UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

Date:______

I, ______, hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of: in:

It is entitled:

This work and its defense approved by:

Chair: ______

Architecture Built to Last: The Timelessness of Brick

A thesis submitted to the

Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE

in the Department of Architecture of the College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning

2005

by

Stephanie A. Kroger

B.S. Arch., University of Cincinnati, 2003

Committee Chairs:

Robert Burnham Barry Stedman

Abstract

Brick is one of the most culturally significant consequences as well. Technology has changed the way contemporary building materials, with a rich history of buildings are designed and constructed, directly use throughout human history. Its social meaning has benefiting issues of economy and sustainability, but often changed over the past decades and centuries, but brick compromising human scale. has always been valued not only for its durability, In today’s design and construction practices, brick quality, and tradition, but also for its human properties – is often reduced to simply a cladding material, wasting the direct human effort required to construct a brick wall much of its potential. Through the design of a non- is apparent in every unit and joint. The versatility that is denominational chapel, a building will be created that possible through brick’s simplicity of geometry allows exploits the inherent human scale, craft, durability and for the creation of an endless variety of forms and tradition of brick, while meeting the contemporary textures in architecture. demands of the 21st century. Our technologically centered society tends to emphasize the separation between buildings and the human element of construction and craft. Computer- generated forms are becoming more prevalent in contemporary architecture. There are, of course, endless benefits of technology, foremost its importance in achieving efficiency and economy; but there are

Table of Contents i List of Illustrations 4 The Role of Brick in Contemporary Architecture

1 Introduction 4.1 Modern-Day Brick 4.1.1 Style & Technology 2 Brick Masonry Enclosure 4.1.2 Sustainability 4.1.3 Efficiency and Durability 2.1 The Nature of Brick 4.2 Contemporary Brick Architecture 2.1.1 Material Properties and Characteristics 4.2.1 Introduction 2.1.2 Types of Clay Masonry 4.2.2 Examples 2.1.3 Mortar 2.2 Brick throughout History 2.2.1 Origins of Brick Masonry 5 Design Project 2.2.2 Brick Development 2.2.3 Exemplary Applications 5.1 Intent 5.2 Program 5.2.1 Precedents 3 Enclosure Design 5.2.2 Activities 5.2.3 Diagrams 3.1 The Evolution of Modern Enclosure 5.3 Site 3.2 Design Basics 5.3.1 Description 3.2.1 Climate Investigation 5.3.2 Analysis 3.2.2 Materials 3.2.3 Proper Detailing and Assembly 3.3 The Brick Wall 3.3.1 Types of Brick Walls 3.3.2 Movement: Moisture and Thermal Forces 3.3.3 Construction 3.3.4 Structural Brick

List of Illustrations

2-1 www.glengerybrick.com/ 2-25 Campbell, 239 4-8 Architecture and Urbanism, Nov. about/manufacturing 2-26 Bauwelt, 13 Mar. 1992, 549 1983 Extra Edition, 109 2-2 John Gallagher, friend of author 2-27 Anderson, 132-133 4-9 RIBA Journal, Sept. 1995, 44. 2-3 www.glengerybrick.com/ 2-28 www.columbia.edu/cu/gsapp about/manufacturing /BT/EEI/MASONRY 5-1 libraries.mit.edu 2-4 www.glengerybrick.com/ 2-29 Bauwelt, 13 Mar. 1992, 530 5-2 www.figure-ground.com about/manufacturing 2-30 Bauwelt, 13 Mar. 1992, 560 5-3 www.figure-ground.com 2-5 www.glengerybrick.com/ 2-31 Bauwelt, 13 Mar. 1992, 558 5-4 libraries.mit.edu about/manufacturing 5-5 Campbell, 273 2-6 Campbell, 305 3-1 Lechner, 74 5-6 Campbell, 274 2-7 Campbell, 32 3-2 Beall, 289-290 5-7 Sigurd Lewerentz 1885-1975, 81 2-8 Campbell, 35 3-3 Beall, 287 5-8 Anderson, 42 2-9 Campbell, 35 3-4 BIA Tech Notes, Issue 21C 5-9 Anderson, 51 2-10 www.columbia.edu 3-5 www.bia.org 5-10 Anderson, 49 2-11 James Popple 3-6 BIA, Tech. Notes 24 5-11 Anderson, 48 (cs.anu.edu.au/~James.Popple) 3-7 Campbell, 250-251 5-12 Photo by author 2-12 Popple 3-8 Beall, 322 5-13 Photo by author 2-13 Campbell, 64 3-9 Anderson, 67 5-14 Map by author 2-14 Campbell, 74 5-15 Photo by author 2-15 Campbell, 103 4-1 www.kpf.com 5-16 Photo by author 2-16 Campbell, 82 4-2 http://www.bluffton.edu 5-17 Photo by author 2-17 Campbell, 90 4-3 http://www.horizons.uc.edu 2-18 Campbell, 129 4-4 Campbell, 243 2-19 Campbell, 139 4-5 www.greatbuildings.com 2-20 Campbell, 147 4-6 Architecture and Urbanism, Nov. 2-21 Campbell, 151 1983 Extra Edition, 105 2-22 Campbell, 75 4-7 Architecture and Urbanism, Nov. 2-23 Campbell, 76-77 1983 Extra Edition, 102 2-24 Campbell, 237 1 Introduction the world.1 This was possible because brick is made from the most abundant material available to us: the earth itself. As a Brick is one of the few building materials that has result, brick took on the spirit of the region in which it was survived from ancient times, never losing esteem over the made, and different cultures have used the material in unique years. Its popularity as a building material remains strong and beautiful ways. even into the 21st century. This is a result of the many Historically, a brick wall often served as the structure, redeeming qualities that brick possesses, foremost its weather barrier, vapor retarder, insulator, and sometimes the versatility. Bricks are individual units, sized to relate to the interior finish of a building. This was the case with buildings of human hand and to the strength of the human arm; their almost any material until the 20th century, when the proportions are determined by efficient geometry. These development of new materials, high performance expectations, characteristics are inherent to brick: if brick’s unitized and and economic trends resulted in a dramatic change in building standardized nature is taken away, the material becomes enclosure systems. In all industrialized nations, monolithic, something entirely different. load-bearing enclosures have generally been replaced by Throughout the course of history, brick has been one of systems that separate the structure from the skin of the the most versatile and widely used materials for building. building. The skins, known as cladding systems, are Thousands of years before fired brick technology was composites separated into discrete elements or layers that developed in ancient Rome, the Egyptians and Mesopotamians address the various functional requirements of enclosure. A were using mud brick to build shelter and, later, fired brick in typical cladding system has an outer material to shed water, a temples and mausoleums. This technology spread to the cavity to drain moisture, a membrane to stop moisture entry, a

Roman Empire and throughout Europe, to India, Sri Lanka 1 James W. P. Campbell, Brick: A World History, (London: Thames & and Burma, into China, and eventually throughout the rest of Hudson, 2003)

1 back-up wall to transfer lateral loads, a layer of insulation to an extremely durable material if assembled properly, but as retard heat transfer, a barrier to stop air movement, and an labor costs increase, its relatively slow fabrication speed makes interior finish material, all of which must be structurally the material less economically beneficial. supported. In the case of brick walls, a cavity wall system was Durability also satisfies another modern concern: developed that contained these elements. sustainability. Many types of material resources are There are a number of issues to consider with the increasingly scarce and valuable in modern society, and design of a modern brick enclosure system. As with all therefore should be used in ways that minimize immediate modern building systems, efficiency is an important economic and life-cycle environmental impacts. If enclosures are poorly concern. With regard to cladding, efficiency of material often designed and assembled, the entire system is liable to fail; leads to a great economic advantage. An even greater replacing it would not only be economically costly, but a economic advantage is speed in fabrication and erection. significant waste of the embodied energy3 of the original “Time is money,” and building owners want the most for the materials. After structure, enclosure is the determining factor least investment. Brick, however, is rather labor-intensive, of the life of a building. If properly assembled, all enclosure especially when compared to pre-fabricated cladding systems, materials should have the capability of lasting for a significant such as EIFS2. Economizing too much on time and materials, part of the life of the building. This is especially true with brick, however, can lead to problems in the durability of an enclosure which has been proven to last for hundreds of years (or more). system. Increasing durability has long-term economic Furthermore, as a natural material, the long-term advantages, but often requires significant initial investments for environmental consequences of brick in landfills are less a building project; it is therefore often compromised. Brick is problematic.

2 EIFS, Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems, are multi-layered panel 3 The embodied energy of a material is all the energy required to products. manufacture and transport the final product.

2 A building’s enclosure is a significant factor of Gehry’s buildings leak.4 Often, this failure is a result of the sustainability in another way: it is a major contributor to the complicated panel systems that are typically used in his energy efficiency of a building. A major advantage of cavity buildings and in other modern cladding systems. This type of wall enclosures is that they allow for the insertion of insulation, cladding system presents a challenge in the detailing of joints which was not possible in monolithic enclosures. Insulating a between panels and in the creation of a cavity for insulation building reduces the demand on the mechanical heating and and moisture collection. These issues have led to the cooling systems of buildings. The air-tightness of enclosure development of a rainscreen / pressure-wall system5. This also contributes to energy efficiency, because air infiltration also system, however, is not always executed well, and will fail if increases the HVAC demand. In brick enclosure, the not designed and constructed properly. techniques for inserting insulation and air- and moisture- The “materials revolution” has impacted contemporary barriers are well developed. architectural style. The expression of hung cladding is most Contemporary architecture is known for pushing the often seen in panel systems, as demonstrated in many of boundaries of standard construction. Using new (and Gehry’s buildings. Concrete is also often panelized, as seen in traditional) materials in innovative ways is a continuing trend Zaha Hadid’s new Contemporary Arts Center in Cincinnati. in today’s construction industry. One of the most popular Stone is now hung in panels instead of being stacked in blocks materials, metal, is being used in panel and siding enclosure (which has not been a practice in building for centuries). Brick systems throughout the world, as can be seen in many of the is occasionally panelized, but the notion of large hung panels is buildings by Frank Gehry, one of today’s leading architectural generally at odds with the modular nature of brick. This raises designers. Gehry also experiments with other cladding the question of whether conventionally laid brick can be used materials, including brick. The architectural benefits of 4 James Wrisley, P.E. Skanska USA (tig.csail.mit.edu); Michael D. Lewis. 5 innovation, however, are not without consequences: some of A system in which the cavity is of equal pressure to the air outside; this principle will be described further in section 3.3.1.

