essence'nordoes it necessarilyflow from it, e.g., the color of man. Thus, an accidenthas no independentexistence but exists only in another being, a substanceor another accident. (A Dictionary of Muslim Pbilosopby, p. 73.)

647 WrongdoingsUaffmfl) in the original

225 rational souls leave their bodies and enterthe spirit-world,they increasein strength and perfection,bringing about the revelationof spiritualsecrets. If, simultaneously, therehappens to be anotherbody resembling that of the disembodiedsoul's, because of this resemblancethere occurs to the disembodiedsoul an attachmentwith this [other] body. Thenthe disembodiedsoul becomes like an aid to the soulof that [other] body in its acts and control of that body. Certainly,[similarity in] natureis a reasonfor fusion. So, if this statecoincides between good souls,the helperis calledan angeland the help,inspiration [ik&n]. But if it [i. e., this state]coincides in evil souls,the helper is calleda devil andthe help,whispering [ waswasah].

"The secondopinion with regard to the [existenceof] finn is that they are corporeal. Subsequently,those who hold this [opinion]are divided into two different positions. Amongthem are those who claimthat bodiesare of differentnatures. They share only one quality which is that all of them exist within a realm, placeand direction,4nd are described in termsof height,width anddepth. All of thesepoint to a sharing of propertiesbut does not necessitatea sharingof essence.Because it has been proventhat thingswhich differ in all aspectsof their nature[txn&n al-mlhijý] are not preventedfrom sharinga singleinherent quality [I&hn], which therebycannot be separatedfrom a body (being a body) possessinga single set of parameters [padd]641and a single reality. There cannotbe anydissimilarity within the body as such; rather, if there is dissimilarityit would take place due to some additional consideration.

"It is also possiblefor us to categorizebodies as fine [1,kW] and dense[kaWf], and higher [Wo! ] and lower [suflt], and the sourceof (categorization)649 is sharedby

"648 In philosophy#add meansa definitionwhich places the objectto be defined betweentwo limits so that it is the end of one and the beginningof 'the other. According to the TaAlat of al-Judw, it is the qualitiesthat differentiatean object. (SbonerEncyclopaedia of Islam,p. 116.)

649 This word wasmentioned in the originaltext of at-Tafslral-Kabirbut deleted

226 [all of] the categories. All bodies share in corporealityand their dissimilarityonly occurs due to the attributesof finenessand density, or dueto thembeing heavenly or earthly. For if we say that the nonessentialcharacteristic, as such, has a single parameterand reality, it thereforenecessitates that all nonessentialcharacteristics are equalin essence.However, this is amongthe thingswhich no intelligent[being] would say. Instead,the truth accordingto philosophers,is that nonessentialcharacteristics do not have a sharedamount of essentialcharacteristics [dhigyat], or if therewere a sharedportion, one would be a speciesof the other. If this werethe case,the nine [spheres]650would not be heavenlyspecies, but would be categoriesof a single species. Thus, we say that nonessentialcharacteristics as suchhave a singlereality, and that doesnot necessitateit havinga sharedessence at all, let aloneit beingequal in all aspectsof its essence. So,why is it not possiblefor that which dwellswithin the body to be likewise?Nonessential characteristics differ [from eachother) in all aspects of their essence. They are equal in their descriptionas nonessential characteristics becausethey are not essentialto the objects whichdisplay them. Conversely,it is possible for bodies that differ in all aspectsof their essenceto be equal in a nonessentialcharacteristic, which is not essentialto the objectsdisplaying it. Similarly, it is [also] possiblefor bodies to differ in all essentialaspects and be equal in nonessentialcharacteristics which are detectableby the senses,exist in a realm

from the manuscript.

650 According to the cosmogony current with Muslim philosophers,there are nine celestial spheres surrounding the world and revolving around the earth as its center. Each spheresurrounds the other like the peelsof an onion. All of the spheres are transparent,enabling one to seethrough them from the lowest to the highest. The following are the nine spheres in descending order: (1) the sphereof the primurn mobile (f" al-aflik); (2) the sphereof the fixed stars (al-kamWb ath-Lbibitah); (3) the, sphere of Saturn (ZubaI); (4) the sphereof Jupiter (Musbtan); (5) the sphereof Mars (Madkh); (6) the sphereof the sun (sbams);(7) the sphereof Venus (Zubrab); (8) the sphere of Mercury ('Upid) and (9) the sphere of the moon (qamar). (A Dictionmy of Muslim Philosqpby, pp. 82-83.)

227 Wyyiý) and be describedin terms of the threedimensions. There is absolutelyno defenseagainst this probability. The651statement, 'It is possiblefor us to categorize bodies {as fine and dense)"652is also nullified by [the case of] the nonessential characteristic. It is possibleto categorizenonessential characteristics according to quality andquantity without therenecessarily being a sharedportion of their essences, not to mention equality in all aspectsof their essences.So likewise,why is it not for the here, if it is that is impossible[for jL-Mto enter allowable case argued -it humans]due to their bodiesbeing different? At this point [of the argument]they [usually]say, It is impossiblein the caseof somefine ethereal[hawj7jY yah] bodies not . to be different from the remainingtypes of gassesin nature, andthat. that nature intrinsically necessitatesspecial knowledge and ability to do amazingacts. ' On the basis of this assumption,the cla'anfor [the existence]of the finn would be quite reasonable,and so would their claimedability to assumedifferent forms.

"There arealso those among them who hold that bodiesare equalin all aspects of [their] nature[tamArn al-mMiyyab]. Thosewho hold [this view] are comprisedof two groups.

The first [group] arethose who claimthat structure[binyah] is not a condition for [the existenceofl life - and this is the positionof al-Ash'arl653andmost of his followers. Their proofsin this regardare clear and strong. Theysay, 'If structureis a condition for [the existenceof] life, either a single life force could exist in two

651 "Your" in the original.

652 Mentioned in the original text of at-Taftiral-Kabir.

653 Aba al-Hasan 'Ali al-Ash'arl (d. 935) was born in Bwah and until his 40th was year a zealouspupil of the Mu'tazilite theologian al-JubbAT However, the study of prophetic traditions elucidated for him the contradiction betweenthe Mu'tazilite views and the spirit of Islam. He henceforthchampioned the orthodox views,against the Mu'tazilites and composed large, number of works of a dogmatic and polemic __a, nature. (Sbor1erEnqydqpaediaoflslam, pp-,jq-ý7-)

228 [separate) parts'[of the structure] - which would require a single, nonessential characteristic to simultaneously occupy many different locations -an impossibility; or

[individual] life forces could exist in each of its parts! This [latter claim] is also false because the parts from which a body is composed are equal to each other, thereby requiring the life force existing in each part to be equal to the life force existing in every other part, and the rule governing a thing also governs things similar to it. Thus, if the existence of life in one part was in need of the existence of fife in another part, that need would exist in the other part also, thereby creating a paradox [da%T],654 which is impossible [to come into existence logically]. If the need does not exist, it would then be proven that the existence of life in one part does not depend upon the existence of another life force in another part. If this dependency [i. e., the codependency] is falsified, it is then proven that it is correct to describe an individual part as possessing life, knowledge, ability and will, and the claim that structure is a condition would be proven false. If this is proven, it would not be farfetched for Allah to create in an individual substance Uawbar] knowledge of many affairs and ability to perform difficult acts. With that, the view that the finn can exist becomes obviously

[valid], whether their bodies are fine or dense, small or large.

The second[group] are those who claimthat structureis a conditionfor the existenceof fife andthat theremust be solidityin a bodyfor it to be ableto do difficult acts. This is the opinion of the Mu'tazilites. 1655They hold that it is not possiblefor a visible object to be present,impediments [from viewing it) removed,the conditions of

654 A term used in logic to denote the circularityin argumentor proof which occurs in the simplestform whentwo propositionsare rotated, one used as a proof for the other. (A Dictionary of Muslim Philosopby,pp. 53-54.)

655 A rationalist,philosophical school founded in the Umayyadperiod (i. e., early , 8thý century) by W4il ibn 'Ata' and 'Amr ibn 'Ubayd. It gained swayover the 'Abbasid state for over onehundred years and continued to influenceIslamic thought until the 12thcentury. (SbozterEnqyc!opae&a of1slam, pp. 421-426.)

229 closenessand distanceexisting, the sensesfunctioning properly, and yet perceptionof it by way of the sensesdoes not takeplace. Indeed,the perceptionof it musttake place656at that time or elseit wouldbe possiblefor mountainsto be in our presence which we could not see-and that is sophistry.The Ash'aritesheld that it is possible for perception[of objects] not to takeplace [in suchcases] because a largebody is composedof [small] parts. If we seea largebody at a measurabledistance, we have seen its parts. Either seeingone657 part dependsupon seeing another part or it does not. If the first is the case, it will resultin a paradoxbecause the partsare equally (dependent]upon eachother. For, if seeingone part dependsupon [beingable to] see another part, seeingthe other part would also depend[upon being able to] seethe [first] part thereby resulting in a paradox. [However],if this dependencedoes not exist, then seeingan individual substanceat a distancebecomes possible. It is also known that if that individual substanceexisted by itself without other substances merging with it, it would not be visible. We know that it is not necessaryfor I something to be seenwhen the sumtotal of its conditions[for visibility] converge,but only possible. And if that [point] is established,then the doctrinethat firm exist becomesreasonable. For, althoughtheir bodies are denseand powerful,it is not impossiblethat we areunable to seethem although they arepresent. This is according to the fundamental[arguments] of al-Ash'arl. On the otherhand, according to the fiindamentalsof the Mu'tazilah,the doctrineclaiming the existenceof angelsand firm is problematic.For, if they [i. e., the angelsand firm] havethe characteristicsof density and solidity, accordingto them[i. e., the Mutazilites], theymust be visible- although that is not the case. Accordingto both themand the Asharites,there are two groups of angelspresent at all times: the protectors [Pafa?ah] andthe recorders[kU*n

656 "Exist" in the manuscript.

657 "This" in the manuscript.

230 kitibcm). 659 They [i. e., the angels] are also present at the time that the souls are taken.

They were present with the Messenger (may Allah's peace and blessings be upon him and his fan-dly) and none of the people saw them. Likewise, the people sitting near those who die do not see any [of the angels]. So if the sight of dense substances when they are present is a must, why do we not see them? If seeing [them] is not a must, their [i. e., the Mu'tazilite] view is thereby proven false. If [it is said that] they [i. e., the finn] have the attributes of power and strength in the absence of density and solidity, their [i. e., the Mu'tazilite] view is also proven false, along with their claim that structure is a condition for the existence of life. And if they claim that they [i. e., the finn] are fine spiritual bodies, but due to their fineness they are not able to do strenuous acts, that would be an open negation of the Qur'an which indicates that they have great strength to do arduous acts. In general, their [i. e., the Mu'tazilite] position with regard to affirming the [existence] of angels and firm along with these [other] views isstrange. "659 All of the above660is a summary of the commentary of Sarah a/-

JjW661 in at- Taflir al-Kab! T.662

"AASto what is relatedabout these living beings[i. e., thefinn] underthe word "663under[the letter] Yanjbi',664 [the following) 21-MUfa-ffq . qjfin chaptera]-Fj of a]-

658 The protecting and recording angelsare mentionedin the Qur'an, 82: 10-11.

659 At-Tafsir a]-Kabir (Tehran: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyyah, 2nd ed., n.d. ), vol. 30, pp. 148-152.

660 "That" in the manuscript.

661 The 72nd chapter of the Qur'an.

662 Maratfb al-Gbayb by Fakhruddin ar-Razi (d. 1210) is commonly known as at- Taflir a]-Kabir. (Kashf apZ.unan, vol. 2, pp. 1755 -175 6. )

663 A]-Mvfa-ffq are fundamental elements Uawffhiý freed from matter and existing independently. Seeash-Sharif 'Ali al-Judani'sKashfat-TaAfit [Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyyah, 1983], p. 223. '

According to A Dictionary of Muslim PAUbsopthy(p. 130), muf&fqjt are the

231 is said, "There are three categories of consciousbeings ['uqalj']: angels,finn and mankind. The angels are created from light, mankind from clay and the finn from fire. 665 Thus, the fiim are created with fine bodies in contrast with angels and is mankind. It related from the Prophet (4t) that he said thatjbw [pxyjn] are of three types. One type has wings like birds and fly, anothertype exists in the form of snakes and dogs, and the [third] type may take the form of men or whatever other forms they wish666of the perfect man [insjnkAmR]. 667You should know that all finn, regardless their fall four [ of species, under categories: elemental 'Unýuff], fiery [nw] -if fire was due to the elementals,it would be [quite] an interestingcase, ethereal [hawj'f], and earthy [turib! ]. Concerning the elemental types, they do not leave the spirit- world, they tend to be simple-n-iindedand to possess more power [than the other types]. They were given that name,elemental, due to the strength of their affinity to the angels,because spiritual affairs dominatelowly, earthly affairs. They do not appear except in the minds. The Almighty said: "... Devils from among mankind and the

separatedbeings, i. e., the purelyspiritual beings separated from all that is bodily. The term more specificallyis used to denotethe soulsand intelligences of the celestial spheres(al-'uqol al-'asbarab). 664 ý Yanibl' al-Lugbah was writtenby Abmadibn 'Ah, knownas "Ja'farak"(d. 544 A.H. ). SeeKaWaf-Zimon, vol. 2, pp. 2052. 665 'kishah reported that the Prophet(4) said,"The angels were createdfrom fight andthe firm from smokelessfire. " ($aftýbMuslhnvol. 4, p. 1540,no. 7134.) 666An explanatory text in Persianinserted by the author. The actualtext of the prophetic statementstates, "Thereare three types offinn: onetype which flies in the airi all of the time, another type which existsas snakesand dogs, and an earthbound type,which residesin one place or wandersabout." Collectedby al-Tabariand a]-

667 "The perfect man," i.e., the one in whom arecombined all of the various attributes of divinity andhumanity, or onewho hasrealized in his personall levelsof being -a notion commonto Muslim philosophersand mystics. (A Dictionmy of MusIhnPJVIosqpA y, p. 18.)

232 #M"668 by the [awliyX]. The'fiery types, the hand, . and are only Seen saints on other usually leave the spirit-world. They are of diversetypes and forms. In the ideal world

[Wam al-mfthq, man mostly talks to them, and they do with him whatever they wish in that world. Their strategiesare very strong. Among them are somewho will carry a man!s body up to his position and others who will residewith them [i. e., humans] and the humanwill remain demented[mgra'] as long as they remain with him. Regarding the ethereal types, they are seen struggling with the spirit, and when their form is reflected on the dreamer, he becomes demented. The earthy types envelop the individual and force him into [a state] of gloom. Theseare the weakest of the finn in power and stratagem." End [of quote].

The term "find' may be used to refer to the angels and spiritual beings

[robWyon] "becausethe word Ykd is derived from the meaning'hidden. ' The angels and other spiritual beings are invisible to the eyes,so they become'hidden' from the eyes. Because of this, the term 'jb& hasbeen used to refer to them."669 And it is according to that meaning that it occurred in the Almightys statement: "And they made for ARA partners from the angels L#IWI."670

Note: "Our companions,[that is the Asharites],671 hold thatthefirmsee humansbecause the Aln-dghtycreated in their eyesperception, and humans are unable to see them becausethe Almighty did not create perceptionin humaneyes. The Mu'tazilites hold that the reasonwhy humansare unable to seethe firm (is becausethe finenessof their bodies makethem invisible. )672 If Allah increasedthe power of our

668 Qur'An,6: 112.

669 A direct quote from At- Taflir al-Kabir, vol. 13, p. 113.

670 Qur'An,6: 100.

671 Clarificationadded by the authorof the manuscript. 672 Author's insert.

233 sight, we would be ableto seethem as we seeeach other. And if the Almighty made their bodiesdenser and our eyesremained in this state,we would seethem. Therefore, accordingto them, the ability of humansto see the finn dependsupon eitheran increase in the density of the bodiesof thefinn or an increasein the power of human sight." 673This is the way it wasmentioned in at-Tafliral-Kabir.

Note: "They differed as to whether there were messengers [of Allah] among the finn or not. Aq-I? aýbak674said, 'Certainly, there were messengers among the fifm in the same way as there were among humans as proven by the Almighty's statement:

"... And there never was a nation without a warner living among them. "675 And the

Almighty's statement: "If We had made it an angel, We should have sent him as a man... "676 about which the exegetes have said that humans are more familiar with other humans than they are with angels. Thus, in His wisdom, Allah Almighty sent human messengers to humans in order that the people may be familiar with the messengers. This reasoning [also] applies to the jbw, so the messenger [sent] to the finn should be from among them. Most [exegetes] held that there were never any messengers from among the finn and that [all] the messengers were from among mankind. They used the consensus of opinion [jjMj1]677 as proof [However, this

673 At-Tafliral-Kabir, vol. 14, p. 54. 674 Ad_l?ahýhý& ibn Muzahim al-Hilah (d. 106 A. H. ) was a well-known, Qur'Anic exegete from among the generation following the Prophet's companions. SeeIbn Ijajaes TahdVb at- Tahdhib (Hyderabad: Majlis Da'irah al-Ma'arif an-Ni?Amiyyah, I st ed.), vol. 4, pp. 453-454. 'Seealso Aftzinal-Ridil (Beirut: Dar al-Ma'rifah, Ist ed., 1963), vol. 2, pp. 325-326.

675 Qur'An, 35:24.

676 Qur',an, 6:9. The evidenceis more obvious in Qur'an, 17:95: "Say, If there were settled on earth angels waUdngabout in peaceand quiet, We would certainly have sent an angel frorn the heavensas a messengerfor thern. " 677jjmj, is one of the four usal (fundamentalprincipals) from which the Muslim faith is derived. It is defined as thý agreementof the mujuhids (independentscholars) of the people after the death of Muhammad(4), in any age, on any matter of faith.

234 argument] is farfetchedbecause how could there be a consensuswith the existenceof a difference of opinion? - They also used as proof the AlmighWs statement: "Allah chose Adam and NoalL..,"679 wherein they agreed that the intended meaning of

"chose" was prophethood. Therefore, [according to them], prophethood had to be specificto those people.'" 679

Note: "Acts of disobedienceproduced by humansare not necessarilya result of satanicwhispering [ waswasah].Otherwise, [such a situation]680wouldresult in a paradox and an Mnite causeand effect chain [of evil] [tasaISUJ]691among the devils. There must be an original evil which occurredin the past without the agencyof demonicwhispering. We thensay that just asthe devilswhisper to humans,they could alsowhisper among themselves.

It is said that spirits are either heavenlyor earthly. Someof the earthlyare good andpure while othersare nasty and evil, biddingdisobedience and abomination - these are the devils. Furthermore,just as the good spiritsbid peopleto do actsof obedienceand righteousness,they also instruct each other to do the same. Similarly, just asthe wicked spiritsbid peopleto commitacts of disobedience,they alsobid each other likewise. The characteristicsof purity aremany and so arethe characteristicsof evil. And in everycategory there are groups of humansand groups of earthlyspirits. Dependingupon the [level of] affinity and[strength of] resemblance,each species will

(SboverEncyclopaedia oflslam, p. 157.)

678 Qur'an, 3:33.

679 At-Tafsiral-Kabl, vol. 13,p. 195.

680 "It" in the original.

681 An infinite successionof events or an infinite regress of causes,both of which, according to Muslim philosophers,are logically inadmissible. (A Dictionmy of Muslim Philosophy, p. 30. )

235 unite with its [own] type. If it is in the good category, the result would be an angel strengthening him and the thought [in the form of a divine] inspiration [Mijn]. If, on the other hand, it is from the evil category, the outcome would be a devil strengthening him and the thought [in the form of] a demonic whisper [ waswasah]. There must be a correlation. Whenever some type of compatibility between humans and spirits does not occur, the fusion with human souls does not take place. "692 This was gathered from at-Taflir al-Kabir in the exegesis of chapters al-An 'jM693 and &I-A 'rjf 6114

Note: (Thereis a differenceof opinionabout the ruling regardingwhether finn will be in Heaven or Hell. It is unanimously agreed that those Uinn) who are disbelievers will be in Hell. According to Abo 1janifah, the believing Uinn] will be spared Hell [but] wiU not enter Heaven. [Instead], they will disintegrateas animals will. According to another opinion, they will also enter Paradise)695according to al- Yan.gbl'.

A significant note: A man amongus may enter the interval-world (, Vam a]- barzakb) by transmutation(maskh). This [occurrence]is punishmentand [a result of]

Afth, the Almighty's, anger which He may have towards whomsoeverHe wishes. An example are those (people] amongthe earlier nations and past generationswho were transmuted into apesand pigS.696 However, He has removedthis form of punishment in the visible world from this blessednation which was sparedby the blessingof the

682A t- TafsIr al-Kabir, vol. 1, p. 78.

683 Verse 130.

684 Verse 27.

685 This text was in Persian.

1 686 In reference to "...Those who incurred the ýum of Allah and His wrath, smne of whom He transfonned into apesand swine..." Qur'an, 5:60. See also 2: 65 and 7: 166.

236 Prophet (4), except [those cases]which are amongthe major signs of the final hour. For it is narratedin the traditions that there will be amongthis nation transmutations, sinking of the earth and showersof stonesnear the time of the Resurrection.697 The true transmutation of man in the interval-world will happenmostly to the disbelievers

and to believerswho were sinful, harmful, adulterousand seizedby JUSt,689 especially if they die or are killed in a state of major ritual impurity Umlbah). 689Likewise, the unrepentant apostates who die without repenting will be included. However, not everyone who is like this will be transmutatedbut only those whom Allah Almighty wishes to transmutate and punish. Transmutationwill by no meansoccur among the righteous and the saints,even if they die in a state of major ritual impurity. There will be many cases of transmutation on the Day of Resurrection. For example,it was reported that the dog of the people of the cave690will becomephlegm and phlegm of

687 Sahl ibn Sa'd reported that he heard the Prophet (4) say, "There will be among the last of my nation sinking of the earth, transmutation and showers of stones." (,YaAbSunanlbnMijahvol. 2, p. 381, no. 3281. Seealso al-Hadis, vol. 4P pp. 35-36, no. 54.) 688 'Imran ibn IjWyn related that the Messengerof Allah (4) said, "There will be among this nation sinking of the earth, transmutationand showersof stones." A man among the Muslims asked, "0 Messenger of Allah, when will that be?" He replied, "When singing slave girls [qiyjn] and wind and stringed musical instruments appear [among them] and alcohol is drunk." (-,VaAh Sunanat- Th7nidM,vol. 2, p. 242, no. 1801.) 689 Jwjbab is the unclean conditiondescribed in the beginningof Qur'dn, 5:6: "When you havehad sexualintercourse with your wives,purify yourselves." The law further prescribesthat anyeff-usio serninis (including wet-dreams of a female)shall be consideredthe sameas sexualintercourse. One can only regainthe stateof ritual purity (po,trah) by a major ritual ablution (ghusl) consistingof a completebath. (Shoner EncyclopaediaofIslam, pp. 87-88.) 690 The people of the cave(aýpjb a]-kahi) arereferred to in the Qur',An, 18: 13- 22. Somereligious youths in a pagantown remainedloyal to the OneGod andchose to conceal themselvesin a cavealong with their dog in orderto avoidbeing forced to paganism. Allah put them to sleep and awakenedthem after manyyears. Upon awakening,they sentone from amongthemselves to town to buy somefood. By then, the town had convertedfrom paganism,and the sleepingyouths in old-fashioned ancient dress, strangeaccents and with ancientmoney became a clearconfirmation to

237 the dung beetle will become a dog. The former will enter Paradise and the latter will be cast into Hell. Included in this category is the transmutation of the head of a person who raises his head in the formal prayer before the lm&n does. His head wiff become that of a donkey. 691 Included within this is the transmutation of one who takes bribes, one who devours interest, one who fabricates prophetic traditions, and others like them. This is mentioned in the explanation of al-Barzakh by Mulla Mu'In. 692

In some treatises(on the subjectof eO spirits, they ask, "What is it that overpowersman and relatesthe details of its own fife?" )693MakhdomJahanyan694 said, "Thenarrators do not say,and I havenot heardfrom themexcept that evil spirits

that generationof the suretyof resurrectionand judgement. The peoplelater built a place of worship over themand argued among themselves as to the exactnumber of youths-three, five or seven. Muslim historians and exegetesidentify the paganruler as Decius (249-25 1) and the Christian as Theodosius11 (408450). In the West, the youths are known in legend as "The of Ephesus." The oldest recorded mention of the legend in the East was madein the chroniclesof Dionysius of Tell Mahre (d. 845), a patriarch of the Syrian Jacobitechurch, and in the West by Theodosiusin his book on the . (SborterEncyclopaedia of Islam, p. 45.) Their feast day is July 27 in the Roman Catholic Church and August 24 and October 22-23 in the Greek Orthodox Church. (Tbe New Enc:yclopaedia Biitannica, vol. 10, p. 666: 1a. )

691 Aba Hurayrah quoted the Messengerof Allah (4) as saying, "Does the one -ýho lifts his headbefore the im&n not fear that Allah may transform his head into that of a donkey?" (ýagh Muslim, vol. 1, p. 236, no. 860. Also collected by al-Bukhm. ) . '692 Mu1nuddin JutJis (d. 1820), also known as Dhun-Nan al-Mawsili, was a ]Uanafitejurist from Mosul (a city in northern 'Iraq). Among his more notýd works, none of which have been published, are Kash aV-Pararin canon law, Taplj)vah a]- Islam in Islamic etiquette, Urjazah ff Ya/wId al-Qur'jn in Qur'anic recitation, and Ma'din as-Salknah on the conditions of this life and the Hereafter. (Al-AUn, vol. 7, p. 274.)

693 Text in Persian.

694 jahanyIn (d. 785 A.H. ) wasa pupil (Mutid) of N4iruddin CharaghDahlawi, who was himself a pupil of SultanNgamuddin Awliya'. ('Abclq-ýamaclýarim al- Azhari'sTxfkb TVawwuf() [Lahore: Idarat '11miyyah,1969], p. 108.)

238 are the spirits of disbelieving finn. When they are given control over some

[disbelievinghumans] among them, they speakabout things concerning their life."

An Explanation of the Soul (agr-,Raha

In (the exegesis] of al-Bay4awi: 695 " It is Allah who takes the souls [of men] at the time of their death, and that which does not die in its sleep... '696 That is, He takes them from the bodies by cutting their connection with them and their control over them, either externally or internally - and that is at the time of death. Or [the connection may be cut] externally and not internally during sleep: '... He holds back that on which He has decreed death...: and He does not return it to the body. Ijamzah and al-I(iSA'j697 read [qaoj] with a (fammah on the q.4f and a kasrah on the

Vjdý, and [the word] aAmaw in the nominative case.699 "...And He sends the others forth..: This refers to [the soul] which is asleep [and which is sent] back to its body when it awakens: '... For an appointed time refers to the time set for its death, which is at the time of its release.

695 The exegesiswas entitled An wir at- Tand] wa AsrAr at- Ta'tffl by the author, but came to be known as Taftir al-Baygm. The author, 'Abdullah ash-ShIrm al- Bay4lwi (d. 1282), basedhis commentaryupon the Kashshffof Zamakhshar!but used a considerable number of other sources. It is consideredamong the best, Sunnite exegesesand was used as a textbook in many Islamic schools. (ShoilerEncyclopaedia ofIslam, p. 58.)

696 Qur'mi, 39:42.

697 Hamzah ibn Ijabib (d. 773) and 'Ah ibn Hamzahal-Yisa'! (d. 805) are among the ten sýholars of Qur'Anic recitation (quiTW; whose modeswere best preserved. They are among the reciters from Kufah, and al-Kisa'! was also one of the most famous Arabic grammarians.,,,(Manjhfl W-Wfa-nit' ' Ulam al-Qur'jn, vol. 1, pp. 453- 455.)

698 That is, the past tenseverb qa(IJwas read in the passivecase qu(fiya with the subject being aAmatw. The translation would then be rendered: "He holds back those on whom the decreeof deathhas beenpassed. "

239 In close[agreement] to whatwe havementioned is 'AbdullahIbn 'Abbas'(may Allah be pleased with them both)699statement to the effect that Adam had in him a soul and a spirit separatedby somethinglike a beamof sunlight. It is through the soul that there is intelligence[aq]] and consciousperception [tamayyuz] and through the spirit there is breathing and life. Both are taken at death and the soul alone is taken during sleep.11700

699 'Abdullah ibn al-'Abbas (d. 687) was a cousin of Prophet Muh.ammad (4) who was noted for his knowledge of PadFtb,law and exegesisof the Qur'an. (Sboner Encyclopaedia of1slam, p. 4.)

700 Tafsfr aj-BkyVjwf (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1982), p. 612.

240 Appendi*x 11

r INTERVMW NO. I

LOCATION: Cairo, Egypt DATE: 9/8/88

NAME: ShaykhMu4ammad Tahir'Abdul-Mu4sin DATE OF BIRTH: 1952 PLACE: Cairo

EDUCATION: B. A. in Islamic Studies from al-Azhar University, specializingin qirff.f it, 1978. Lectures occasionallyat al-Azhar.

Whendid you beginpracticing exorcism?

I began about nine or ten yearsago.

What causedyou to begin? I read Ibn TaymiyyaWsbook on the finn and when my friend in Talibiyyah describedhis wife'sstate, I realizedthat it wasa caseof possessionand proceeded to treat her.

What arethe signswhich indicatethat a personis possessed? A. Some of the signs are that a personmentions that he is uneasy,he finds himself getting up andsitting down frequently, he speaksunintelligibly, etc. This is called demonicpossession (Oara'al-finn).

What is the first thing you do whena possessedperson is broughtto you? A. In the beginning,we askthe possessedif he hasbeen treated by a physician.If he has alreadybeen treated by a doctor,we addressthe jhW, saying,"Fear Allah! " I speak to it in the sameway that I speakto a human. If he is in a stateof convulsion,I speak directly to the jhw. Otherwise,I recite over him some . Qur'Inic verses. Sometimesit will manifestitself duringthe recitationand at othertimes it will hide.

