Social Psychology

Unit XIV Social Psychology

PD Unit Overview The poet John Donne famously wrote, “No man is an island unto him- • Appreciate the importance of Milgram’s obedience experiments. self.” This unit explores the benefits and consequences of that thought. • Analyze how behavior is aff ected by the presence of others. People are by nature social animals. We seek out others for engage- • Understand how group polarization and groupthink work. ment, comfort, love, and even the kind of conflict that can lead to war. • Evaluate the power of the individual. Many times in social situations, people are self-seeking. Our own expec- • Explain the infl uence of cultural norms on behavior. tations, stereotypes, and interests distract us. Other times, people are • Understand prejudice and its social, cognitive, and emotional roots. more considerate of others around them. We help, we love, we share. • Diff erentiate between the psychological concept of aggression This unit discusses some of the most famous psychological studies and the popular understanding of it. investigating social situations. These studies teach us not only about • Identify biological factors that contribute to aggressive behavior. how we behave—and misbehave—in response to social context, but • also why ethics are important in research. The research explored here is Delineate the psychological and social-cultural triggers of aggression. • clear—we are both heroes within and victims of our social context. And Appreciate the factors that lead to friendship or love relationships our awareness can determine which role we play at any given moment. with some people and not others. After reading this unit, students will be able to: • Trace the evolution of romantic love over time. • Identify the topics included in the fi eld of social psychology. • Understand the factors that lead people to help others. • Understand how we explain others’ behavior and our own. • Explain social exchange theory and social norms in the context of • Determine how actions and attitudes interact. helping behavior. • • Describe automatic mimicry. Explain social traps and mirror-image perceptions. • • Analyze how conformity reveals the power of social infl uence. Evaluate how feelings of prejudice, aggression, and confl ict can be transformed into peaceful attitudes. Alignment to AP® Course Description Topic 14: Social Psychology (8–10% of AP® Examination)

Module Topic Essential Questions Module 74 The Fundamental Attribution Error • How do we explain people’s behavior? • How do we explain our own behavior? Attitudes and Actions • How do attitudes and actions work together? Module 75 Conformity: Complying With Social • Why do we conform? Pressures • What is the effect of conformity on our behavior? Obedience: Following Orders • Why do we obey? • What is the effect of obedience on our behavior? Module 76 Social Facilitation • Do others help our performance? Social Loaﬁ ng • Do others hurt our performance? Deindividuation • Are we individually responsible for our behavior regardless of context? Group Polarization • Why do we become polarized in a group? Groupthink • How can we avoid groupthink? The Power of Individuals • Can one person make a difference? Cultural Inﬂ uences • How much influence does our culture have on our behavior?

Social Psychology Unit XIV 753a

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 1 3/5/14 12:43 PM Module Topic Essential Questions Module 77 Prejudice • What impact does prejudice have on people?

Module 78 The Biology of Aggression • What is aggression?

Psychological and Social-Cultural • Why do people become aggressive? Factors in Aggression

Module 79 The Psychology of Attraction • What makes one person attractive to another?

Romantic Love • What does it mean to be “in love”?

Module 80 Altruism • What does it mean to act selflessly?

Conﬂ ict and Peacemaking • How can we get along with others?

Unit Resources Module 77 Module 74 STUDENT ACTIVITIES • Fact or Falsehood? TEACHER DEMONSTRATION • Measuring Stereotypes • Social Infl uence • Implicit Association Test STUDENT ACTIVITIES • Positions of Privilege and Institutional Racism • Fact or Falsehood? • Institutional Discrimination • Social Psychology on the Web • Belief in a Just World • The Fundamental Attribution Error FLIP IT VIDEO • Students’ Perceptions of You • Ingroup and Outgroup Bias • Introducing Cognitive Dissonance Theory FLIP IT VIDEO Module 78 • Cognitive Dissonance Theory STUDENT ACTIVITIES • Module 75 Fact or Falsehood? • Defi ning Aggression STUDENT ACTIVITIES • Road Rage • Fact or Falsehood? • Violating a Social Norm Module 79 • Would You Obey? STUDENT ACTIVITIES FLIP IT VIDEO • Fact or Falsehood? • Normative Social Infl uence • Love Styles Module 76 Module 80 STUDENT ACTIVITIES TEACHER DEMONSTRATION • Fact or Falsehood? • Social Traps • Group Polarization STUDENT ACTIVITIES MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 753 1/21/14 10:30 AM FLIP IT VIDEO • Fact or Falsehood? • Social Facilitation and Social Loafi ng • Why Do People Volunteer? • Pleasurable Versus Philanthropic Activities—Which Brings More Happiness? • A Matter of Context • Intercultural Learning Activities