3 for buildings with contemporary forms. The Brick Industry cultural implications of brick and the idea of style as it relates to Association reports that the last 10 years have been the best architecture will also be discussed. The technical aspects of years for the brick industry since the early 70s.6 These bricks, brick and brick enclosure will be included to demonstrate the however, are not typically being used in the creation of material’s properties and the traditional methods of brick wall significant architectural icons; they are mainly used in construction. The basics of designing a successful enclosure residential construction and in educational and civic system (in general) are summarized, including climatic institutions.7 response, material detailing, and principles of assembly. This Why is brick so popular for these types of buildings? research will lead to the creation of an enclosure that uses brick Daniel Willis, a writer for Harvard Design Magazine, speculates to its fullest potential. This enclosure will combine the that people want to escape the constant change that technology principles used for brick construction with the basic principles has introduced into the modern lifestyle.8 The comfort of of enclosure to create a style that is appropriate for a “modern” tradition comes with brick architecture, and these civic building and an exceptional use of the material brick. The institutions are the buildings that people interact with on a building, a chapel, will incorporate brick’s beauty, durability, daily basis. So again we ask, can brick be used to create an and versatility. Its design will respond to the technological and image of the future, or should it be restricted only to cultural sustainable demands of our contemporary world in both style icons that evoke tradition? and assembly, while integrating the historical context and This document traces the evolution of brick and the characteristics that brick inherently carries with it. advances in enclosure systems throughout history. The socio-

6 The Brick Industry Association, www.bia.org 7 Daniel Willis, “Social-Climbing Brick,” Harvard Design Magazine Summer 2000: 70 8 Willis, 73-74.

4 2 Brick Masonry

What is brick, and why has it been so prevalent in building throughout the history of the modern world? This chapter explains what brick physically is, how it is made, and why its proportions and geometry have made it an important material for building throughout history. The second part of this chapter demonstrates how versatile the material is by studying brick’s use over time throughout the world. Finally, examples of Figure 2-1 Gathering Raw Materials buildings and architects that use brick to its fullest artistic and/or structural potential are discussed.

2.1 The Nature Of Brick Masonry

2.1.1 Material Properties and Characteristics

Brick is made by firing raw material clay. Clay is a mineral composition in which Figure 2-2 Extrusion of Clay particles are less than 0.002 mm in size. Due to their small size, the particles inherently have a great amount of surface area to which water can cling, making the clay hydrous. This property gives the clay a plastic composition when wetted, allowing it to be easily molded. Clay contains many different types of particles, including silica, alumina, metallic oxides, and lime. Aluminum silicates are the basic compounds in clay, and they are responsible for vitrification under high temperatures, which causes the material to

fuse together. The clay also contains metallic oxides of varying kinds that determine at Figure 2-3 Machine-pressed brick molds

5 what temperature the material will vitrify and the colors that will be produced. The metallic oxides also positively affect the structural properties of the fired brick. The lime that is found in most clays must be ground into tiny pieces, because once the lime is burned in the kiln, it can slack (combine with water), which causes it to expand over time, resulting in cracking of the brick if too much lime is present.1 Before the clay is fired, it is washed to remove materials such as stones and soil, and then it is crushed and ground into a fine powder. This is necessary to ensure that the Figure 2-4 Hand-molded bricks clay mixes evenly with the water. There are four steps in the brick manufacturing process, beginning with the forming of the clay into bricks. There are two common forming methods: die pressed and molded. The die-pressed method can only be used when the clay is “stiff-mud,” meaning that it contains between 12 and 15% moisture by weight. This method produces a continuous extrusion of clay that is sliced into pieces. The other method is to press “soft-mud” clay (containing 20 to 30% water) into molds, either by hand or by machine. The next step in the manufacturing process is drying, which is done carefully to ensure that the bricks dry slowly and evenly; drying temperatures should not exceed 400°F. Once the bricks are dried, which typically takes 24 to 48 hours, they may be glazed, if desired. Then the clay is burned, or fired, in a kiln ° where temperatures reach between 1600 and 2400 F in order for vitrification, or fusing of Figure 2-5 Tunnel kiln the particles, to occur. The last step in the manufacturing process is the drawing and

1 Christine Beall, Masonry Design and Detailing (New York: McGraw-Hill Inc, 1993)

6 storage of the bricks, during which they are removed from the kiln, cooled, and stored or shipped.2 This manufacturing process is highly controlled, producing an excellent quality building material. As a result of the high-temperatures achieved during production, brick masonry is an extremely durable material that matures well and resists moisture and thermal damage (including fire). Like all masonry materials, brick’s strength lies in compression. On average, a building brick has a compressive strength of 3,000 psi, though a brick’s strength is able to reach 22,000 psi if necessary. Another property of brick is expansion. Brick’s thermal expansion is almost negligible (0.00025 inches for 100˚F temperature change), and is reversed with a decrease in temperature.3 Brick also expands with the absorption of moisture, though this change is permanent. The coefficient of absorption is 0.02 to 0.07%, depending on the grade of brick.4 This movement must be accounted for in brick wall construction, as will be discussed in Chapter 3.

2.1.2 Types of Brick Bricks are typically of a cuboid shape, a result of the moulds into/through which the clay is pressed. Their size and shape is mainly determined by the need for bricks to be easily handled by a single mason during construction. Bricks are almost always cored,

2 Ibid, 18. 3 Ibid, 63. 4 Ibid, 64.

7 hollowed, or frogged to aid in the drying process, to allow for the insertion of reinforcing bar, and to make the bricks lighter and easier to handle. In the United States, there is no one standard brick size; dimensions vary based on the design and application. There are many commonly manufactured sizes, however, that are readily available in the US. See the chart below for dimensions of these bricks. Special shapes of brick are also available,

Unit Name Width (in) Length (in) Height (in) Modular 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 7 1/2 or 7 5/8 2 1/4 Standard 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 8 2 1/4 Engineer Modular 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 7 1/2 or 7 5/8 2 3/4 to 2 13/16 Engineer Standard 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 8 2 3/4 Closure Modular 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 7 1/2 or 7 5/8 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 Closure Standard 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 8 3 5/8 Roman 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 11 1/2 or 11 5/8 1 5/8 Norman 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 11 1/2 or 11 5/8 2 1/4 Engineer Norman 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 11 1/2 or 11 5/8 2 3/4 to 2 13/16 Utility 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 11 1/2 or 11 5/8 3 1/2 or 3 5/8 King Size 3 9 5/8 2 5/8 or 2 3/4 Queen Size 3 7 5/8 or 8 2 3/4

Typical Brick Sizes in the United States

to be used for elements such as water tables, jambs, lintels, copings, and more. Some examples of these are shown below. Custom-made brick is almost always available as well, though it comes at a high price. Many different bond patterns may be created using a single size of brick, and various sizes can be incorporated into the pattern.5 Some common patterns are shown to the right.

Figure 2-6 Bonding Patterns

5 Edward Allen, Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods (New York: Wiley, 1999)

8 There are three grades of brick, distinguished by their absorption properties: severe weathering (SW), moderate weathering (MW), and negligible weathering (NW). SW grade brick is to be used where the brick is subject to water saturation or where freezing conditions are possible while the brick is permeated with any amount of water; this includes most below-grade applications. MW brick is recommended for above- ground application on vertical surfaces, and NW brick should only be used in sheltered or interior conditions.6 There are also three types of face brick, indicating appearance: FBX (select), FBS (standard), and FBA (architectural). Type FBX are bricks that are highly controlled, with negligible differences in size and color, and are to be used where a high level of precision is required in the construction of the wall. Type FBS bricks have some variation in color and size, and type FBA bricks have little uniformity of color, size, or texture. FBA are popular in residential construction, because they can be specialized to have a distinct appearance.7

2.1.3 Mortar Mortar is the binding agent in a brick wall, mechanically connecting the individual pieces together. Whereas it only makes up a small portion of the wall, mortar highly impacts the structural performance and aesthetics of the wall, and is therefore an important component to consider. In general, there are two different types of mortar:

6 Beall, 35-37. 7 Allen, 1999.

9 lime-based and portland cement-based. Lime mortars, consisting of lime, sand and water, cure slowly, providing a tight bond, and have excellent workability; unfortunately, they have a low compressive strength. Portland cement mortar cures very quickly and has a high compressive strength, but is very difficult to work with and creates a poor bond. Admixtures can be combined with the mortar to increase its workability, but this reduces the bond strength, compromising the strength of the entire wall. Typically, portland cement-lime mortar is used, which is a combination of the two types, taking advantage of the benefits of each. The proportions can vary, depending on the specific needs of the project.8

Now that we have an understanding of brick as a unit of masonry, we can better understand its nature as a material for building. Through this understanding, designers can use the material to its fullest potential, pushing it to new or different ends to create new and exemplary buildings. To use brick in creating architecture, however, more must be learned about the material: how it has been made and assembled to create architecture in the past.