How do you distinguishbetween one who is possessedand one who is sick?

242 A. The state of the possessedis unstable,and they usually do not come to me until

after they have visited a physicianor a psychiatrist. Patientsusually woret come

until afterthey have tried all othermethods. In that way,we know that he is likely to be possessedor possiblyunder a magical spell.

How do you distinguishbetween the effectsof magicand demonic possession? A. In the caseof possessionthe finn will speakimmediately, yet for a patient under a

magical spell, the finn will not talk. The one under a magical spell will require

recitation for a long time, and he will needto take Arabic folk medicine. This is

encouraged according to the statementof the Prophet (4) coflected by Muslim,

"Whoever is able to help his brother should do so." When the Prophet (4)

prohibited incantations, someone stated, "0 Messengerof All* we have some

incantations against magic and scorpions." He said to them, "Read your

incantations to me." When they did so, he prohibited those containing idolatry

and confirmed those which did not. He then said, "Whoever is able to help his

brother, let him do so." He meantby that, for example,canceling the effects of

magic from one bewitched, which may make him unableto go to his wife. He

takes a double edged ax, heatsit on a fire until it becomesred, then he passesit

over her. This does not have sJVrkin it. It is Arabic medicine. Such things are

mentionedin Fat-P a]-Baff.

There are two ways of treating magic - one way is according to divine law (shaff'ah) and another is not. The legal way removesit completely while the

illegal method only removes it temporarily. Ibn Qayyim mentionedthat if the

effects of the spell have been presentfor a long time, it must be broken by Arabic

medicinal methods. On the other hand, if it is recent, it may be removed by

Qur'anic versesand prophetic methods.

Based upon your communicationwith possessingfinn, what arethe mainreasons whyfiiin possesshumans? A. The reasonsare as follows:

243 1. Walkingaround the housenaked 2. Being isolated andunprotected by the propheticmorning and evening prayers. 3. Entering the toilet without makingthe fortifyingprayers because the toilets are amongthe dwellingplaces of thefinn 4. Pouringhot wateron ajbwwithout mentioningAll&s name 5. Going without making the fortifying prayersto the areasof the film, like mountaintops and garbagedumps, and hurting them by urinatingon themor

stepping on them-The finn maythen ignorantly hurt the personmuch more than he deserves.In suchcases, the treatment involves addressing the jLW andtelling it that the patienthad accidentally and not intentionallyhurt it. If it washarmed in I the patient'shome, it should be told that it hadno right to be therein the first I place, for finn are not allowed to five in the homesof humans.Thus, the jLw should be told that it is in the wrong. Theywill actuallyreply. Sometimesthey will say, "I love him." Othertimes they may threaten those in their presenceby saying, "I will leave andhurt him." In suchcases, the exorcistmust have strong faith and believe in the onenessof Allah andsay to thejLwf, "You are certainly not able to do anythingat all becausethe only onewho canbenefit or harmis AM. " At that point,thejLwlwUl becomefearful and cause the personto shake.

Who aremost often affectedby finn, menor women? A. Womenare most often affectedbecause the finn love beautifulwomen. They may even have intercoursewith them. A caseof possessionwas presented to me in which a Christianwoman said that shefeels something come upon her andshe

struggleswith it but it overcomesher. I told her, "AcceptIslam and I will -by the grace of Allah -remove it from you." Sherefused, so I left her. Consentual intercoursecan take place betweenthem, but this would be a majorsin because Allah has createdthat whichis suitablefor eachspecies. Thus, it is not allowable for humansto marryfrom the animalworld.

Q. Do male finn possesswomen andfemale finn possessmen, or is it possiblethat

244 malefinn possessmales and vice-versa? A. In referenceto those finn who possessbecause of love,their love for humansis basedupon desire. Therefore,male finn love women,and female finn love men. However, thereis no genderpteference when humans accidentally causes harm to finn. For example,we saw a manfrom UpperEgypt who knew nothingof the Qur'An and the Sunnah,but in his possessedstate he would recitethe Qur'Anlike a trained reciter. When the jbw was removed,we discoveredthat it usedto worship in a cave. The man, who wasa stonemason, went into that caveand urinated and defecatedin it, so thejbw hurt him. We told thejbw, "You area Muslim who has memorizedthe Qur'Anand spoiling this man'smind andbody is satanic." ThejbWcomplied by leaving.

Q. From your experience,if a jbw speaks,does he usethe voice of the possessed personor doesthe voicechange?

A. The voice is often different. If it is a femalejhw, it speakswith a femalevoice, anda malejhwwith a malevoice.

Q. Cana disbelievingjLwj entera Muslim?

A. Usually a disbelievingjLw entersa Muslim. The conditionsof thefinn arelike that of humans. Someare Muslims and others are not. Someare righteous and others are not. However, it is possiblefor a MuslimjhWto harma Muslim human.

Q. Wheneveryou addressthe finn andinvite them to Islam,do they acceptit? A. Yes. I presentIslam to themand they usually accept. I remindthem of the next life and that they will have to returnto Allah. Theyoften complyimmediately.

Sometimesthey listento a greatdeal of religiousadmonition yet do not respond. The easeor difficulty of their removal varies from oneperson to another.By using methods involving lcuft, the finn will respondbut they won't leave permanently. If the exorcist possessesstrong faith, thejLw will respondand

245 leave. However, if he doesnot, the possessionof the personwill continue. In the

lcufr methods, the fiim are called up using unlawful means,like making oaths

containing shirk and kufr. For example,they say, "I swearby your sevenmost

mighty.'s In such a caseshirk is involved, and assuredlythe finn will answer him

and ask him what he wishes becausehe has exaltedthem. Hewillthenaskthe

finn to leave, but the finn will ask him to do somethings in return. ShaykhIbn

Taymiyyah said that one shouldnot do anythingthat the finn request. If he tells

you to drink water or sacrificean animalfor him, it should not be done. If he says

that he will leave for one reason or another, tell him that he must leave in

obedienceto Allah and I-EsMessenger.

From your experience,how do finn benefitfrom possessinghumans? A. It is from love or just desire.For example,if an ignorantman walking down the street is accidentallyhurt by an intelligent person,the ignorantman decides to punish the intelligent one. What benefit does he get from that? It is just ignorance. There are prophetic traditionswhich indicate that thefirm maytake the form of vermins,like snakesand rats. One may kill a vermin without mentioningAUWs name andit mayhave been one of them. Becauseof this, the firm mayafflict him with somepunishment.

Q. How doesajbWenter a human? A. The Prophet (4) said that the devil flows in the bloodstreamsof Adanfs descendants.Sometimes it mayhave fun with the superstitiousby sayingthat it will leavethrough the eyeof the possessedand gouge it out or that it will leaveby his leg, paralyzingit. Consequently,the true believer shouldnot acceptsuch statementsbut tell it to leaveas it came. Sometimesthe finn will only leaveif they areflogged.

Have you found any finn who spoke in a different languagethan the one 6 possessed?

246 A. Yes. We found afin&in an Egyptian woman who spokeUrdu. He was originally from Pakistan. He said that he was on Pqyand fell in love with her and returned

with her to Egypt. His namewas strange,incomprehensible. He said that he lived in an abandoned apartment and that he had over ten thousand children and

grandchildren. Somepeople may hear this and ask, "How could ten thousand live

in one apartment?" However, we alreadypointed out that they may take the form of vermin, like ants.

I also helped a Saudi married to an Egyptian woman who used to curse her

husband in different languages,like English and French. I communicatedwith the

jhWin Arabic, and it left her after promising to do so.

Sometimes exorcistsfall into sbirk as a result of a jhw, For example,when an

exorcist orders a jm*rur to leave a personby the permissionof AIM but the jLW

swears that it will only leaveby other than Allah (e.g., swearingto leave by a so-

called saint) and the exorcist agreesto its stipulation, this is sbirk. If the exorcist

strictly believesin the onenessof Allah, he will say to it, "No. You are a liar and a

pagan. You are not allowed to swearby other than Allah. You must swear by

Allah, saying, I promise Allah to leavethe person and protect her from others as

much as possible. By the One who split the seafor Moses and madethe winds blow for Solomon,I will leaveher andwill not returnagain. "' And it will actually leave.

Whenyou addressthe fian, do you find that theyhave names like humans? A. Yes. They sometimesname themselves with humannames like 'Abdul-'Aziz. At othertimes they have non-human names and incomprehensible titles.

Have any of your children beenaffected by possessionafter you begantreating possessedpeople?

A. No, mayAllah be praised.My childrenrecite from the Qur'anthe two chaptersof protection (mu'awwidbatin)and the openingchapter (al-Fitffiah). The Qur'Anis

a cure for all physicaland spiritual ailments.If peopleask how diseasecan be

247 resisted, the responseis that resistanceis granted by the Lord of the earth and the

sky. The proof of this is that the companionsof the Prophet (4) treated scorpion

stings with the recitation of al-Fitffiah. The sting was a physical ailment, and the

recitation of al-Fitipah was a spiritual healing. Ibn Qayyim also used as proof the

Almighty's statement: "We revealedin the Quean what is a healing and mercy

for the behevers."701 This is in reference to all forms of ailment, physical or

spiritual. In several known cases when the possessedreached the door of a

particular house,the jhw screamedout, "I will never enter this place becausethe

Qur'an is read in it. " The Prophet (4) said, "If Sarah al-Baq=h is read in a

house,the devil will not come near it for three days."

Q. During an exorcismhave you everfound more than one jhwin a person? A. Yes, more than one jhw maycause harm to a person'sbody, as Ibn Taymiyyah confirmed.They will alsohave different voices.

Q. Couldyou describethe stepsthat you usefor treatment? A. First I askthe personbeing treated his nameand he maysay, for example,Aýmad or Mu4ammad.During my recitationI againask for his nameand he maysay, for example,George. ThereforeI know that it is ajLW. I thenask if it is a Muslim and so on.

Q. If you communicatewith thejhW andit refusesto leave,what do you do? A. I recite many versesof Qur'Anover him. And if it still refuses,I then say,"I will drive you out with a severebeating. " It becomesfearful because humans are strongerthan jbw. I sawa casein which a jLW wasin love with a woman,and I said to it, "I will read a lot of Qur'an over you." It repliedthat it lovedthe Qur'an. I asked it how it could love the Qur'An and at the sametime be

701 Qur"An,17: 82.

248 passionatelyin love with the woman. I broughta stick andhit her on the neck with it, yet the possessedwoman did not feel anything. Only in casesof possessionshould beating be used.

Do you tie the toesof the person?

A. There are many different methodswhich do not contain sbirk or Icufr which may be used.

Do you reciteover water and make the possessedperson drink it? Or do you use oil? A. Yes, sometimes I have as long as there is no shirk involved. I have used the

nushrah methodof stonegrinding seven lotus leaves,placing this in a containerof water and reciting the kawa& (Swah a]-Karlian[109], Saraha]-I, 014 [112], verse 255 of the secondchapter and a]-Fjtffiah) over it. The patientthen drinks three mouthfuls of this andbathes with the remainder.It is a good andeffective method. When the possessedperson comes,I recite versesover him, such as the four

verses of Sarah al-Baqarah, wa iljhukum RAhun wWd..., 702 verse 255 of a]-

Baqarah and the closing verses of aI-Baqat;*, the last versesof A] 'Imrin (3);

Sarah al-A'rif from the AlmighWs statement: inna zabbukumullih alladV

IhaIJqas-samjwjd wal-Wa fi'sjttatiiUyjmin thummas-tawj 'alal-arshytWbshfl-

laylan-nah&703 for about four verses until His statement: innahu lffyuhibbul-

mu'tadfn wall tufsida P"l-aqUbada #11ftihi wad'UhuItha wfan wa lama'an inna

raftinatal-M! qxibun minaI-mUpSLgff704 also laqad j Jakum zasOlunmin

702 Qur'an,2: 163.

703 Quran, 7:54.1 1 704 Qur'An,7: 56.

249 anfUSikUrn-705SOmh a]-Muminan (23); Sarah as-$Jffaft (37); the ending of Sarah

al-Výsbr (59); and Sarah al-KArlifm (109). 706 This is called the small dose Uurah

fughri). Those possessed always are affected by it and theft"fusually comes

out after this recitation. If the jLW does not come out or manifest itself, I know

that the person is not possessed. However, instead, he may be bewitched.

Sometimes the jhw will manifest itself while I address it after the recitation.

Some cases may be delusion and therefore are called delusionary magic (sffiral-

-awbarn). Sometimes the person may have ailments due to bad character.

About 50 percent of the caseswhich are brought to me are demonic possession

or magic and the rest commonsicknesses.

Once a woman came to me and I recited upon her, and the jhw was burned

up. It is possiblefor them to be burned. On anotheroccasion a Saudi man came

to me who had beenbewitched by menstrualblood and sperm. He was screaming like a calf being slaughtered.

705 Qur',ti, 9: 128. 706 This is basedupon a narrationfrom Abo Layla andcollected by Ibn Majah. However, it is not authenticdue to the presenceof Aba Janabal-Kalbl- in its chainof narrators.

250 INTERVIEW NO. 2

LOCATION: Cairo DATE: 9/8/88

NAME: 'Abdul-Khaliqal-'Allar DATE OF BIRTH: 1920 PLACE: Cairo

EDUCATION: Law degreefrom Cairo University, 1950. Memorizedcomplete Qur'Anand studied shatVab at the Collegeof Law.

Q. Whenand why did you beginto practiceexorcism?

A. About 40 years agoone of my sonswas afflicted by thejbw -although I did not know it at the time- andhis sicknessbecame a majorproblem for me. I went to many psychiatrists,psychologists, neurologists, brain specialists and a varietyof medical doctors for treatment.But afterevery visit to the medicalspecialists his sicknessbecame worse. Aroundthat time I happenedto be readingIbn Qayyim al-Jawziyyalfsbook, Zid a]-Ma'jd. In the chapteron the treatment of the possessed,I noticed that the symptomsof possessionwere the sameas those shown by my son. The prescribedtreatment mentioned in the chapterwas the recitation of someQur'Anic verses and prophetic supplications. So I recitedover my son, and he began to get better. His conditionimproved the moreI recited

until he becamecompletely well - by the permissionof Allah. From that moment I felt a great desire to increasemy knowledgeof this science.Day andnight I beganto researchthe topic of the world of thefinn, the devilsand the angels.I

read many good booksand many terrible ones. However- by the graceof Allah

- wheneverI cameacross new information,I would not adoptit until afterI had checkedits authenticitybased upon the -Qur'an and the Sunnah., What was confirmed,I acceptedand what was not, I rejected.The correctinformation I recordedin my own notebooksuntil I hadgathered many such notebooks and a Ibn large quantity of material.,I then read extensivelythe writings of Imarn

251 Taymiyyah (may Allah be pleasedwith him) and his studentImam Ibn al-Qayyim.

Then I beganto organizethe information in chapterswhich lead -by the mercy of

Allah - to my writing 30 books in the form of manuscripts about Qur'Anic medicine (apTibb a1-Qur'jjv) and prophetic medicine (fipTibb an-Nabawj.

These books are ready for publication; however, due to my limited resources,I

have beenunable to publish any of them to date.

Q. Whatpercentage of the casesyou meetare actual cases of demonicpossession? A. When I visit someoneor someoneis brought to me who believes that he is affectedby magic, evil eye or thefitm, my first sessionis an examination(faks) and giving advice. The methodof examinationis quite simple. Anyoneafflicted by magic, evil eye or finn attack must showsome symptoms of the affliction, which I call, "symptomsof satanicbonding. " Thesesymptoms have peculiarities like the symptomsof anyother sickness, such as influenza or rheumatism.During the examinationI thereforeask about the symptomswhich may appear in both the waking state aswell asduring sleep. Symptomsduring sleep include nightmares, sleeplessness,broken sleep, uneasiness, the grindingof teeth,and dreams of Satan in the form of carnivorousanimals. ThenI askabout symptoms while awake, such as feelings of anxiety,forgetfulness, hopelessness, lethargy and immobility. Includedamong the signsare being easily angered, crying, and staring aimlessly or avoiding the eyes of others. If the patientdisplays such symptoms during his waking and sleepingstates, I recite upon him some Qur'Anic verses.If he is possessed,the jLW may begin at this point to talk eitherwith the voice of the person or with anothervoice. Sometimesit will usefoul language,curse those presentor strikeand kick. It mayreveal why it possessedthe personand when it did so. It mayalso reveal if thereare others present. Psychiatrists diagnosis this as schizophreniaor dualpersonality. If a jLW speaksthrough a humantelling its name, religion and condition, they call it dualpersonality. If thejbW doesnot speak but the person'spersonality goes through a major change,they call it

252 schizophrenia.

Are there other signs, like badsmells or an unnaturalsmile, that are commonto thosepossessed? A. In reality, whenajm*nt-bonds with a human,there are innumerable signs. Among them are laughter and crying for no reason. Thesesymptoms are well-known to

the medical profession and are explained as a result of over-activity or under-

activity of certain glands. We know in spiritual medicine that this is due to

demons playing with the glandscausing them to over-secreteor to decreasetheir

secretions, therefore causingsudden changes in personalityand swift mood shifts.

The possessedperson may also exhibit supernaturalstrength.

What is the percentageof realcases of possessionamong your patients? A. My sbaykh and mentor, Imim Ibn Taymiyyah(may AM have mercy upon him)

who died more than 700 years ago said in al-Faaw the following, excellent

statement,"If the veil were removedfrom the people of this time [Ibn Taymiyyah's

time, over 700 years ago], we would find that most of the people of this time are

possessedby demons." If that was'said700 yearsago, what'can we say about this

age in which filth is widespread and the means of demonic possession are

abundant. This is a time of sportand play, disobedience and corruption. The

percentageof those possessedis very startling- mayAM protectus all. Those spared demonicinfluence are very few, while thoseunder attack are many. All* the Alnýghty said in Sarah an-Nis-f': "... A rebeMousdeQ, curscd by ARA, said,

I wiU surcly takc a derinitc portion of Your se"'rivantsand mislcad thern. I wiU

create in thmn false desiresand order them to slit the earsof cattle and to deface

the creation of Allah... "707 They are many. And Almighty Allah's statement:

"And Satan proved his idea true on them, and they aU fbHowed him except a

707 Qur'An4: 118-119.

253 group of those who befieved."708 So in reality, the percentageof those under

I satanicinfluence in the world today is extremelyhigh. And there is a need everywherefor thousandsand thousandsof exorcistsin orderto helpmankind achievebliss in this life'. Thereare a numberof realsicknesses which the medical profession,past andpresent, in the Eastand in the West,has been unable to cure and the curelies only in theNoble Qur'An. The medicalprofession readily admits it has not advancedover the yearsin its abilityto cureproblems such as epilepsy, bewitchment,and schizophrenia.In reality,those touched by Satanare so many and their percentageis rapidly increasing. Yet, thoseinvolved in treatingthem accordingto the Qur'An and the Sunnahare so few that onecannot but fear for the future of mankind if a solution is not found. By AHWs blessing,I am working

on passingon knowledge of this scienceto manyyoung people. But resourcesto

do this effectively are very limited.

From your own experience,what arethe mainreasons why peopleare possessed? A. I havewritten a chapterin my book,lqtrw asb-Shaylffnbi a]-Insin,709 specificaUy for this question. There are exactly six reasons: 1) extremefear, 2) extreme anger, 3) extremejealousy, 4) devotion to lust, 5) human aggressionagainst devils,and 6) love of demonsfor humans.Human aggression could be in the form of pouring hot water on the places wheredevils reside or urinatingin holesor cracks in the ground. TheProphet (4) prohibitedus from urinatingin holesand cracks in the earth becausethey are placeswhere the finn reside. The love of demonsfor humansis very, very common. When malefinn possesshuman femalesand we communicatewith them,they often readily admit that they arein love with them. And whenfemalefinn possess men, they often expressthe same.

708 Qur'An34: 20.

709 An unpublishedmanuscript as mentioned earlier.

254 Q. What is the percentageof femalesamong your patients?

A. They are about 70 percent of the cases. The percentageof possessionamong

women is much greater than it is among men. And this percentageis consistent

with the texts of the Qur'an and the Sunnah. On one occasion,the Prophet (4)

visited a group of women and said, "Give in charity, becauseI was shown that

you made up most of the inhabitantsof the Fire." When he was askedwhy, he

replied, "You deny the good your husbands do whenever he makes a single

mistake."

Q. You mentionedabout male finn possessinghuman females and femalefinn possessingmen. Is thisalways the case? A. No. Sometimesfemale finn possesshuman females and male finn possessmen. But I amunable to giveyou a percentageas I didnot keep a recordof this.

Q. When finn speak through humans,do theyuse the samevoice of the possessed? If not, what is the percentage? A. The Prophet (4) used to seekrefuge in AM from what appearsat night andis hidden during the day,and what is hiddenat night andappears during the day.710 And he alsoused to seekrefuge in Allah from every[evil] which announcesitself and every [evil] whichhideS. 711 That whichappears at night is that which speaks and that which is, hidden is that which does not. Thus, the speakingor not speakingof a jhW throughthe voiceof the possessedis foundin the Sunnahof the Prophet (4). Even in the caseswhen the Prophet (4) treated those possessed,the jbW did not speakwith him or respondto him. The Prophet struck the possessedperson and said, "Get out, 0 enemyof Allah, for I amthe

7,10A'adbu billih! tabffrakawa ta'9j min sbani ma yaffiam bll4kyli wa yalanunbin-nah& wamin shani maII yaffiam bin-nabir wayalanun bil-layl.

711 A'adbu bi]]Jhimin sbanilculUMII'lin wamup* r.

255 Messengerof Allahl" And thejLwdid not replyto the Prophet(4). But, in the case of the jhw who was searchingthrough the food andwas caughtby AbID Hurayrah,it spokewith him. Also, thejk&who possessed'Abdullah ibn Mas'ad

communicatedwith him. Likewise, the jLwfwho wasbeaten by'Umar bin al- Khattab spokewith him. Anotherexample is the femalejk& who spoketo Imam Ibn Taymiyyahin the presenceof his student,Ibn al-Qayyini,saying, "I love him." And Shaykh al-IslamIbn Taymiyyahreplied, "But he doesnot love you." It then said, "I want to makePa #with him." And Ibn Taymiyyah "But he does . replied, not want to make &Ywith you." It said,"Then I will leavehim for your sake." Ibn Taymiyyahsaid, "No. Leave him in obedienceto Allawscommand. " This incident can be found in Ibn al-Qayyidsbook, 7jdal-Ma'-W, in the chapteron prophetic guidancefor treating the possessed.Likewise, during the reign of the 'Abbasid caliph, Mutawakkil, the caliphinformed Imam MMad ibn 1janbalthat

one of his slavegirls waspossessed. Imam Mmad sentone of his studentswith a pair of his woodenslippers and told him to tell theJMMI "It is not permissiblefor you to inhabit this womaWsbody. And Ahmad commandsyou to leavethis woman'sbody. " Al-Mutawakkil andothers present heard the womanspeak in a gruff, malevoice, saying, "Mmad's commandis welcome.For MMad is onewho has obeyedAllah, and Allah has made everything obedientto him. If Aýmad ordered us to leave 'Iraq, we would leave." Today,in manycases the firm do speak,but in manyother cases they do not.

Q. Is possessiona swift processor doesit takea long time,like monthsor years? A. Medical doctors say that epilepsyis ýa sudden,unknown change in the electric dischargesof the brain. They saythat thereare more than 40 million electrical connectionsin the humanbrain, and it is like a smallelectrical generating station. It produceselectricity and distributes it throughoutthe otherparts of the body. According to doctors, an epilepticfit occurswhen there is a suddensurge in the electric dischargeof the brain. This overloadsthe circuit andleads to dysfunction

256 in the body parts and becomes manifest in shaking,stifffiess in the body parts,

drooling and foaming at the mouth, and staring lasting for a few brief moments.

When we seesuch conditions,we call the aAjn in the epileptic'sright ear and call

the jqArnah in his left ear and-by Allah's will -he becomescured and returns to his normal state. Although the medicalprofession, ancient and modem, does not,

know the causeof the suddenincrease in the electrical dischargesof the brain, the

Prophet (4) indicated a cause. In a Padrthreported by Ibn 'Abbas (may Allah be

pleased with him), a black woman came to the Prophet (4) and said, "0

Messenger of Allah, I am overcomewith fits and take off my clothes." [And in

another narration, "Verily, the evil jhWtakes off my clothes."] In this Padfth the

Prophet (4) confirmed that it is the devil who causespeople to fall down in fits.

It has been demonstratedthat the causeis demonicfrom the many casesin which

we have called the adhrwin the earsof those in epileptic fits, and consequentlythe

fits ceased. For the Prophet has stated,"When Satanhears the adbin, he

turns and flees." This is in the caseof completepossession (f='*U&). There

are other types of possessionin which humans are affected, like migraine

headaches(fudj' n#fj'), insomnia (araq), depression, introversion (hýtlwa), or

pains occurring in different parts of the body at various times. The possessing

demon who inhabits the human brain is able to vary the cerebral electrical

discharges - by the will of Allah and due to reasonsknown only to Allah - and affect the body parts with a variety of ailments. For example,it may affect the

man's tongue so he cannot speak,his ears so he cannot hear, his eyesso he cannot

see, or his hands so they tremble and becomeparalyzed. These are all various

types of possession.

Q. Have you ever experiencedthe finn speakingin languagesother than that of the possessedperson? A. I have found many casesin which the finn speak in otherlanguages or other dialectscommon to otherregions of the country.

257 Q. Do the finn enterthe humanbody from particularpoints, like the mouth,eyes or hand?

A. There are three types offinn. One type consistsof animals,such as dogs, snakes,

donkeys, and mules. Thesegive birth to offspring like themselves. A dog-jLwff

gives birth to a dog-jLwand a snake-jbwgives birth to a snake-jLw. Another

type flies in the air, like the one mentionedin Sarah an-Naml. "An 'ffift among

the jbw said, I will bring it to you before you can rise from your position, for

surely I am strong and trustworthy for that purpose: "712 1 consider this type of

jbw Eke the TV picture which is transferred through the air. The finn which

enters the bodies of humans are from this type. AM referred to them at the

beginning of Sarah al-Arff. "... Surely, he and his tribe seeyou from a position

where you cannot see thern..."713 This versemeans that the finn seeus but we

cannot seethem. Air is with us everywhere. We senseit and are certain about its

existence, but we cannot seeit. The finn arejust Eke air, which is the meaningof

Almighty Allah's statementin Sarah ar-Raftmaff. "And He createdthe jhw from a

flame [M&ijl of filre."714 MAdjis the hot air which is above the fire. Thus, the

jbW which enters the human body is not of the type which has a material form,

like that of a human,donkey or dog. This typehas a fine, invisible,ethereal (hawj'l) body. And it entersthe bodyjust Ekeair doesthrough the openofifices, like the mouth, the nose, and the anus.Even the poresof the skin allow air to enter and thus becomeports of entrancefor thefinn. If we drink water in the summer,the water spreadsthroughout the bodyand passes out throughthe pores in the skin. Air alsoenters and along with it thefirm of this kind. However,the firm usuallylive in the toilet areasused for defecation,urination and bathing. This

712 Qur'An,27: 39.

713 Qur'An,7: 27.

714 Qur'an,55: 15.

258 is basedupon the Prophet'sstatement, "Surely, thesebusbusb are inhabited." The

busbusb are the places used by humansto relieve and clean themselves. Thus,

Muslims are enjoined to recite the following supplicationbefore entering such

places, "0 Allah, I seekrefuge in You from evil male and femalejh2n. " The fikm

find it easiest to enter from the anus, so this is the most common entrance.

However, they also gain accessfrom other orifices, including the eye.

And how do they leave?

From the sameplaces that theyenter.

In which part of the humanbody do thefinn dweU?

A. When the finn enterthe humanbody, they settlein the controlcenter of the body - the brain. Theyconcentrate in the brainand conceal the humanmind, making the person loseconsciousness in a way similarto hypnotism.Then they manifest themselvesand take control over of the bodythrough the brain. However,this does not mean that theyonly concentratein the brain. Theymay concentrate in otherbody partsand organs, therefore leaving the brain.

During exorcisms,have you experiencedany attempts by thefinn to possessyou? A. I praise Allah and give thanks to Him in the way appropriateto I-Iisglory. My sbay,kh, Ibn Taymiyyah(may Allah have mercyupon him) saidin his book, al- Fatjwj, "Applyingthis knowledgeof spiritualmedicine and/or Qur'Anic medicine is compulsoryupon whoever'leamsit. Becauseit is equivalentto relievingthe troubled,helping the oppressed,liberating the distressedand supporting the weak. It is among the greatestbranches 'of fighting in the path of Allah UMid fi- sabMIM). " He also said, "Those who work in this field arefeared by thefinn becausethey know that they [i. e., the exorcists]do it as a meansof pleasingAllah. Thus, Allah placesin the soul of thejMrU ** -a fear of the exorcist." I havenever experienceda jhW attackwhile I wasawake. However, if I go to sleepwithout making the protective supplications,the finn hurt me duringmy sleepand make

259 me restless. Wheneverthis happens,I awakenquickly and recite the supplications

of divine refuge (taawwvdbji) and protection, and Allah protects me.

Since you began exorcising people over 40 years ago, have any of your farnily

membersbeen possessed?

A. I havenot experiencedit within my family. However,whenever devils fail in their

attack on the human soul, they will try an external attack by setting his family

against him, such as his wife, child, mother, father or leader. But such attacks are

comparatively mild. If the exorcist has strong faith in Allah and is truthful and

pious, external attacks will also fail. I would Eke to advise those who wish to

work in this field to be careful. On one occasion when I was exorcising ajLwlby

the name of Jibril, who had been severely hurting a woman (and this was around

the time that I began exorcising), I said to it, "Jibril, leave the woman and come

into my body. Give her a break. Perhaps Allah will give me the strength and

health to bear your presence." Jibril was silent for a moment, then he said, "From

where will I enter you? From which part can I? " I took this as glad tidings from

Allah that He was protecting me by sending angels who would ward off the evil of

the jhw. For Allah has made a type of angel which is specifically for the

protection of humans, according to the text of the Qur'an: "Surely, every soul

has a protector over iL"715 "Each [person] has a succession of angels in front of

him and behind him, protecting hirn by AUWs cornmandL"716 "He is the

Irresistible, high above His servants, and He sends protectors over yoU... "717

Whenever Allah seesHis servants being sincere and in constant worship, working

in the service of mankind and Islam, He protects the servant from the evil finn by

715 Qur'Mi, 86:4.

716 Qur'An,13: 11.

717 Qur'An,6: 61.

260 sendingangels to protecthim. I thankAllah for protectingme andall who work in this field.