753b Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 2 3/5/14 12:43 PM Unit XIV Social Psychology Modules 74 Attribution, Attitudes, and Actions 75 Conformity and Obedience 76 Group Behavior 77 Prejudice and Discrimination 78 Aggression 79 Attraction 80 Altruism, Conﬂ ict, and Peacemaking

irk Willems faced a moment of decision in 1569. Threatened with torture and Ddeath as a member of a persecuted religious minority, he escaped from his As- peren, Holland, prison and fl ed across an ice-covered pond. His stronger and heavier jailer pursued him but fell through the ice and, unable to climb out, pled for help. With his freedom in front of him, Willems acted with ultimate selfl essness. He turned back and rescued his pursuer, who, under orders, took him back to captivity. A few weeks later Willems was condemned to be “executed with fi re, until death ensues.” For his martyrdom, present-day Asperen has named a street in honor of its folk hero (Toews, 2004). What drives people to feel contempt for religious minorities such as Dirk Wil- lems, and to act so spitefully? And what motivated the selfl essness of Willems’ response, and of so many who have died trying to save others? Indeed, what moti- vates any of us when we volunteer kindness and generosity toward others? As such examples demonstrate, we are social animals. We may assume the best or the worst in others. We may approach them with closed fi sts or open arms. But as the novelist Herman Melville remarked, “We cannot live for ourselves alone. Our lives are connected by a thousand invisible threads.” Social psychologists explore these connections by scientifi cally studying how we think about, infl uence, and relate to one another.

753 Pacing Guide

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 753Module Topic Standard Schedule1/21/14 10:30Days AM Block Schedule Days Module 74 The Fundamental Attribution Error Attitudes and Actions 1 Module 75 Conformity: Complying With Social Pressures Obedience: Following Orders Module 76 Social Facilitation 1 Social Loafi ng Deindividuation Group Polarization 1 Groupthink The Power of Individuals Cultural Infl uences Module 77 Prejudice Module 78 The Biology of Aggression 1 Psychological and Social-Cultural Factors in Aggression Module 79 The Psychology of Attraction 1 Romantic Love 1 Module 80 Altruism Confl ict and Peacemaking Social Psychology Unit XIV 753

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 753 3/5/14 3:01 PM 754 Unit XIV Social Psychology

TEACH TRMTRM Discussion Starter Module 74 Use the Module 74 Fact or Falsehood? activity from the TRM to introduce the Attribution, Attitudes, and Actions concepts from this module.

TEACH Module Learning Objectives TRMTRM Common Pitfalls Identify what social psychologists study, and discuss how we 74-174-1 Frances Roberts/Alamy tend to explain others’ behavior and our own. Social psychology is diﬀ erent from