8 Allen, 1999.

10 2.2 The History of Brick

A lot can be learned about a material by studying its history. Examining how brick has been formed and assembled in the past provides an understanding of where the material’s strengths and weaknesses are and knowledge of how to best take advantage of these. In addition to learning about the physical properties of a material, this type of research surveys the various styles that have been created using brick, and shows the aesthetic opportunities presented by the material. Brick’s long history of development has resulted in a wide range of uses; but the versatility of the material lends itself to limitless possibilities, and as technology advances, more options for its use are presented to designers.

2.2.1 Origins of Brick Brick has been used in building for at least 10,000 years, sharing its origins with the beginning of civilization. The first bricks, found in both Egypt and Jericho (Jordan),

9 were hand-formed out of mud and then left to dry and harden in the sun. The next Figure 2-7 Ziggurat, Mesopotamia significant advancement was the molded brick, developed approximately 5000 BC. This is important because builders were now able to fit bricks closely together, unlike with the

previous rounded-edge bricks. Brick as we know it today has its origins around 3500 BC in Mesopotamia, with the invention of the fired brick. Baking bricks at high temperatures

9 N. S. Baer, et al, Conservation of Historic Brick Structures (Dorset: Donhead, 1998)

11 made them structurally capable of being used for large-scale buildings. This process, however, was costly and complicated: large amounts of fuel were required, and achieving accurate temperatures was critical to the structural integrity of the brick.10

2.2.2 Brick Development Egyptians were the first to use bricks to make arches and vaults, which were constructed mainly in tombs and temples. In Egypt, mud brick was mainly used because it was much simpler to make than fired brick, and stone was readily available when there Figure 2-8 Ishtar Gate Detail, Babylon was need for more durable construction. In Mesopotamia, where stone was not abundant, fired bricks were highly valued, and therefore used principally in temples and palaces. The ziggurat, a base for a temple, was common throughout the Mesopotamian region, and these structures were often built of a mud brick core surrounded by a fired brick shell. Typically, a bituminous mortar (bitumen is a by-product of oil) was used for these structures because it was readily available. Excavations of Babylon, a major city in Mesopotamia, have shown that the city had a high level of mastery of fired and glazed

bricks, though there is no record of their methods. This mastery can be seen in the Figure 2-9 Ishtar Gate, Babylon Babylonian Palace, the Ishtar Gate (pictured to the right), and their use of sculpted brick relief.11

10 James W. P. Campbell, Brick: A World History (London: Thames & Hudson, 2003) 30. 11 Ibid, 34-35.

12 There is little record of fired brick from the 1st century BC in the Roman Empire, though it was present in southern Italy and Sicily during that time. Vitruvius, author of the greatest architectural writings of antiquity, wrote during this time, and there is no mention of fired brick anywhere in his papers. By the end of the 1st century AD, however, there is evidence of fired brick being used throughout the Roman Empire. This is the first time that fired brick was extensively used in all of Europe.

This growing popularity of fired brick in the 1st century AD led to the Figure 2-10 Roman Brickwork development of a brick industry in the Roman Empire, and by the 2nd century it was fully established, and brickyards with kilns were commonplace. Typical wall construction was not solid masonry, but a concrete wall faced with brick. The square, flat bricks most often were cut at a diagonal, with the long edge pointed towards the face of the wall, in a similar fashion to how a stone wall was built. By this time in Rome, the Greek system of post and lintel construction was being replaced with arches and vaults, which were easily constructed out of bricks. This can be seen in the aquaducts and bathes throughout the Figure 2-11 The Colosseum, Rome empire, and especially in the Roman Colosseum, built 70 – 80 AD12 (pictured to the right). This elliptical amphitheatre is a three tiered arcade of brick-enforced concrete vaults, which optimize the circulation in the outer ring of the Colosseum. Until the 2nd century, brick was not typically left as the finish face of a wall, and so the Colosseum was clad in travertine marble. This was the practice for most buildings that were constructed with brick, the primary cladding material being either plaster or stone. Once masons became

12 Ibid, 56. Figure 2-12 The Colosseum, Rome

13 practiced in brickwork, however, decorative patterning began to emerge in buildings.

An early example of this is Trajan’s Markets in Rome, built about 100 AD. This four level marketplace is built into the side of a hill, with entablatures and pediments carved out of the brickwork.13 Another significant building of this period is the Roman Pantheon, constructed in 124 AD. There is no finish brickwork in the building, but the structural support for the dome is brick piers, and brick arches were built into the walls for strength.14 The Eastern Roman Empire used brick extensively in their buildings, fully developing the solid brick wall. Builders in Byzantium created intricate bonding patterns that were unique to the region. Wide mortar joints, sometimes wider than the bricks themselves, became typical. The most fantastic example of Byzantine brickwork is the church of Hagia Sophia, built in Constantinople in 532 AD. It is built almost entirely out of brick, including the massive 100 ft wide, 180 ft high dome. During this same time period, however, was the fall of the Roman Empire, and the brick industry, along with building Figure 2-13 Hagia Sophia in general, went dormant for awhile.15 The first use of fired brick in the East has been dated between the years of 475 and

221 BC, and was found in China. These bricks are in the form of flat, rectangular slabs, and the material is similar to terracotta. Later, more standard-sized bricks were used in

13 Ibid, 52. 14 Andrew Plumridge and Wim Meulenkamp, Brickwork: Architecture and Design (New York: Abrams, 1993) 15 Campbell, 64.

14 China. There have not been kilns discovered, so it is speculated that the Chinese used a firing method similar to the clamp method, where the bricks are clamped together and heated from below. Later, a more sophisticated method was developed, as is evident by

the consistency in the bricks. Until 960 AD, there was no technology of an adhesive mortar, and mud was therefore used to bind the bricks together. When mud mortar is used in a wall, it is required for stability that the bricks fit closely together, which the Chinese were able to successfully achieve. Their walls were usually covered with some sort of mud-plaster, for the purposes of both decoration and sealing the mud mortar from excess water.16 Islamic buildings in the 7th and 8th centuries were constructed of both mud and fired bricks, usually in a square shape. There was advanced development of brick patterning in this region during this time period, mainly in their sacred buildings. This is a result of the Muslim belief that no living thing be represented in the decoration on buildings, and therefore geometric patterns were used, often created using the square geometry of bricks. These patterns were exquisitely designed and detailed, the best example being the well-preserved late 7th century Tomb of Saminids (pictured to the Figure 2-14 Tomb of Saminids right).17 The early Middle Ages showed little development of brick, except in the Po Valley of northern Italy. Stone was not readily available in this region, but the clay was

16 Campbell, 70-71. 17 Ibid, 75.

15 ideal for brick making. The thick, rectangular bricks were different in form than those used by the Romans, which were flat, square-shaped slabs. This form developed in Ravenna (Italian mainland town near Venice) in the 6th century, and spread throughout the Po Valley by the 15th century.18 Northern Europe was using brick during this period as well, though it is not clear how the technology was revived (brick had been used in Europe when it was part of the Roman Empire, but its use declined with the fall of Rome). North of the Alps, a new, smaller brick was developed in the 12th century that was easier to handle, changing the construction industry, which had now been established throughout most of Europe. In Germany and Poland, a style of brick building developed called Backsteingotik, meaning “baked stone gothic,” and was mainly Figure 2-15 Neubrandenburg Gate, used for castles, towers, and fortifications. This style was modest at first, but eventually Lübeck, Germany led to a style of building that used brick in a beautifully decorative way. The gate in Lubuck, Germany is an example of this style.19 It has been established that there was a strong brick-building tradition in the Buddhist settlements of India and south-east Asia before the Middle Ages, but few buildings and little record remain to prove its existence. What has survived from the 7th century on, however, shows a highly developed knowledge of brick-making, centralized around the ancient capital city Pagan (present-day Myanmar, formerly Burma). Using burnt bricks of brilliant orange color and the vaulting technology of the indigenous Pyu Figure 2-16 Pagan, Myanmar

18 Campbell, 94. 19 Campbell, 103.

16 people, the settlers of Pagan built Buddhist temples and stupas that climbed high into the sky.20 Further south-east, in present-day Thailand, the people were building their version of the stupa, which was similar in form, but influenced by the four different cultures living there. In this region, there is evidence of a vegetable-based mortar that was used to bond the bricks together. All across the region, these stupas, covered in decorative plaster, dominated the skylines of the cities throughout the Middle Ages.21 The stupa form also influenced Chinese architecture during this period, where it quickly evolved into what is now known as the pagoda. These buildings, which were tiered and usually occupiable, were made out of either brick, stone, or wood, or a

combination of these materials. Only the masonry pagodas survive today. Records exist Figure 2-17 Chinese Pagodas of a Chinese building code, established in 1103, that standardized brick sizes and the firing process. This resulted in an accuracy in the bricks that allowed the pagodas to be beautifully constructed and precisely detailed.22 The Renaissance marks the rise of architecture as an art, and it is during this period that we see the role and title of “architect” clearly defined and distinctly separated from the master builder. Brunelleschi is perhaps the most established architect of the Renaissance because of his admirable feat of spanning the dome in Florence’s cathedral (the “Duomo”). This was an amazing engineering feat, but also an innovative solution to Figure 2-18 The Florence Cathedral the problem of constructing a dome out of brick. In his design, the bricks were essentially

20 Campbell, 82-86. 21 Ibid, 88-89. 22 Ibid, 90-93.

17 wedged into place as the dome tapered inwards.23 This was the largest dome ever constructed in the Western world, though a larger dome was achieved 1000 years earlier in present-day Iraq.24 Brick continued to flourish during the Renaissance as the Baroque style became the norm throughout Italy. At the same time, beautifully crafted brickwork was emerging in England, and carved and molded terracotta became a staple in all

buildings of the wealthy class. A striking example is the Layer Marney Tower, built in Figure 2-19 Diapering the 16th century, which demonstrates the popular practice of diapering, or creating diamond-shaped patterns in the walls with brick headers of a different color.25 The Persian Renaissance, during the same time period, also shows extensive use of brick in their palaces, mosques, squares and bazaars. Large vaults and domes show their knowledge of brick as structure, and the intricately patterned facades of glazed and colored brick demonstrate their mastery of brick’s aesthetic potential.26 Russia was also developing brick at this time, and as a result of limited western influence, a distinct style Figure 2-20 Russia emerged. In China, this period marks the third construction of the Great Wall, which remains to this day one of the largest and most extensive uses of brick throughout the world.27 From the Renaissance onward, various styles and techniques of brick construction were continuously developed throughout the world. New and innovative strategies Figure 2-21 Vaulted ceiling of Persian bazaar 23 Campbell, 126-127. 24 John Warren, Conservation of Brick, (Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 1999) 25 Campbell, 141. 26 Ibid, 150-155. 27 Ibid, 158-159.