Q. You mentionedearlier that your first sessionwith a patientis an examination.If it leadsto the conclusionthat the patientis possessed,what is your next.step? A. I begin the treatmentsessions Ualasit a]-V14j). These sittings vary in lengthand numberdepending upon the case involved. The first of these sessionsI call "purification of the heart"("tkt-JVra1-qa1b"). The ideabeing that the faith of the person whom I am to treat must be clearand pure. Thereshould not be in his faith any paganism,evil, disbelief,hypocrisy or falsity. I thereforeclean the heart first so that when the versesof treatmentare read, they meet a pure heart. Otherwise,the verseswill meet a defiled, sick heartnot capableof treatment. This is comparableto plantinga seedin infertileground. It will not grow, but not dueto anydefect in the seed.The groundwas not preparedfor cultivation. The third sitting I have named"purification of the psyche" ("tazkiyahan- nafs"). For Allah hascreated man with a heart,mind, spirit/soul (nit), psycheand a body. The treatmentsare aimed at the first four elements.The soul (nafs)is a combinationof cravings(shahwah), instincts (gbaffzah), emotions ('Atifah) and inclinations(naz'ah). So, we purify the, sick patienVspsyche. If he smokes, drinks, gambles, after women or is corruptin anyway, we purify it so that the psychecan helpthe heart. I alsotry to purify the psycheof other sicknesses, like anger,hatred, malice, jealousy, conceit, pride, arrogance, intemperance, greed and stinginess. This sessionis no lessimportant than the second,for it is by way of the evil psychethat the possessingJMM establishes itself Consequently,this level of treatmentmay require two, threeor four sittingsuntil the psycheof the patient is purified and contented: After this treatment,the psyche doesnot whisperevil to itself andit will block the whisperingsof devils.

The fourth sitting concentrateson the mind,and I referto it as "cleaningthe mind" ("tanqiyahal-'aql"). In this sessionI addresshow a personspends much of

261 his time. If he readsuseless materials, like love stories,pornographic materials, detectivestories and newspaperarticles, it only increasehis remotenessfrom Allah. I advise thosewho readsuch materials to give themup andreplace them with readingthe Qur'anand its exegesis,authentic books of padfth,and books of law. I alsoencourage them to readuseful books in otherfields, like mathematics, philosophy,physics, engineering, etc. The final treatmentcan be one sessionor as manyas six to twelvesessions. I call it "removingthe spirit" ("takAUsar-raff). It consistsof removingthe evil spirit from its hold on the humanspirit. This is in accordancewith a Padah recordedin the Musnad of Abmad in which a companionof the Prophet passedby a madperson and recited over him a legal mqW for six days,morning and evening. Also in the badfthof Sa'ld al-Khudri, Ibn Mas'ad and others, it is recorded that the legalruqyah should be repeated twice per dayfor six days. If it producesresults, fine. If it doesnot, it meansthat somethingis incompletefrom the previoussteps. Therefore, I go back over all of the sessionsand check the stateof the patient.

These sessionsare followed by the prescriptionof precautionarymeasures (t4affugi). Whena patientgets well, doctorsusually advise him to avoid certain foods in order to preventthe recurrenceof the sickness.I do the same.I advise

the patientto giveup watchingTV - especiallythe useless programs, to be consistent in performing his daily actsof worship,to get up at night for voluntaryprayer, to read certain Qur'anic versesdaily, to repeat the declarationof faith a hundred timesdaily, to seekforgiveness from Allah, andto prayfor the Prophet(4).

Do you use in your treatmentphysical techniques Eke tying fingersor tying hair, burningincense, rubbing olive oil, salt or beating?

A. There are no authenticnarrations to support the useof salt exceptin casesof scorpion stings. There is no basisfor usingeither it -oil or other suchthings to

262 treat jLwi.-possession. Likewise, the use of amulets (Aijjb,,719 ta'tqdb and

tamimah) which are worn around different parts of the body are completely

forbidden. Regarding beating, it is authenticallyreported that the Prophet (4) it, utilized and ShaykhIbn Taymiyyahalso used a stick to beat a patient possessed by jLw. a However, I advisemy young brotherswho are working in this field not

to use beating at all, becausethe use of beating hasguidelines and conditions. We

do not beat the possessedhuman, but the jknfwhich has possessedthe human.

And this requires a high level of skill and discernmentto be able to accurately

know who the exorcist is hitting. For if he hits the possessedperson, it is

prohibited in divine law, and it would only increasethe suffering of the patient.

The details of this, I cannot go into right now, becauseit would require a very

long sitting to explain exactly how to determinethe appropriatetime to hit. At

any rate, I do advisethe beginnersin this field not to use beating. And even the beating used by many is far too violent and is appliedto very dangerousareas of

the body. It should only be on the behind, the shouldersor the extremities of the

hands or feet. As to hitting the face, eyesor headwith sandalsand sticks, it is forbidden. However, if the exorcist has had much experienceand insight, and he

is absolutely certain that it is thejhwwhich is present,he may do as the Prophet (4) did.

Q. What is your opinionabout recitation over water and the subsequentdrinking of it andrecitation over oil andrubbing with it?

A. These methods arenot forbiddenaccording to Islamiclaw. They arepermissible

718 The name given to an amulet consistingof a sheet of paper on which Qur'anic versesare written and foldedinto a rectangleor square.It is then covered with thick cloth, leather or tin and a threadis addedso it maybe worn aroundthe ankle, waist or neck. This is usuallygiven after recovery as a sealingtreatment. See Abdel Rahim Elmahi Elnour's Fugara T=Miques of Mental Heding (unpublished M. A. in Psychologythesis, University of Khartoum,March, 1987),p. 44.

263 and have somebasis in the religion. Beforegoing to sleep,the Prophet(4) used to recite the quIs in his palms,blow in them, and then wipe his handsover whatever his handscould reach of hisbody, beginning with his face. On the basis of this, the companionIbn 'Abbas, and also Ibn Taymiyyah,Ibn al-Qayyini, Mmad ibn Vanbal andother Muslim scholarspermitted the recitationof Qur'an on pure olive oil. Thereare verses in Sdrahan-Ntzr(24) and Samh at-7m- (95) which indicate that olive oil is blessed. Qur'anicverses may also be readover other pure substanceslike musk oil, saffron, rose water or drinking water. Subsequently,the p'atient drinks or batheswith these.However, one who bathes with such fluids must do so in a placewhere the fluidswill not flow into sewage pipes or other filthy places. The liquids used shouldbe collectedin a special containerand thrown on the roadside.

Q. During treatmentdo you haveto seekassistance to hold the patientdown? A. Sometimeswhen a person is possessed,the jhw causeshim to makeunusual movementslike punching,getting up andsitting down, and breaking things. I may needhelp in holdingdown his legsand arms, and then I beginto reciteover him.

'Could you recountsome of your morerecent and unusual cases? I have treated many patientsand my studentshave recordedon tape the conversations,actions and words which areused in thesegatherings. Each case is on a 60 n-dnutetape.

Q. Do disbelievingfinn possessMuslims? A. The world of the finn is similarto the world of man. Thereare no rulesin this matter. All possiblepermutations occur.

Q. Canmore than one jbW possessa personat the sametime? A. From my experience,this is possible.In fact, in someof my tapedexorcisms, you canhear the removalof six or morefinn from somepossessed people.

264 Q. Haveyou treatednon-Muslims who werepossessed? have A. Some come. However,I informthem that I only treat with the Qur'an. If they accept,I treat them. If theydo not accepttreatment with the Qur'an,I do not treat them. Most ChristianEgyptians who havecome to me havewelcomed Qur'an have treatmentwith the and experiencedsuccessful cures -all praise belongsto Allah. And a numberof themhave converted to Islamby the graceof Allah.

Q. How do finn benefitfrom the possessionof humans?

A. Allah has createdthe finn to live in isolatedareas, deserts, refuse dumps, graveyardsand animal pens.JL, 2r, -animals eat feces and finn eatbones. Thefinn are definitelyon a levelbelow humans as a resultof Allalfs favorswhich He gives to whomsoeverHe wishes. Allah saidin Sarahal-Isrj': "We havehonored the children of Adam, carried thernon the land andon the sea,provided them with good things andgreatly prefen-ed them over much of whatWe haveemated. "719 Consequently,finn accompanyhumans in orderto enjoysome of that favor with which Allah honored men. Theytry to partakeof the good food, drink, clothes, sexand sleep. This good life temptsthe firm into attackinghumans.

Q. Do fikm takepleasure by havingsex with humans?

A. There is a verse in Sarah a]-An'&n in which our blessed,almighty Lord said:

"Our Lord, some of us took pleasureone ftorn the other, and we have reachedthe

term which You appointed for US."720 Actually, all of the Qur',Anic exegetes

understand the pleasure taken here to refer to the finn ý misguidanceof men and

maWs worship of the finn. They consider the taking of pleasureto only mean

obedience and following. However, the Qur'An should be interpreted first by its

719 Qur'an, 17:70.

720 Qur',An, 6: 128.

265 own verses.This verseshould be understoodalong with the Almightys statement in SaTahMupammad: "Those who disbelievetake pleasure and eat like animals, and the Fire will be their home."721 Do animalsfollow finn or do finn misguide animals? No. The taking of pleasurehere refers to the MflUmentof sexual desire. Thus,the "pleasure"mentioned in SaTahal-An&n canalso include sexual pleasureenjoyed by malesand females. This is what happenswhen a manor woman has awetdream.And I havedealt with manycases where male firm were takingpleasure from womenand female finn weretaking pleasure from men.

Q. Do firm possessbelieving Muslims who are contentiousin their religious practices?

A. This only happens to those of weak faith. The finn have no power over the true

believers. The Almighty said: "You will have no authority over My servants,

cxcept those among the n-tisguided who follow yoU."722 "He [i. e., Satan] said,

'By Your power, I will surely mislead them all, except Your sincere, chosen

servants."'723 The true believers and sincere worshippers of AIM are protected

by 11im, so the devils cannot possess them. On the other hand, the devils play

with the worshippers of Satan who disobey AIM in the same way that children

play football.

Q. If that be the case,how do you explain the PaSth of the woman who was overcomeby fits yet the companionsbore witness that shewould be amongthe peopleof Paradise?

A. ýýra' is of two types: fits causedby the finn andthose caused by biological reasonswhich Ibn al-Qayyimcalled sm'min a]-akhljt. Thus,seizures may be

721 Qur'an,47: 12.

722 Qur'An,15: 42.

723 Qur'An,38: 82-83.

266 from firvi-possessionor theymay be from a chemicalimbalance in the brain or the nervoussystem. Jlrw-possession is treated most effectively by the Qur'an because it is a spirit treatinganother spirit. Demonicpossession is like the lossof sight or hearing. It may be a test from Allah. TheProphet (4) told the woman,"If you arepatient, your rewardis Paradise."

Q. How do you explaina Christianpriest's successful exorcism of patients?

A. The non-Muslim in this field works with the finn. The jhm may easethe pain for a week or months in order that the patient put his trust in the disbelievinghealer. If

he were a Muslim patient, his faith would be lost. For only the Qur'an is the word

of Allah and only it can heal the spirit. The Prophet (4) said, "Whoever visits a

fortuneteller, his prayer will not be accepted for 40 days." And he also said,

"Whoever believes a fortuneteller has disbelievedin the religion that Mubammad brought."

Q. How do you distinguishbetween someone who is sufferingfrom bewitchmentand onesuffering from the evil eye? A. They are very similar, and they are both a productof thejLW attachingitself within a person.The distinctioncomes in the treatment.The longestlasting and most difficult to cure is from magic spells andthe easiestto treat are seizures (Mra'). As to the Prophefs bewitchment,some scholars have declared it false even though the narrationsare highlyaccurate without anydiscrepancy in their chain of narratorsor in their text. Thesescholars have allowed their limited minds to determineright andwrong in the religion. This is an error on their part. There are differenttypes of magic: babal(dirnwittedness), kbabal (confusion) and 'abkt (stupidity). These all affectthe mindof the bewitchedperson. There is another kind called s1hr al-jaw&ip wal-a'dj' (magicof the limbsand the organs)which does not affect the mind but affects one of the organs,like the handor the genitals. The type which affectedthe Prophet(4) wasthe secondtype in which his mind wasnot affectedat all. For him to be affectedis not strangebecause he

267 was a human being and was affectedby many sicknesses.He was wounded, his

incisor tooth was broken, he was cursed, madefun of, called a fortuneteller, a

magician and a madman. He was an examplefor us of one who suffered as we

do, but was patient and accepted his fate. The Padah about the Prophet's

bewitchment in al-BukhM andMuslim reported by 'A'ishah statesthat he used to

think that he had come to his wife when he did not. And in the other books of

traditions it is mentionedthat he would think he did somethingwhich he had not.

That was merely forgetfulness, which all the prophets were subject to. The

Almighty said in Sarah Yasuf- "But Satan madehim forget to remember his Lord, he in for few [more] "724 And in SOT and remained prison a years . ah al- An'jin: "And if Satan causm you to forget, do not remain in the company of

transgremors after you have rememberedL"725 And in Sarah al-Kahf: "None

made me forget it except Satan, and amazingly it took its way back to the sea."726

The Prophet (4) prayed a four unit prayer and concluded it with salims after the

second unit. The companion, Dhul-Yadayn, said to him, "Has the prayer been

shortened or did you forget, 0 Messenger of Allah? " The Prophet (4) said, "The

prayer has not been shortened and I did not forget. " The companion told him that

he only prayed two units. The Prophet (tt) then asked the other companions if

what he said was correct, and they confirmed it. So the Prophet (4) got up and

prayed with them two more units of prayer. Consequently, forgetfulness can

happen to prophets and this is not considered mental disorder (babal) in any sense

724 Qur'An, 12:42. This verse hastwo valid interpretations. Either, "Satan made the servant forget to mention Prophet Yusufs ability to interpret dreamsto his lord (i. e., master)" or "Satan made Yasuf forget to ask help from his Lord (i. e., Allah) instead of others." See Mubammad Mubsin Khan, The Noble Qur'jn (Riyadh: Maktaba Dar-us-Salam, 1993), p. 347.0

725 Qur'&n,6: 68.

726 Qur'an, 18:63

268 of the term.

ýI Q. What do you reciteover those suffering from possessionmagic and the evil eye? A. There are incantationscalled mqyah al-mas-par,others called mqyah al-m4sad,

a third, mqyah a]-masro' and ruqyah al-matidý I have gathered the many

narrations from the Prophet (4) and placedthem under theseheadings in a large,

unpublished volume which I haveentitled Wasa'RýBnjyah al-Insfn min MgVib

asb-Shaylin. Time doesnot permit me to go through them at this point.

269 INTERVIEW NO. 3

LOCATION: Cairo, Egypt DATE: 10/8/88

NAME: Sa'Id MOarnmad

DATE OF BIRTH: 1946 PLACE: Tanta

EDUCATION: Diploma from the 'IbAd ad-Du'a' Institute.

Q. Whendid you beginpracticing exorcism? A. I beganpracticing more than ten years ago.

Q. What causedyou to begin?

A. It beganwhen the wife of my brotherbecame afflicted with continual,vaginal bleedingwhich the doctors were unableto treat. As you know, there is a prophetic tradition in which a woman cameto the Prophet(4) and said,"0 Messengerof Allah, I am a womanwhose blood flows continually." He saidto her, "It is dueto a blow struckby the devil." That is, the devil hassome influence in this area. Perhapsit wasdue to a fit (mass)or perhapsshe was bewitched, both of which are manifestationsof thefirm in the body. Thereis a Padahsaying that the devil flows in the bloodstreams of Adam's descendants.Because of this, I

recited over her al-Fitffiah; the first five versesof Satah al-Baqarak, wa iljhukum

RAun wAftid;727 verse 255 of al-Baqatah; shahidkIIAbuannahaIjRAbaiIIjhu

from Sarah A] 'IrnrAn;729 rabbukumullih from Sarah al-A "rjf; 729af4asjbtum

from SOTabal-Muminan; 730the closing verse of Sarah aPgashr, and three verses

727 Qur'An,2: 163.

728 Qur'an,3: 18.

729 Qur'An,7: 54.

730 Qur'An,23: 1 IS.

270 from SaTahal-Ann. Thejbmiin her manifesteditself and spoke to me. I reaued

that it was a male jhmi. It saidthat it cameto her when she cried in the dark

because her husbandhad traveled. My brother's complaint was that whenever he

approached his wife, shewould begin to bleed eventhough it was not the time of

her menses. In the end, after my recitation, I found that the jhWwas not a

Muslim. I invited him to Islam, and he acceptedand then left her. ,

Q. Was his voice different from your brother'swife's voice?

A. Yes. It was the voice of a male.

Q. How old wasthe woman? A. Shewas 25 yearsold. It is the Qur'anicverses which can control thefinn, Muslim or non-Muslim. Some arerebellious and others are Muslim. Sometimesit may argue with the exorcist himself We seethat the churchesare filled with magic, for when we ask the finn questions,they saythat theycame from the churchof George'sfamily. And the firm are toughand try to destroywhoever is in their presence.

Q. What percentageof casesare true, demonicpossession? A. Some are imaginary.Women often imagine that someonehas bewitched them or that the changeof their husbands!treatment is dueto a magicspell put upon their husbands.

The first sign of real possessionin a woman is that her mensesbecomes irregular. She also feels a kind of suffocationwhich is quite differentfrom psychologicaldepression or medicalasphyxia. It comesto her at night in the form of a nightmare,even if sheis regularin her formalprayers and uses the prescribed daily supplications. At the endof her treatmentshe listens to a tapeof the verses which I mentionedearlier. Whenshe listens to the tapealone, she discovers her life changing.She becomes imbalanced at first. In the beginning,I greetthe jbw with salutationsof peace.If it is a Muslim,it replies,and if not, it doesnot reply.

271 I then begin to address it with any other greetings,and it replies, informing me

that it is not a Muslim. After speakingto it, it leavesthe woman, freeing her from

all of the afflicting pains,from headachesto infertility and other symptomswhich doctors are unableto cure.

On one occasionduring an argumentbetween a womanand her husband,the wife lost her speech. Her tongue refusedto function, and she,became very depressed. Shesaw a doctorwho wasunable to determinethe medicalcause, so he sent herto me. I recitedover her the versesI mentionedearlier and called the adbin. At the endof the adban,the womanbegan to speakagain. Shemade the declarationof faith (sbabadab),and the JMM- left her.

Q. Fromyour experience,what arethe reasonswhy firm possesspeople? A. Arm enter humanbodies when man comn-dtserrors. However, if he, fives

accordingto the Qur'Anand the Sunnahof the Prophet(4), usesthe prescribed supplicationsand prayer shields Q4.2ýýsunjt) which the Prophet(4) taughtus, he will not be afflicted by the finn. Thefinn mayafflict onewho is far awayfrom supplications,the Sunnahand Qur'Anic recitation. Suchan affliction canbe quite destructive. Sometimeswhen maritalpartners argue for no reason,the husband

- will report that he sawhis wife lookingquite unnatural, and she will saylikewise about him. This is a form of magicalspell called "the reversal"(qa1b). It existed during the era of Moses and is still around today. The wife may become possessedor bewitched.When a imni entersa humanbody, it wishesthe body to remain in its possession. It maypractice evil with the womanin her eatingand drinking habits,in her sleep,etc. It mayenter the toilet with her whenshe goes to relieve herself If you ask her' if she spendsa long time in the toilet relieving herself, she will reply,"Yes I do, althoughI do noýneed to spend#11 of that time in there." This is becausethe firm want her in that statein orderto seeher exposedprivate parts.

What arethe otherreasons?

272 A. The firm may fall in love with a woman. When we perform intercourse,we are supposedto say,"0 Allah,remove the devil from us andfrom whateveroffspring You provideus. " It maybe deducedfrom this prayerthat the devil maytake part when a man has intercourse'with his wife. As Allah,Most Greatand Glorious, said to Satanin Sarahal-AW: "...Share in their wealthand children... "731 Satan does not have powerover the true servantsof Allah who pray regularlyand read the Qur'an. When you enter a house,you may find mostof it occupantsare afflicted with some form of demonicpossession (mass). And whenyou askthe head of the householdif he prays,he will sayno. The houseis in ruins andthus the devilsenter.

What is the percentageof possessedwomen in relationshipto men?

A. The greater majority are women, about 95 percent,because they like to adorn

themselves,display their beauty,and are disobedient. I haveonly encounteredone possessedwoman who was pious. Sheattended one of my lecturesand after I recited the verses,we heard her scream.She was known to pray regularlyand had memorizedmuch of the Qur'An,so I askedher what waswrong with her, and she replied in a marfs,voice, "I am'Ah. "I askedhim, "Are you a Muslim?" and - he replied, "Yes." I asked,"How did you enterher? " He said,"She poured hot water outside andhurt me." I told him, "Get outi" andhe left. Shewas 28 years old.

How did you know that shewas possessed?

A. She said that when she pouredthe hot water shefelt asthough there was fire in herleftleg. Somepeople sense the finn ý entrancewhile othersdo not.

From your experience,do malefirm enterwomen and female firm entermen?

731 Qur'an, 17:64.

273 A. If a womanharms a femalejhmi, it will enterher. Sometimeswe havefound both male and female finn inside of a single person. Sometimes,when you say to it,

"Send out so and so," it turnsout to be only onejhw pretendingto be different people.

Do theyhave human names? A. Yes, they do have human names. However, on one occasion,I askeda jLwff

about its name and it replied that it was the numberthirty-six. WhenI asked about its tribe, it saidit wasfrom Ban! al-Mfa-r. And whenI inquiredabout the locationof its home,it repliedthat it wason the printingpress road.

Is it mostcommon for a malejhwtoaffect a woman? A. Yes. It is the usual case for women to be possessedby malefinn and men by

femalefinn. I sawone case in whicha manwas possessed by a femalejhwwho was a non-Muslim.He usedto haveterrible fits wheneverhe recitedthe Qur'an. I told her that he wasgoing to get marriedsoon and she screamed. After great effort, shewas made to leave.

Are possessingfinn usuallyMuslims or non-Muslims? A. In reality, finn may be both. But Muslimfinn only enterif they arehurt while non-Muslimfinn will enter whether hurt or not. Most often they are non- Muslims.

Q. Do thefinn settlein a particularportion of the humanbody? A. Usually they spread throughout the whole body. The Prophet (M) said, "Certainly, the devil flows in the veinsof Adads descendants." And in another narration, he said, "Satancirculates in Adam'sdescendants like blood." In some cases.,I ask the finni to congregatein onespecific place.

274 Have you experiencedany attemptto possessyou?

A. The finn have tribes and families. They arejust like us. They will try to take

revengeon the one who removes them. Onetime, they tried to affectmy son, Aýmad.

275 INTERVIEW NO. 4

LOCATION: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia DATE: 2/4/88

NAME: 'AbdullahMushrif al-'Amri DATE OF BIRTH: 1964 PLACE: Riyadh

EDUCATION: B. A. from Imam Ibn Sa'ad Islamic University in the field of Ijadith.

Exactlywhen did you beginto treat possessedpeople? A. I beganreciting the Qur'Anover the sick approximatelytwo yearsago.

Whatmade you decideto beginthis? A. I am not of thosewho haphazardlybegan to treat people.I first noticedthat this sicknesswas common. I wasworking asa memberof the Morals Commission (Hay'ah al-Amrbi al-Ma'rof wa an-Nahyi'an al-Munkar),following the statement of Prophet Mubammad (4), "Whoeversees evil shouldchange it with his hand. If he is unable, he should changeit with his tongue. And if he is unableto do [even that], he should hate it in his heart,and that is the lowest[level] of faith." As a memberof the MoralsCommission, we arresteda numberof peopleinvolved in magic and trickery who weretreating people from a varietyof backgrounds. These individuals the ignorant in the -, admitted exploiting masses mostrepulsive and gross ways. They were using a variety of amuletsand charms which all involved sbij-*. I wasassigned as the imkn of a masjid. A lot of peoplecame to me with different ailmentsand so I recited overthem regularly. This was not connectedwith anyspecial treatment. Any huarnof a masjidcan read for people, " however, there are someconditions for recitation. Oneshould have strong faith and full trust in Allah. The Prophet(4) said,"If you trust in Allah asHe deserves

276 to be trusted, the angels will shake your hands."732 I found that people were

greatly benefiting from these readings. Among the problemsthey faced was the

effect of the evil eye. The Prophet (4t) said, "The evil eye is real. It may put a

man in the grave and a camelin the pot. " 733Asma', the daughter of Aba Bakr,

said to the Prophet (4), "0 Messengerof Allah, the Ja'far clan is affected by the

evil eye. Should we do incantationsfor them?" He said, "Yes, for if there was

anything which could overcomedestiny, it would be the evil eye."734 And Ibn BAZ

mentioned that whoever denies the entrance of finn into humanshas told a lie

against the divine law (shaff'ah). There are very clear proofs of this taking place.

After being appointedthe governor of TAU, 'Uthman ibn Ab! al-'Aý cameto the

Prophet (*) and informed him that he was getting confusedin his prayers. He

explained that somethingwas interfering with his ability to perform his prayer and

to recite the Qur'An. The Prophet (*) said, "Come here. That is a devil." When

he came close, the Prophet (4) blew in his mouth and said, "Get out enemyof

Allah, I am the Messengerof Allah. " So what was he telling to leave, sickness?

And he also said, "Get out enemyof Allah, " and we are prohibited from cursing

sicknesses. After that, 'Uthman ibn Abi al-'Aý said that for the rest of his life he

was never again confused in his prayers. That was a devil called Kha=bY35

732 The well-known, authentic Padfth of similar wording is, "If only you trusted in Allah as he should be trusted, He would provide for you as He provides for the birds who leave their nestsin the morning hungry and return in the eveningfull. " Collected by at-Tinnidhi and authenticated by al-Arna'al in Jarni'al-lýsal, vol. 10, p. 140, no. 7620.,

733 Narrated by Jabir, collected by Ibn 'Ad! in W-Kknil and Ibn Nuaym in al- ffilyah, in ýWb 4, 64, 4023. . and authenticated a]-J&W' as-&gbir, vol. p. no. 734 Naffatedby Ibn 'Abbasand collected by Muslimand MMad.

735 The two narrationsby'Uthman ibn AN al-'Aý on this matter(,, FaAh Musl6n, v ol. A, p. 252, no. 946 andvol. 3, p. 1198,no. 5462)do not includethe Prophet(4t) blowing in his mouth or saying, "Get, out enemy of Allah. I amthe Messengerof Allah." II- I

277 Also, when the Prophet (4) was on a journey with a companionnamed Aba

Ya'la Shidad ibn AwS,736 a woman cameto them with her son, informing them

that he has daily fits. The Prophet (4) took him, read over him, blew in his

mouth and said, "Get out enemyof Allah. I am the Messengerof Allah. " Then he

was cured by the will of Allah. The woman offered the Prophet (4) two goats

and somefat. He told AN Ya'la to take the fat and one of the goats and to return

the other. Allah has also said in the Qur'an: "Those who eat interest, get up like one stumbling from SataWstouch. "

Q. How long haveyou beenirn&n of the masjid? A. I have been the imim for three years. After the first yearof experiencewith people coming for readingsand consequently getting better, I beganto research the subject of possessionthoroughly. I gatheredthe classicalreference works containinginformation on this. I studiedcauses of thesesicknesses, methods of treating themand specific verses which shouldbe recitedduring treatment. Praise be to All* I wasable to masterthis subjectand began to treat a few peopleat a time. Eventually,my high successrate became known and people came in droves. If people had not foundany improvement after my treatment,no oneelse would havecome.

Q. Couldyou describeyour methodologyin curingthe possessed? A. The first thing to understandis that seizures(fara') areof two kinds. The first type are seizuresof the brain which can only be treatedin the hospital. The Qur'An cannot cureit. An exampleof this is the caseof the womanwho cameto the Prophet (4) and informed him that shewas over comeby seizuresduring

-ýý 736 The nameof the companionwho accompaniedhim on thejourney was Ya'lA ibn Murrah ibn Wahbibn Jabirath-ThaqA andnot (Abe) Ya'la ibn Shidid ibn Aws al- Anýgfi, who was from the third levelof hadahnarrators and not a companionof the Prophet(4). SeeIbn Hajar'sTaqffb at-Tahdhib, vol. 2, p. 378.

278 which she would tear off her clothes. He told her, "If you wish, I will pray to

Allah on your behalf, or, if you wish you maybe patientand Paradise will be " She him her behalf in'order for :., yours. asked to pray on her to stop exposing herself, which he did. The secondtype areseizures caused by thefinn-possession of humans. Sometimesit is dueto thefinn ý love-obsessionwith humans,desire to punish or merely scare them,and at othertimes due to magicor the evil eye. The recitation of the Qur'An over them once,twice, three times or morecures them.

Do you useany particular verses? A. There are no special verses besides Ayah a]-Kurs!, a]-Raffiah and the mu'awwidbatin which were all mentioned in very strong prophetic traditions.

Otherwise,all of the Qur'anis blessed.After recitation,I communicatewith the jmr,u whichwill say,for example,"I amin love with her."