sociology. Social psychology consid- 74-274-2 Explain whether what we think affects what we do, and whether ers how individuals interact with each what we do affects what we think. other and society at large. Sociologists explore the behavior of groups and cultures as they interact internally and 74-174-1 What do social psychologists study? How do we tend to explain externally. others’ behavior and our own? Use Student Activity: Social Psy- Personality psychologists (Unit X) focus on the person. They study the personal traits and chology on the Web from the TRM to dynamics that explain why different people may act differently in a given situation, such as the one Willems faced. (Would you have helped the jailer out of the icy water?) Social social psychology the scientifi c help students explore this interesting psychologists focus on the situation. They study the social infl uences that explain why the study of how we think about, fi eld of psychology. infl uence, and relate to one another. same person will act differently in different situations. Might the jailer have acted differently— opting not to march Willems back to jail—under differing circumstances? attribution theory the theory that TEACH we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the The Fundamental Attribution Error Concept Connections person’s disposition. fundamental attribution error Our social behavior arises from our social cognition. Especially when the unexpected occurs, Link the discussion of attribution to the tendency for observers, when we want to understand and explain why people act as they do. After studying how people analyzing others’ behavior, to explain others’ behavior, Fritz Heider (1958) proposed an attribution theory: We can at- explanatory style in positive psy- underestimate the impact of the tribute the behavior to the person’s stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribution). Or we chology (Unit XII). We make certain situation and to overestimate the can attribute it to the situation (a situational attribution). impact of personal disposition. attributions (or explanations) about For example, in class, we notice that Juliette seldom talks. At the game, Jack talks nonstop. That must be the sort of people they are, we decide. Juliette must be shy and Jack outgoing. our own behavior that are either situ- Such attributions—to their dispositions—can be valid, because people do have enduring per- ational or dispositional. sonality traits. But sometimes we fall prey to the fundamental attribution error (Ross, 1977): We overestimate the infl uence of personality and underestimate the Optimists are more likely infl uence of situations. In class, Jack may be as quiet as Juliette. Catch Juliette as the to attribute good events to lead in the high school musical and you may hardly recognize your quiet classmate. David Napolitan and George Goethals (1979) demonstrated the fundamental dispositions and bad events to SelectStock/Getty Images attribution error in an experiment with Williams College students. They had stu- situations. dents talk, one at a time, with a young woman who acted either cold and critical or Pessimists, who are more likely warm and friendly. Before the talks, the researchers told half the students that the woman’s behavior would be spontaneous. They told the other half the truth—that to suffer depression, will make they had instructed her to act friendly (or unfriendly). dispositional attributions for bad Did hearing the truth affect students’ impressions of the woman? Not at all! If the woman acted friendly, both groups decided she really was a warm person. If events and situational attributions for good events.

ENGAGEMyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 754 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 755 1/21/14 10:30 AM Critical Questions To get students thinking about situational Are your thoughts about your good friend’s versus dispositional attribution, have them behavior different than your thoughts consider the following questions: about someone you’re only acquainted If a very good friend gets angry with you, with? Why or why not? how would you explain his or her behavior? If that same friend does something nice for you, how would you explain such behavior? If someone you have recently gotten to know walks by you in the hall but doesn’t say hello (even as you try to greet him), what would you think about that person? Why?