18 were often employed in building, but some things remained the same: the industry was standardized, and bricks were modules that were laid by hand and adhered together for stability. Forms and styles were abundant, often reflecting the region and culture, but brick’s inherent nature was inescapable. This is fortunate, though, because it is this nature that has allowed brick construction to succeed. Some cases of historical brick construction prevail, however, for their extraordinary use of the material, and some of these are detailed in the following section. Examples of modern brick style and construction will be reviewed in Chapter 4.

2.2.3 Exemplary Applications of Brick

Tomb of Saminids As discussed previously, this mausoleum in Bukhara is fantastically preserved,

and one of the only remaining buildings from its period. Built between 862 and 907 AD, it

is an example of the intricacy of the brickwork used by the Muslims. Bricks of special Figure 2-22 Tomb of Saminids, interior sizes were cut and formed to create the textured patterns covering the walls on the interior and exterior of the building. The patterns are enhanced by the contrast between the light brick and dark shadows created on the surface by the harsh sun of the Middle East. In addition to being a stunning example of complex brickwork, the tomb is early evidence of a dome over a square space. This structural problem was solved by arching over the four corners of the building to support the dome (see photo to the right); these Figure 2-23 Tomb of Saminids, brick details

19 arches are hidden on the outside by the gallery arches, but revealed on the interior.28 This building survives today because it was buried under sand for centuries, only to be uncovered in 1934, thus escaping the Mongol invasions of Bukhara in 1220. Local legend claims, however, that the tomb survived because the Mongols were so struck by its beauty that they spared it.29

Antoni Gaudi i Cornet This Spanish architect is most commonly identified with his polychromatic, organically formed facades, found in Barcelona and throughout Spain. Gaudi’s work is most frequently rendered in colorful tiles or painted, but he also used exposed brick in Figure 2-24 Colegio Teresiano, Barcelona some of his buildings, especially his earlier works (mid-late 1880s). The Colegio Teresiano in Barcelona, a convent school, uses brick parabolic arches for its interior structure as well as on the façade, where a beautiful rhythm is created with the brick. The organic nature of Gaudi’s work begins to emerge in the Crypt of the Colonia Guëll. The entire church was never finished, but the completed crypt employs a mixture of stone columns and brick vaults for the structure. The vaults are created by laying the bricks in a traditional method called la tabicada, which uses thin, tile-like bricks stacked at an angle to Figure 2-25 Crypt of Colonia Guëll each other and covered with a layer of quick-setting gypsum mortar. The resulting space is a truly amazing network of brick arches and vaults.30

28 Campbell, 74-77. 29 Warren. 30 Campbell 237-239.

20 Eladio Dieste An engineer by trade, this Uruguayan revolutionized mid-20th century architecture in Latin America. A contemporary of Gaudi, Dieste used reinforced brick, known locally as ceremica armada, to create dynamic structural forms. His work earned him honorary architectural degrees from two Latin American universities. 31 The best- known example of his work, built in 1959 in Atlántida, Uruguay (just outside the capitol, Montevideo), is the Church of Christ the Worker. Amazingly, this was Dieste’s first architectural work.32 The undulating walls function to support the roof, and their construction of a double layer of brick with a mortar bed in between needs no additional

Figure 2-26 The Church of Christ the Worker, Uruguay

Figure 2-27 Port Warehouse, Montevideo

31 Ramón Gutiérrez, “Sense and Sensuality,” Architecture Aug. 1999: 57-58. 32 Sanford Anderson, ed, Eladio Dieste: Innovation in Structural Art (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2004) 42.

21 lateral support. For vaults, roof, and other horizontal surfaces, the bricks were cored across their length (as opposed to the vertical cores of typical bricks), making them lightweight while maintaining their strength. These construction practices were used in most of Dieste’s buildings. Dieste used brick because it was locally available, and its technology was already understood by masons in Uruguay; this was a benefit economically as well as creating an expression of the region. He also liked the material because it is resistant to sudden temperature change, ages well, and requires little maintenance.33

Figure 2-28 Vittorio Vergalito, master mason, working on Christ the Worker

Figure 2-29 Church of San Pedro, Durzano Figure 2-30 Don Bosco School Gymnasium, Montevideo Figure 2-31 Diagram of vault construction

33 Malcolm Quantrill, ed, Latin American Architecture: Six Voices (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2000) 22-23.

22 3 Brick Enclosure

3.1 Evolution of Modern Enclosure

In the past, enclosure was built out of a limited number of materials, and so construction was fairly simple. Methods were standardized, and the technology was well understood and practiced. This allowed for durable enclosures that succeeded in the primary goal of shelter: keeping the weather outside. Typical methods for doing this were to shed water off of the wall and to use mass as a means of delaying heat transfer. Buildings were far from perfect, however, and so as technology advanced throughout the 20th century, new methods and materials were developed for use as enclosure. These systems are complex and specialized, and as a result, knowledge of them tends to be limited to what is provided by the manufacturers.1 During the years following World War I, the typical solid brick bearing wall was reduced in thickness in order to lower the cost of building. This resulted in moisture problems, because the there was not enough mass in the walls to allow the naturally absorbed moisture in the brick to escape to the outside. This realization led to the design of a wall that was two wythes of brick separated by a 2 inch wide air space. This design, which was common practice until the Second World War, allowed moisture to escape the cavity, but only improved thermal comfort slightly. Insulation needed to be added in

1 William Allen, Envelope Design for Building (Oxford: William Allen, 1997) 76.

23 order to improve thermal comfort, and cavity walls presented the perfect opportunity for its insertion. Through the 1950s and 60s, block back-up walls became common, and various cladding materials were developed to be used as facing, employing the cavity wall concept. The end result of this was that the inner and outer wythes of the wall acted almost independently of each other in their response to thermal and moisture forces.2 Masonry cavity walls very popular today because they provide resistance to rain penetration, have good thermal capabilities, and are resistant to sound transmission and fire.3

3.2 The Basics of Enclosure

3.2.1 Climatic Response A building enclosure’s performance is greatly affected by its surrounding environment. There are two zones that the enclosure must moderate between: the interior and the exterior. In almost all building cases, these are two very different climatic zones. The interior climate should be relatively static, remaining at a constant temperature range of about 68° to 78° F, with a relative humidity between 25 and 70%, no matter what the exterior temperature and weather conditions. The enclosure plays a

2 Ibid, 77. 3 “Brick Masonry Cavity Walls,” Technical Notes on Brick Construction (Brick Institute of America, Issue 21 Revised, May 1987) 1.

24 major role in keeping the interior in that thermal comfort range.4 Typically, the exterior temperature is above or below the desired interior temperature. It is important to understand the climate and weather systems of a particular region when designing building enclosure. The major climatic forces on an enclosure are temperature, precipitation, and wind. These forces work together to penetrate the exterior envelope, and therefore must be anticipated in design. Norbert Lechner, a leading professor and writer on creating comfortable and sustainable environments, has divided the United States into 17 climatic regions, based on information in the AIA’s book Regional Guidelines for Building Passive Energy Conserving Homes. He details the regions with climate data tables that include a climate description, envelope design suggestions, thermal comfort information (the psychrometric-bioclimatic chart), and the normal conditions of temperature, relative humidity, wind, and sunlight for the region.5 Figure 3-1 Lechner's Regions This information is intended to be used for the design of climate responsive building enclosure. In climatic regions in which temperature fluctuations are large, building materials will experience thermal expansion and contraction (as will be discussed further in section 3.3.2). If the temperature drops below the freezing point, the enclosure materials are subject to freeze-thaw conditions. This is important to consider because often (especially with brick) moisture is present in the wall, and it will expand upon freezing. If there is

4 Ibid, 22. 5 Norbert Lechner, Heating, Cooling, Lighting (New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2001) 74-79.

25 too much moisture trapped in the wall system, the materials may be damaged; therefore, the amount of moisture in a wall must be controlled. Rainfall is the most common way that water enters the envelope. A wall must be protected from rainfall with copings, overhangs, sills and gutters to prevent excessive amounts of water from entering the wall, but diving rain will still reach the wall. Once a wall is wet, water enters by means of capillary action, thermal pumping, and surface absorption.6 Moisture in the air can be forced into a wall system by differential air pressure. Air moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure, and always carries moisture with it. Once this moist air is inside the wall, it is likely to condense on a surface, where it could be trapped if not given a means of escape. If that happens, mold and mildew will form, creating air quality problems within the building.7 If the wall is sealed too tightly, moist trapped air can cause another problem: when the cavity heats up, the air pressure increases, creating a higher pressure on the inside of the wall than on the outside. This will cause the exterior enclosure to bulge outwards, possibly leading to structural (and aesthetic) problems. The concept of a rainscreen wall addresses this issue. In this type of system, air is free to flow in and out of the wall, maintaining a constant air pressure between outside and inside, while preventing moisture build-up. The concept will be discussed in more detail in Section 3.3.1.