Do you useany other supportive techniques along with your recitation? A. Yes. Somefinn will only leave if they are beaten. Continuousrecitation is sufficientto makesome of themcommunicate, yet otherswill only communicateif

I grasp the neck here (i. e., on the jugular veins). Then they reveal the reasonfor

their possessionof the human,which is eitherout of love or causedby magicor the evil eye. The Prophet (4) saidthat the evil eyeis real andattended by the devils.737 I thenorder the possessingspirit to leaveafter telling it that what it has done is oppression,which is forbiddenin the Qur'anand the'Sunnah. I mayquote the PaSth qudsi in which Allah said, "0 My servants,I havemade oppression forbidden to Myself andprohibited it amongyou, so do not oppresseach other. " And also the Prophet'sstatement, "Oppression is darknesson the Day of

737 'and Reported by Aba Hurayrah collectedb y '' al-Kaj! in his Sunw, but it is rated inauthentic(Va'If) by al-Alban! in, Pa'YfaI-J&nPaý-&ghir, vol. 4, p. 76, no. 3906.

279 Judgement." If a man is possessedby a femalejhWout of love for him, I tell her that her possessionis oppressinghim.

Do female,Muslim finn sometimespossess people? A. Yes. Femalefinn will possessMuslims and causeseizures. I tell the jbwthat her

possessionis not an expression of love but one of harm, and I ask her to depart

and not to return. I have her swear by Allah not to possessmale or female

Muslims in the future. If sheis a disbelievingjhW, I invite her to Islam. In fact, a have from number of them acceptedIslam me - all praiseis due to Allah - around thirteen or fourteen Buddhists,Christians, etc.,

Do femalefinn alwaysenter men and male finn enterwomen? A. Yes. That is the most commonoccurrence. Although it is very rare a malejbw

may also possessa man, perhapsonly in 10 percentof the cases.

Q. If the femalej'm*ru- speaks, does it speakwith the m&s voice? A. Sometimesit speakswith the man'svoice and sometimes with a female'svoice. About 60 percentof the time,the jbw communicateswith the possessedpersoWs voice.

I notice that you have with you bottles of water and olive oil. What is their purpose?

I will explainthis to you. TheProphet said,"Eat olivesand anoint yourselves with it; for verily, it is from a blessedtree. "739 The olive tree is a blessedtree by which Allah swearsin the Qur'an.739 I recitesome verses from the Qur'an over

738 This is in referenceto the following verse: "Allih is theI light of the heavens and the earth. His light is like a niche with a lamp, the larnp encasedin glass, the glass like a brilliant star lit from 'a blessed olive tree..." Qur'An, 24:3 5 The Padith was reported by 'Umar and AN Usayd, collected by at-TimMI-d, and authenticatedby al-AlbW in $*P aI-JknPg-&ghir, vol. 4,- p. 167, no. 4374.

739 SeeQur'An, chapter 95. '

280 the oil and the personrubs someof the oil on the part of their body which gives

him pain. In any case,everything is by experimentation,even medical knowledge.

As to the water, I also recite over it and they drink it. If the person experiences improvement gradual - by the grace of Allah - fine, becausethe finn cannot withstand contact with the Qur'an. If the persondrinks the water and rubs the oil

and finds himself becominguneasy and irritated, it meansthat he is possessedby a

jk&. So, it is used to determine the nature of the illness, like a medical

examination. This method hasproven itself effective in the vast majority of cases.

There are other methodsbeing used,but the best is by using only the Qur'an.

Q. Do othersassist you by holdingdown patients? A. Yes. If a manis possessedby a femalefin&- anda femalejk& is strongerthan

ten men - it will require at leastten mento hold him down. It happenedin my home recently that I recited over one man who suddenlybecame incredibly powerful. He leapedup and it took aboutten mento hold him. I amusually assistedby the patient'srelatives or fiiends. If I find that thereis somethingin him, I ask them to hold him steadyso that he will not punch or kick me. Sometimesthe jhW will speakimmediately, so I recitea few versesand it leaves right away. Thefinn havedifferent strengths, for someare very strong,others of mediumstrength, and yet othersare quite weak.

What is the purposeof depressingthe jugular veins? Sometimesit is only whenthe humann-dnd is unconsciousthat thefinn appear.I hold them lightly and not in a way whichcould lead to strangulation.This has happenedat the handsof some inexperiencedexorcists. So wisdomhas to be

used in these matters. The- comparison is like the differencebetween the treatmentby a qualifieddoctor and someone just beginningtheir studies.

Q. Do you tie stringsaround the fingersand toes during treatment?

A. Sometimesthere are cases when a mancomes with his wife informingme that she

281 is possessedby aj'm'nj-.When she is in my presencethejhwleaves immediately, but by the time he takesher back to his car,the jhwreturns. Thistypeofjhwis mAdj, and the only way to hold him is by tying the strings. Therefore, I tell the

husband that if the fin&returns, he should tie string around her fingers and toes

andbring herback to me. In this mannerit is caughtand cannot escape.

How arethe fingersand toes tied?

A. A string is tied aroundeach finger and each toe separately.The stringshould not be very tight. On oneoccasion a possessedwoman was brought to me with her fingers and toes tied. I beganreciting over her until thefin& screamedand said, "I swear by Allah that I will leave." I said,"No. I will bum you with the Qur'an, the wordsof AlmightyAllah. I will not let you go. You havebecome imprisoned by Allah andthen by me." It promisedover andover again to leaveand never to returnagain. At that point,I untiedher fingersand it left throughher fingers.

Do they alwaysleave by the fingersor couldit alsobe throughthe toes? A. It couldbe by either. Occasionally,the firm will seekpermission to leavethrough the eyes or the head. I tell themno, leavefrom here,and they departfrom where theyare commanded.

Are there any signs which let you know whichpart of the bodythey areleaving from?

A. Yes. The arm or the leg will begin to shake,sometimes moderately and sometimesviolently, until the movementgradually subsides indicating that the jk& hasleft.

When you use beating in your treatment,on what part of the body do you apply it?

A. The patient shouldonly be beatenwhen he hasbecome unconscious and the jbw has appeared. And evenin suchcases, it shouldnot be severe.It is preferableto hit the back or the shoulders,the point of the bodywhere the jhW seemsto be

282 residing or differentparts as it moves. At timesthe patientmay be conscious,and he canidentify the movementof thejhmf abouthis body.

Q. What percentageof your patientsare men and women? A. I would first like to point out that people!s abandonmentof the Qur'Anand the Sunnahis what hascaused them to be afflictedby possession.For example,when I encountera person who says that he feelsdepressed or boredwith fife andI subsequentlyrecite the Qur'anover him, I find a femalejhWpresent. WhenI ask why she possessedhim, she replies, "He doesnot pray." Allah spokethe truth when He said: "And whoever turns away from remembranceof the Most Mercfful [i. e., Allah], We appointfor him a devil asa companion."740 Andthe Almighty said: "And whoever turns away fnxn My remembrancewill havea wretched life, and We will gatherhim up blind on the Day of Resurrection."741 So after thejLwleaves, I advisethe patientto fear All* establishhis prayersat their proper times, and to readthe Qur'anregularly. By the will of Allah, it will never return. I tell him that if he doesnot do thesethings or only doesthem for a while then stops, it mayreturn. Regardingthe percentageof patients,it is about the same. However, I haveabout 5 percentmore women patients than men due to the generalweakness of womanin comparisonto men.

Q. What benefitdoes a jLwget from possessinga human? A. In the case of a femalejLwpossessing a manout of love,it hasintercourse with him in his dreamsand takes pleasure in this way. Sometimesit maytake the form of a woman, but eventhen it will haveintercourse with him while he is sleeping. Most often this occurs during dreams. Otherwise,the jhwjust disturbshim basedupon the fact that it wassent by a magicalspell or in revengefor someharm

740 Qur'an,43: 3 6.

741 Qur'Ein,20: 124.

283 done to it by the person.

Q. Is therea particularpart of the bodythat thejmm- occupies?

A. In the case of women it usuallyoccupies their wombs,and in the caseof menit usuallysettles in their chests.

Q. Are theredegrees of possession?

A. Yes. There is completeand partial possession. When ajLwfirst entersthe humanbody, it only hasa partialhold. It takestime for it to completelypossess the individual.

Q. Fromwhat partsof the bodydo theyenter? A. Theyenter mainly from the feet.

Q. Haveyou encounteredcases of morethan one fin& possessinga single person? A. On many occasionsduring exorcismsit becomesevident that the personhas within him morethan one jhW. After expellingone, the personstill exhibitssigns of possession. When I reciteover them, another entity emerges and speaks in a differentvoice, using a differentname.

Q. Doesthe qaffn(the companionfinm) assignedto everyman from birth possess,or is it anotherjhmn

A. No. It is anotherjhW. It is the qaffnwhich the Prophet(4) saidflows in the - bloodstream,but it is anotherjhwwhich actuallypossesses.

Q. Doesthe qaffnharrn its humancompanion?

A. Sometimesits strongwhispers swerves the humanaway from performingprayer, rememberingAllah andhelping the needy.

Q. During an exorcismhave you everexperienced the finn trying to possessyou? A. No. Never.

Are all of the patientsbrought to you casesof true possession?

284 A. No, but I recite over everyone. Illnessesdue to biological causesmay be cured by

recitation depending upon the level of the person'sfaith. The companionsof the

Prophet (4) used to recite al-Ratipah overthose stung by scorpions,and they were cured. What abouta few microbeswhich enter a person?He shouldseek help from Allah believingthat Allah hasrevealed within the Quran a cure. He should rely upon it with surefaith and sincerity as Ibn al-Qayyim said, "If every

sick person recited the Qur'an over himself with certainty of faith and sincerity, no

sick person would remain. Almighty Allah informs us: 'If We revealed this

Qurlan on a mountain, you would sm it humbly crumbling out of fear of

AU! h.'742 And He said: 'And We reveal within the Qurlan heating and mercy for

the believers.' 743 And elsewhere: '0 manldnd, there has come to you from your

Lord a good advice and healing for what is in your chests..: "744 Some of them

have ailments which cannot be diagnosed in hospitals. For example,when one

afflicted by the evil eye is checked in the hospital, they will not find anything

wrong with him. Others have sicknesseswhich can be treated medically. Not

everyone over whom I have read has recovered. I recommendthat those with

physical ailmentsbe treated in a hospital.

Q. Havetruly insanepeople been brought to you for treatment? k Yes, such peoplehave been brought to me. I usuallytell themthat if the hospital has diagnosedtheir ailmentand identified its cause,there is no needto bring them to me. However, if the hospitalis unableto identifythe cause,I will try to treat them. Sometimesthe finn will causea humanto act in an insanemanner. Soitis better to recite over such patientsto seeif he is reallypossessed. There was a

742 Qur'an, 59:21.

743 Qur'An,17: 82.

! 744 Qur'An,10: 57. I'l,

285 young man who was admitted to Td'if PsychiatricHospital whom I treated and

was cured. His condition was causedby firm-possession. The finn used to speak

through his voice and causehim to make strangemovements.

Q. Whatare the signsand symptoms of possession? A. I first ask the patientssome questions. I ask if they experiencestates of depression,headaches, continual movements in their bodiesor disturbingdreams. If that is the case,they spend the night at my house,and I askthem to inform me when the condition comes. I then recite overthem. If I find themshaking or breathingstrangely when I recite, I continue recitinguntil they screamand the jhwi starts communicating. I ask it why it came,and it revealsthe reason,for example, magic,the evil eye,etc. I takefrom it a solemnoath to leaveand not to return. The patientsthen find that all of their ailmentsare gone.

Q. Have you noticed any other symptomslike a strangeway of sn-dlingor a foul odor? A. Yes, particularlythose afflictedby a magicspell give off a very bad odor. Other signs arecontinuous movements and pains which seemto travelaround the body. WhenI recite,they scream,faint or tremble. Somepatients do not do thesethings andare cured with just recitationof the Qur'An.

Q. What aboutthat little boy who wasjust broughtto you? A. That little boy hasa problemwith his legs. On Thursdaysand Fridays he is ableto walk quite normally,but duringthe rest of the weekhe is unableto walk. He has painshere and here (i. e., his thighsand lower legs).

Q. Couldthe causebe dueto his dislikefor school?

A. No, he is not goingto schoolat all. I think - andAllah knowsbest - that he may be afflictedby the evil eye.

Could you describea few recentcases of possessionwhich you havesuccessfully

286 treated?

A. There are many.

ý '' CASE NO. I

There was a woman about 28 years old who usedto be overcome by seizures

from time to time over a period of two years. Sometimes she would lose

consciousness. Whenever she had fits, they took her to the hospital where she

received injections, putting her in a drugged state. About a year ago, she had a

very intenseseizure and her fan-dlybrought her to me at 10 o'clock at night. They

told me that the hospital only informed them that shehad psychologicalproblems.

When I recited over her it becameobviou's that shewas possessed,and the cause

was from magic. The Jmm- in her was a Buddhist. She did not respond

immediately after recitation, but after pressing her jugular veins, the jLwff

presented himself and informed us about the magicianwho put the spell on her and the charm'slocation.

Q. Do you believeeverything that thefinn say? A. Not everythingthey say is to be believedunless it is confirmed.In this casewe found the charmwhere thefin&said it waslocated, and we burnedit. Sincethen shehas not hadany more seizures. CASENO. 2

About six months ago, a man brought his wife andtold methat sherefused to speakto him. She becameagitated and depressed whenever he camenear her. After reciting over her,the jbW appearedand informed us that her statewas due to bewitchmentand that the charmwas buried in her father'sgrave. We went to the grave, dug it up andremoved the charm,which was made with her hair and fingernail clippings, andthen we burnedit. After that shewas cured- by the will of Allah.

287 INTERVIEW NO. 5

LOCATION: Madinah, SaudiArabia DATE: 8/4/88

NAME: 'Ali Mushrif al-'Amri

EDUCATION: Teacherat Islamic University of Madinah.

Q. Whenand why did you beginto practiceexorcism. A. This situation wherebypeople come to mefor treatmentfor ailmentscaused by the finn beganquite recently. When I was'appointedas im&n of Masjid QubA745

- andmy Qur'anicrecitation was good, praise be to Allah-I was afflictedby the evil eye in my throat. When I got downoff of the podiumafter deliveringthe Friday sermonand wanted to recitethe Qur'anfor the prayer,I wastotally unable to recite the openingchapter, al-Ratiftah. In fact,I couldnot evensay, "A11.4hu Akba?' ("Allah is the greatest.") in order to beginthe prayer. Someof those behind me realizedthat I had been affectedby the evil eye',and one of them steppedforward and led the prayer forme. Whenthe prayerwas over, people came andgreeted me, wished me well andcursed whoever put the evil eyeon me. They all knewthat it wascaused by the evil eye,but therewas no way to identify the personbecause of the largenumber of thosewho prayedin the mosque.I was forced to resignfrom leadingprayer in the mosquedue to my inabilityto reciteor lead the prayer. It even reachedthe level that I was unable to teachat the University of Madinah, and I askedto be releasedfrom my post. Someof my friends and close relativessuggested that I go to seesome magicians. But how could I do that whenI wasa teacherof tawhpdat the University,teaching that it

745,Quba is a place threemiles from Madinah,where Prophet Mulýammad (4) laid the foundationsof the first placefor publicworship in Islam.It is esteemedthe fourth mosquein rank, being next to that'of Makkah, Madinah and . (LVdionmy oflslam, p. 482. )

288 was prohibited to go to fortunetellers and magicians? I refused to go to a

magician even if it meant my death. Then I recalled that the Prophet said,

"Incantation is not allowed except for the evil eye or the sting of a scorpion. "746 I

reflected that this text explicitly allows the believers to use permissible incantations - and the greatest would be for the evil eye. So I began to research

this issue by gathering together books of prophetic traditions, commentaries on

the Qur'an, and writings of the scholars about the use of some verses and

prophetic supplications. I found that these scholars said that when some Jews

wanted to affect the Prophet (*) with the evil eye, the following verse was

revealed: "And surely those who disbelieve will almost make you slip with their

eyes when they hear the Reminder [i. e., the Qurlan], and they say, 'Surely, he is a

madman. ' But it is only a reminder to all of the worlds. "747 The scholars say that

whenever this verse is recited on someone afflicted with the evil eye, it cures him

by the permission of Allah. They mentioned their experience in using this verse

and its results. Almighty Allah stated that He revealed in the Qur'an a verse

which is a cure and a mercy for the believers.748 I found in authentic traditions

that the Prophet (4) said, "Verily, in the Qur'an is a cure for your sicknesses."749

746 Reported by Buraydah ibn Huýayb at-Aslam! and collected by Muslim (.YaAh MusKm, vol. 1, pp. 141-142,no. 625) and Ibn Majah (FaAh SunanIbn Mijah, vol. 2, p. 266, no. 2832). A similar statementwas also reported,by'Imran ibn Ijuýayn and collected by Aba Dawad, at-Tirmidh! and Aýmad QYaAhal-Jkni'aý-$qghir, vol. 6, p. 191, no. 7373).

747 Qur'An, 68:51-52.

748 SeeQur'An, 17:82 749 1 could not find any traditio,n with thiswording-in the referencebooks on prophetic traditions. The wording,"The best medicine is the Qur'ln, " is'not authentic (Pa'If Sunan Ibn Mijah, p. 287, no. 774 and P. 284, no. 767) andneither is the wording, "Use two cures - honeyand the Qur'An"(Pa'IfSunan Ibn MIjab, p. 280, no. 756). There is a narrationwith the wording,"Surely, this Qur'Anis the rope of All* light and a beneficialcure, " collectedby ad-Darim!('Abdullah ibn Bahramad- Darinff 'Sunan ad-D&*nl [Beirut: - Dar al-Fikr, 1978],vol. 2, p. 431), however,it is also not authenticdue to the presenceof the unreliablenarrator, lbrM-dm al-Hajari

289 And I found that other chapterslike the mu'awwjdbatan and al-Fjtffiah were used

for various, spiritual ailments. So I gatheredthese verses, chapters and prophetic

supplications and recited them upon myself In addition, I noticed that the

commentaries written about them usually spoke about the finn. So, not only did I

personally benefit from this research concerning the evil eye, but I also learned

about the world of the finn. I discovered what may be recited as protection

against them or for relief to those possessed. And I discoveredthe effects of

magic and its Qur'Anic cures. Readingupon myself cured most of the effects of

the evil eye. Although I am still unableto raisemy voice in recitation between

mqg)ýdb and 'ishj', I again have begun to give lecturesand have returned to teaching.

Shortly after this, I cameacross an article in the newspaperabout a man from

the Mulayr! clan in Hadban(about 300 krn from Madinah) whose place was being

burned by fire, and he was forced to leave his place becauseof it. The papers

mentioned that after investigation,some geologists and other scientistsconcluded

that the areawas flammabledue to gas leaks from the earth, while others claimed

that it was caused by bacteria. In the end, they wrote that the scientistswere

unable to solve the problem. So I contactedthe civil defenseadministration and

informed them that the cause was the finn. The man or a memberof his fan-dly

had harmed the finn, so they were taking revengeby harming the family. I told

the administration that with Qur'Anic recitation it would go away. The civil

defense contacted the Amirate and informed them of what I had said. They in

turn contactedthe Director of the University who summonedme and told me that

I would be sent by car to Hadban, so I went. When I met the man, I greeted him

and asked him what happened. He said that he built a sevenroom residenceand

dug a well there. He placed his camel-hairtent next to his house. While he and

(Taqffb at- Tahdbfb,vol. 1, p. 43, no. 28 1).

290, his family were sitting in the houseafter ; ýuhr,they noticed a fire had started in the tent. They put it out, assumingthat someonepassing by had inadvertently thrown into a cigarette the tent and causedthe fire. So they beganto curse the one who did it. When they sat back' down in the living room, they noticed the smell of

smoke and thought that the tent had reignited, but they did not find it on fire. They beganto searchin the other rooms for the source. They discoveredthat the

room next to them was on fire, and they thought that perhapssomeone had deliberately thrown another lit cigarette through one of the open windows of the

room. Again, they cursedthe perpetrator. However, while they were putting out

this fire, they found that the room in which they were previously sitting was now

on fire. So they realizedthat it was not as they suspected.They collected some

of their belongings and gathered in one of the bedrooms. There was a metal

wardrobe in this bedroom along with a metal trunk containing somevaluables. They suddenlynoticed smoke coming from insidethe metaltrunk. Whenthey openedit, they found their belongingsburned to ashes.So they collectedtheir

remainingbelongings, left the house,went to the headof the tribe of the region, and informed him of what had occurred. Whilethe tribal leaderwas debating whether the informationwas true or false,their car ignited. The leadertold them

to leave the house and to stay in two tentswhich he would setup outsidethe house. At the time of 'ag prayer,a tent was setup for the womenand another for the men. Whenmaghdb came and they left the tentsto performtheir prayers, the two tents burst into flames. Subsequently,every time they setup new tents, they also went up in flames.They sent a telegramto the King askinghim to save them from the fire. The governoratewas contacted, and the civil defensewas sent. Another tent was set up for the family, andtwo officersfrom the civil defensesat with al-Mutayff inside the tent. When they all got up andwent outside, the tent ignitedand burned to the ground. The civil defenseapologized do further in 1'1ý that they were unable to anything- this case.Next the geologists came and said that the land was subjectto spontaneousignition due togas

291 seepage,so the man and his family were taken to a town 30 kilometers away, but

things kept bursting into flamesaround them. The other scientists,who said that

the combustion was due to bacteria,were just as wrong becausethe combustion

would only occur when they left a place. In fact, wheneversomeone from the

family remained behindin a place,the fires stopped. Then other problems began.

If they were in front of food, nothing would happen,but if they left, salt would

spill in the food or soap powder would be found all over it. Sometimesthey

would find cow dung or goat droppingsin their food when they left it alone for a moment.

During my first night there I recited in all seven rooms of the house,then

everyone left. We ate at the leader of the tribe!s house which was many

kilometers away. When we returned that night, nothing was burned. So we spent

the night there without an incident. I also spentthe next night there, and again we

left and returned without any fires igniting. After that I returned to Madinah. The

newspapers,which like to exaggerate everything, wrote a number of lengthy

articles on the incident and how a PaSth scholarfrom the Islamic University had

driven away the firm. Within about three days,people camein droves outside my

door informing me that they were afflicted with finn, etc. I told them that I was myself afflicted andI only wantedto helpthe familyin Hadban.I informedthem

that I hadnever read over anyonebefore, but theyinsisted that I reciteanyway. I felt that if I recitedand nothing happened, it would convincethem and they would leave. So I recitedover the first case,a woman,and to my surprisethe jhw left - her immediately. That only increasedthe problemand the crowdsgot biggerand bigger. Even now, sometimesnights pass andI amunable to sleepdue to the manycases which arebrought to me.

How long haveyou beenexorcising people? A. I havebeen exorcising people for two years.

What arethe mainsigns of possession?

292 AL There are many. For instance,a man may come to me complainingthat he feels as

though chains are tied to his body betweenhis stomachand his neck and at times

something seems to suffocatehim. When I recite over him for a while, he begins

to take deep breathsand his body beginsto shake. If I grab him by the neck and

speak to the jLW in him, it begins to speak. When I ask the jLW its name, it

gives a name different from that of the man, or the jbW may say that she is a

woman. Once I recited over a brother and orderedthe possessingspirit, "Get out

you evil, malejhw, " and it replied, "I am a woman and not a man." When I asked

her, "Why did you take him?" shereplied, "I did not come to him, he cameto me.

I was in a well along with my children and he climbeddown the well and hurt us."

When the man regainedconsciousness, he confirmed her story saying that he had

a well and when he had climbeddown into it, he felt somethingenter his stomach like an arrow.

One possessedby afin&exhibits somestrange movements and speakswithout

realizing it. People will inform the person after regainingconsciousness about the things he had said.

If a person experiencesnightmares or a state of immobility at the time of going

to sleep or between the state of wakefulness and sleep, these are among the be beginning signs of possession.They must treated immediately,otherwise they

will lead to major problemslater. If Ayah a]-Kutg is recited repeatedly,the jLW

will go away and not return.

Q. How do you distinguishbetwe en a possessedperson an dI one who is bewitched? A. These two states are quite similar and easily can be mistakenfor eachother. When researchingthese cases,one finds that magicoperates byway of thefinn.

The magician is not ableto affectth e oneon whomhe caststhe spellexcept with the help of the fitm. I amable to tell the differenceduring treatment. Treating jLw2-possessionis mucheasier than breaking a magicalspell. Thecompanionsof

the Prophet(4) recitedover a possessedperson three times and he got well. The

293 Prophet (4) addresseda possessedperson on one occasionand he was cured.

However, the spell which was cast upon the Prophet (4) lasted for six months. It

was not broken until he was informed where the charmwas and it was dismantled.

This tells us that complete cure wi.11 usually only take place when the charm has

I been destroyed. Findingthe charmis not easyunless one discovers the onewho cast the spell and forces him to destroyit. If the charmis not found,it is very difficult to cure. The spell can be broken without the charm, but it requires

continuous treatment and patience. I havetreated a few casessuccessfully, so it

can be done, but it requires long, continuoustreatment. When verses are read over a possessedperson, he becomes uneasyand begins to make many unnecessarymovements. This tells you that the causeis thejkn. If the versesof magic (Jyjt as-siýr) are read over a bewitchedperson, he will also exhibit additional movements.One knows by experiencethe differencebetween the two. fý In the beginningit is not easyto tell the difference.Now whena patientcomes and I recite over him some verses I amable to tell his relativesif he is undera spell or is possessed. Because of that, somepeople say that I am a magician.

Some tell me that I amdealing with magicbecause they went to magicianswho confirmed what I said. However, it is only coincidence. If the patienfs movementsare strange or unusual,it maybe dueto jLw.,possession. If not, it is probably be dueto magic. Spellsoften affect only oneparticular characteristic of the person.If the persondevelops a phobiaabout something, it. is probablydue to a magicalspell. For example,a personsuddenly develops an intensedislike for his job. If you take him anywhereelse he is fine, but if you take him to hisjob he refuses to go. His supervisorwould thenterminate him becausehe doesnot wish to work. This is probablydue to magic. However,it mightbe mixedup with the evil eye. The differenceis that the personunder the spellwill act crazilywhen taken to somethinghe dislikes,while the personunder the evil eyewill simply dislike it. Those affectedby thefinn will developa. dislike for filthy things. For

example,he mayrefuse to entera bathroom.Iýe maydislike entering a numberof

294 placesand he developsa fear of them. Also, he will beginto like beingalone, avoidingpeople. Thefinn wantto be secludedwith the onepossessed.

Q. Do only non-Muslimfinn possess? A. No, the possessingspirit could be a Muslim, but a corrupt one,like corrupt Muslim humans.

Q. Canrighteous finn possesshumans for their benefit? A. No, the act of possessionis an act of oppression.However, if a humandevelops a habit of doinga righteousact, like prayerat a particulartime, andhe oversleepsor forgets, a righteousjhW (or angel,according to somescholars) will sometimes remind him. He mayhear a voicecalling him to get up, andwhen he awakens,no oneis there.

Q. Are peoplepossessed by only onejbmiat a time? A. There are no limitations for the finn in this regard. It is not a casewhere one entersand the hostis full.

Q. How do theJMn possess humans? A. They enter most often from the feet. Onefeels as though an ant is crawlingon one's foot andthen up one!s leg. This continuesuntil it occupiesthe whole body. Or it may comefeeling like a sharparrow piercingone! s stomach.Then it seems to enter the throat. A third way is that oneexperiences a very severeheadache which temporarily causesa completeloss of consciousness,then it descendson the remainder of the body. Or one may suSir from an extremebout of depression.

Ibn Tayn-dyyahdivided the finn with regardto their affectinghumans into three

groups: 1) a group which attacks humansand may even kill them,2) a group which possesshumans without killing or ham-dngthern,but it is difficult to get them to leave,and 3) agroup whichharms them slightly and leaves quickly. The third group is the most common. They are the mischievoustypewhichwill

295 possesswithout any logical cause. They possessjust to do harm, and they only

control humans whose hearts are empty, vacant of the remembranceof Allah.

And finn usually occupy filthy, vacant and deserted places. If the Qur'an is

recited over someone possessedby this type offin&, it leavesquickly becauseit

had no real purpose besides mischief The secondgroup consistsoffian who

possesshumans out of passionatelove, and they usually causeepileptic seizures

and fits. This type requires long treatment because it is the most difficult to

remove. The first group is the worst and most dangerous. They harm humans

according to the level of harm which humansdid to them. If someonethrew a

stone and killed one of them,they may kill him or oneof his children. If part of the body was paralyzedfrom humanharm, the finn will causethe paralysisof a part of the personwho harmedthem. This is the typethat the Prophet warned us about, and he gave us prayersto protect ourselvesfrom them. Muslims are instructedto mentionthe nameof Allah beforeentering the toilets, when leaving andentering their homes,when eating, when discharging a weapon during hunting,when throwing anything or whenpouring hot water. The last two are the mostcommon causes for the possessionof women. I will cite threecases of this type.

A woman was brought to me unconsciousand when I recitedover her, the spirit left and she regainedher consciousness.I asked her what hadhappened.

She repliedthat shehad left her houseafter maghdb -and this is whenpossession most often takes place, which is why the Prophet said in an authentic tradition, "When maghdb comes, keep your children in your homesbecause the

devils spread out in that hour.11750 - and saw a black cat which ran into her

apartment. She chasedit from room to room, trying to expel it, until she cornered

750 Reportedby Ibn 'Abbas,collected by al-Tabarw in a]-Mu:jam al-Kabg, and by in $agh I 249, 705. authenticated al-Albk-d al-JArni'aý-&ghiT, v'oU s-p. no.

296 it in the bedroom. There shetook her nightgown from a chair and hit it, and it ran

under the bed. Shelooked under the bed but did not seeit. So she assumedthat

it must have left without her realizing it. When her husbandreturned later on that

night and she put on the nightgown, it possessedher from her nightgown.

However, because her harm to it was slight, it readily left after a single recitation

over the woman and did not return.

Another unconscious woman was brought to me, and after I recited over her

and grasped her throat, the jkw began to speakbecause it suffered from this.