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she acted unfriendly, both decided she really was a cold person. They attributed her behav- AP® Exam Tip ior to her personal disposition even when told that her behavior was situational—that she was TEACH Many students have not heard merely acting that way for the purposes of the experiment. of the fundamental attribution TRMTRM The fundamental attribution error appears more often in some cultures than in others. error before taking a course in Teaching Tip Individualist Westerners more often attribute behavior to people’s personal traits. People psychology. This concept often shows up on the AP® exam, so be A person will make attributions in East Asian cultures are somewhat more sensitive to the power of the situation (Heine & sure you understand this well. depending on his or her level of Ruby, 2010; Kitayama et al., 2009). This difference has appeared in experiments that asked people to view scenes, such as a big fi sh swimming. Americans focused more on the indi- involvement in a situation. Have vidual fi sh, and Japanese people more on the whole scene (Chua et al., 2005; Nisbett, 2003). students determine what types of We all commit the fundamental attribution error. Consider: Is your AP® psychology teacher shy or outgoing? If you answer “outgoing,” remember that you know your teacher attributions the actors and observers from one situation—the classroom, which demands outgoing behavior. Your teacher (who in the following situation made: In observes his or her own behavior not only in the classroom, but also with family, in meet- 1979 fans were waiting to get into a ings, when traveling) might say, “Me, outgoing? It all depends on the situation. In class or with good friends, yes, I’m outgoing. But at professional meetings, I’m really rather shy.” concert by The Who. When the doors Outside their assigned roles, teachers seem less teacherly, presidents less presidential, law- to the former Riverfront Coliseum in yers less legalistic. Cincinnati, Ohio, opened, 11 fans were When we explain our own behavior, we are sensitive to how our behavior changes with the situation (Idson & Mischel, 2001). After behaving badly, for example, we recognize how trampled to death. Time magazine the situation affected our actions (recall the self-serving bias discussed in Module 59). What later received a letter from an outside about our own intentional and admirable actions? Those we attribute not to situations but to our own good reasons (Malle, 2006; Malle et al., 2007). We also are sensitive to the power observer and one from an actor of the situation when we explain the behavior of people we know well and have seen in participant. How do their attributions different contexts. We are most likely to commit the fundamental attribution error when a diff er? stranger acts badly. Having only seen that red-faced fan screaming at the referee in the heat of competition, we may assume he is a bad person. But outside the stadium, he may be a The observer: good neighbor and a great parent. The violently destructive message Researchers have reversed the perspectives of actor and observer. They fi lmed two people interacting, with a camera behind each person. Then they showed each person a that The Who and other rock groups replay—fi lmed from the other person’s perspective. This reversed their attributions of the deliver leaves me little surprised that behaviors (Lassiter & Irvine, 1986; Storms, 1973). Seeing things from the actor’s perspec- they attract a mob that will trample tive, the observers better appreciated the situation. (As we act, our eyes look outward; we human beings to death to gain see others’ faces, not our own.) Taking the observer’s point of view, the actors became more FYI aware of their own personal style. better seats. Of greater concern is a Refl ecting on our past selves of 5 or 10 years ago also switches our perspective. Our Some 7 in 10 college women respected news magazine’s adulation present self adopts the observer’s perspective and attributes our past behavior mostly to report having experienced a man misattributing her friendliness of this sick phenomenon. our traits (Pronin & Ross, 2006). In another 5 or 10 years, your today’s self may seem like as a sexual come-on (Jacques- another person. Tiura et al., 2007). The actor: The way we explain others’ actions, attributing them to the person or the situation, can While standing in the crowd at River- have important real-life effects (Fincham & Bradbury, 1993; Fletcher et al., 1990). A person must decide whether to interpret another’s friendliness as genuine, or motivated by self- front Coliseum, I distinctly remember interest (she just needs a ride). A jury must decide whether a shooting was malicious or in feeling that I was being punished for self - defense. A voter must decide whether a candidate’s promises will be kept or forgot- being a rock fan. My sister and I joked ten. A partner must decide whether a loved one’s tart - tongued remark refl ects a bad day about this, unaware of the horror or a mean disposition. Finally, consider the social and economic effects of attribution. How do we ex- happening around us. Later, those plain poverty or unemployment? In Britain, India, Australia, and the United States jokes came back to us grimly as we political conservatives tend to place the blame on the personal dispositions of the watched the news. How many lives poor and unemployed: “People generally get what they deserve. Those who don’t will be lost before the punitive and work are freeloaders. Those who take initiative can still get ahead” (Furnham, 1982;

Pandey et al., 1982; Wagstaff, 1982; Zucker & Weiner, 1993). Political liberals (and © The New Yorker Collection, 1980, J.B. Handelsman from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved. inhuman policy of festival seating at social scientists) are more likely to blame past and present situations: “If you or I “Otis, shout at that man to pull himself together.” rock concerts is outlawed? Use Student Activity: The Fundamen- tal Attribution Error from the TRM to help students understand this concept. MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 754 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd TEACH 755 1/21/14 10:30 AM TRMTRM Concept Connections Link the discussion of attributions to stereotypes and prejudice. If people hold strong stereotypes or prejudices toward a particular group, they are likely to make a dispositional attribution for that group’s behaviors. These people would explain similar behavior by individuals in their own groups using situational attributions instead. Use Student Activity: Students’ Perceptions of You from the TRM to demonstrate the eﬀ ects of attributions.