6 Allen, 1997, 15-17. 7 Ibid, 121.

26 There are certain properties of enclosure that affect the way it responds to the previously discussed climatic forces. The first is its thermal inertia, defined by the mass of the wall. Brick masonry walls have a relatively high thermal inertia because of the material’s high capacity for heat absorption. This means that heat moves slowly through the wall, whether it is going in or out. This property can be used to the building’s advantage (such as in a trombe wall), but it can also cause stress on the building’s mechanical environmental control system if not properly anticipated. The surface material of the enclosure also affects how the building responds to heat. Light colors and shiny surfaces reflect the sun’s rays, while dark, textured surfaces tend to absorb them. Insulation greatly affects the heat gain/loss through the enclosure of a building. It is an important aspect of buildings today, improving both thermal comfort and sustainability. Layered cladding systems are typically very accommodating of insulation. The most important aspect to consider with the insertion of insulation is how it affects the temperature in the wall. Without insulation, the wall would exchange considerable amounts of heat with the interior of the building; with insulation, the wall (outside of the insulation) remains closer to the temperature of the exterior environment. This means that it will be expanding and contracting at a different rate than the materials on the interior of the building (which typically includes the structure). This differential movement must be accounted for in the design of the enclosure. To prevent air infiltration and exfiltration (air moves from high to low temperature) into the exterior envelope, an air barrier should be included in the wall

27 assembly. This is necessary for thermal comfort and HVAC efficiency. The barrier should be located on the warm side of the enclosure, which in most climates is the interior side of the insulation.8

3.2.2 Materials Materials respond differently to temperature and moisture, resulting in differential movement that must be taken into account. Typically, when a material increases in temperature or absorbs moisture, it will expand. This property, known as the coefficient of expansion, is predictable, and has therefore been calculated and catalogued for most building materials. Brick’s coefficient of expansion was defined in section 2.1.1. Materials can also chemically react to one another or to air and water, such as the reaction between aluminum and lime (present in mortar) or the corrosion of steel in the presence of oxygen. If the reaction is unavoidable (cannot be prevented), the materials should not be allowed to come into contact with each other. In the case of corroding steel, measures can be taken to prevent the oxidation (such as galvanizing or stainless steel). In a brick wall assembly, the most vulnerable material is the steel tie that bonds the brick to the back-up wall. Using galvanized or stainless steel ties is an option, but the best preventative measure is to keep the wall as dry as possible using the methods described in the previous section. Corrosion problems will only occur if large amounts of water become trapped in the wall.

8 International Masonry Institute, “Air Barriers Update,” Technology Briefs, Annapolis, MD: IMI, 2004.

28 3.2.3 Proper Detailing and Assembly Designers must realize the constraints of assembly when detailing the enclosure of a building. The order in which the layers of the envelope are to be constructed should be thought about, as well as the method of installation. If the person constructing the wall cannot install certain elements the way that they are designed, then a new solution will have to be designed, which may not achieve the same end results as the original detail. This could compromise the structural and environmental durability of the enclosure, and could also delay the construction process. For brick walls above one story, there must be a secure place for the mason to stand, preferably on the inside of the building rather than on scaffolding.9 It also must be realized that construction is not an exact science. Brick masonry walls, as with all cladding systems, must have adequate construction tolerances included in the design, to allow for inaccuracies of the frame and other building systems. With brick masonry veneer walls, the allowable out-of-plumb tolerance is ½ inch in each direction for walls up to 100 ft high. To account for this, shelf angles should be wider than necessary; a 5-inch leg for a wall with a 2-inch cavity is typical.10 Providing mechanisms for adjustment in cladding systems is also helpful when aligning building components, such as having slip joints on brick ledges where they attach to the steel frame.

9 E. Allen, 679. 10 Beall, 448-449.

29 3.3 The Brick Wall

3.3.1 Types of Brick Walls Today, brick can be used to create both structural and veneer walls. In modern buildings, it is not common to create bearing walls using only brick; however, it is possible, and in low- to mid-rise buildings, it can be economical. Bearing walls are typically reinforced with steel re-bar, and the materials and construction must conform to strict standards set out by the ASTM and ANSI.11 The walls can be either solid masonry or cavity wall construction. More detailed information on structural brick follows in section 3.3.4. Non-structural brick walls, or veneer walls, are often self-supporting, but they do not bear any additional loads and transfer any lateral loads to the connected structure/back-up system. Often veneer walls are panel walls, in which “panels” of brick are supported at each floor by a shelf, typically connected to the floor slab. It is important to remember differential movement in the design of these systems, for there is a variety of materials that come into contact with each other, as discussed in section 3.3.2. Most brick walls constructed today, whether they are bearing or veneer, are cavity walls. A cavity wall has two layers of enclosure separated by an air space, which may or may not be filled with insulation. This cavity should be no less than 2-inches wide, and is typically no more than 4-in. In all cavity walls, the facing layer is attached to the backing

11 ANSI (American National Standards Institute) www.ansi.org, ASTM International (American Society for Figure 3-2 Section: brick veneer wall with Testing and Materials) www.astm.org steel stud back-up wall.

30 layer for lateral stability. The cavity has many useful functions, making it a superior enclosure system. The outer layer (in our case brick) stops water from entering the cavity, but is permeable to moisture. The cavity should therefore contain a moisture barrier to collect and shed water. The water can escape the cavity through weep holes located at the bottom. Continuous flashing is required at all places where water must be drained, including the foundation, sills, lintels, brick ledges, and parapets.12 A further development of the cavity wall system is the concept of a rainscreen wall, used to keep excess moisture out of a wall. When there is driving rain, moisture enters a wall through its cracks not only by capillary action, but also because of the pressure differential. The windy exterior conditions have a greater pressure than inside the cavity; in order to equalize the pressure, air moves into the wall, carrying moisture with it. The rainscreen principle counters this process by specifying that vents be inserted at the top of a cavity, allowing the exterior and cavity pressures to be equal at all times. Figure 3-3 Axonometric: brick veneer These vents can be created in a brick wall by leaving some of the head joints free of wall with flashing detail. mortar (as with weep holes).13

3.3.2 Movement: Moisture and Thermal Forces All building materials expand and/or contract in response to temperature and/or moisture, and this must be taken into consideration in the design of enclosure systems. In

12 Beall, 240. 13 Ibid, 238-239.

31 brick walls, a major portion of the differential movement occurs as a result of moisture: brick absorbs moisture over time, expanding in volume, and mortar loses moisture over time, shrinking in volume. Both of these processes are irreversible, and essentially simultaneous. This is advantageous because as the mortar shrinks, space is created into which the brick can expand.14 It can be problematic where the brick meets concrete, however (such as at foundations and slabs on brick bearing walls), so a joint must be created to account for horizontal movement. This phenomenon must also be taken into account when mixing the mortar, because if the brick absorbs too much moisture while the cement is curing, it will not hydrate properly, resulting in decreased structural strength. To avoid this, masons may wet the brick before laying the mortar. Thermal expansion and contraction occurs in all materials. In a brick wall, this movement is easy to quantify, and is calculated using each material’s coefficient of thermal expansion. This movement, and the movement resulting from change in moisture content, must be taken into account in the design of the wall, or else cracking will occur. This is done by inserting movement joints at certain locations, which will allow the wall to expand and contract as necessary. These should occur any place where the wall changes in thickness or height, and at columns, slabs, and openings. Abutment joints need to occur wherever there is a change in material. At expansion joints, any bond reinforcing should be broken to allow for movement; out of plane movement (lateral) must still be prevented, however, so it may be necessary to interlock the courses. The

14 Ibid, 225.

32 diagram to the right explains this further. All movement joints must be sealed to prevent the passage of air and water.15

3.3.3 Construction Methods The construction of a brick wall is critical in the overall performance of the wall in regards to its structure, thermal transmittance, and moisture resistance. Though there are many different types of masonry walls, there are certain techniques that always apply during construction. Following is a description of the construction process for a typical brick cavity wall. The techniques on grout-laying and tooling that are described also apply to solid masonry walls. The most important principle in constructing a brick cavity wall is keeping the cavity free of any solid materials that bridge from one side to the other, to prevent moisture from being carried to the inner wythe. The only exceptions to this are the metal ties that join the two wythes, but these are typically specially designed to resist moisture transfer. Mortar is the main thing that obstructs cavity walls, and there are various techniques that masons use to keep the cavity clean. They include: beveling the inner edge of the mortar joint before setting the brick, to minimize mortar seepage into the Figure 3-4 Beveling the mortar joint cavity; rolling the bricks to the outer face while placing them; and spreading any excess mortar left on the inside face of the wall across the face of the wall, known as parging. Even when using these techniques during construction, it is still possible for mortar to fall

15 Allen, 1999.

33 into the cavity. Hardened mortar at the bottom of a cavity would prevent the necessary escape of water from the cavity. Therefore, masons may insert a wooden or metal strip lengthwise in the cavity to catch any fallen mortar. This strip is raised up out of the cavity each time ties are laid into the wall.16 The second most important principle in constructing a brick wall is the thorough filling of all mortar joints. This is critical in creating a bond between the brick and the mortar, on which the structural integrity of the wall depends. Mortar should be spread over a few bricks at a time as well as on the head of the brick to be placed. Once the brick is set, mortar should be squeezed out of the face of the joint, to increase the pressure on the bond. Often, it is specified that the mason wet the brick before placing it. This helps to tighten the bond as the brick absorbs the water, and reduces the possibility of the brick absorbing too much moisture out of the mortar, which can limit the necessary hydration of the cement. The relative humidity at the site determines whether this technique is necessary. Once the bricks are set, the mortar joints must be tooled to tighten the bond and create a seal against moisture. Tooling means to scrape the face of the mortar joint, creating a finished edge while sealing the joint against excess moisture at the same time. There are different ways to tool the joints, with varying degrees of weather tightness. A concave profile creates the most effective weather seal.17

16 “Brick Masonry Cavity Walls Construction,” Technical Notes on Brick Construction (Brick Institute of America, Issue 21C Revised, Oct 1989) 2. 17 Ibid, 1-2.