Shaykh al-Islarn In Taymiyyahand other scholarsused to beat their patients, but

I found that beating sometimes hurts the person. The jhw spoke, saying, "My

name is Salih." Then I said, "Salih is a Muslim name," and he replied, "I am a

Muslim. " I scolded him, saying,"Since you are a Muslim, why are you hurting

this Muslim woman?" He said, "She hurt me. Why did shehurt me?" I asked

how she hurt him and he replied, "She poured hot water on me in the toilet and

wounded me. She did not evenwarn me." I questioned,"How could she have

warned you?" He said, "By saying bismillih (In the nameof Allah). I would have

heard that and left. " When the woman regainedconsciousness, I askedher if she

had poured hot water in the toilet, and sheconfirmed that she had. So I told her

to mention Allah's namebefore doing so in the future. As for the possessingjbw,

he left and did not return again.

Q. Are thereother circumstances when the finn maypossess humans? A. The weaponsare in one's handsto protect himself from falling into their evil. Whenevera Muslim leavesor entershis home,he shouldmention the nameof Allah. Whenhe goesto sleep,he shouldread Ayah a]-Kumi. Oneshould try not to leaveany opportunitiesfor themto attack. The Prophet(4) mentionedcertain circumstanceswhich shouldbe avoided: 1) Do not sleepby yourselfin an empty house or in the desert. TheProphet (4) prohibitedpeople from sleepingalone becausethe devil maygain control over them. 2) Do not travel alone. He named

297', the one who travels alone "satan," two who travel together "two devils"

(sbaylffmn), and three "a caravan"(rakb). Most peoplewho are possessedeither

forgot to mention Allahs namebefore pouring hot water or throwing something,

or they slept or traveled alone.

The finn usually possesspeople when they are in a state of either extreme fear

or excessiveffivolity. For example,there is a type offinn calledfinn az-zArwhich t possessespeople during musical parties. It canbe treated. Whenthe participants of suchgatherings are filled with the spirits,the exorcistgrasps them by the throat andrecites over them until thefinn leave.

What arethe Qur'Anicverses which you readon the possessed? A. Most of them can be found in Sunan Aba Djwvd, a]-Adhkjrby an-Nawawi,

Tadhkirah adb-Dbakbin by ash-Shawkani,Sbarhý a]-girz al-V4, in andkt-Tibb an-

Nabawl. It is good to read Samh a]-Ann, Samh aAKArmVp,SOmh al-I"4,

Satah a]-Falaq and S" an-N&. Theselast four may be read three times each

or seven times each. There are also prophetic prayerswhich have been used

successfully by some scholars,as well as supplicationsused by the early scholars

which are mentioned by Ibn at-Qayyimin his book, Zid a]-Ma'id. That is from

the point'of the exorcist. The possessedis recommendedto recite the seven

verses on magic, among them are the following verses: Qur'An, 10:81,20: 69 and

7: 117-121. These three sarahs contain sevenverses which have been tried and

tested by scholarswith very good results.

Q. Is it necessaryto take an oath,from thefinn beforethey depart? A. It is necessaryin orderto discouragethem from returning. SometimesI will grasp the patientsneck and say, "I askyou by the Onebesides whom thereis no god, the Ever-Living,the Self-Subsisting,to speakon hertongue without hurting her," and it will begin to talk. It maysay, "What do you want?" or "This is noneof your business."

298 Q. Do thefirm speakin thevoice of the possessed?

A. Yes, the finn speakin the samedialect and with the samevoice. But I did havea casewere a common, uneducatedperson recited the Qur'Anbetter than I could. If I recited over him Ayah aAKWsi,he would say,"I havelearned it betterthan you." And he would proceedto reciteit.

Q. Whatis the role of the qaffnin possession?

A. The jLwi assignedto a personmay inform the magicianor fortuneteller'sjLW all about you. So theyappear capable of knowingthe unseen.There was a casein the time of Caliphal- (ruled 775-785) in whicha manentered his court and claimedthat he was a prophetreceiving revelation. He wasasked for proof and he said, "Everyoneput in his hand a specificnumber of items. I will leaveand come back andinform you of whatyou havein your hands.This will provewhat I saybecause it couldonly takeplace by revelation." Theydid ashe askedand he informed them of the exact amountsin their hands.They were amazeduntil a scholar cameand told themthat the manwas lying to them. The scholarsaid that the man was really a magician.They asked how he knewthat andhe told them that he would demonstrate.He said,"If he is ableto tell what is in my hand,he is

a true prophet." Then he told the manto leave. He thentook out a numberof dirhamsand held some in his hand. Whenthe manreturned, the scholarasked him to inform them. The man loweredhis headfor a momentthen raised it up and said,"Thirty. " The scholaropened his handand showed he hadover one hundred. When askedhow the impostordid it the first time, he told themthat they counted what was in their handsand their firm countedalong with themand informed the impostor'sjLW. However,the scholargrasped a quantitywithout countingthem, so his jbW wasunable to countthem; therefore, the magiciancould not find out what he had. The manwas beaten and he admittedthe truth.

There is a popular school of thought spreadingin these times called mediumship. It is all liesand involves magic. If someonesays, "But I heardmy

299 father's voice," the answershould be "No, you heardyour fatheesjhW." The qaffn may not die when the man dies. It may live for sometime. So if the person'sfather's jhw is still around,it is ableto talk in his dialect,just asfinn often speak in the exactsame voice of the humansthey possess.Their voicesare indistinguishablefrom their hosts,whether mate or female.Thejbw, throughthe medium, will inform a personof thingsonly knownto him andhis father,because he was with him. The ignorant believethat it is the spirit of the dead communicating. However, it is impossible,because the Qur'an andthe Sunnah clearlystate that the soulsof the deadcannot return to this Be.

300 INTERVMW NO. 6

LOCATION: Nasim, Riyadh DATE: 12/6/1988

NAME: Muýammad al-Funaytil al-'Unayzi AGE: 28 PLACE OF BIRTH: Riyadh NATIONALITY: Saudi

EDUCATION: Primary school and religious studiesin the masjid.

Q. Whatwas your first exposureto exorcism?

A. Prior to five months ago, I knew nothingabout the finn andwas amongthose who did not believethat thefinn couldenter a humanbeing. About five months ago a relative of mine becamesick, and I took him to al-'Amr! (the exorcist's name) in Uaya.751 Duringthe exorcism,al-'Amr! grabbedhim by the throat and recited some Qur'Anic verses over him, anda femalejhw spokesaying that her name was Rifah. He askedher if she was a Muslimor non-Muslimand she replied that shewas not a Muslim. Whenhe askedher when she entered the man, she answeredthat it was more than twenty years ago.

What were the signs exhibitedby your relativewhich made you take him to al- 'Amri?

A. ýarýan used to be in the military with the borderdefense and had his own car. Then he changedand beganto live out in the desertalone. He built a shanty house out of old cartires andempty oil drumsand became very carelessabout his personalhygiene. He constantlyremained in a odorousand filthy state,and he avoided company. If someonestared at him,he would get angryand challenge the person. He developeda stronglove for refuseand collected around himself enough garbageto make a whole country dirty. He' alsobegan to dislikehis

751 A district in northernRiyadh.

301 parentsintensely, and he refusedto seethem.

Whenthe femalejLW possessingyour cousinspoke, was it in the maWsvoice? A. Yes, it was in Farban'svoice. A]-'Amr! then askedher where she came from and she saidfrom 'Iraq. He askedher how sheentered the man,and she replied that it was during one of his bouts of anger. On oneoccasion, Farban was extremely angry with someoneand entered the toilet without mentioningAllah's name. The jhW thenappeared before him in the form of a womanand told him that sheloved him. I took him to al-'Amri six timesfor treatment.ThejLwwould leavefrom

his right foot, and afterwe left al-'Amri's,it would returnto him. Eachtime we

went, I would watchhow al-'Amri treatedthe differentpatients - how he recited and blew uponthem, how he grabbedtheir necksand they fainted, and how he hit them. Sometimesthe finn did not speak.These were the most difficult cases. After I took my cousinback the sixthtime, I decidedto try to treat him myself. I sat in front of him andrecited Aph a]-Kuig, the lastverses of Sarahal-ýIashr and other verseswhich I hadgathered from booksabout the fiýw andexorcism and had written down in a notebook.Al-HamduIVIA I succeeded,and the jLw left just asit did for al-'Amri. I kept makingit difficult for thefimff to stayin him for any length of time by expellingher regularly. ThenI went to my cousires shanty home, took out his few usefulbelongings and burned the shackdown. I bathed Farban and cleaned him up, andhis conditionbegan to steadilyimprove. Then his uncle from Kuwait cameand took him away,and he returnedto a state worsethan he wasbefore.

What arethe mainreasons that firm possesshumans?

A. The sick people who have, cometo me do not pray,and their thoughtsare very corrupt. WhenI askeda femalejLwff why shepossessed a man I wastreating, she replied, "Becausehe does'not pray.", This is one of the main reasonsfor

possession- the abandonmentof the, religion. ýThe secondreason could be becausethey do not honortheir parents,instead they abusethem. So Allah sends

302 a jLwi to punishthem.

Q. How do you know that thejLwlwas sentby Allah? A. Nothing happensin this world exceptby the permissionof Allah. Whenaperson goesaway from the Qur'an,his thoughts become perverse. All of thosewho have come to me were sinfulpeople, except one young girl who was from a religious family, and she becamepossessed by a Muslim jhW called Khalaf It was apologetic whenI scoldedit for possessingher, and it left throughher leg with an oath not to return. Possessionmay also be dueto thefinn taking revengefor someharm done to themby humansinadvertently.

Q. Are the possessingfirm usuallydisbelievers?

A. Yes, they are oftenHindus or Christians.One jhmi possesseda patient of mine. When I was exorcisingit, sherevealed how shehad influenced him to delayhis prayersuntil he abandonedhis nightprayer all together.

Q. Whensomeone comes to you, how do you know that he is possessed?

A. He acts unnaturally,always looking at the ground,or he getsup suddenlyand walks around. The possessedare generally unable'to sit still in oneplace for any length of time. He frequentlygoes to the toilet andseems to be generallyuneasy.

Sometimeshe displays a strange,eerie sn-dle. He maylaugh in an abnormalway without any apparentreason, ' asif he is seeingthings we cannot. I havenoticed this amongthe twenty or so caseswhich I havetreated. -'

Q. In your cases,did thefinn speakor did the possessedpeople communicate their situations?

A. The caseswere different. Concernin9 the younggirl who I mentionedearlier, the Jmm spokein a deep,male voice. Usuallyin the beginningof a sessionthe people themselvesspeak, and later thefiim takeover. On one occasionwhile we were prayingin our masjid,we heardthe soundof loud breathing.After the prayerwas over, we looked around the masjid but We into saw- no one. went the gravel

303 courtyard of the masjid were we found my cousin,Farýý lying on his stomach

and moving as if he were swimming in the gravel. When I grabbed him by his

throat and asked the jLW why she had returned, she respondedthat it would leave, which it did. My cousin had been passingby the masjid and the recitation

of the Qur'An during prayer had affected the jhmi within him. Another time

during a visit of somehnarns from the neighboringmasjids, a womanwas brought house. to my She camein, sat down for a moment and then she suddenlygot up began and to run. When I called out to her shestood still, but her body was

quivering. I told her to comeback and sit downin front of me, andI askedher what waswrong, but shesaid nothing. Whenshe came close, I took a hold of her throat, recitedand blew overher. ThenI askedthe jLwwhat its namewas, andit replied,"Mrgid. "

What wasthe purposeof holdingher throat?

A. The human mind loses consciousnessand the jbw appearsin order to defend itself

Q. Do you use any other meansin your treatmentbesides Qur'Anic recitation and pressingthe veinsof the throat?

A. I do not flog. I havenever beaten anyone except in onecase in which the person was possessedby a disbelievingjbwl whichrefused to communicate.Itremained camouflaged.So I hit the personthree times with my hand,and the jhWbegan to talk, revealingthings about itself recitingover a personand determining -After what his conditionis, I reciteover a bottle of olive oil or waterthe muawwidbit, Ayah al-Kursl, Sarahal-MI4, the lastverses of Sataha]-Yashr (5 9: 21-24) and verse 54 of Sarah a]-Arjf. Then I blow over the oil or water and say, Tismillih! alladWjj V,?gun-uMa., 2smjhjshi y, Un. --,, ("InthenameofAllahwith

whose name nothing is harmed.") Sometimescircumstances' occur when it is necessaryto threatenthe Jmn.- If there is a disbeHevm'gjLw who refusesto leave,

I tell it that I will tie the personsfingers and toes and then bum it. This hasan

304 effect becausewhen the fingersand toes are tied, thefinn cannotexit. And if the ; -' Qur'An is recitedcontinuously over them, the fim will be burnedup insideof the person, which may even kill the person. So, you cannot continue to read over

them if you tie their fingers and toes. In any case,I only use this as a threat.

Are theredifferent types of possession? A. Sometimesthe jLwtakes completecontrol over the humanmind, and the human does not rememberanything that occursduring the periodof his possession.At other times the humanretains control and is only overcomeby thejb2& for short intervals.

Is possessiona swift processor doesit takeplace over long periodsof time? A. There are two circumstances. In some cases the jbW encounters a human

unintentionally. For example,if a person failedto mentionAllah's name while pouring hot waterinto a placewhere there happened to be a jLwff, it maypossess the person immediately. In some caseswhen I askthe jhWwhy it possesseda person, it replies that hot water was pouredon it or his/herchildren. At other times the jb2& may take a form and appearbefore a person who does not rememberAllah. The personwill becomevery afraid,and it will take control of

,- him.

Q. What form do finn take?

A. Sometimesthey appearas humans,sometimes as a black dogoracamel. In human form it may even,greet a person,and when he extendshis handto shake hands,it disappears. This createsgreat fear in one!s heart,and the fi nn usually possesshumans who arein a weakenedstate due to extremefear.

What percentageof your casesof possessionare women? A. About 80 percent of thosewhom I havei seen are women. )7iznhave strong and weak personalities.Female finn arestronger than male finn.

305 Q. Do only malefinn possesswomen? A. Malefihn . enterwomen or men,and female firm do likewise.

Q. Haveyou encounteredcases of morethan one fin& possessinga singlehuman? A. Most of the caseswhich I havetreated involved only onejLwi, but therewere two instancesin whichI foundmore than one.

Q. Which part of the humanbody do firm enterand leave by, andin what part do theydwell?

A. Usuallythey enterby the big toe andleave by the big toe or finger. Whenthey are leavingthrough the foot or hand,it beginsto shakeand rise, whether the personis sitting down or lying on his back. Thejbw seemto concentratein the chestor head of the person. Those possessedusually experiencea tightnessor constrictionof their chestsalong with severeheadaches. They mayalso hear soundswhich no oneelse can.

Q. During exorcisms,do the possessingfirm try to possessyou? A. I haveexperienced the partialentrance offinn into my handsup to my elbows. It felt like electricityor antswere crawling up my arms.

Q. Couldyou describethe stepsyou takein performinga typicalexorcism? A. As I mentionedpreviously, J first recite certain versesand chaptersover the patient and thenblow on him. In difficult casesI sit on the persotfsstomach and have two people hold his hands,then I blow on his face. If thefinn respondat this point, I beginto communicatewith them. If theydo not, I graspthe patient's neck with my thumbson thejugular veins and ask the patientto inform me when he feels dizzy or sleepy. If the patient falls asleep,it meansthat he was only touched by the finn and is not possessed.Otherwise, the patientbegins to lose

consciousness,then suddenlyhe awakenswith an evil look on his face. Also, a foul odor comesfrom him beforethe fian beginto speak.At this point, I let go of the patient'sneck and find out who thefinn areand why they came. ThenI scold

306 them and order themto givean oathto leave. If thefinn refuse,I threatenthem by sayingthat I will bumthem after tying the fingersand toes of the possessed. Usually they leave by this point. I then recite over olive oil andwater. The patient rubs the oil on the achingparts of his body,and he drinksor batheswith the water. This treatmentis repeatedfor three to ten days until the patient becomesgentle and the roughnessgoes.

307 IMMRVMW NO. 7

LOCATION: Ghubayrah,Riyadh DATE: 22/6/88

NAME: Mubammadibn Sa'iyyid ad-Dawsar!

AGE: 55 PLACE: al-Aflaj (Qa§Im),Saudi Arabia EDUCATION: Qur'Anicstudies in masjids.

Q. Whendid you beginto practiceexorcism? A. I beganto practice exorcismthirty-one yearsago. I visitedsome shaykbs who were reciting the Qur'an over a woman. They concludedthat nothing was possessingher. But whenI camenear her andtouched her, shefell down. So I recited over her and to our surprise,the jhmi spoke.It saidthat its namewas Sa'd and was from suchand such a village. Thejhmithen sworethat he would leave her, and he promptly left. After that, I realizedthat Allah hadblessed me with the ability to fight thefinn. WheneverI camenear possessed people, they would begin to tremble, and when I read over themverses, such as Ayah al- Kursf, the beginningverses of SarahYJ Sin, the muaww1dhatinand Sarahal- lkhljý threetimes, the finn would leave.

Q. Did you learnyour methodof exorcismfrom anyone?, A. My uncle usedto exorcisewith the Qur'an,but he alsowould hit. I do not hit. I only readover the possessed.The finn say,"You haveburned us with the Qur'an. May Allah bum your parents."

Q. Canyou identifythe mainsigns which'indicate that a personis possessed? A. Sometimesone can tell from theway that the possessedwalks. Othertimesone cannot detect possessionuntil after reciting over them. Some patients have epilepsy (pra'), whichis not causedby thefinn. At othertimes they areaffected ,. by the evil eye.

308 Q. Fromyour experience,what are the mainreasons why peopleare possessed? 5,,, A. The actions of humanbeings lead to their possession.They may unknowingly pour hot waterupon ajhWor theymay fall uponone while playingfootball. Ifa

person forgets to mention AIIWs name in either case,ajLwmay possesshim. Some patientsare affectedby the evil eye. Onewoman whom I recentlytreated had spilled tea on the ground andhad mentioned Allah's name on behalfof her brothers,but sheforgot to do so for herself,so a jbw possessedher. Possession may also be caused by magical spells. Magic opens the door for the fifw to ,_ whisperdoubts in the rnindof the bewitchedperson.

Q. What is the percentageof menand woman who becomepossessed? A. The greatermajority are women.

Q. Do only disbelievingfinn possesshumans? A. The corruptfirm, whetherdisbelieving or Muslims,possess humans.

Do malefirm possessonly women? A. In the past, I only foundone jk&possessing. Now, groupsof maleand female finn will possessa person.There are no hardand fast rules. Thefirm are different

types. Awlýyah aParo causethe possessedto lose their consciousness,making

them unawareof what happenedto themuntil theyregain consciousness. When a person is possessedby finn ar-jjýb,he knowswhen the jbW comesand goes, and they conversewith one another. The third type is the whisperingfina which mainly affect the minds of thereligious. Theywhisper such things as, "You are goingto die, do not botherto pray,etc. "

Q. How do thejbw benefitby possessinghumans?

A. There is no benefit. They aremerely corrupt, like corrupt humanscommitting adultery,etc.

309 Doespossession take a longtime or is it swift?

A. There are two types. Onetype causes distress and seizures over a long periodof time, while the other will enter quickly and leave quickly if exorcised.

Fromwhich part of the bodydo thefirm enter? A. Aw enter mainlyby the air, sometimesthrough the noseor mouth,or sometimes they feel like an ant crawling gradually up a leg. Only jLW al-W enter through the blood. It fearsthe adMnand Qur'Anic recitation.

Whichparts of the humanbody do thefina occupy? A. They occupy the head or the heart. They causethe heartto beatfaster or to become irregular. Whenoperations are performed, no physicaldefects are found.

The firm may concentratein one part of the body and later spreadover the whole body andspeak in the voiceof the possessed.

During exorcisms,do the possessingfina try to possessyou? A. No, but they threatenme, and I threatenthem. If theywere able to kill me,they would.

Do you useother means of exorcisinglike tying fingersand t6es? A. No, I only usethe recitationof the Qur'Anand rose water. Tying fingersand toes wasused in earliertimes. Now, it hasno effect.

Q. Do thefinn leavefrom a particularpart of the humanbody? A. They often leave from the hands,fingers or nose,yet thereis no specificplace from which they leave. Theyare like steamin a pot. Whenthe water boils, the steamwill raisethe lid andescape.

If thefinn give an oathwhen leaving, do theyreturn? A. Sometimessome of them return and at other times they bring othersin their places. Someleave and do not return.

310 During your exorcism,do you hold or touchany part of the patient!s body? A., I do not grab or squeezeany particular part of the body, but I may slap the patient

on his shouldersor the top of his head.

311 'IWMRVEEW NO. 8

LOCATION: , Pakistan DATE: 18/7/88

NAME: Rana MOanunad Anwar

AGE: 35 years old approximately PLACE: Karachi EDUCATION: Matric (Grade 10).

Q. 'When andwhy did you beginto practiceexorcism? A. began I about 16 or 17 yearsago. As a youthI heardpeople talking aboutthe imn and that they possessedpeople. I becameinterested in how theywere expelled,so I beganto gatherinformation about exorcism.

Q. Did anyof your familymembers practice exorcism? A. No, I amthe only one.

Q. ,,How did you learn? A. I learnedby questioningthose who were known to practiceexorcism and by attendingtheir sessions.

Doesthe possessedperson have fits andbecome unconscious?

A. He usually displays erraticactions, sometimes fighting and striking those around him.

Q. In what languagedoes the possessedperson'usual'l'yl'spý'e''a'k'during a fit? A. He speaksin his own language90 peicentof the time.

Q. 'How canyou tell that a personis possessed?

A. Possessionis determinedby giving the person'certain testsand by askinghim differentquestions.

Q. Canyou tell from the person'sphysical appearance?

312 A. No.

Pleasedescribe the testswhich you use. A-, There arethree possible methods: In the first methodI readQur'Anic verses over it to to drink. If they find that it tastes ý, a glass of plain water and give patients bitter, it means that they are possessed.If the water tastesinsipid, it meansthat

they are afflicted by magic. And if it tastessalty, then the person has been cursed.

In the secondmethod I askthe afflictedperson to bringme a pieceof reasonably thick cotton cloth that he wears. I thenmeasure it andgive it to anotherperson to measure. If it decreasesor increasesin length, it means that the person is

possessed.In the third methodI askthe patientto bring a half of a gramor one gram of sugarand ask him to tasteit. I thenread over it. If the tasteis bitter, the ,, personis possessed.If it is saltyor insipid,he is under,the influenceof magic,and such a personwill not havefits and/orbecome unconscious. If the personcannot describethe tasteat all, it alsomeans that he is affectedby magic.

Q. Whattype offinn possessmen, and what type of peopleget possessed? A. Both good andbad finn possessgood andbad people.

What arethe reasonswhy finn possesshumans? A. The firm live in trees and abandonedbuildings. If a persondisturbs thern, they I maybepossessed because the finn arestronger than humans. Possession may also be a resultof humansdefiling, damaging or destroyingproperty of thefinn. They may also do so out of love. For example,in our villagethere was a girl from amongmy relativeswho waspossessed by aj'm'n'j-.

Q. I Did shespeak in her own voice? A. ' It communicatedin a slightlylower tone of hervoice. I askedit, "Whyhaveyou botheredher? " It replied, "Becauseshe hadput on makeupand went into the fýrest to defecate.When I sawher lookingso beautiful,I fell in love with her."

313, ' Whatpercentage of your casesof possessioninvolve women? A. Approximately 70 percentof thosebrought to me are women.

Do femalefitin possessmen and vice-versa? Yes.

What percentageof casesinvolve male finn andwomen, and female finn andmen? A. About 95 percentof the casesinvolve Jmn entering human beings of the opposite sex.

Q. Do the finn always speakin the voiceof the possessedperson? If not, in what percentageof casesis it different?

A. They do not alwaysspeak in the voiceof their host. Maybein about20 percentof the casesthe voicechanges and around 80 percentremain the same.

Q. What percentageof possessingfinn are disbelieversand what percentageare Muslim?

Aý It is not possibleto tell becausethey he, andone cannot observe the fife of the jLw in orderto determinethe truth. But I believethat both typespossess.

Q. In your view, what benefitdo firm derivefrom possessinghumans?

A. Sometimesthey possessin order.to teasehumans because they areirritated with them. At othertimes they possessdue to their ignorance.

Q. Is possessiona swift processor. a slow process,possibly taking years? A. Sometimesthe finn play with the personfor a periodof time andtell him not to contactanyone to havehim removed.Later theytake possession of him.

Q. Throughwhich part of the humanbody dofinn enterand leave? A. They do not enterfrom a particularpart of the bodynor leavefrom anyparticular place.

Do they affectparticular sections of the humanbody?

314 A. 3hey can affect all parts of the body or only certain places.

Canthe possessedperson tell whenthey are possessed? A. They usually know when the jLwff comesand leaves. When it comes, it may cause them to changetheir position andshiver, and when it leaves,they feel as if they havebeen untied.

Haveyou observedparticular parts of the body shakingwhen the firm leave? A. I have not noticed this; however,after fits, possessedpeople usually become extremelyweak and their wholebody aches.

Q. 'Havefinn tried to takepossession of you whileyou were expellingthem? A. Yes, this occurredtwice, but theydid not succeed.However, I havebeen beaten up by finn while expellingthem.

Q. After you have detenninedthat the patient is possessed,what is the usual procedurethat you follow in exorcising? A. Before I try to removethe jhW, I first makewuVa'. ThenI usedifferent methods to make thefinni manifestitself in the person'sbody. I pour somescented oil on cotton, readsome Qur'An over it andmake the patientsmell it. Thenlreadsome more versesin the person'sear and blow in it. But I do not useany verses or methodsthat arenot accordingto the shad'ah.

Q. What methodsdo you employto makethe finni manifestitseW ' ThejLWusually beginsto curseif I shake'theperson. _A.

Q. Do you tie anyportions of the patient'shair?, -,, A. In the case of female patients,I usually take a lock of their hair from their foreheadsand wrap it aroundmy finger.

What is the purposeof this?

A. Whenthis is done,the jLw cannotleave until I amready to let it go. .ý,,

315 Do you everstrike your patients?

A. Through the finn a frail woman may have the strengthof two grown men, so

sometimeshit patientson theirbacks with my openhand in orderto makethe finn submit. However, I alwaystry not to bruise or do any damageto the person.

Q. Do you at any time tie threadsaround the fingers or toes of those being exorcised? A. Iýo.

Could you describethree cases of exorcismwhich you haveperformed within the pasttwo years? I A. Case1:

A pregnant womanaround 45 yearsold from Karachi,Qaidabad, was brought to me.,

Q. Whatwas her name? A. I do not ask people!s names. I treatedher in herhome. She was the wife of my friend,Yar MaqsQd,and she was possessed. I gave her amulets on which certain Qur'Anicverses were written.

Whatverses? A. That's my secret. I gave her one to tie on her arm,,because putting amulets around the neckis not permitted.I alsogave her water to drink upon which I had done some readings.I gaveher somenails which I hadread over to hammerinto the four comersof her house.It hasbeen three months now sinceshe was given this' treatment,and she seemsto havebeen cured after being affected for more t,han two years.

Had shebeen treated previously? A. She was taken to see someother exorcists before me. However,when she was given somethingto drink, she would not takeit. If a Maulaviwas calledin, the

316 patientwould beatpeople up. CaseII:

neighborfrom the same districtheard about the first caseand brought for ,A treatmenthis maternalaunt, who wasabout 45-years old. Her nephewand the husbandof the womanin casenumber one were present. I first examinedher to see if she was possessed,then I causedthe finnito manifestitself by reading versesfrom the Qur'an. WhenI did this,the patientbegan to havefits. Her face becamecontorted, showingclearly that shewas possessed. ThejhWwould talk for a momentand then become silent and cause pain in differentparts of her body. I took a lock of her hair in my hand. (It shouldbe notedthat solid objectsin the vicinity of the person have to be removedso that thejhWI cannothit you with them.) I askedthe jbW who he was. His Urdu wasweak, yet he told us that he was a Muslim. I scoldedhim by tellinghim that he did not behavelike one and askedhim why he wasnot ashamedof botheringa poor, widowedwoman with six or sevenchildren. He saidthat hewas sitting in the bathroomand she came in and urinated on him. I told him that it washer houseso he shouldhave exited when sheentered. He saidthat he wasonly restingthere. I informedhim that he should reside in his own areas,such as forests, and not in placeswhere humans live. I hit him on his back(and onejLwtold methat he got boils from beatings).Anyway, he becameweakened by it. After listening to me,he promisedto go away. I threatenedhim that if he returned,I would not let him alive. It hasnow beentwo

and a half months since she wascured. Sheused to havecontinuous fits six or seventimes every 15 days. I first try to gentlymake the finn leave,but if they resist,I thenuse force.

Q. Is shestill okay? A. Justrecently I went for tablfgh,and she was still okay.

Q. Is possessionby morethan one jbW at the sametime possible? A. I havenever experienced it.

317 Q. Do'thefinn alwaystalk in the languageof the onethey possess? A. Most of themspeak in the samelanguage. However, an educatedjbW may speak in more than one language. CaseIII:

This case involved an 18-yearold girl living in Fai§alabad.I was preparing to

go to Saudi Arabia when I was askedto treat her. I went to her home, which was

quite modem. Her family was not very religious. Her problem was that she

would have epileptic fits whenevershe attended marriages, listened to songsor went to the cinema.She was to be marriedwithin threeor four months,and her relativeswere quite worried. I gaveher an amuletto put aroundher arm andgave her some waterto drink uponwhich I hadrecited. After approximatelyten days, she went to the cinema andnothing happened. Three or four monthslater, she was married. However,one time shewas preparing to attenda marriagein Jhang. While bathing,she took off the amuletI hadgiven her andhad an epilepticfit. An exorcist had to be brought from Faisalabad,and he'cured her using Ja&752 astrology and lines. I do not usethese branches of knowledgeto cure. Only the ignorant use such methodsto cureand, make money. The book I readfrom was by Allama Is"q. do in A]-Bare!,W on Palm Reading -I myself not use any shirk my treatments.