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An attribution question Whether ENGAGE we attribute poverty and homelessness to social circumstances or to personal dispositions affects and reflects our Enrichment political views.

When we are aware of our attitudes, Lee Snider/The Image Works we are more likely to allow them to guide our actions. Researchers have made participants more aware by installing mirrors in the laboratory. This is referred to as the looking glass eff ect. had to live with the same poor education, lack of opportunity, and discrimination, would we Edward Diener and Mark Wallbom be any better off?” To understand and prevent terrorism, they say, consider the situations that noted that nearly all college breed terrorists. Better to drain the swamps than swat the mosquitoes. The point to remember: Our attributions—to a person’s disposition or to the situation— students say cheating is morally have real consequences. wrong. They asked students to work on an anagram-solving task Attitudes and Actions that the students presumed was an 74-274-2 Does what we think affect what we do, or does what we do affect IQ test. Diener and Wallbom told what we think? them to stop when a bell sounded. Attitudes are feelings, often infl uenced by our beliefs, that predispose our reactions to ob- believe feel Left alone, 71 percent cheated by jects, people, and events. If we someone is threatening us, we may fear and anger toward the person and act defensively. The traffi c between our attitudes and our actions is working past the bell. For students two-way. Our attitudes affect our actions. And our actions affect our attitudes. working in front of a mirror, only 7 Attitudes Affect Actions percent cheated. Consider the climate-change debate. On one side are climate-change activists: “Almost Brad Bushman found that people all climate scientists are of one mind about the threat of global warming,” reports Science who can see their own reflections magazine (Kerr, 2009). “It’s real, it’s dangerous, and the world needs to take action immediately.” On the other side are climate-change deniers: The number of Americans who told eat less unhealthy food than Gallup pollsters that global warming is “generally exaggerated” increased from 30 percent those who can’t see themselves. in 2006 to 48 percent in 2010, and then dropped to 42 percent in 2012 (Saad, 2013). Bushman and his colleagues asked Knowing that public attitudes affect public policies, activists on both sides are aiming to persuade. Persuasion efforts generally take two forms: college students to try regular, • Peripheral route persuasion doesn’t engage systematic thinking, but does produce low-fat, and fat-free cream cheese. attitude feelings, often fast results as people respond to incidental cues (such as endorsements by respected Participants in a room with a mirror infl uenced by our beliefs, that people) and make snap judgments. A perfume ad may lure us with images of beautiful predispose us to respond in a or famous people in love. ate less of the regular spread than particular way to objects, people, and events. • Central route persuasion offers evidence and arguments that aim to trigger did those in a room with no mirror. favorable thoughts. It occurs mostly when people are naturally analytical or involved peripheral route persuasion in the issue. Environmental advocates may show us evidence of rising temperatures, Diener, E., & Wallbom, M. (1976). Eff ects of occurs when people are infl uenced melting glaciers, rising seas, and northward shifts in vegetation and animal life. self-awareness on antinormative behav- by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness. Because it is more thoughtful and less superfi cial, it is more durable and more likely to ior. Journal of Research in Personality, 10, infl uence behavior. 107–111. central route persuasion occurs when interested people focus on Those who attempt to persuade us are trying to infl uence our behavior by changing our Haugen, P. (1999, May/June). The looking the arguments and respond with attitudes. But other factors, including the situation, also infl uence behavior. Strong social favorable thoughts. glass eff ect. Psychology Today, p. 24. pressures, for example, can weaken the attitude - behavior connection (Wallace et al., 2005).

TEACH Common Pitfalls Help students remember the diff erent MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.inddCelebrity endorsements, 756 a peripheral route TEACH 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 757 1/23/14 2:08 PM routes to persuasion: to persuasion, are not central to supporting an issue. Common Pitfalls The central route is more direct, Help students understand that it is easier focusing on the heart of the issue to change attitudes than to change actions. being discussed. The issues are the Attitudes are internal and might not be seen or heart (or center) of the matter. known by others. Actions, on the other hand, The peripheral route is more are out in the open, observed by all. People indirect, focusing on things that assume that we act according to our attitudes, really may not have any direct not the other way around. So if an action con- connection to the issue at hand. fl icts with an attitude, we will change the atti- Remind students that they learned tude to fi t the action instead of the other way in Unit IV what peripheral vision around. Have students try to recall a time when is—our vision of things on the they acted diff erently than their attitudes. outer edge of the visual field.