34 Brick ties must be placed in cavity walls to join the interior and exterior wythes. One tie must be placed for approximately every 4 ½ square feet of wall. The brick ties must be corrosion resistant because they are in almost constant contact with moisture. In addition to the brick ties, horizontal joint reinforcement may be used. This reduces the stress on the brick ties and strengthens the mortar joint.18 Holes, called weeps, must be left in the bottom of all cavity walls to allow trapped Figure 3-5 Brick tie with rebar spacer water to escape. They should occur about every 16” in a brick wall, and may be achieved by leaving the head joints free of mortar, inserting wicks (such as rope), or putting in temporary rods, ropes, or pins that are removed after the wall is set. Flashing should be inserted in the wall at the same height as the weeps, so that water cannot collect at the bottom of the cavity. The flashing needs to go from the inner wythe through the cavity and all the way through the outer wythe, so that it sticks out of the face of the wall.19

3.3.4 Structural Brick Not only can brick masonry be used to create structural (load-bearing) walls, but it can be used to create beams and lintels, arches, vaults, and domes. There are many ways to build these elements, though this section will only briefly describe the standard methods for their construction. Walls using structural brick can be single- or multi-wythe and with or without a cavity. If there are multiple wythes in the wall, they must be tied

Figure 3-6 Bearing wall detail at floor

18 Ibid, 4. 19 Ibid, 2-3.

35 together with masonry headers or metal ties. Codes determine how thick the wall must be and the amount of reinforcement that is necessary in order to carry the axial and lateral loads.20 Extensive analysis must be done on the walls to determine these loads. Typically, contemporary load-bearing brick masonry walls are 4 to 12 inches thick. They have been known to reach heights of 18 stories, though it is not common for brick bearing walls to be higher than three to four stories.21 Historically, it was common practice for brick bearing walls to be much thicker, and therefore it was not thought that they could be more than 10 stories high. The Monadnock building defied this 10-story rule in 1889,

and is now one of the tallest load-bearing brick buildings in the world at 215 feet. To Figure 3-7 The Monadnock Building, Chicago achieve this height, the walls at the base of the building are 6 feet thick.22 Structural lintels may be formed using brick masonry when adequately reinforced. This steel reinforcing can be placed in the bed joints, or, for larger loads, a collar joint can be created.23 See the diagrams to the right for more explanation. The size (depth of lintel) and amount of reinforcing depend on loads and length of span. Brick masonry lintels also may be supported by steel angles, but, in many cases, reinforced brick is equally as strong and more economical.24 Lintels may be constructed on site, using temporary support, or they may be pre-fabricated and installed as a single unit. As with structural walls, all lintels must be analyzed to determine the loads.

20 Beall, 144-150. 21 BIA, Technical Notes 24, June 2002. 22 Campbell, 250. 23 Beall, 318. Figure 3-8 Lintel details 24 Ibid, 319.

36 There are many different structural forms for arches and vaults, including parabolic, catenary, and circular. These forms developed in different areas of the world, and may be constructed in different ways. The figure to the right shows these forms and the different construction practices in Europe, the Middle East, and Catalonia (Spain). The structural integrities of these forms will not be discussed here, but it is noted that a funicular shape is the most structurally efficient form of an arch. Under uniform loads, the funicular is a catenary shape, which is similar to a parabola. 25 All of these forms (and more) can be created using brick. Structural analyses for circular brick arches have been done by the Brick Institute of America, and may be used as a guideline when designing. Arches and vault that are not circular must be engineered for their particular application.

25 A funicular shape for an arch is the inverse of the form that is created when a flexible string is subject to the same loads as the arch: S. Anderson, ed, Eladio Dieste: Innovation in Structural Art (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2004) 66-69. Figure 3-8 Vaults

37 4 The Role of Brick in Contemporary Architecture

4.1 Modern-day Brick

4.1.1 Style & Technology What constitutes a “modern” building? Some would say that it’s the “molothic simplicity” of KPF’s new office tower in Shanghai, China, which could be considered a vision of technology and progress.1 Many agree that Frank Gehry’s soaring curves and shiny metal panels, products of hi-tech computer programming, represent the future of architecture. In general, it can be said that “modern” architecture includes experimenting with new forms and/or materials. Over the past 50 years, technological innovation has been an important part of our global society in all disciplines, including architecture. Employing new technology can result in a contemporary style, whether the technology Figure 4-1 KPF’s office tower in Shaghai, China expressed or implied. In the 1980s, the employment and expression of innovative structural and mechanical systems represented a contemporary style. Today, Gehry’s buildings are doing a similar thing, expressing hi-tech computer technology combined with material innovation. This experimentation does include brick, though, as is seen in his Vontz Center, which uses brick that is essentially adhered to a substrate and hung in

1 www.kpf.com

38 panels that appear to bulge outwards. The innovation in this case is clearly seen in the unconventional forms created by seemingly conventional brickwork. Using more common materials in new ways, such as brick, is a less typical way of approaching a “modern” style. It is being done in today’s architectural world, though these buildings tend to be less noticed than the glass and metal icons that make the covers of current issues of Architectural Record. The later half of the 20th century has not seen many architectural icons constructed of tried-and-true brick, especially in the United Figure 4-2 Gehry’s Vontz Center, Cincinnati States. Stunning examples of brick architecture exist, however, some of them well- known, others not as well-known. Louis Kahn is probably the most recent popular example, his Philips Exeter Academy Library being a well-known brick icon. There are many other “famous” brick buildings, done by architects such as Alvar Aalto and Frank Lloyd Wright, which will be discussed later in this chapter, along with others that are less well-known. 4.1.2 Sustainability Brick is a very environmentally sustainable material for many reasons, foremost its lifecycle. As was previously discussed, brick’s durability enables it to last for hundreds Figure 4-3 Vontz Center, brick detail of years. And if its building does not last that long, the brick is able to be reused (salvaged brick) or recycled (crushed or chipped for use as fill).2 If the brick is instead put in a landfill, there are no adverse effects because brick is made of 100% natural materials (clay and shale).

2 “Go With Brick,” Brick Industry Association, 2003.

39 Another sustainable benefit of brick is the availability of its materials: clay and shale are abundant resources in our world. There are federal regulations governing the extraction process, including requirements for the restoration of the extraction sites into natural conditions.3 Since the raw materials are readily available, manufacturing sites are often able to be located near the extraction sites (the Brick Industry encourages this). This availability also allows for manufacturing almost anywhere, potentially reducing required shipping distances of materials. In the US, there are brick manufacturing sites in 38 of the 50 states, resulting in average shipping distances for the finished product of 175 miles.4 This distance is less than the 500 miles established by the USGBC’s LEED rating system, under credits 5.1 and 5.2, which deal with regional extraction and manufacturing of materials.5 The Clean Air Act regulates emissions during the brick manufacturing process, as is the case with all industrial processes in the United States. These emissions are mainly carbon gases, hydrogen fluoride, and particulates.6 There are existing processes that clean the air before it is released to the environment, and research is being done on modifying the process to produce fewer pollutants from the start. Material waste during the manufacturing process is also an issue of sustainability. The brick industry in the United Kingdom, whose manufacturing processes are comparable to those in the United

3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. 5 LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) is the United States Green Building Council’s system for rating sustainable design practices in building (www.usgbc.org). 6 “A Sustainability Strategy for the Brick Industry”, Brick Development Association, United Kingdom:2003

40 States, produces 14,600 metric tons (about 16,000 imperial tons) of waste annually, which is only 0.28% of the total production material. Only 2.27% of this waste is hazardous, which is only 0.01% of all production materials.7 As a result of these extraction, manufacturing, and transporting processes, the actual embodied energy of brick is comparatively low, at 4,000 BTUs per pound, on average. This is lower than the embodied energy of concrete, steel, aluminum, and wood.8 Another sustainable benefit of brick is a result of the material’s high thermal mass (discussed in Chapter 3), which can be used to create a passive heating system in a building, such as a trombe wall, or to delay the absorption of heat by the building. 4.1.3 Efficiency and Durability Something that is not typically given much consideration is the shape, or geometry, of a brick; it tends to be taken for granted. But brick is what it is for a reason. Its mass (determinant of size) is the standard weight that is able to be lifted by one arm of the average person. This size results in an efficient assembly process. An even more elemental quality of the brick that goes unconsidered is its perfectly stackable shape. This rather ordinary shape lends itself to an extremely efficient and standardized manufacturing process, discussed in Chapter 2. These properties are inherent to the material, and are a major reason that brick has remained popular for so many centuries. In 1936, an article was written in Architect’s Journal about brick’s properties and its

7 “A Sustainability Strategy for the Brick Industry: An Update 2004”, Brick Development Association, United Kingdom:2004. 8 AIA Environmental Resource Guide, 1996.

41 popularity of use. The article speculated that two characteristics of brick, its size and standardization, were essential, and therefore “unalterable by the fluctuations in social habit and outlook that determine the course of architectural design.”9 This means that, no matter where the course of architectural design leads, brick will remain a prominent building material; and after almost 70 years, that statement is still valid. Despite brick’s simplicity and standardization, the geometry of brick can create an endless variety of forms and textures in architecture. This versatility was shown in the history of brick in Chapter 2, which also demonstrated the material’s durability. As the next section of this chapter will show, architects and designers are continuing to create new and beautiful ways to use brick.

4.2 Contemporary Brick Architecture

4.2.1 Introduction As discussed in the previous section, brick is a particularly appropriate building material in the modern world due to its sustainability, durability, and versatility. There have been many architects and building in recent years that employed brick in a unique or exemplary way. The following section includes some of these to demonstrate how brick has been used in the past century (or so). They are in addition to the works already discussed, such as Gehry’s Vontz Center. These examples are no better or worse than the

9 “Brick: The English Contribution,” The Architects’ Journal [London] May 1936: 195.