Q. Do thefinn havenames? A. Their just like Somehave 11indu Sikh ý namesare ours. names, names,etc.

752 Jafr literally means"a just weanedkid or lamb." Early Shi'itesclaimed that Ja'far aý-ýAdiq(d. 765) wrote a book on lambskin, for the informationof the houseof the Prophet (tt), containingall theyneeded to know andall that wasto happenuntil the Last Day. Later, therearose a beliefthat in the A& meaningswere cabalistically expressedby separateletters, and Vhn al-Aft came to mean"'Ilm al-Huraf," the method of prediction by assigning(by abjad)numerical values to letters. This also cameto be known as as-Simiya'.(Encyclopaedia of Islam,pp. 80-81. )

zI 318I'- Q. Is,it possibleto bum thefinn? ,. A. - can bum finn by lighting lamps. I do not know whetherit is permittedby sbafi'ah or not. I haveheard of manycases where burning is usedto dealwith stubbornfinn. On oneoccasion, I expelledajbwwho hadMen in love with a woman and he promisednot to comeback, but he did. I hit him a lot andI tried to makehim feel ashamedby askinghim, "Whatif someonedid somethingto your sister?" He saidthat no onewould daredo anythingto her. ThejhMi saidthat in his family he was the only sonand that he hadbeen expelled from homeby his parents. The finn live on earthin treesbut not in the air. He saidthat he could not go. I told him to be our friendand go to someother place. If he did, I would not hurt or harmhim in anyway. I saidto him, "See,I havemore strength at this moment,you aresitting listening to me." He said,"It is only a questionof time. I can,harm you a lot." I said,"I will not let that happen.", He said,"I will go for now but will come back again." I burnt him by burninglamps in front of the patient. Onecan see the patientgetting better during such treatment.

Q. Why do you do this type of exorcism? A. Iý am doingthis work out of necessity.It is not permissibleaccording to Shad'ah. There is Hellfire for it. I readsomething before I light the lamps,then I blow on the lamps. This processis repeateduntil thejhW entersintothe lamp. Whenit does so, the patientusually shivers. If you askthe patienthe will tell you that he cansee things burning in the lamp.

319 --l ý INTý-RVIEW NO. 9

LOCATION: Karachi, Pakistan DATE: 20/7/88

NAME: Qafi"Abdul-Khaliq Raýmani DATE OF BIRTH: 1925 PLACE:

EDUCATION: Daml-Ijadith R#maniyyah University. Taught at Maq4id al-'Ulom

University in Agra for 8 years.

Q. Whendid you beginto practiceexorcism? A. I began to practice exorcismwhile I wasa studentat college. I had memorized the whole Qur'An when I was 9-years,old. Consequently,from a youngage people used to comein orderfor meto readQur'An and supplications over them. But I reallybegan to learnabout exorcism when I wasat the university. I studied undersome scholars within andoutside the university.After my graduation,many people cameto me for treatment.

Q. If a personis broughtto you, how do you know that he is possessed?

A. It is possibleto tell from their eyesthat they arepossessed. -

Q. What is it in their eyeswhich indicatestheir stateof possession? A. Through my experiencein dealingwith the possessed,I have learned to recognize a particular way in whichtheir eyesmove. Theyalso have pain in their shoulders and feel a heavinessupon themselves. Sometimesthe possessedperson will display uneasinessor obvious signs of madness,like shouting, screamingand unnaturalactions.

How do you distinguishbetween those who arebiologically or psychologicallyill andthose who aretruly possessedby finn? A. Those who are reallypossessed are few. Peopleare often overcomeby fear and

326 bewildermentand assumethat thesefeelings are caused by demonicpossession. Some "exorcists"make a businessof treatingsuch people. Thosewho cometo these practitionerswith biological sicknessesor psychologicalailments are told that they arepossessed, but theyare deluded. I candetect the truly possessedby their facial expression,their eyes andtheir movements.My greatexperience in this field enablesme to determinethe true casesthrough outward signs. Thereare signs which are difficult to explain, for they areonly knownto thosewho have experiencein this field.

Based upon your experience,what are the main reasonsleading to true possession? A. I cannot tell you the reasonswhy people are truly possessed,for I haveseen demonic possessionamong the pious and amongthe corrupt.

During exorcism,do you askthe finn why theyhave possessed your patients? A. I, do not askthe reasonsbecause the finn do not tell the truth. Theymay say that the person steppedon their headsor anything,but they cannot be believed becausethey arecompulsive liars.

Who aremost affected byfinn, menor women,and to what percent? A. Affectedmost are women, perhaps 70 percentor moreare females.

Q. Do male fitm possesswomen and femalejhw possessmen, or is it possiblefor malefinn to possesshuman males and female jhw humanfemales? I A. Both may occur, however,from my experienceinmost casesmales possess both malesand females. Female jbw arerare.

If a jLW speaksduring treatment,does it usethe voiceof the patientor doesit speakin anothervoice? A. Occasionallythe changesand occasionallyit doesnot. Usuallythe voice , voice heard is the patient's.Sometimes a personwho doesnot know Englishor Arabic

321 " speaksin these languages. There are even cases whenthe patientrecites the Qur'Anwith tqjgid althoughhe had never learned how to readthe Qur'An.

Q. Does this mean that both a Muslimjhw anda non-Muslimjbw maypossess a j '' Muslim human? A. Yes,it does.

Q. Have you found among the non-Muslim, possessingfinn Buddhists, Christians, etc.?

A. I havenot foundthe finn followingspecific pagan religions.

Which aremost common cases of possession,Muslims ornon-MuslimsjL, 2n? A. Muslimsare most common, and they are more evil.

Whichare the easiest to remove? A. They are the same.Sometimes after leaving they return, although in most of my casesthey leavepermanently.

From your experience,what do finn gainfrom possessinghumans? A. They enjoy inflicting pain, and most often they are taking revengefor something.

ýý That is why my father,who wasa very greatsbayft forbademe from exorcising people. Becauseof this I usuallyjustrecite over water which is then sentto my patients,and this has been sufficient'to curethem., Like evil humans,they take pleasurefrom harming others. Sometimesthey enterwomen, obtaining sexual pleasurefrom them.

Q. Haveyou observedsuch cases? A. Yes,before my very eyesI haveseen woMen being raped by invisibleentities.

Q. Canmore than one jhmi possessa singlehuman?

A. From my experience,only onepossesses at a time. AlthoughI supposeit is not impossiblefor the finn to havecompanions with themwho sharein possession.

322 However,I haveonly foundone jLW within a patientat a time.

Q. Do finn enter and leavehumans from anyparticular part of their bodies,like the hand,head or foot? A. They do not enter from any specialplace, but they do seemto affect the brain and

heart the most. WhenI usedto exorciseI tied a knot in the patient'shair andthis was sufficient to hold the finn during expulsion. And I did not allow themto leave until they had beggedpermission to do so. Whenthe finn left, the person I often screamed. L,

Q. Do thefinn havetheir own namesor humannames? A. Theyhave human names.

During exorcism,have you experiencedany attempt by thefirm to possessyou? Aý I havenever experienced this. Sometimesafter I expelledajLwifrom a patient,it returnedat night andpossessed my youngson, and he criedout. At other times,it movedaround the housein an attemptto ffightenme.

How long ago did you stopexorcising people?

A. I stopped about 20 years ago. Many people come to me from all over the world,

from Islamabad,Lahore, America, etc. But most of them areunder magical spells. True casesof possessionare rare. When I find thesecases, I excuse myselfand refer themto others.

How canyou refusethem when they are in needof your help? A. Helping these people could lead to the inflictionof harmupon my family. As I mentionedbefore, the finn are evil and will seek revengeby attackingother membersof the family. And, asyou know, the Prophet(4) said,"Do not harm yourself or harmothers. " In anycase, before my fatherdied he had advisedme to stop, andI am followinghis advice.

323 Q. During the time when you did practiceexorcism, when a possessedperson was broughtto you, how did you beginto treat him? A. The methodologyvaried because the finn andtheir effectsvaried. In somecases I recited over water which my patientsdrank, while in othersI recitedover oil which I pouredinto their earsand then sealed them. If the spirit was particularly evil) I tied the patient'shair and thejhW screamedand wailed, and eventually "repented. Then I told it to swearby Allah that it would leave. Sometimesthe jLW swore by Sulaymanthat it would leave. I told it that swearingby Sulayman was shirk andthat it mustswear only by Allah,the Lord of Sulayman,to leave.

Q. During your treatmentdid you grabthe persorfsneck, hand or any part of their body, or did you only recite? A. I only recitedor usedoil.

324ýý INTERVIEW NO. 10

LOCATION: Karachi, Pakistan DATE: 21/7/1988

NAME: Maulana ShaykhMmad Ijusayn Zurdavi

AGE: 36 PLACE: Baltistan (Kashmir)

EDUCATION: Educated at Najaf, studied Fiqh, Philosophy, Literature and

Chemistry. Studied in Iraq for 18 years.

Whenand why did you beginpracticing exorcism? A. Practicing exorcism has been in my family. In the Ustada region of Baluchistan III there were no doctorsto curepeople's ailments. In the companyof peoplefrom this region I learnedhow theycured through understanding people by the vein of the foreheadand usingverses of the Qur'An. ThenI went to Najf for education. The studentswith us were poor, and only peoplewho hadmoney or contacts could afford to go to the hospitals. I readsome books containing information similar to that which I previously hadlearned from my forefathers.In order to help some of my classmates,I used the samemethods and people were cured. When I returnedto Pakistan,those people whom doctors could not cure cameto me for helpand returned satisfied. I useonly prayerand verses of the Qur'An.

Q. What arethe signswhich indicatethat a personis possessed? A. Sometimesthe person'scolor, changes-, Often possessed people talk unintelligibly, laugh a lot or argueexcessively. Sometimes they do not behavelike humansat all but like savagebeasts. They also dislike artificial lights.

Q. How do you distinguishbetween physical ailments and actual possession? A. I read over the person various things like S&ah ýd-Rftffiah,whether he is possessedor not. Then I read Samh W-Annand sometimes the firm beginto weep. Thereare two typesoffinn, keir andMuslim, and there are differentways

325 of curing those afflicted by them.

Q. Why do firm possesshumans? A. Aw occupy different places. Somesit in dirty areas,others where their fathers

resided, some by the shores of water, and others where wild animalslive in the forests. If a personwalked acrossone of theseplaces where thefirm reside and

recited the basmalah,then the jL-m would not harm him, but otherwise they might. Sometimesthefinn appearin the form of dogs, cats, the wind or yet other forms.

Q. How dofinn possesshumans?

A. The firm enter the body,first affectingthe heartand then the mind,and therein it will reside.

Q. Who are b finn, females?, , moreaffected y malesor A. More womenare possessed than men.,

Q. Do'male finn possesswomen andfemale JMn possess men, or is it possiblethat malefinn possessmales and vice-versa? A. From my experience,women are mainlypossessed by femalejhW becausethe fitm

seek to harm these womenschildren; while malesare usually possessed by male finn. This is the caseabout 80-85 percent of the time.

Q. Doesthe possessingfinnI speak,in the languageof its host?, A. The languageis different. be ignorant sometimes , The woman may an village woman,but thefin& mightbe educatedand perhaps speak in Englishor Arabic.

How do finn benefitfrom possessinghumans?

A. The finn attempt to harmhumans in, order to protecttheir rightsand their areas. Some desire superiority,over humansso theytry to overwhelmthem. A few fall in love with humans.

What doesthe possessedperson experience?

326 A. When a person becomespossessed, he suffersgreat pain. Whenthe jhw is expelled, patients often say that they feel as if they are being burned. Possessed

people of weaker constitution, like women and the old, suddenlyfind the strength to resistthe restrainingefforts of sevenor eightgrown men.

Q. Canmore than one jLW possessa personat the sametime? A. A personis possessedby only onejbw at a time.

Q. What arethe stepsthat you taketo exorcisesomeone. A. I begin by readingsomething to protectand fortifying myself Then1commence the treatmentof others. ThejLwI oftentries to resistme, cursing or attemptingto beat me. If this occurs,I preparea rope,tie him with it andread something over

him. I take a thread three handslong. - which is nearly1 1/2yards long, andI recite al Wipah over it seventimes and other Qur'anic verses. Then I blow on the- thread. Following this, I makea vow in the nameof the Prophetand check the thread. If the thread remainsthe samelength, it indicatesthat the person merely hassome physical illness. If it increasesin length,the personis affectedby magic,and if it decreasesby five fingers,it showsthat the personis possessedby a jLW. Usuallythe recitationof Saraha]-Ahn is enoughto indicatethat the person is possessedby a jbW. However, in difficult cases,we resort to the above procedure.There are ten ways. First I readSarah a]-Talaq and Sarah an-N& and the finn are usually angeredby these. ThenI readal-Fitffiah andthe jLW runs away. If it is a hardercase, I thenread Sarah a]-Ann and I write an amuletto put around the patient'sneck or his right arm. At this point thejLW oftenbegs me not to bum them,saying, "The sky hasfallen upon me. "

Q. For how long do you reciteover your patients? A. It dependsupon how long thefinnI hasbeen in possessionof them. Iftheperson was recently possessed,it is easierto expelthejbmithan in the caseof onewho hasbeen possessed for monthsor years.

327 How do you know whenthe finn haveleft? A. If the person becomesunconscious during the readingof the Qur"&n'it indicates

that the jbW has left. If it does not go awaywith this method,I thenbum a charm in the patient'spresence and have him inhaleits smoke. This treatment usuallymakes thefirwvow to leave. However,it usually,asks that a cow, goat or hen be sacrificedto it or it requeststhat some.other things be done,as it doesnot I,ike leavingempty-handed.

Approximatelyhow manypeople have you exorcisedsince you began? A. In Najf I have treated around 1000 patientsand in Karachiaround 1500. The total is probablyaround 3000.

Canyou describethree cases that you havetreated oVer the pastyear? A. Case 1:

In Korangi I worked in the shopof the chairmanof the Awarni ColonyMill Area. He told me abouta 27-yearold marriedwOman'by the nameAminah. For some time she had been talkingin an unintelligiblemanner, and she did not like having the lights on. From that I concludedthat shewas possessed. I usually treat people late at night aroundten o'clock,when there are few peoplearound. In this womanscase the jLwi hadcome from the,fo. rest,., He, had six children. The woman!s house was also in the forest. On one occasionshe did not readthe

basmaM beforeleaving her house. Shesubsequently collided with the childrenof the jbW andthat is why he possessedher., I tried to get himtp leaveher for two

to three hoursPbut he would not leave. Finally, I commandedhim to leave, and

with, the help of a charm he, said he would leavefor akj& land like Peking. China. Case2:

In Baltistan a fiiend of minebrought his 40-yearold sister,Haider Bi; to see me. She was the mother of five or sixAildren. ý'Heibrother had taken her to many doctorsfor her ailments,but theycould neither pinpoint the ailmentnor find

3_28 a cure. Whenhe broughther to me,I noticedthat her eyeswere'red. This is one sign of fima-possession,so I assumedthat she was in fact possessed.I was informed that some time back a Maulavi hadread Sarah aPArm over her for a ibrs, similar ailment, and consequently,she was cured ome time.. During my treatmentof her, the finni told methat it hadpossessed her becauseits children had been harmed bythewomaWsanimalS.She had taken her animalsto the well where thejLwý childrenlived. Whenshe went to the well to get water, thejhw enteredher. It took metwo weeksto expelthe jhwby reading'Soraha]-Aw, burningwritten charmsand making her inhalethe smoke. 'The person who is possessedis given a charm to wear around his neck. Sometimeswe read verses of the Qur'Anand make prayers over a largeplate of

water. The possessedperson sometimes sees the jbwin the water-two, three and four-headedones. We keep an iron knife readyover which we havemade prayers,and we give it to the possessedperson so that he maystab the jbw in the water. When he strikes the waterwith the knife,it becomesbloody, indicating that thejLW hasbeen killed. 753 Case3:

The third caseis that of GhulamHaider, a 25 yearold laborerin a mill. At one point he beganto speak in a garbled manneron hisjob andwas subsequently fired. When he was brought to meand his situationexplained, I foundthat the managerof the mill hadbeen unjust to him. He hadgiven him lesswages than he deserved, which causedthe laborerto becomeannoyed. In this disturbedstate of mind, he passedby a dirty streamof waterand his clothesgot dirty. It was at this point that he becamepossessed. I wasalso informed that he sometimescursed

753 Observation: Imagesare obviously from the person'simagination as thefinn are invisible in their naturalform. The appearanceof "blood"in the water is probably a trick by the exorcistto convincethe "possessed"person that he or shehas killed the fimff. The psychologicaleffects led to physicalrelief andeffects a cure.

329 religious people. ThefiwIbelieved in Ibn Ziyad,who was a leaderof the troops ý,.who fought againstMuýammad ibn al-Qasimin Sind.,,The fimff had cometo help defeatthe Muslimsand had been living in Sindsince that time. It saidthat it made the mill's managerbecome selfish and greedy, and it madehim pay lesswages to all of the laborers. I followed the laborerhome because he was weak hearted. The jLwI appearedin the form of a dog nearthis dirty streamabout which the laborer had spokenearlier. Whenit startedbarking, Ghulam Haider became very He wasalready disturbed from situationon hisjob, so he was easily ýnervous. Ithe possessed. I read Sorah al-Ann over him, aswell assome prayers of Prophet Sulaymanand thefinnfleft.

Do you take paymentfor your services? A. I sometimestake moneyto treatpeople but not always.

330ý INTERVEEW NO. I I,

LOCATION: Delhi, India DATE: 29/7/88

NAIýE: Khwajaklasan Saneh Ni? Aml DATE OF BIRTH: 5/15/1931

PLACE: BastiDargah Ha; rat Ni?amuddin Awliya' EDUCATION: Graduatedfrom JamiyaMiliya Islamiya and was alsoeducated at home by his father, Ha; rat Khwaja IjasanNi? an-d, Sajada Nashin of DargahHagat Nigamuddin Awliya'. His fatherwas a Muslimscholar-who is claimedto havewritten over 500 books.

Q. Whenand why did you beginpracticing exorcism? A. People used to come to my father regularly for treatment,so I sawcases of possessedpeople from childhood.

Q. Whendid you actuallybegin to practiceexorcisms? A- I began'mypractice in 1955.

Q. What percentageof the casesthat cometo you areactually possession? A. About 90 percent of the people who come for treatmentare mentally HIor : suffering from hysteria,while only about10 percentare really under the influence of magicor spirit-possession.

Q. How do you determinewhether or not a personis actuallypossessed? A. I-do "prayer (jSjLMjrah)'754reciting it the Qur'an, the of choice" I with versesof for example, Samh al-lnsbirjý seventimes for three, consecutivenights.

754 A prayerwhich Prophet Muýammad (4) 1presc ribed when choices have to be made.

331 Following that I usually see in a dreamwhether or not the personis possessed. There aremany external signs which can indicate that the personis possessed,but they. are not foolproof Oneof the signsis that the personfeels a weight on his shoulders,and his palmssmell foul. Onecan also know by the unusualbehavior exhýibitedby the person. For instance,one woman who wasbrought to me was ableto speakin differentlanguages even though they were unknown to her.

Q. Why arepeople possessed? A- I haveno explanation.

Q. What percentageof casesof possessioninvolves males and females? A- The finn which possessmay be maleor female,good (believing)or bad (ka&) Jmn. Theymay possess people and even do jobs for them. For instance,over 100

years agothere was a femalefina calledgrandma Sobiya - my fatherwrote about her. Shewas invisible,and she used to sewclothes and grind flour.

Q. Do thefinn speakin the voiceof the possessedperson? A- They usuallyspeak in a differentmanner from that of the possessedperson.

Q. Are thefinn which possesspeople Muslim finn? - A. Mainly kjr7rj irm possesshumans.

Q. Canmore than one jLw possessa singleperson at the sametime'? A. I havenot hadany experience of morethan onejLwfppssessing the'same person.

Do thefinn havenames? A. They have namesin their own, language,and if they are Muslims,they have Muslim names.

Q. What part of the body is affectedby possession? A. The wholebody is usuallyaffected byjmr, ý-possession.

332 Q. Havethe finn evertried to possessyou duringan exorcism? A- I have but it not experiencedthefinn trying to possessme, can happen. --

Q. Could you pleasedescribe your mostcommon method of treatmentof possessed people. If A- the possessedperson is capableof reciting,I askhim to recitesome verses of the Qur'An. I alsogive him waterover whichthe Qur'Anhas been recited to bathe with or drink. Sometimesa possessedperson has to be helddown or tied with a rope. In exorcismthree types of knowledgeare used: knowledge of lines (khvlal), knowledgeof numerologyand knowledgeof names.Inordertouse theseýtypes of knowledge,permission, from a specialistis absolutelynecessary. For example,we write "786" to indicate the basmalahand draw linesof raml. Then we make four squares. In eachsquare we write certainArabic lettersand under it we write "333" andunder that we write otherArabic letters. All of this hasmeaning for the personwriting it.

Q. Doesthe treatmenttake a long time? A. The personmight not be curedin the first attempt. For example,when the wife of the producer of All India Radio was brought to me,I gaveher a platewith a charm written in saffron ink. Shewashed the platewith milk anddrank from it. She had to repeatthis processfor monthsbefore she was finally cured. Hercase was a strangeone.I wasasked to seeherin herhouse,and there were a number of obvious signs indicatingthat she waspossessed by thejhw. WhenI arrived and steppedout of the car,the seatsof the car wereslashed as if by a sharpblade.

Q. Could you describethree cases of exorcismswhich you haveperformed? A. Case1:

The person who wasaffected has since died, but herhusband is still alive andcan

bear witness to my successfultreatment of his wife. ,She was curedby my usual methods.

333 Q. Was-shepossessed or merely ill? A- I do not know whethershe was possessed or shehad some other physicalillness.

Case2:

Once a possessedwoman, who wasbeing treated by mylather in her home,told him not to tamperwith thefiiw or elsethey would bum his house-.-ý My fatherdid not'heed her warning andwhen he returnedto his house,he found the houseon fire andhis wife diedin child labor.

Case3:

I treated a woman in Badaiyun,U. P., at a dargahof ShahWflayat,, who was a saiPt 800 years ago. Many peoplevisit. his grave.,She was, an illiterate.woman about,35 years old, and she came from a small village in the area. Shewas successfullytreated with my customarymethod of usingchums and Qur'anic recitation. I am not a regular practitionerso I can only, give, a few, brief descriptions.

Do you recallany particularly strange cases which were treated by your father? A- Whenevermy father visited Hyderabad,he spentthe night at the houseof a tax collector, Ma'sum 'Ali. My mother told me that on one occasionshe accompaniedhim to the house and that a numberof otherwomen were also present. Whenthey sat down to havea meal,the womenfrom Hyderabadbegan to makefun of an old womanamong them who hada scarftightly tied aroundher head so that none of her hair showed. The womencontinued to laughat her although my mothergestured to themnot to do so until the old womanuntied her scarf and said, "Do you want to seemy hair?" Shehad no hair, so shetold them

the story behind it. Strangethings had happenedin her house. Clothesand money caught fire for no reasonat all, and cooked food got dumpedin the

bathroom. Oneday shelost all of her hair andtried variouscures but to no avail. Her husbandsent a letter to my fatherin Delhi andin the samemail he got another

334 letter mentioningthat they also wanted to p4nish her. Shesuffered, then was brought to my father. He askedthe familywhether they hadever teased anyone or if they had any enemies. The husbandsaid that sometime ago he hadgone hunting in Hyderabadand killed a deer. Sincehis car wasparked far away,he askeda manin a field to pick up the deerand carry it to the car. The manrefused, IýI so the husbandbeat him up andforced him to carrythe deadanimal to his car. My father said that that man had cursedthe husbandand so he mustbe found. They reached that manscottage in the village. He hadmade statues of flour and read somethingover them, which made the statuesmove. He was involvedin satanicpractices. Then the personwho hadwronged him soughtforgiveness from the man, but the woman'shair nevercame back. My motherasked my fatherif it were,true, and he confessedthat it was. My father,worked a lot in the field of exorcism. He had finn working under him, but duringhis youth he ruinedhis healthin pursuitof all of this. Thena holy personmade him leavethis path.

1 335 INTERVIEW NO. 12

LOCATION: New Delhi DATE, 1/8/88

NANE: QM'Maulana SayyidMuhammad ldris DATEOFBIRTH: 1924

]EDUCATION: DArul-'LqOmNu'maniyyali, Delhi. Did not complete '.Vhn studies but q&i' (recitations) completed.

Q. Whenand why did you beginpracticing exorcism?, A- I began about50 yearsago. It wasa traditionin my family. My grandfatherand . father, Maulana QIfi' MuýammadYosuf, a graduateof Darul-'UlarnDeoband, practicedit duringtheir lifetimes.So I grewup'o&krVing theirpiactices. -

Q. What arethe signswhich indicate that a personis possessed? A- Sometimespatients appear constantly uneasy, unable to sit still. Sometimesthey appearlifeless with no facialexpressions. And at othertimes they cry constantly.

Q. Of the casesbrought to you, what percentage,is actually due to possession? A- About 20 percentare actual cases ofjLw. %-possession, 20 percent due to magic, 10 percentdue to the eA eye,' and about 50 percentare a resultof physicalailments.,

Q. How do you distinguishbetween the effects,of posýessionand the effectsof magic?

A- There are two basicmethods which I use. 1) 1 reciteDan7d Shafff andSamb a]- Fjiffiah seventimes, blow onetime in the left palmof the patientand tell him to I close his fist. ThenI reciteSorah an -NAS three times and blow onceover the fist. I then smell the personspat Im. - If it hasa unpleasantsmell, it ''means'that he is by And if it has fishy it that he is by affected magic. , a smell, means possessed jkn. 2) 1 addthe numericalvalue of the patient'sname to the numericalvalue of

336 his motheesname plusthe numericalvalue of the day (in Persian)and divide the total by four. If the remainderis one,the causeis thefiw, if two, the evil eye;if three, physicalsickness; and if zero,magic.

Q. Wbat arethe mainreasons why firw possesshumans?, A- Arm possessusually out of love andlust. Sometimesit is dueto thefirm being 'disturbed I or annoycdby humanactions. For example, if a personrelieves himself under a tree in whichthe firw havemade their home,the finn inhabitingthe tree may be offendedand punish the offenderby possessinghim.

Q. Whoare most often affected byfinn, men or women? A- 60 percentof thecases referred to meare men.

Do male finn possesswomen and female finn possessmen exclusively, or is it possiblefor malefinn to possessmen and female firm to possessfemales? A- Both combinationsoccur.

Whichis morefrequent? A. I have not noted the percentageas I wasnot keepingtrack of casesfrom that point I deal they "ý " 'ý of view. with casesas come.-. . -- ,ýý, ý-, 1,-, I- ,,.,

From your experience,if a finni speaks,does it usethe voice of the possessed personor doesthe voicechange? A- Usually the finn speakwith the normalvoice of the patient. However,on rare occasions,meWs voices have changedto that of female'swhen possessed by a femalefirw.

Q. Do,the possessedever speak in otherIan guage S? Aý It is very rarethat they speakin languagesunknown to the possessedperson.

Candisbelieving finn possessMuslims? A. Both typesoffirw canpossess Muslims. I

337 Whichis mostconunon? I havenot takennote.

Q, Can morethan one jLwI possessa singleperson at the sametime? A- Yes. thanonefinnimay possessa singleperson. 'More

Q. Do fitw enterand leave from specificparts Of the humanbody? A- They canenter from anypoint of the body.

Q. Dofinnrcside in anyparticular part of the body? A- No, theycan occupy any part of the body,cýu sing pain at yanouspoints. '

Q. After you have determinedthat a patient is 'posseised,what'is your usual procedureof exorcisingthem?

A- I recite-Sarah&1-Afuzzx=, U, Ayah a]-Kursrand the muawgidbatin andblow, over the person threetimes. With this thefinnIbecomes uneasy, and the patient begins to find somerelief from his ailment. This treatmentcontinues for 40 days. If relief is gainedafter 10-11days from the beginningof the treatment,I give them a ta'"dh consistingof Sarah al-Muzzmmil and Ayah al-Kursf. On rare occasionsI talk to the possessingfina. To arrestthejhW, Igrab a lock of hair on the head of the possessedand recite Sarah al-MI4 seventimes. Ithentiea knot in the possessedpersoifs hair and recite seventimes, "Yj MWst Yj muqaMb al-quldb ival-aksir." ("0 saviorl 0 controllerof heartsand sight.") And thenI saythe qunatprayer.

Q. Canyou describethree r-ases of exorcismwhich you haveperformed recently? A. Case1:

Twenty years ago I took someclothes to the laundry. The ownersinformed rne that their 25-yearold Hindu sweeperwas possessed. They alsoinformed me that the patient had attackedtwo peoplewho hadtried to treat him previously. When I begantreating him by recitationand blowing, the AW immediatelybegan

338 ý to speakto me. It said, *Why did you come?Do you wish to harmme? " I assuredit, saying,"I wishyou no harm. I only cametovisit you." I then hadthe

sweepertied up with ropes and beganto reciteover him continually. The next day he returnedwith his famHy-andthanked me. Case2:

Three years ago, three peoplefrom Dubaiwere brought to me. Oneof them was suffering from the effects of magic, one from the evil eye and the last from the

imn. I recited over them for 30 to 40 days; and they were all cured. ' Case3: ý,

A year and a half ago, ShaykhNabil from Dubai(37-years old) cameto the Meridian Hotel in order for me to performhis marriageceremony between him and his wife from Aligar. During the ceremony,I obs&ýid "that Nabil was possessed. fie was exhibiting symptoms'of uneasiness,tension and paiin throughout. About threeor four dayslater I went andtreated him I with Qur'Anic recitationand blowing. After sometimethe possessingjin& left him.