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In roll-call votes, politicians will sometimes vote what their supporters demand, despite privately disagreeing with those demands (Nagourney, 2002). In such cases, external pressure TEACH overrides the attitude-behavior link. Attitudes are especially likely to affect behavior when external infl uences are minimal, Teaching Tip and when the attitude is stable, specifi c to the behavior, and easily recalled (Glasman & Al- Students can brainstorm about the barracín, 2006). One experiment used vivid, easily recalled information to persuade people ways they have used foot-in-the-door that sustained tanning put them at risk for future skin cancer. One month later, 72 percent of the participants, and only 16 percent of those in a waitlist control group, had lighter skin to gain an advantage for themselves. (McClendon & Prentice-Dunn, 2001). Persuasion changed attitudes, which changed behavior. Have they ever asked their Actions Affect Attitudes parents to buy them something Now consider a more surprising principle: Not only will people stand up for what they inexpensive before asking for believe, they also will believe more strongly in what they have stood up for. Many streams something expensive? (If there is of evidence confi rm that attitudes follow behavior (FIGURE 74.1). a big difference in price, asking for

Figure 74.1 the more expensive item first—and Actions Attitudes follow behavior getting compliance—would likely Cooperative actions, such as those performed by people on sports teams, feed mutual liking. mean they end up with both items.) Such attitudes, in turn, promote positive behavior. Have they ever told their parents about a slightly bad slip-up before revealing something their mothers

VASILY FEDOSENKO/Reuters/Landov VASILY and fathers would definitely view as a serious mistake? (Sometimes owning up to the slightly bad thing first makes the other mistake seem less problematic.) Attitudes TEACH THE FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR PHENOMENON How would you react if someone induced you to act against your beliefs? In many cases, Active Learning people adjust their attitudes. During the Korean war, many U.S. prisoners of war were held Have your students conduct a in war camps run by Chinese communists. Without using brutality, the captors secured the prisoners’ collaboration in various activities. Some merely ran errands or accepted favors. research study using surveys to test Others made radio appeals and false confessions. Still others informed on other prisoners the foot-in-the-door phenomenon. and divulged military information. When the war ended, 21 prisoners chose to stay with the communists. More returned home “brainwashed”—convinced that communism was a Subjects can be asked to complete good thing for Asia. either a 100-question survey How did the Chinese captors achieve these amazing results? A key ingredient was their effective use of the foot - in - the -door phenomenon: They knew that people who agreed foot - in - the - door phenomenon followed by a 10-question survey, to a small request would fi nd it easier to comply later with a larger one. The Chinese began the tendency for people who have or a 10-question survey first fi rst agreed to a small request to with harmless requests, such as copying a trivial statement, but gradually escalated their de- comply later with a larger request. followed by a 100-question survey. mands (Schein, 1956). The next statement to be copied might list fl aws of capitalism. Then, to gain privileges, the prisoners participated in group discussions, wrote self - criticisms, or The surveys are actually uttered public confessions. After doing so, they often adjusted their beliefs to be more con- unimportant. Since most people sistent with their public acts. The point is simple: To get people to agree to something big, start small and build (Cialdini, 1993). A trivial act makes the next act easier. Succumb to a will reject taking the 100-question temptation, and you will fi nd the next temptation harder to resist. survey first, in that group you need only gain the compliance of the subjects to take the 100-question survey; they don’t actually need to complete the long survey. MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 756 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 757 1/23/14 2:08 PM ENGAGE Be sure to obtain Institutional Review Enrichment Board approval and informed consent before engaging in any research Other techniques infl uence actions and the U.S. government. Slowly, each writer’s endeavor. attitudes: attitude tended to change, becoming more Low-ball technique. Students were asked consistent with his words. to participate in a laboratory experiment at Write-it-down technique. Once a 7:00 A.M. Only 24 percent showed up. When customer fills out a sales agreement, he or students agreed to participate without she commits to the purchase. knowing the time and then were informed “Fifty-words-or-less” testimonials. of the early hour, 53 percent showed up! Manufacturers of toothpaste, breakfast Brainwashing. During the Korean War, cereal, and chewing gum typically get American POWs were forced by their captors consumers to compose a short personal to write a series of essays, each subsequent statement that begins, “Why I like. . . .” essay representing a more serious attack on Saying is believing!