42 examples discussed in Chapter 2’s history, but they are of particular interest to this thesis because their connection with the present. 4.2.2 Examples Frank Lloyd Wright used brick uniquely in many of his houses and other buildings. One of his earlier works of exemplary brickwork is the Robie House, built in Chicago in 1910. Wright used a Roman bond for the brick in this house10, which is a longer and flatter bond than the standard English or American bonds. This type of brickwork was commonly used by Wright in many of his houses, as well as in the Imperial Hotel in Japan, built 1916.11 Whenever Wright used brick in his buildings, whether Roman bond Figure 4-4 Wright’s Robie House or not, he had the horizontal joints raked and the vertical joints finished flush, emphasizing the horizontal. Louis Kahn was one of the most prominent American architects of the 20th century, and many of his buildings were done using brick. The most notable example is probably the Phillips Exeter Academy Library, completed in 1971. This building has a brick veneer, but is detailed to appear as though the brick is load-bearing, by tapering the exterior walls as the building ascends (representing the need for more structural material needed at the bottom). These thick, “occupiable” walls house reading nooks that are framed by brick piers and drenched in light.12 Kahn was also architect of the Capital Complex in Dhaka, Bangladesh, which includes a number of exemplary brick

10 Donald Hoffmann, Frank Lloyd Wright’s Robie House, (New York: Dover Publications, 1984) 27, 42. 11 H.R. Hitchcock, In the Nature of Materials (Da Capo Press: New York, 1973) 68. 12 “Louis I. Kahn: Concept and Meaning” Architecture and Urbanism [Tokyo] Nov. 1983: 158-171. Figure 4-5 Kahn’s Exeter Acadamy Library, arcade

43 buildings;13 the most notable is the Sher-e-Bangla Nagar Ayub National Hospital, completed in 1974, the year of Kahn’s death. The building features an exposed brick arcade, made of Kahn’s signature geometric circles (pictured to the right). The entire building is constructed of these acrobatic brick-clad forms, supported by a poured-in- place concrete structural system.14

Figure 4-6 Kahn’s Sher- e-Bangla Nagar Ayub National Hospital, Dhaka- exterior arcade (far left)

Figure 4-7 Kahn’s National Hospital, brick detail (center)

Figure 4-8 Kahn’s National Hospital, inside arcade (immediate left)

Brick is being used for architecture more in the United Kingdom than in the United States, and many of the buildings are of a more “contemporary” style. One example is the Arco Building, designed by well-known British architect Rick Mather. His portfolio includes many modern buildings, which made the firm famous, but this

13 Haroon Rashid, “Construction and Kahn’s Capital” MIMAR 38: Architecture in Development [London] 1991: 38-39. 14 “Louis I. Kahn: Concept and Meaning” 100-109.

44 building at Keble College in Oxford is a stunning example modern brickwork. Keble’s campus includes many late 19th century buildings by William Butterfield that boast Victorian gothic-styled brickwork facades. These lavish buildings are rich in color and texture, making them difficult to blend with contextually, something that was a must for the neighboring Arco building. Housing student dormitories, the Arco building is clad in handmade, flatter than ordinary, red brick veneer. One of the most unique characteristics is the Roman bond, which is laid both horizontally and vertically, to address the street and express circulation. The Arco building is not high-tech; its image, however, can be considered “modern architecture, at peace with its location, environment, and technology.”15 There are many more exceptional examples of brick application in modern architecture: the Monadnock Building and skyscrapers of industrial America, the work of Alvar Aalto and Finnish architecture, Mario Botta’s Evry Cathedral, and most recently Figure 4-9 Mather’s Arco Building; Butterfield’s library beyond the work of Office dA, to name only a few. The extent of these cannot possible be covered here – churches, civic buildings, houses, baseball stadiums, corporate headquarters – the list is endless. All are proof of brick’s beauty, versatility, and practicality.

15 John Welsh, “Brick Layers,” RIBA Journal, September 1995: 49.

45 5 Design Project

5.1 Intent This thesis document has argued that brick is a beautiful, durable, and practical building material. To demonstrate this argument, a brick chapel will be designed, using the material to its fullest aesthetic potential. A chapel’s purpose is for personal and spiritual reflection, and to many people, it is considered a sacred space where there is a separation from the outside world. Therefore, brick will be used to create a beautiful environment that fosters those ideas. Brick is not only physically durable and therefore appropriate for use in a building with an indefinite lifespan, but its image represents the idea of durability, something that is comforting to those seeking a place of refuge from the pressures of daily life. This chapel will not be associated with any specific religious group; all people, whether affiliated with a particular religion or not, should feel welcome in the chapel. These would primarily be people living in the community around the chapel. It is meant to be a place of reflection, something that is unique to each individual who will enter the chapel. This reflection may be spiritual, personal, or external. For some, there may be a healing element that is involved. The environment needs to support and encourage contemplation, meditation, and reflection. Elements should be present in the space that represent renewal, spirituality, and nature.

46 5.2 Strategies Creating an atmosphere that fosters spirituality involves many different aspects of design, all of which contribute to the mood of the space. Traditionally, chapels and other spiritual places use sacred forms and geometries to convey spirituality. Most often, however, these symbols are associated with a particular religious belief system. As this chapel is not to be associated with any religion, it should not incorporate any types of these symbols. The site is highly prominent and visible from both the surrounding Mt. Adams neighborhood and the riverfront below. As such, form will be its means of identification: some part of the building should mark its presence on the side of the hill in the larger context, while the chapel’s street side presence should be sympathetic to its surroundings. Its image should identify the building’s purpose, without needing signage, by utilizing the universal qualities of brick to create a place for people of any belief. Two of the most important features in creating sacred spaces are light and energy, which are closely related to each other and to the natural environment. The use of daylight connects the occupant to natural rhythms and cycles, marking the passage of time over the course of a day and over a year. The changing color and intensity of light and shadow creates a dynamic space. The sun’s energy should be incorporated by using passive design strategies, bringing the building more into harmony with its site and minimizing its impact on the environment. These include using natural day lighting and minimizing mechanical climatic controls, further tying the building to its surroundings.

47 Temperature differences will be felt from interior to exterior exposures and from below grade to above, furthering the variety of experiences. The construction of the building should demand the most out of brick, using the material to its fullest structural and environmental potential. In accentuating brick’s durability, versatility, and tradition, the design of the chapel will create an atmosphere appropriate for reflection. All five senses are stimulated when a person experiences a space, and in this chapel, those experiences will be carefully controlled through the seamless integration of the building and the site using built form and landscaping. Bringing people into direct contact with brick will create a tactile experience of the building, allowing its texture, scale, and assembly to be experienced first-hand by occupants. Another sensual element to consider in the design of the chapel is sound. The chapel represents a world that is separate from the world surrounding it, and therefore the entry of outside noise must be minimized. Thick walls and controlled fenestrations in the direction of traffic, in addition to earth-berming and vegetation minimize noise that could harm a visitor’s experience. Inside the spaces, the hard surfaces of brick must be controlled to maintain the desired auditory levels. Reverberation and echo can be manipulated to create varying experiences. The visual experience of the chapel comes primarily from the manipulation of the brick patterns and the solids and voids of the walls. Changing pattern and texture creates visual interest and directs the eye, as well as reinforces the ordering of the space. The use of solid and void manipulates lines of sight into and out of the space, framing views and

48 extending or contracting space. Some areas will open only to the sky; others will have views to the river and hills beyond, while some will frame views of the landscape. Selected reflection spaces will be dark with only a sliver of light visible. Brick will be used, though indirectly, in the manipulation of smell and taste. Planters, paths, and courtyards full of plantings will stimulate the olfactory senses. Some spaces may be underground and therefore cool, wet, and damp, while others will hang over the hillside, fully exposed. Brick’s ability to be used both as an interior and exterior finish will be exploited to create a building which blurs the distinction between indoors and outdoors. The intent is an integrated complex where indoor and outdoor spaces are equally important to the experience of meditation and reflection. Regionally appropriate vegetation will be prevalent throughout. Though the spaces vary in size, shape, and exposure, brick will be the constant that can accommodate the many variables.

49 5.2 Program 5.2.1 Precedents Eero Saarinen - Chapel at MIT

Figure 5-1 MIT Chapel, interior Figure 5-2 MIT Chapel Figure 5-3 MIT Chapel, interior

This circular brick chapel, 50 feet in diameter, is Saarinen’s response to the need for a chapel on the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston. The building is a perfect cylinder on the outside with undulating brick walls on the inside, creating dynamic forms and textures. A reflecting pool is located at the base of the chapel, which bounces sunlight into the interior, where it dances along the walls (as seen in figure 1). Figure 4 shows how Saarinen changed the treatment on the brick walls by deeply raking the joints to control acoustics while adding to the texture. Figure 5-4 MIT Chapel, reflecting pool and brick arches

50 Sigurd Lewerentz – St. Peter’s Church, Klippan, Sweden

Figure 5-5 St. Peter’s Church (left)

Figure 5-6 St. Peter’s, interior brick vaults (right top)

Figure 5-7 St. Peter’s, baptismal font (bottom)

St. Peter’s Church in Klippan, Sweden, built 1963-66, is a fine example of brickwork. The architect, Sigurd Lewerentz, used brick for the walls, floors, vaults, alter, and pulpit. Only standard, full-sized bricks were used, and Lewerentz specified that none be cut; uneven joints had to be filled with mortar.1 The result of this can be seen at the baptismal font, pictured to the right, and at corners and windows where large and varying mortar joints are necessary. These joints, along with the stretcher bond, creates a “brutalism” that is reminiscent of ancient Persian brickwork. The final effect is a unified space that is richly colored and textured.