339 Dr17ERVEEWNO. 13

IX)CATION: Kandla,India DATE: 3/8/88

NAME: MaulanaIflukharul-1.1asan DATEOFBIRTII: 1/10/1922

EDUCATION: Madrasahh1a; Shir'Uarn Saharanpurwhich was fouiidedby Maulana Sa"dat 'All and MaulanaAhmad 'Aft almostone hundred years ago. 'AAM course completed in 1363A. 11. Graduateof Mlrul-'Uam, .

Q. When did you beginpracticing exorcism? A- I heardabout exorcism from my blind teacherin Deoband,and I startedpracticing it in 1955. Deobandat that time wasthe mostfamous center of learningwhere such practiceswere taught. Although the practiceof exorcismhad been in my family, duringmy lifetimeno onepracticed it. I startedit at a youngage.

Q. Do you still practiceexorcism? A- No. A very strangeincident happened to me,and I stoppedpracticing it. About 32 yearsago I stoppedkillingfinn.

Q. Were mostof the casesbrought to you actualpossession? A- Only about 8 percent of the caseswere real.possession, the restwere either psychologicalor medicalsicknesses.

What signsindicate that a personis possessed? A- There are no specific signs in a person'sexpression or speech. However, possessionmay be detenrninedby measuringthe lengthof the clothesthat'a patient, wears.

Q. How do you do that? A, I ask the person to take off someof his clothingin orderto measureit. ThenI

340ý recite verses of the Qur'An over it. The personis then requestedto wear the

clothing again. The clothing is then taken off of the patient a secondtime and

remeasured.If its lengthdecreases or increases,the personis possessed.

Are thereany other ways? A. Another of my methodsis to write somethingon a pieceof clay andthen bum it. If the letterswhich were written in blackink turn white or red,this meansthat the person is possessed.

Are thereany physical changes in the possessedperson? A. Yes, possessed,frail people often havethe strengthof many men.

What arethe mainreasons why finn possesshumans? A. There are many causes. For example,if piousfinn residein a housewhich human

inhabitants have kept filthy, the finn may possessthem as punishment. Arm may

alsobe attractedto beautifulwomen and possess them out of love.

Q. Who aremost often affectedbyfinn, womenor men? A. Women are possessedmore than men. About 60 to 70 percentof the cases involvewomen.

Q. Do male finn possesswomen and female fian possessmen exclusively, or is it possiblefor malefinn to possessmen and female finn to affectfemales? A. Male finn maypossess human females or humanmales and vice-versa. However, in mostcases, females are possessed by malefinn andmales are possessed by male finn.

From your experience,if a jk& speaks,does it usethe voice of the possessed personor doeshis voice change? A. Usually it speaksin the samevoice of the possessedhuman, and in rare casesit

usesa differentvoice.

341 Doesit everuse different languages? A. In very rare casesit speaksin languagesunknown to the patient.

Cana disbelievingjL-ml enter a Muslim? A. Non-Muslimfinn possessand tease humans more often than Muslim finn.

Do you treat non-Muslimsalso? A. Most of my clientsare Hindus!

Whatbenefits dofinn gainin possessinghumans? A. They gain pleasure. The finn are just like humanenemies who take personal pleasurein doingharm to oneanother.

Canmore than one jLwi possessa singleperson at the sametime? A. Even 20 or more finn can possessa person at one time just like flies at the sweet

marVsshop. This is also mentionedin Padah.

Is the processof possessiona swift or slow one? A. It is a suddenone.

Do thefirm enterand leave from specificparts of the humanbody? A. There are visible signs that theyenter through the mouthand come out through

the nose. This route of entering and exiting is also mentionedin Padrtb. We are

required to say al-bamduli]M (praisebe to AM) after sneezingto makeSatan leavethe nose.

Whenyou addressedthe finn, did you find that theyhad names like humans? A. Most of their namesare like thoseof humans,but sometimesthey aredifferent. Just like in the caseof the sevenor ninefinn who becameMuslim in the earlydays

of Islam. They werenamed Shasan, Basan Hasa, Basa, etc., and one was called Jabirand another Raýmatullah.

Do thefinn residein anyparticular part of the body?

342 A. Most finn occupy the region of the shoulders. Possessedpersons usually feel excessiveweight in that area.

Q. Have you ever experiencedan attempt of a jk&to possessyou duringor after exorcisms? A. I havenever been attacked by a fin&, but onetime whenI tried to expela jhW by recitingand blowing on the patient,the patientblew on me andchased me.

Q. After determiningthat a patient is possessed,what wasyour usualprocedure in exorcisinghim? A. I would give him somewater to drink overwhich I hadrecited Sarah al-F&ffiah, some other versesand supplications. And I would give him a WRTA to wear aroundhis neckfor aboutseven days.

Q. Could you describesome casesof possessionand exorcism which you know aboutor havetaken part in? A. Some years ago a young, very beautiful girl from the region of Kandlawas possessed,and from time to time shewould be carriedaway by thefirm. Whoever tried to stop them from carryingher awaywould themselvesbe carriedas far as two miles. Her father,Ijabib Mmad, hadgiven an oathof allegiance(baLyW5 to his Ha?rat Ji755- it was the early days of tablfgh(missionary) work. Ijabib Abmad did not mentionhis daughter'sillness for a long time, andhe did not visit HaZrat Jii. When Ijabib Abmad finally went to seeHa? rat J-1,he did not shake hands with 1jabiband asked him why he hadnot comebefore this. Ijabib started to weep and said, "I am lost!" and then related what had happenedto his daughter. Ha?rat Ji said, "It won't happento her anymore." Fromthattimeon the possessionstopped and she wasnot carriedaway again. This incidenttook

755 Inamul-IjasanKhan, referred to affectionatelyas "HaZratJV by his followers, is the leaderof the Islamic,missionary movement known as "Jamaahat-Tabfigh. "

343 place approximately 55 years ago. Although Ijabib Mmad died 5 years ago, his daughter is still alive and can verify the story.

In Delhi I witnessed another incident. In Panipat there was an extremely beautiful girl who was possessedby a jbW. She could not keep her clothes on, but she did not display her ailment in any other way. Different treatmentswere tried but none succeededin curing her. Finally someonesuggested that shebe taken to the dargah(tomb and shrine) of HaZrat SullanNiZamuddin Awliya' and have her bathe there. It was summertime, and her father took her to the shrine during the early afternoon. In those times there were no buses,so five or seven men escortedher, first in a car and then in a tonga (a horse driven carriage). They helped her to bathe at the dargah. Thesewere the times of Maulana Yasuf ý*b and Maulana In'Am ýabib. Our relative, Ijaldm 'Abdur-Rashid, and 1jaldm

Anýari and Ijajji 'Abdur-Ra4man, who is deceased(may Allah blesshim) were also with them. When HaZrat Ji wished to lie down and sleep,his bedroll was taken to a certain pillar and opened. If he wanted to swim, somepeople would help him. When he arrived at the dargah,he saw a crowd of people watching the girl being bathed. Ijaj! 'Abdur-Rabmanasked her father if he had lost all of his shame and dignity. He wept and said, "She is under the influence of something, and we are trying to remove it. " HaZrat Ji said, "This will not help. Come to our her " The held in his masjid and bring after v7uhrprayers. 1-.uhrprayer was masjid that day at 3:00 instead of 3:30. When he and his daughter steppedon to the the jbW through the the father forher masjidý steps, spoke girl and asked clothes. She then ran into the dargahby the side of the masjidand put on her

clothes. Since then, the jhmi never again returned to the girl. HaZrat R was

himself inspired by this incident. He felt that if Allah had given him the strength to

drive away the jbmi, he should not waste time and energytrying to exterminate finn nor busy himself with such matters, instead, he should busy himself with

spreadingthe religion and looking after its affairs.

344 INTERVIEW NO. 14

LOCATION: London, England DATE: 1/93

NAME: Fa4al Boadi

PLACE OF BIRTH: Ghana

EDUCATION: B. A. Islarnic University of Madinah and M. A. in Herbology

Q. When andwhy did you beginto practiceexorcism? A. I did not practiceanything of this naturebefore I studiedat the IslamicUniversity in Madinah. However, once at the university,I prayedto Allah to helpme to After I intended But later assist others., graduation to studymedicine. I thought that becominga doctorwould preoccupyme so muchthat I would haveno time to teach religious education(sbaff'ah). At the universityI frequentlyperformed night prayersand fasts, seeking Allah's help and asking Him to grant methe ability to assist others. It so happenedthat I usedto prayover water, give it to some sick students,and they would get well. SometimesI would just reciteQur'an over them and other standardprophetic prayersand they recovered. After my graduation,I went to Trinidad but did not begin to practice exorcism there immediately. I discoveredthat Muslimswere going to non-Muslims,Hindus and others, asking themto prayfor their spiritualsicknesses which they did not know how to cure. So the Muslims went to Hindusand Baptists for treatment,and some of them werecured and consequently changed their religionbecause of the help they hadreceived. I thoughtit wisethat I providean alternative,by praying to Allah to helpthe Muslimsand cure them. A]-pamduAllih,I accomplisheda lot duringthree or four years.

Q. What percentageof your casesare actual possession?

A. I cannotreally say. Somepeople come with psychologicalsicknesses while others

345 come with physical sicknesses.At times they go to doctors who have no cure for

their problems, and sometimesthe sicknesscannot evenbe diagnosed. I learned

about the pressure points in the hands and so forth, so I used to presscertain

places. The individual's reaction indicatedwhich organ was affected, and I would

inform him of this. I obtained my masters in Herbology, and therefore I

prescribed herbal medicines to patients and - al-pamdufillab -they would be cured.

Q. Can you tell if a person is possessedby lookingin their eyesor by looking at a photographof them? If so,what arethe indications?

A. I can look at a person!s faceand I know - with the helpof Allah - if the personis possessedor not. But I cannot do this with a photograph of an individual. Noticeablesymptoms include that the personacts strange and that his eyesstart to roll. I can infer that the person is possessedwhen I recitesome verses of the Qur'an and it irritates whatever evil is insidethe person.At timesthe jLWffwill eventalk out aloud.

Q. Canyou mentionother methods that you useto determinepossession? A. SometimesI hold the hand of the personand recite Ayah al-Kursi and ýWjtul-

Ib.rjhimiy :yah, and - as Allah wills - the persoWsbody begins to shakeviolently and I see that the person is no longerconsciously present. At timesthe person will collapse.From this I know that the individualis possessed.

Q. From your own experience,what arethe mainreasons why peopleare possessed? Aý Most of the caseswhich come to me arethose of non-Muslims.For example, they come from I-findu background,Baptists and so forth. Most of themare disbelievers,worshipping and invoking thefinn. In the beginningthe finn show

that they can do some good thingsfor the onesthey arepossessing. Howexer, later on they beginto do all kindsof mischiefand so forth to the people,causing pain and ham. From thesethings it is knownthat mostpeople who invokethese

346 spiritsend up havingit reactupon them.

Q. What Percentageof the casesare women? A. About 70 percentof thesecases are women. Maybethe reasonfor this is because most of the Baptistsand other religious groups, like Shango,etc. who invokethe finn in their worship,are women.

Q. Do malefinn possessmen and women? A. Yes. Femalefinn also possesswomen and men. I cannot saywhat arethe percentages. Sometimesfinn enter a personon their own. They maysee some person and like him, then theyfollow the person.Some will follow the person, staying with him for some time, and then they will begin to createmischief Hence, the Prophet (4) taught Muslimswhat to saywhen they go outsideand

what to say whenthey entertheir homes.For example,before one leaves home, he says, Tismillib ta wakkaltu 'alallih Ij Paw1a wa 14qu wwataj7 ill blIM. " 56

("In the name of Allah. I have put my trust in Allah. There is no movement or

power except by Allah. ") three times and blows it over his body.757 One should be by also say Ayah al-Kurs! and the.qu1s, and - in-sb.V-A11jh - he will protected the help of Allah. Also when entering one!s home, he should say, 'TismBlAbi

walainj wa b1smj11Ahikh=jnj wa 'alallihirabbinj lawakkalni. "758 ("In Allah's

name we entered and with AllWs namewe left, and in Allah, our Lord, we put

our trust. ") When these versesand supplicationsare blown over the body, evil

756 Reported by Anas ibn Malik, collectedby at-Tirmidh! and Abu Dawad andauthenticated by al-Mban!in ýWh Sunan Ab! Djwwd, vol. 3, p. 959, no. 4249.

757 There is no mention in the narrationof this Paduhabout saying this prayer threetimes or of blowingit overthe body.

758 Reported by Abu Malik al-Ashari, collectedby Abu Dawad and authenticatedby al-Alban!in SilsiM al-4jdfth M- 1, 50,- 225. ,5aA, hah, vol. p. no.

347 things that may have been following a personwill realize that they do not have

authority over him anymoreand will leave.

Is it only disbelievingfirm which possesshumans? A. Disbelieving firm are primarily involved in possession.Most of the caseswhich I

treat are a result of people who have done all sortsof badthings in orderto invoke the finn ý help.These finn arethen sent upon others to harmthem. When the befievingfirm possessa person,they really do not harmthem. For example, there is the caseof somebrothers who went out with Jamjah at-Tabffghto some

place, and when they returned,one of themwas possessed by ajhmi ThatjhW was a MuslimjhW. I askedhis companionsthe conditionof the brotherwhen he was at the placethey had visited. Thebrothers said that he usedto havea dream him he in his in - which someone was telling that was sleeping place, and consequentlyhe was being threatened.He did not understandthe dream. Later on, he noticed himself acting strangeand felt inside himself some sort of movements.He did not know how to readthe Qur'An,and he hadnot memorized even its short chapters. However, when he stood up to give a talk, he found himself able to recitethe Qur'Anfrom the beginningto the end. The peoplewere amazedthat this person who previouslydid not know anythinghad suddenly become a memorizerof the Qur'An. However,when the jLW left him andhe was asked to recite what he hadread only a few momentsbefore, he could not do it. When he returned to Trinidad, the j*mm-started to speak throughhim andto inform people that itwasaMuslimjbW. It wasupsetting to thejLW whenthis individual sleptin his place,therefore, he possessedhim. ThejhWsaid that it did not want to harm him, but the boy becameweak and unableto do thingsby himself So I prayedfor him, and-mjsbj' Allih-it left him andhe becamewell again.

Haveyou treatedcases of peoplepossessed by morethan one jLwIat a time? A. Yes, I havehad somecases like this. Thosewho havesent thefinn maycontinue

348 to sendmore if they do not seeany obvious effects on the possessedperson. This

is the reasonwhy, at times, you may have more than onejhmi possessinga single humanbeing.

Q. Is possessiona swift or a slowprocess? A. Possessionmay be swift, in which case the personbegins to misbehave immediately, or it maytake months or yearsfor thefin&to establishcontrol over theindividual. Forexample, we hada caseof somechildren who were playing hide-and-seek. One of the childrenwent to hide in a place which hadbeen inhabitedby an old womanwho usedto invokethe finn andworship them. When the child returned,it began to act andtalk like the old lady,who haddied some years before, saying that he wasthis person.The otherchildren ran awayfrom him and went andinformed their parents.The childwas brought to me. WhenI questionedthe jhmi, it said that it wasone of thefinn whichwas invokedand worshippedby that particularwoman who haddied. Whenthe child went thereto hide,he steppedon it, so it possessedhim.

Q. Do the possessingfinn speak in the voiceof the possessedperson or in another voice? A. At times they speakin the persoWsvoice, in reality,through the persoWsvoice. But at other times they speak in a differentvoice. If it is a manpossessed by a femalejhmi, he mayspeak in a femalevoice. At times,they mayeven speak in a different languagefrom that of the possessedperson. In Trinidadand Guyana, some of the finn spokeUrdu eventhough the possessedperson could not speak that language. Somehave also spoken in Arabic,and others Swaldh. Especially when possessed,the Baptistsspeak some Ethiopian languages. Other people who

are unable to understandthe languagewill say that the possessedperson is speakingin tongues,thereby assumingit is coming from Allah and that the possessedperson is truly purified. But no, this is not the case.They arebeing

possessedby those finn that they invoke. Thefinn usewhatever language that

349 they speakwhen speaking through the voice of the individual.

Q. Through which part of the humanbody do the firm enterand where do they reside? A. Jirm are smokelessfire and canenter any part of a humanbeing! s body. So any part of the body which they can get a hold of, theymay enter. This includes through the nose, the ears, the mouthor throughthe genitalorgans. All of the prayers that we havebeen instructed to do in Islamare good. For example,when we are going to the toilet, we shouldsay, 'AllAhun2mahW a'adbu bika nVnal- Ithubuthi wal-Ithabj'Ah." Theseforms of protectionare good for us becausethe finn like to dwell in placesof filth. If we go to suchplaces without seekingrefuge in Allah againstthem and their mischief,they may enter and harm us.

Q. Do the possessingfinn havenames or titles that theygo by? A. Of course they do. Some are doctors, engineers,memorizers of the Qur'an, teachers,etc. The sameas humans. Anything that humans do, thefirm are capableof doing.

Q. During exorcism,do the possessingfirm try to possessyou also? If so, how do you avoidit? A. A]-Pamdu1VM,before I go to attendto anysick person, I seekrefuge in Allah - may He be glorified - to protectme from anykind of evil from thesecreatures. Praise be to Allah, I havenot experiencedthe finn trying to possessme. Except

sometimesin dreamsthey comeand offer to helpme because they find that what I am doingis good. But I do not respondto theseoffers. I tell them,"No, I do not need your help. I will only seekhelp from Allah alone." The momentone seeks their help,they will try to enticehim to do actsof disbeliefby requiringhim to do certainthings for them. If onedoes not do asthey request, they will interferewith his family. So, I do not do anythingof that nature.

Since you began performing exorcisms,have anyof your family membersbeen

350 affected? A. No, mi-shj'-AIIJA noneof themhave been affected.

Q. Hasyour methodologyof exorcismchanged over the years? A. Not really. It has not changed.What I do at timesis that I get a glassof water and recite Ayah al-Kurs! andthe quIs,then I blow into the waterand give this to

the person to drink. When the persondrinks it - andonly Allah knowshow it affectsthe finn - the personbegins to reactand so forth. After this I prayto Allah to help the personand to makethe jbW leave. Then,I startto speakto thejhw through the person and commandit to leave. And, m,§-shj"-AUjh, it leavesthe person.

Q. Doestreatment involve more than one session? A. Of course. Sometimesit goesmore than one session. When the finn leavethe person'sbody, the person then becomes weak and may even collapse, fall downor becomeunconscious for sometime. Someof the finn arevery stubborn and refuseto come out. For example,during one person's treatment, ajbwtold me that it had comeup to thepatient's throat but didnot want to comeout. It told methat if I wantedit to comeout, I wouldhave to cutthe throat of theperson.

Q. Describein asmuch detail as possible three of your mostdistinct cases. A. Thereare so manycases, its difficult to recallall of the details. CASENO. I

There was a man who wasbrought to me duringthe night in October,1992. His head was so severelyswollen that he washardly recognizable as a human

being. - He began to talk unintelligibly until I contactedthe jhMi andasked the reason for the man'scondition. ThejLwf informedme that it waslying underthe shadeof a tree onemorning about 10 a.m. The man,who waspassing by at that time, went to the tree and urinatedin thejhwý face. ThejbW becameangry, seizedthe man and applied pressureto his headas punishment. ItoldthejLW

351 that the man did not seehim, and it replied that the man has eyesand should be able to see. I informed him that human eyescannot seebeings of the spirit-world which is the reason why he urinated as he did. It askedme what I would do if someone urinated in my face, and I replied that I would have to seewhy the person did it. If he was a blind person,I would do nothing becauseI know that he could not see. Or if he could see,but the place in which I was resting was dark or hidden, then I would know that he did not do it intentionally. It then told me that

I must tell people not to urinate under trees, other hidden placesor into holes, for these are places which the finn like to occupy. After that, I prayed to Allah seeking refuge in Ifirn, and I ordered the jhWto leavethe person in the name of

Allah and by His permission. The jhW left and the man'shead returned to its normal state. CASE NO. 2

The next case was also in October, 1992, when I returned to Trinidad. A girl named Shamina Nor was brought to me with her handsin bandages. When I asked her relatives about her, they informed me that shehad tried to commit suicide several times. Sometimesshe claimedthat shewas Prophet Mubammad

I seek refuge in Allah from the cursedSatan - and at other times she said that she was Jesus (peacebe upon him) -I seekrefuge in Allah from the cursed

Satan. Recently, she jumped from a structure over 17 feet high, but - Allah be break bones harm herself in praised - she did , not any or anyway. She related to me that when she and her mother were alone in the house,and the mother was in the kitchen cooking, a fina told her to go and kill the mother. She spoke to herself saying, "I do not want to kill my mother. I love my mom, I do not want to kill her." But thejhWtold her that it neededblood. It directed her to a cutlass knife which she took hold of, and while shewas walking towards her mother whose back was turned to her, she said to the jbw, "If you must have blood, then drink blood. " So her my she cut own wrists. The cuts were very deep. But - praise be to Allah - shewas taken to the hospital where shegot stitches and her

352 handsbandaged. I asked the jbW who it wasthat sentit upon her. ThejbW informed me that it washer formerboyfriend, Didat, who was angrybecause she had terminatedher relationshipwith him and married someoneelse. So her former boyfriendwanted to seeher deadrather than somebody else marrying her. The jhW was sentto kill her. I askedhow it would kill her andif it hada gun or knife. The jLw saidthat it did not possesssuch weapons but that it could cause the person to kill herself In otherwords, the jhw couldput into the headof a person to do such and such. Onceit put into the girls mindto drink a bottle of glamazone,which is a poisonoussubstance. She drank this, but - Allah be praised Ghanaiandoctor Ghana, - she wastaken to the hospitaland they met a there. In when somebodydrinks poison and there is charcoalaround, a drink is madefrom it andgiven to the personto drink. This neutralizesthe poison. Or if no charcoal is available,mud canbe mixedwith waterand given to the personto drink. Even though the person vomitswhile drinking,they arestill giventhe drink. This also kills the effectof the poison. So,the doctorused the sameprocedure as he did at finawhat it did home, and-praise be to Allah -she got well. I askedthe else to her, andhe saidthat he told her to jump from the high structureand she complied. But shedid not die. WhenI askedhim what else,he saidthat he put into her mind to kill her mother. I askedhim why he hadsuggested her mother. He repliedthat if she killed her mom,she would alsobe killed. But - Allah be praised- noneof these things happened. When I asked him why he hadher claimthat shewas Prophet Mubammad(4), he saidhe did so becausehe knewthat Muslimsloved

Mubammadand thought that if he couldconvince them of it, they would not try to removehim from her. I told him that a womancould not be a prophet,and this includes Jesus. He thensaid that he wasa Hindu. So I prayedto Allah, seeking refuge in Him againstthis satan,and I madehim get out from the girl. He taught the girl a certainHindu songwhich shewas stiff ableto recallafter he left, andshe sangit for us.

353 CASE NO. 3

The next case was another sister who was also possessed.On one occasion her husbandmet me and said, "Praisebe to Allah -I have met you, becauseI have a big problem." When I askedhim about it, he related that his wife had attempted suicide a number of times and he did not know what to do. He had taken her to doctors, psychologists, and all types of specialists,but without success. He said that on one occasionhe was readinga book in his bedroomwhen he smelleda very strangeand repugnantodor. When he looked around the room for the source anddid not find anything,he thenwent out into the living room. Therehe saw his wife lying on the groundwith a razorblade in her hand,her wrists slashed and blood gushingout of herveins unto the floor. He took her to the hospitaland her wrists were stitched, shewas given blood and fluids. After gettingwell, she again tried to kill herselfby takingan overdoseof pills. Whenhe broughther to me and I communicatedwith thejbW possessingher, it relatedthat it hadbeen sent by a woman who had loved the man, but he did not like her. Shewas intenselyjealous that he had married someoneelse, so shewanted to hurt the man'swife. CASE NO. 4

Therewas alsoa casein Trinidadwhereby I wasasked to go to a family'shome for lunch. I madea9a. m. appointmentwith them,but whenthe time cameI was unable to go due to many people who were at my house with their marital problemsand sicknesses.Since I was so occupied,I phonedand told themthat I would not be ableto comeat the appointedtime. I saidthat maybeI would come around one o'clock. When I arrivedthere, they saidthat at nineo'clock the 20- year old girl started to cry continuouslyuntil oneo'clock. Whenthey askedher why she was crying, she couldnot givethem any reason. When I lookedat her face, especiallyher eyes, and I recitedAyah &-Kuni andblew it over her eyes, she started to react. ThejLW startedto speak,saying, "I love her, I love her. I want to be with her." I told her to sit downand asked who he was. He saidthat

354 he was a non-Muslimjb2& by the nameof Paul. I askedhim why he cameto a Muslim woman. He saidthat it wasbecause Muslim women are very cleanand so forth. I askedhim how long he hadbeen with her,and he repliedthat he hadbeen with her for five years. Whenthe girl wasgoing to school,there was a certain bridge over which shepassed. He wasunder the bridge,followed her andstayed with her sincethen. I askedwhy he wascrying, and he repliedthat he knewwhat was goingto happen-I wasgoing to takehim out from her. WhenI askedhim if he wanted to becomeMuslim, he said no becausehe earns his livelihoodby fighting. I suggestedto him that if he becameMuslim he could probablyfind better employment.He saidno, becausehe wasuneducated and that wasthe only way he could obtain money. I askedhim if he wantedto many the girl, andhe saidyes. So I told him that he couldnot havechildren and the girl wantedto have children. He saidthat he would leaveher when she reached 30 yearsold. I told him that shewould be old thenand no onewould want her. I againasked him to accept Islam, but he saidthat if he did so it would be becauseof the lady. He felt his companionswould make fun of him becausehe hadbeen captured, and they would say that ýwas why he becamea Muslim. The conversationwith him lasted for over half an hour andin the endhe agreedto becomea Muslim,not becauseof the girl but becauseAllah wantedhim to becomeone.

355 INTERVIEW NO. 15

LOCATION: Caroni, Trinidad DATE: 11/8/91

NAME: SharonKhan

AGE: 42 PLACE OF BIRTH: Trinidad

EDUCATION: Secondaryschool.

OCCUPATION: Caretaker of Caroni Islarnic Center.

Whenand why did you beginto practiceexorcism? A. I was an exorcist's assistantfor approximatelytwo yearswhile he was in Trinidad.

I assistedthis sbaykh in exorcismsalong with someother brothers. We studied underhim the methodologyof exorcism.

Did he formallyteach you exorcism? A. Yes. He dictatednotes to us on the subject.

Canyou describethe methodologyof exorcismthat you weretaught? A. These are the notes which I wrote concerningthe exorcismof casesof black

magic.

To Spoil the Effects of Black Magic:

1. Perform %vVO'.'

2. Write the following Qur'Anic verses and chapterson paper, and dip it into a

container of rainwater or river water: 2: 1-10,7: 117-122,10:81-82,20: 69,26: 45-

48,3 8:4143 and the mu'awwIdbatin.

3. Give the'witer to the patient to drink, wash his handsand face and have him

bathe with it.

4a. Recite the' first rukil' of Scirah YJ Sin (3 6) and blow over the patient. Note:

Do not speakto anyoneduring the treatment,only repeatthe praisesof Allah. 4b. Repeat 21 times, yf ARM, yff 'Azfz, andyj Muftb.

356 Q. What arethe stepsfor exorcisingthose possessed byjLW A. The methodologyof exorcismis asfollows: Exorcism

1. Questionthe patientwith regardto his experiences. 2. Recite al-Faipah, Ayah a]-Kuig andthe threequIs over a glassof water and havethe patientdrink it. 3. Place some mustard oil in the palm of the patient'sright handand recite al- Fjtffiah, Ayah al-Kutg, andthe threequIs. 4. Tie a lock of the patienVshair. 5. Let the assistantput somemustard oil on your fingertipand insert this fingerin the patient'sear hole. Then close the ear hole with the ear flap or with an assistant'sfingers. 6. The exorcist should thenclose the patientsnostrils and place his palmin front of the patient'smouth. Observation:If thereis no reactionfrom the patientafter these steps, the problem is diagnosedas purely biological requiring medical treatmentand not spiritual. 7. Massage,feel andpress the patient'slimbs and different portions of the body to identifythe locationof thejhW. 8. When the jbW has beenlocated, an attemptshould be madeto communicate

with it. It shouldbe askedabout its beliefsand reasons for possessing,and Islam shouldbe explainedto it. 9. The jhW should then be driven progressivelyupward towards the patient's head by pressingthe area of the body in whichit resides.When it reachesthe throat, slide the hand up the faceto the hair fine. If thejLwff acceptedIslam, it shouldbe releasedinto the air or imprisoned,if requested. 10. Cut off the tied lock of the patient'shair at whichpoint the patientwill return to his normalstate, totally unawareof the proceedings.The hair shouldbe either flusheddown the toilet or put in a bottle andburied.

357 What reasonsare given by thefinn for possessinghumans? A. I hear of greed, envy, uncleanlinessof the host or simply desire to do harm.

Are the possessingfinn everMuslims? A. I neverencountered a casein whichthe jk& wasa Muslim.

Has the methodologywhich you haveoutlined remained the samefrom the time that the sbaykh beganuntil he left?

A. No, the methodsused changed with time andexperience.

358 INTERVIEW NO. 16

LOCATION: Princes Town, Trinidad DATE: 12/10/91

NAME: VasanMuýarmnad

AGE: 38 PLACE OF BIRTH: Trinidad

EDUCATION: Mgh School (O'levels), Diploma in TeachingAgricultural Science,

Primary School Teaching Certificate.

Whenand why did you beginto practiceexorcism? A. I became exposed to exorcismabout 15 years ago through reading Christian and

Hindu literature. The movie,"The Exorcist" further sparked my interest,but no Islamic literature on the topic was available. About six yearsago I becamea student of a shaykhhere in Trinidadwho wasteaching about the jLw. Two years later the sbaykh began to openly exorciseat the Islamiccenter. He did so to encourageMuslims to leavethe pundits(Brahmanic scholars) and to stop goingto St. BenedictsConvent for treatment.Two yearsago I took four setsof peopleto the sbaykb and assistedhim in the exorcisms. I wasvery impressedwith his methodologyand decided to studyexorcism under him.

Couldyou describesome cases which you took part in asthe shaykO assistant? A. CASE I

Isma'Il 'Abdul'sfather complained of achesand pains which shiftedover his body,

especiallyaround his back. Doctorswere unable to identifythe causeor to treat the symptoms, so he madean appointmentto seethe sbaykh. The first thing that

the sbaykh did was to recite over a glassof water and blow into it, and he gave it

to the manto drink. Whenhe drankit, he becamesomewhat confused, so we sat him down and the shaykhbegan to treat him by transferringmustard oil from his hand to the man's earholes. He closedoff the earholes with the earlobes,and I

359 held the earholes closed with the lobes. Thenhe rubbedmustard oil in the man!s palms andon the solesof his feet. He proceededrubbing upwards from the lower part of the maWsbody asif the weightwas down below.

Q. So he startedfrom the man's foot? A. Yes, but before he did, he pulledsome of the manshair awayfrom the centerof his head and knotted it tightly. (Then Ijasandemonstrated this. ) The sbaykh sometimeshad someoneelse do this. He thentook the mustardoil in his own palm and held it over the personsnose and mouth. After that, he beganpushing upwards from one foot as if he weremassaging something out of it. All of this time he was speakingto thejhw, askingit who it wasand why it had come. And right from the beginninghis questionswere answered. In this casethejhwsaid, "I am his friend."

Q. Whatwas the first questionhe wasasked? A. "Who sent you?" And thejbwanswered, "Nobodysent me. " Thenhe askedit, "How did you get there?" andit replied,"I camebecause I like him." The Shaykh told the fin& that this wasfornication because the manwas married. It said,"I

still like him."

Q. Wasthe old manspeaking in his own voice? A. Yes, but he did 'notknow what he wassaying. The sbaykhasked the jLw, "How

long haveyou beenthere? " It answered,"Twenty-four years. "

Q. Did the old man"passout unconsciousat that time? A. No. -He wasnot unconscious.His pupilswere dilated and he wastalking as if he

were normal. But he would sometimesjerk asif someonekicked him.

Q. But how could he hear,when his earholes were closed? A. the point. The old mancould not hearbut theJbW obviouslycould. The 'That's sbayp did,the samething with the m&s sisterand the jLwff answeredeverything

360 it was askedwithout any problems. The sbaykbwas speakingsoftly at one point

and harshly at another,but the old man could not hear it at all. He continuedlike

this for some time. Then the sbaykb said, "You haveto come out. You are not

supposedto be inside this man. It is wrong."

Q. Did he askthe nameof the personor what the entitywas? A. He askedbut I don'tthink he wasinformed of its name.He wastold that shewas a Spanish-girlfiwl who had liked him sincehis childhood.She mentioned that they havechildren inside of him. I thoughtthis very fascinating.She did not want to come out, so tacticalmeans had to be used. The old manhad to be hit on the face with slippers.The sbaykhbegan slapping him very hard. Afterwardswhen I asked the old man about being hit, he saidhe felt nothing. He did not feel any ache or pain or anythingat all, eventhough he hadreceived a numberof serious slaps. At first the shaykhhit him with his handsand then when the jk& became too difficult, with slippers. The shaylth usedthe slipperson hisjaws, which is what Ididtoo. He askedthe jhWto leavein the nameof All* andhe informed it that it was comn-dttingsin anderror. After half an hour, shecame out.

Q. While thejLwl wasbeing spoken to, what wasits response? A. "I doift want to comeout. I love him. I haveto be with him." The sbaylthtold it that this was fornicationand forbidden.

Q. Did the sbaykbask it if it wasa believeror not? A. There was no reply to this. It just wantedto be left insidehim. Eventually,we were ableto pull it out. It wantedto returnthrough the nostrilsand ears. The old

man kept breathingalternately from the noseand mouth. Thenthe Jmm- came out into the air. Whenthe sbaykhbrought it out, he hadthe mustardoil in his hands. He closed the mans nostrils and ears without squeezingthem so as not to

suffocatehim. He kept on alternatingbetween the mouthand the nostrils. When the jLW finallycame out, the sbaykhtook a pair of scissorsand he cut off a piece

361 of the man'shair.

How did he know that he hadgone up into the air?

A. I did not know, but there were yisible changesin the man. He was relaxed and his

eyes were not dilated. He jumped as if he were out of a trance. He was transformedback into a normalperson. Then the sbaykbtook the strandsof hair which he was holding, and he locked them insideof a bottle which he saidhe would bury afterwards.

So he took the strandsof hair from the middleof the man'shead? Have you ever observedhim take it from any other part of the head except the middle?

A. Basically,it is moretowards the centerthan to the front or the side.

Do you recallany of the othercases? A. CASE 2

There was one sisterwith a similarcase. It wasan easycase, and she was cured by the sameprocess. Her namewas Nusrat Begum.

Whatwas her complaint? A. She told me she was not feelingnormal because of somethingappearing in her dreams. Whenshe slept, she felt somethingcoming onto her from aboveor from within her.

Wasit con-dngonto her sexually?

A. Shedid not saysexually but sheseemed to imply this. So I took her to my shaVkh . and we went through the sameprocess. It wasnot so volatileas the other one, and the shaykb was able to remove the jk& from her fairly easily.

Did it speak?

A. It did not speak very much. The only thing I rememberabout this casewas that the jLW said that somebodyhad put somethingon her, But it did not want to disclosewho did it.

362 Couldyou describea casewhich you handled? A. CASE 3

Ilwill describemy first casefor you.

Q. In that casewas the jbwa Hindu or what?

A. About that case I don't know. A person gets caught up in the excitementof

watching the whole process. WhenI wascalled to attendthat particularcase, I had already read a lot of materialand I hadgone through the steps,but I hadnot performed an exorcism on my own. I knew the basic du'.a's.

Had you memorizedthem or did you havethem on tape? A. Yes, I hadmemorized them and had gone through your book759like the teethof a comb. But I had not learnedall therewas to it. Whena possessedperson was broughtto me for the first time, I felt asif I wasnot prepared.

Wereyou studyingunder your shaykhat that time? I did not studyunder him consistently.I attendedone or two sessionsin which he explainedsome details.

What were the details that you leamedfrom the sbaykh aboutthe methodof . exorcismthat you couldnot haveacquired from observation? A. He gave us a stepby stepprocedure which I memorizedand which I explainedto you previously.

But did he tell you to do anythingbefore going to exorcise?

A. He said to go through a period of fasting and to be consistentin performing

t,?h,? t#Ud. 760

759 Ibn Taymecy, ah ý Essay on the Ann. . 760 A highly recommended,voluntary prayerperformed in the latter part of the night. k'

363 Q. Wasthere a specifiedperiod of fasting? A. I distinctly rememberit to be forty days,but I neveractually did a forty dayfast becauseI was never given evidenceto support this particularissue. I did not really want to do it unlessthere was some sound basis for it. In-ShX-Allih oneof these days I will find out about this issue and deal with it. I neverexpected somethingto comeup. If someonewith ajbwis not attendedto, thenhe is being oppressed. Therefore,when I wascalled upon, I hadno choicebut to respond.I hadnot doneany fasting. I wasjust an occasionalexorcist.

Q. Besidesfasting andtaha Yud, did the sbaykhask you to do anything,for example, . to wear any specialkind of clothes,use any kind of perfumeor anythingelse? A. Not to my knowledge. I do not know whetherhe askedothers to do so. We exorcise in the normal way by reciting Satah a]-Fjtffiah and after it the kaj&nah.761

Q. Describethe exorcismconcerning the sister. A. On Friday morning asI wasjust goingto school,a brotherby the nameof Amin came and told me that his sister-in-law762hasa jbw in her andthat we needto take it out. He andI were studyingwith the samesbaykh, so we discussedthe problem.763 I told him that I did not know whetherI would be ableto take it out. He remindedme that it wasour communalobligation to helpthis girl andthat is why we were called upon. We had studied the book that you wrote, which mentionsthat it is compulsoryto helpthose possessed, so I agreedto seewhat we could do. But I hadnot expectedto actuallyperform the completething. I said that we would just have a look and maybesomeone could perform ruqyah

761 The declarationof faith in Arabic.

762 Shireen,23 yearsold.

763 ShaykhBoadi was out of the countryat the time.

364 (incantation)for her. But whenwe went to seethe sister,she was in the midstof havinga fit.

Q. How was she? A. She was lying on the bed. To show us what was happeningthey calledher husband.When the husbandwent andtouched her shewent into a kind of frenzy.

Q. Wasshe staring? Could shesee him? A. Her eyes were closedtightly the wholetime. Sheonly becamealive andkicking whenthe husband764camenear her.

Q. Did the husbandspeak to her to let her know that he waspresent? A. No. But he did speakonce and I askedhim to hold her. As he heldher handshe started to becomevolatile. The first thing I did whenI enteredwas to ascertain the situation. I thenperformed ruqyah by recitingal-Fitffiah andAyah al-Kutg, andI blew on her head.

Q. Pleasespecify. A. I reciteda]-Fjoah, Ayah a]-Kursi andthe lastthree quIs (al-Apad, Falaq and an- Nas), and I blew over her from her headto her toe threetimes. Sherelaxed for a while. Then I'asked what had been occurring. They told methat whenthe husbandcomes inside the room, the jhmi comesup. I calledthe husbandand asked him to talk, to her. Whenhe talkedto her, shedid not respond.When he came closer, she threatenedhim. And when he touchedher, it startedto get worse. As he heldher handsshe started to becomevolatile like a wild animal,so I foldedup the mattress,wrapping her in it. Shewas in seriouspain.

Wasshe saying anything?

764 IsmI'Il 'Abdul, 30-yearsold, a car salesman.

365 A. She was mumbling something like, "Move, I dodt want you," somethingto that

effect, but it was mostly incoherent speech. After about ten minutes,I told

brother-in-law Amin that she seemsto have ajbwin her. He said, "Then let me

attempt to remove it. " I reminded him that he had not done it before, but in

discussing it, we agreedto do it together. We then got the mustard oil. I told the

people in the room who were not clean or who did not have wu(10'to leave the

room, explaining that later it could become dangerous if they were not clean.

Then the brother and I went through the procedure. He held the hair and I tied the knots.

Q. So you did not hold her hands. A. We did not hold her handsbut anothersister was holdingthem. We put the mustard oil in a pot. I did not pressanything because I felt shybefore the sisters. We spoketo the patient.

Q. Were any of the sh.?.vkb ý caseswomen. If so,when he was treating them did he massageor presstheir bodyparts? A. Yes, he did.

Q. Did he presstheir feet? A. Yes,he did.

Q. Did you touch her? A. I did not, exceptfor slappingher.

Q. After you put the mustard oil in her handsand ears, closed the earlobesand the womanheld her hands,what did the possessedsister do? A. She waslistening, and we were speakingto her eventhough her earswere closed. I asked her, "Can you hearme? " andshe said, "Yes. " ThenI asked,"Where do you comefrom? "

366 Q. Washer voice changed? A. Yes,she was speakingas if shewere young and spiteful. 11 Q. How washer facialexpression? A. She hada youthfulexpression. She was no longertired andher voice was strong. Her eyes were closedtightly so shewas not reallylooking at or seeinganything. We askedher a seriesof questions.We werereciting Ayah al-Kurs! andthe three qu1s. Then I got the waterand recited the kalimahover it. I gaveher the water to drink. I repeated the entireprocess, applying the mustardoil, etc. Thenshe started answeringus. However,the momentI asked,"Who sentyou? " thejbw left and did not answer. We hadalso tried this in the beginning,but it did not work.

Q. How do you know it left? A. The sistercame out of her tranceand returned to her normalself.

Q. Did sheopen up her eyes? A. Her eyes were openbut shewas not respondingto questionsin the samemanner in which she had previously. When we gaveher the waterand asked the jbw where it camefrom, it said,"I camefrom Sou." I askedit, "Whereis Sou?" andit replied, "Up the road." Thenit specifiedthat the placewas New Grant,a town after St. Julian. ThenI askedthe ftwwhy it hadcome, and she answered that it was becauseof her love for the husband.It waspretension. I told thejbwthat the man is married and hasa wife, but it said,"I still like him." WhenI askedit who had sent her, it suddenlywent away. Then I repeatedthe process of exorcismover again.'-

Q. Did you beginwith the drinkingof water?

A. I did not begin with water this time, but I went back to the processof using

mustard oil and closing the ears. It cameback again, so I recited Ayah a]-KuTsi.

This time I askedit whether it was male or female. The answerwas female. Then

367 I asked her if shewas a Muslim,and the answerwas negative. I askedher if she knewabout Allah.

Q, In the course of the exorcismswith your shaykh,did anyof the entitieswhich spokeindicate that theywere Muslims? A. Yes, some of them did but somedid not. He convertedsome of themto Islam. Fromwhat he hastold us.,he hasconverted a largenumber offinn.

Q. But weresome of themMuslims? A. I am not sure. But the onesI observedwere all non-Muslimsand this onewas alsoa non-Muslim.Actually, there were two finn in the sister.

Q. So you askedif theyknew Allah? A. They said, "Yes." Then I askedthem, "Do you fearthe fire of Allah?" andthey answered,"Yes. " ThenI said,"I amgoing to call you andput both of you in the fire and bum you. Theypleaded with menot to do so. I exclaimed,"Then well ask Allah to curseyou, so comeout. " And the responsewas, "I am comingout. " I said.,"Leave the sisteralone (and I usedher name)and come out. " The response was, "I am comingout. "

Q. Wasshe talking in her own voice? A. Yes, but it wasa strongvoice. ThenI said,"You don'twant to comeout. " And then I slappedher but not very hardas I do not Eketo slapat all. I said,"Come out now. I'll beatyou. I'll hit you." I slappedher again. Tearsstarted to come out of the sister'seyes, and she cried. Thenthey said,"O. K. we areleaving. Then I asked them to comeout. I did not usethe nameof Allah asI did not haveany experiencein this field. Shepretended to comeout. We cut a pieceof her hair andput it in a bottle.

Q. Wasthere a changein her? A. Yes. We askedher husband, Faiz, to go insideand hold her hands; but whenhe

368 held her hands,she went backinto her earlier,frenzied state. ThenI told thejhW that it was pretending. I saidto AmIn, "Thereare two insidethere and they are giving us double talk." To this day,I don't know why I felt so. Thenwe went back over the sameprocess again. I askedthe samequestions and inquired as to how many finn werethere. The answerwas, "Two." I askedthem what religion they belongedto and they saidthey were Hindus. Theywere two I-Iindufemale finn who liked her husband.This time whenwe went throughthe processagain of slappingthem and makingthem cry, I askedthem to comeout in the nameof

Allah. And - al-PamduIVIAb-they both cameout of the sisterand have not been back since.

369 INTERVEEW NO. 17

LOCATION: Manama,Bahrain DATE: Nov. 1990

NAME: MuýammadSald al-Afghw DATE OF BIRTH: 1941 PLACE: Herat, Afghanistan

EDUCATION: M. A. from Wifaq al-Madaris al-Islamiyyahin Pakistan, and studied taj; ffd and qira's, specializedin Taffir and Ijadith Science. Taught at Anwar ul-Islam Islamic University in Karachi, and in Makkah at Ta4fi? al-Qur'an Institute.

Q. Whendid you beginto treat possessedpeople?

A. When I began my studiesof the Qur'Anin Hyderabad,one of my teacherswas Shaykh 'Abdul-Quddas,who was a specialiston the subjectof thefirm. I had a great desire to know about this field. I alwaysused to be in his serviceand I would ask him from time to time to teach me. Eventually, he mademe his personalstudent in this field. I usedto be presentduring his treatmentsand would assist him whennecessary. However, I did not beginto treat anyoneuntil I went to Karachiand after being given permission to exorciseby the sAkykh.

Q. What did you learnfrom him?

A. I learneda variety of things, for example,the types of finn andthe different

methods of dealing with them, including how to handle stubbornfirm without

harming myself or the patient. Whenever a patient came,he recited over him

some versesor chaptersfrom the Qur'An, especiallyAvah al-Kwit, the last verse

of Samh al-Mumindn C'Do you diink that We createdyou in jmt..., "765),the

mu'awwldhatan, and also either the first ten versesor all of SLIrahM-, Yjffjt. 766

765 Qur'An,23: 115.

766 Chapter37.

370 Sometimeshe would repeat the same verseseven times for additionaleffect or parts of a verse,like in Ayab a]-KursI. "He doesnot tire from guardingthern and He is the Transcendent,the Suprerne." Particularverses were recited for particularpatients and sicknesses or the type of possessingjLwI Saraha]-Fatipah was recited seven,five, threeor anyodd numberof times. I alsofound anumber of books on this topic, some in Urdu and somein Arabic. However,what is gained by experienceis often not found in thesebooks. Methodsexplained in books often do not benefit the patients. My methodis in accordancewith the Qur'Anand the Sunnah.

You beganexorcising people in Karachiin what year? A. I began in approximately1967. WhenI began,the finn attackedme andcaused

me much pain and hurt; however,I did not fear them. I usedto exorcisein Makkah. On oneoccasion, ajhWtried to scareme by telling methat if I did not stop, it would hurt me on the spot. I quotedfor it the Qur'Anicverse: "If Allah causesharm to touch you, none can removeit exceptHe... "767 About fifteen minutes later they causedmy eldestson to fall off of the roof andbreak his leg. He had to spenda monthand a half in the ZAhirhospital in Makkah. However,I

did not stop. Instead,I told thejhWthat if somethingis written for me, it win happenno matterwhat., Now I do not haveany more problems. Sometimes when a patient comesto my door, thejhmi will say,"Enough. I will leave." They fear me somewhat.

If a personcomes to you, how canyou tell if he is possessedor not? What arethe symptoms? A. I have found that the finn attack humansout of carnaldesire. Somemale finn

love women and young girls, and somefemale finn love unrnarriedmen. They

767 Qur'An,6: 1ý and 10:107.

371 also attack out of enmity if some harm has befallen them. For example, if humans

urinate or pour hot water or tea on them. They are in our houses, as Allah says:

"Verily, they scr. you from a place where you cannot sm therm"769 They take

many different forms, and we do not see them although they see us. If we cause

some harm to them, they seek severe revenge. First I take a promise from them to

stay away from humans and the places where they five. Because Allah sent them

to the desert, mountains and uninhabited places. Occasionally I manage to

convince them to leave using reason, for example, saying, "You are creatures from

fire and take many different forms. Because you can take a variety of forms like

insects., humans may not be aware of you and thus harm befalls you. After that

you enter our homes and eat with us, then you blame us and attack us. The

responsibility is yours. "

My questionwas about how you cantell whena personis possessed. A. His movementswill be unnatural. He may fall down or he may speak unintelligibly. And whenQur'Anic verses are recited over him, the jhmiwill talk usingthe patient'svoice.

Is a differentvoice than the patienfs used? A. The patient speaksand the jbW useshis voice. ' However,the patientmay not know Arabic, for example,but that is what it speaks.Some time backI was treating an Arab Babranipatient in 'Isa Town andhe beganto speakin a language which I couldnot recognize.Someone who wasassisting me saidthat it was not English but that it may be Korean. So I broughta Koreanmaid who confirmed this. Later on, it was pointed out that the man,did not know a singleword of Korean. A femalejLWwhich hadpossessed him was speaking. When I reciteover themthe versesand the patientdoes not speak,I repeatthe

768 Qur'An,7: 27. -,,

372 verses over and over again until the jbw leavesthe patient. If it returns again and

refuses to speak, I warn and advise the jhWthat it is not permissiblefor it to

possesshumans. Then I may ask it questions about its name and religion. Sometimesit refusesto speakand just leaves.

Q. Whenthe finn leave,do they exit from anyparticular part of the patient'sbody? A. They leavefrom allover the body. Theyare ableto leavefrom all of the poresof the body from which sweat is secreted. As to its entrance,it is recordedin a Padfih of the Prophet (4) that whenever th6 believerdrinks or eatshe should mention the nameof Allah. This is becausethe devil eatswith us. Thus,thefinni is able to enter the body from even the mouth. Thereis alsoanother padfth mentionedin Z-jd al-MaW statingthat whena personsleeps, he entersthrough the mouth and leaves from the anus. Theyare also able to leavefrom underthe fingernailsand the roots of the hair becausethey are like air.

Q. Can it be determinedwhen the jbW leavesby movementsin variousparts of the patient'sbody? A. Yes. Whenthe attackis on particularbody parts, only thoseparts will move. For example,if it is leavingfrom the hand,one will find it movingstrangely while the remainderof the body is still. Whenit leaves,the patientis usuallyin a stateof confusion. Occasionally,the patient feelsthat what wasbothering him hasleft, but sometimeshe is totally unaware.

Q. What is the percentageof casesof possessedwomen? A. Women andchildren are in the majority. Accordingto authenticPadahs, thejbw do occupy human homes(especially the lavatories)and womenare usually at home all of the time. They clean the house and lavatoriesand thus come in contactwith finn moreoften.

Q. Canyou describeyour standardmethod of exorcism?

A. I order the patient to sit facingthe qiblah(i. e., Makkah)and draw a line in front

373 of him. As for women, I do not treat them except in the presenceof one of their male relatives.

Q. How do you draw the line? A. I drawaline basedupon the PaSMof'Abdullah ibn Masad in which the Prophet (4) drew a line for him to stay behind. He went with agroupofjhwand conveyed the messageof Islamto themand then returned. 'AbdullahibnMas'ad reported that he could see the Prophet (4) and he heard their voices. The Prophet (4) had told him that if he hadcrossed the line, he would not haveseen him againuntil the Day of Judgement.Consequently, I also draw aline in a circle around the patientand say the prayer, 'Wismillihifla"], ayaVarn&usbay'uniis- samil! wal-arVwabuwas-samPul-'alfm"("In the nameof He who nothingin the heavensor earthcan harm. And He hearsand knows all things.")769as a shieldfor myself and the patient. And I say, 'Amantubillahi w4dahu waIrafkau bil-fikti wal-ligbat wastmnsahubR-'urwaW-*vthqj lanfifkna labi wallabus-samf'ul- 'affm" ("I believein Allah alone,disbelieve in magicUi4t] andfalse gods Ltjghat] and hold firmly to the mosttrustworthy hand-hold [i. e., Islam]that neverbreaks. And Allah hearsand knows all things.") and 'AOdhu bikin2inash-sAirk"("I seek refuge in You from cominittingidolatry. "). ThenI beginwith someverses, either from Saraha]-.; 7j2n, Ayah a]-Kurff, the muawwIdbit, Saraha. s-ýRfffalt, Sarah ar- Raýman or Saraha]-MuMinan. WhenI recite,thejhweither leavesthe patient or it presentsitself by speaking.

Q. Do you take hold of anyparticular part of the patient'sbody? A. If people are with me and I am unableto control him due to his excessive

769 Seeverse 256 of Sarahal-Baqatah (2) in whichis stated: "...Whoever rejects false gods [pgha4 andbelieves in AM hasgrasped the mosttrustworthy handhold that neverbreaks. And AM hearsand knows all things." Seeverse 51 of Satahan- NisXfor referenceto beliefin magicUi4t) andfalse gods Cugbat).

374 movementsand unusual strength,I rely on themto hold him down. Women,on the other hand,do not movemuch. Usuallyit is the menwho movearound a lot and I haveto rely on my studentsto controlthem. I do not touchwomen except in emergencycases. Sometimes I put my sandalon the affectedparts of the body like the neck,the headand the back,and then I hit the sandal.

How do you know which partsof the body areaffected?

A. I know by the unusualmovements of those body parts or by the presenceof unexplainedexcessive heat in that part of the body. Thefinn arecreated from fire so whenthey attackhumans, the personsweats a lot, evenin winter. The exorcist mayalso feel the heat.

Regardingmen, do you grab a hold of any part of their bodies during the exorcism? A. With men I am free,but I do not touchwomen. Their relativeswill hold themif necessary. I am not extremein striking;however, some of my studentsare very rough. They hit patientswith sandalsand sticks. I alsoused to hit, but I have given up this practice. I foundthat someof thefinn wereMuslims while others, although not Muslims,were open to Islam. WhenI treatedthem with adviseand recitation,they left moreeasily and some of themaccepted Islam.

Canmore than one firW possessa singleperson at the sametime? A. People say so, but I have not experiencedit. Some people pretend to be possessedand make all. types of wild claims.

Q. What is the ratio of malefinn possessingfemales to malefinn possessingmales andvice-versa? A. If the possessionis dueto enmity,the ratiosare the same;but if it is dueto love, thenit is alwaysgreater with the oppositesex.

375 SUDANESE EXORCISTS

The following information is based on interviewswith elevenexorcists from the northern regions of Sudan. One was from the village of Dalasa el Shurab,4 miles east of the city of Gadref Another from the village of El Sherif el A'gib, 3 miles southeast of Gadref. Three worked in the masid770of Om Dawan Ban as teachersof the Qur'An and religious healers. Two lived in Kadabass,about 25 miles northwest of

Atbara, and one lived in El Baneyeael Sadgabb,about 5 miles east of A] Fau. Another lived in Rhabuk, and the last two in the capital, Omdurman.771

AGE

The averageage of the faqirs (exorcists)was 52 (eightof themwere older than 50).

Only threehad formal education. The youngest had taken a two-yearcourse in psychologyat Cairo University, Khartoumbranch, another was a schoolteacher and the third, a university law graduate. The remainder received their education in khulwas,which is confinedto Qur'Anicstudies and religious healing.

Sevenof them Were sons of exorcists.The oldershaykhs took greatcare to hand over their knowledgeand skill to their heirsin orderto ensurethe continuityof the familýs spiritualheritage., -,

770 In Sudanýthere are'twelvemajor institutions dating back to the 17thcentur Iy and hundredsof n-dnorcenters. These centers are famous for Qur'Anicstudies and the treatment of mental disturbancesin particular. The traditionalname for a religious centeris "masid," an inflectionof the word "masjkr' (mosque)in the Sudanesedialect. (FugaraTechniques ofMental Healing,p. 19.)

771 Abdel RahimElmahi Elnour, Fugm TechniquesofMental Hca&g (unpublished manuscript,University of Khartoum,Dept. of Psychology,March, 1987),p. 29.

376 The duration of their healing practice ranged from 5 to 35 years, with an averageof 21 years.772

1. One type of finn was refeffed to as ar-iihýa]-aswad (black wind) andwas believedto affect the mind. Another typewas called ar-. rgh a]-aftmar (red wind) andwas believed to attackdifferent parts of the body. 2. Three of the exorcistsbelieved that a possessedperson was always unaware of his enviromment,while two insisted that he always was aware. The

remainderfelt that it dependedupon different, interrelated factors.

SIGNS OF POSSESSION

According to the faqIrs, the main signs of possessionwere speakingwith a loud voice, quick speech,incoherent speech, uncoordinated movement of the limbs andstaring in odd directions.

REASON FOR JON

Whenhumans harm the finn, theharm is reciprocated.For example,according to one fjqIr, if a patient inadvertentlystepped, on filth andtread on a jhmiý baby residingthere, the parentswould retaliate.

METHOD OF TREATMENT

1. All of the exorc ists conductedinterviews with the patientswhen they were ýI- brought in. SiIxof themdirectly addressed their patientswhenever possible, and the other five investigatedcases through the patients'relatives. Two

772 Ibid., p. 40.,

377 preferredto interview patientsalone, seven insistedon the relativesof the patient being present,and two werenot particular. The initial interviewwas to determineif the patientwas possessed or undermental stress. 2. The exorcistwould lightly touchthe achingpart of the bodywith his handor, in the case of female patients,with a stick. Qur'anicverses were recited, punctuated by blowingwhich was directed at the point of pain. This process is referred to in Sudanas 'a&mah. Eight of the faqjrs only administered 'agmah at sunset or sunrise,while three applied it at any time. All consideredpiety andritual purity Ct4jrah) to be requirementsfor 'azimahto be successful,except one exorcist who only stipulatedpiety. 3. Qur'Anic verseswere written on a tabletor on the innersurface of a white bowl and washedwith water. The resultantsolution, called mffigýý, was givento patientsto drink or to rub overtheir bodies. 4. Sometimes,Qur'Anic versesor their numericalsymbols (according to abjad) were written on a blank sheet of white paper whichwas then folded in a special mannerand put on a red hot coalto bum without flames. The patient was then put under a largesheet of cloth so that he would inhalethe rising fumes. This methodis locallyknown as bakhor. 5. SomeQur'Anic verses (. ayjt ash-shiff) for healingwere written on a sheetof white paper which wasthen folded into a rectangleor a square.The folded paper was thencovered in thick cloth, leatheror tin, andit was hungaround the patient'sankle or waist or placed looselyaround his throat so that the

amulet rested on his breast. The largersize amulet, called a PIjib, was most often administeredas a sealingtreatment afterrecovery. The smallersize, calleda warjqah,was used prior to recovery.

6. All of the shaykhsflogged patientswho were violent, disobedientand troublesome. Their legs and backs were usually struckan averageof six times in a singlesession. One of the exorcistsexplained that the experienced and learned exorcistshit the possessingjhmi directlyand compel it to leave

378 the patient'sbody. Another suggestedthat the healing blessingof the exorcist

entersthe patient'sbody throughhis handand the whip. The remainingnine consideredit usefulto inhibit undesirablebehavior on the part of the patient. 7. Six of exorcistsdeprived mad patients of milk, meatand their byproducts, and three of the six also forbadesalt. The otherfive exorcistsallowed the normal diet of the masid, which consistedof meat, fresh vegetables,potatoes andoccasionally rnilk. 8. Improved patientswere also encouragedby eight of the faqirs to attend dbikr

gatheringsand to take part in rhythmic,dance-like activities. 9. When patientswere completelyout of their mindsand were too hyperactive to dealwith, theywere first tied to a pillar in the maffd by iron chains. When they settled down and proved themselvesham-Jess, they were allowedto

move about in fetters, cafled al-qayd. After recovery, they were set free.773

773 Fugm Techniquesof MentalHealing, pp. 40-75.

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