1 Colin St John Wilson, Architectural Reflections (Oxford, Boston: Butterworth-Heinemenn, 1992) 120.

51 Eladio Dieste - Church of Christ the Worker, Atlántida, Uruguay Dieste’s work was mentioned previously, but his use of light and brickwork at his church in Atlántida deserves additional examination. The undulating brick walls do more than to create an interesting, dynamic space: their double- curvature is an efficient structural form, the sole support for the brick-vaulted roof and lateral loads. But that’s only the beginning of brick’s role in the building; it is used for the alter, choir loft, window frames, handrails and more, creating a space that is rich in texture and color. Dieste also plays with light to enrich the quality of the space, by Figure 5-8 Church of Christ the Worker, sneaking it in from unseen sources when the space is Uruguay, exterior (top left) Figure 5-9 interior, choir loft detail (lower left) viewed from the entrance. Once inside, a visitor Figure 5-10 interior, looking towards entry (top right) discovers the carefully placed fenestrations where Figure 5-11 interior, looking towards alter (above) sunlight enters, accentuating the structure and alter.

52 5.2.2 Activities Program Summary: Entry Vestibule 80 sf Exterior Spaces: Main Reflection Space 1,800 sf Parking 20 spaces 6,000 sf Individual Reflection Space 5 @ 150 sf each Gardens/Landscaping 10,000 sf 1 @ 330 sf 1,080 sf Total Exterior Square Footage 16,000 sf Restrooms

2 @ 200 sf each 400 sf

Administration Director’s Office 200 sf Storage 50 sf Toilet 60 sf Total Net Area 3,670 sf Grossing Increment (40%) 2,446 sf Total Interior Square Footage 6,116 sf

Program Descriptions: Entry Vestibule – Accepts visitors, and filters them into the interior of the chapel space. The vestibule is directly visible from the street, and is the first and main transition space between outside and inside, an imperative juncture between the “sacred” and “non-sacred.”

53 Main Reflection Space – This is to be the most visited place at the chapel, and the most “sacred.” Located directly off the vestibule, this space is large enough to facilitate many people (up to 60) without feeling crowded, though it is intended to have no more than 10 visitors at one time. This excludes special functions, such as organized prayer services, vigils, and day retreats, which may use the space to its maximum capacity. The floor is to be left mainly open, with limited, adjustable seating. Individual Reflection Spaces – These are separated from the main reflection space, but easily accessible from it. They are to be used by one to three people seeking a more private reflection than is offered in the main space, and contain similar spiritual elements. One of these rooms will be large enough to facilitate up to 10 people. Restrooms – There needs to be men’s and women’s restrooms, each containing fixtures for two occupants. Administration – There needs to be an office for a director/manager of the chapel, with storage space and a private toilet. Parking – 20 spaces are to be provided for visitors and employees. Gardens – Areas outside should be provided for reflection that are secluded from the street, with places to view the river and Kentucky. Various plants and landscaping will be used to set-up private and semi-private spaces. Paths, garden walls, ponds, and fountains will be used to create a spiritual atmosphere and to buffer the noise from around the site.

54 5.3 Site 5.3.1 Description The site for the chapel is in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the corner of Hill Street and Celestial Street, in the neighborhood of Mount Adams. This site is located on the south side of a hill, dropping 60 feet across the 270’ depth of the parcel. On one side is a residence, and on the other side and across the street are apartment buildings. The two adjacent buildings are constructed of brick. On a hill to the north is the Holy Cross- Immaculata Church, the towers of which are visible from the site. Currently, the site is covered in brush, with the exception of approximately 20 feet on the north side of the Figure 5-12 View of Site from Celestial property (facing the street), which is a public overlook. Below the site are Columbia Street; Dayton, KY Beyond Parkway and the Ohio River. Views from the top of the hill are of Newport, Bellevue, and Dayton, Kentucky, the Ohio River, and the Daniel Carter Beard Bridge. See the map and images for more details.

Figure 5-13 Panorama Looking Southwest

55

Figure 5-15 Looking East Across Site

Figure 5-16 Looking West Across Site

Figure 5-14 Map identifying site, important streets, and landmarks. Site is in yellow. (1) Former Holy Cross Monastery and Church (2) Holy Cross-Immaculata Church (3) Core of the Mount Adams Business District (4) The Celestial Restaurant (5) Rookwood Pottery Restaurant (formerly Rookwood Pottery kilns) Eden Park is directly to the north; the Ohio River is visible in the lower right-hand corner.

Figure 5-17 Looking North from Site; Immaculata Beyond. 56 5.3.2 Analysis The neighborhood of Mount Adams is an ideal site for this chapel. It is a dense area, with a young population. The neighborhood is small, but contains many businesses and residences. The land use includes retail, restaurants and entertainment, and apartments, condos and houses. This allows for the site to be accessible to many different groups of people, including many high school and university students, as well as young working individuals. The site is also very visible from many locations within the city and in Northern Kentucky, sitting on the southern side of Mount Adams, below the icon of Immaculata. The context of this site is very appropriate for a chapel of this type. The neighborhood of Mount Adams has a very religious history, mostly as a devout German Catholic area. This Catholic dominance is mainly gone, but its icons remain: the current Holy Cross-Immaculata Church (formerly the Church of the Immaculate Conception), the former Holy Cross Church, and the old Holy Cross Monastery, which was closed in 1977.2 The monastery building is now the Towne Properties corporate office. The neighborhood of Mount Adams is no longer dominated by any religious group, and is therefore appropriate for a non-denominational prayer/reflection chapel. The site is almost two acres; therefore only about one quarter of the land is necessary to facilitate the program. The site is 300 feet along the street, where the land is

2 Annemarie Springer, Nineteenth Century German-American Church Artists (Bloomington: Annemarie Springer, June 2001) Chapter 4, page 2.

57 flattest, making the necessary depth approximately 70 feet in from the street (the “front” of the site), depending on the layout of the building. The remainder of the hill will be preserved as it is. The front is also the best location for building because it is farthest from Columbia Parkway, where there is noise and air pollution from traffic. This pollution is buffered by the brush on the hillside, protecting the front portion of the site. This site is located in Lechner’s climate region 3. This means that there are warm summers and cold winters with an annual snowfall ranging between 12 and 60 inches. As Cincinnati is located at the southern edge of the region, snowfall averages are at the lower end of that range. For 66% of the year, temperatures are below the comfort range, and cold winds are a concern. Solar heating is an option in the winter for this climate region, but the summer heat demands high cooling loads. Lechner notes that the top priorities for design should be to: (1) keep heat in and cold temperatures out in the winter; (2) protect from the cold winter winds; and (3) let the winter sun in.3 A brick enclosure is ideal for these design guidelines due to its potential for providing thermal mass and delaying the transfer of heat, which can be beneficial in the summer and winter, if designed properly. An important consideration of this site is that it is south-sloping, meaning that it gets the more sunlight than flat land of other slopes. The south slope also reduces shadows that are cast by trees, buildings or other structures.

3 Lechner, 86-87.

58 Works Cited

AIA Environmental Resource Guide, 1996. Brick Institute of America. Technical Notes on Brick Construction, Nos. 21 Rev. and 21C Rev. Reston, VA: BIA. Allen, Edward. Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods. New York: Wiley, 1999. Brick Industry Association. Go With Brick. 2003.

Allen, William. Envelope Design for Building. Oxford: William “Brick: The English Contribution,” The Architects’ Journal Allen, 1997. [London] May 1936.

ANSI (American National Standards Institute) www.ansi.org Campbell, James W. P. Brick: A World History. London: Thames & Hudson, 2003. Anderson, Sanford, ed. Eladio Dieste: Innovation in Structural Art. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2004. Diehl, Karl Ludwig. “Bewehrt und eigenwillig: der Ziegelbau des Eladio Dieste in Uruguay.” Bauwelt 13 Mar. 1992: ASTM International (American Society for Testing and 546-561. Materials) www.astm.org Gutiérrez, Ramón. “Sense and Sensuality.” Architecture Aug Baer, N. S., et al. Conservation of Historic Brick Structures. Dorset: 1999: 22-24. Donhead, 1998 Hitchcock, H. R. In the Nature of Materials. New York: Da Capo Beall, Christine. Masonry Design and Detailing. New York: Press, 1973. McGraw-Hill Inc, 1993. Hoffmann, Donald. Frank Lloyd Wright’s Robie House. New Brick Development Association. A Sustainability Strategy for the York: Dover Publications, 1984. Brick Industry. United Kingdom: 2003. International Masonry Institute. “Air Barriers Update” Brick Development Association. A Sustainability Strategy for the Technology Brief. Annapolis, MD: IMI, 2004. Brick Industry: An Update 2004. United Kingdom: 2004. Lechner, Norbert. Heating, Cooling, Lighting. New York: John The Brick Industry Association, www.bia.org Wiley & Sons Inc, 2001. “Louis I. Kahn: Concept and Meaning.” Architecture and Urbanism [Tokyo] Nov. 1983: 158-171.

Plumridge, Andrew and Wim Meulenkamp. Brickwork: Architecture and Design. New York: Abrams, 1993.

Quantrill, Malcolm, ed. Latin American Architecture: Six Voices. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2000.

Rashid, Haroon. “Construction and Kahn’s Capital.” MIMAR 38: Architecture in Development [London] 1991: 38-39.

Springer, Annemarie. Nineteenth Century German-American Church Artists. Bloomington: Annemarie Springer, June 2001.

Warren, John. Conservation of Brick. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 1999.

Welsh, John. “Brick Layers.” RIBA Journal Sept. 1995: 42-49.

Willis, Daniel. “Social-Climbing Brick.” Harvard Design Magazine Summer 2000: 70-75.

Wilson, Colin St John. Architectural Reflections. Oxford, Boston: Butterworth-Heinemenn, 1992. www.kpf.com www.usgbc.org