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In dozens of experiments, researchers have coaxed people into acting against their attitudes or violating their moral standards, with the same result: Doing becomes believing. After giving in to a request to harm an innocent victim—by making nasty comments or delivering electric shocks—people begin to disparage their victim. After speaking or writing on behalf of a position they have qualms about, they begin to believe their own words. Fortunately, the attitudes - follow - behavior principle works with good deeds as well. The foot - in - the - door tactic has helped boost charitable contributions, blood donations, and product sales. In one classic experiment, researchers posing as safe- driving volunteers asked Californians to permit the installation of a large, poorly lettered “Drive Carefully” sign in their front yards. Only 17 percent consented. They approached other home owners with a small request ﬁ rst: Would they display a 3-inch-high “Be a Safe Driver” sign? Nearly all readily agreed. When reapproached two weeks later to allow the large, ugly sign in their front yards, 76 percent consented (Freedman & Fraser, 1966). To secure a big commitment, it often pays to put your foot in the door: Start small and build. Racial attitudes likewise follow behavior. In the years immediately following the introduction of school desegregation in the United States and the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, White Americans expressed diminishing racial prejudice. And as Americans in different regions came to act more alike—thanks to more uniform national standards against discrimination—they began to think more alike. Experiments conﬁ rm the observa- tion: Moral action strengthens moral convictions.

ENGAGE ROLE PLAYING AFFECTS ATTITUDES TRMTRM Online Activities When you adopt a new role—when you leave middle school and start high school, become a college student, or begin a new job—you strive to follow the social prescriptions. acting Philip Zimbardo created a simulated “Fake it until you make it.” At fi rst, your behaviors may feel phony, because you are a role. Soldiers may at fi rst prison and randomly assigned col- -ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS SAYING feel they are playing war games. Newlyweds may feel they are “playing house.” Before long, however, what began as playacting in the theater of life becomes you. Researchers lege students to play either the role have confi rmed this effect by assessing people’s attitudes before and after they adopt a of guard or prisoner. A web-based new role, sometimes in laboratory situations, sometimes in everyday situations, such as role a set of expectations (norms) before and after taking a job. slide show at www.prisonexp.org about a social position, defi ning how those in the position ought to Role playing morphed into real life in one famous study in which male college students provides a detailed account of this behave. volunteered to spend time in a simulated prison. Stanford psychologist Philip Zimbardo fascinating study that demonstrates (1972) randomly assigned some volunteers to be guards. He gave them uniforms, clubs, how role playing can powerfully and whistles and instructed them to enforce certain rules. Others became prisoners, locked in barren cells and forced to wear humiliating outfi ts. For a day or two, the volunteers self- shape attitudes and even self-identity. consciously “played” their roles. Then the simulation became real—too real. Most guards Narrated slides show how the guards developed disparaging attitudes, and some devised cruel and degrading routines. One by one, the prisoners broke down, rebelled, or became passively resigned. After only six days, developed degrading routines and, Zimbardo called off the study. in only 6 days, the prisoners broke down, rebelled, or became passively

resigned. Ask each of your students to The power of the situation In his AP Photo 1972 Stanford Prison simulation, Philip provide an oral or written report on Zimbardo created a toxic situation his or her visit to this website. Helpful (left). Those assigned to the guard Philip G. Zimbardo, Inc. role soon degraded the prisoners. In discussion questions accompany the real life in 2004, some U.S. military guards tormented Iraqi prisoners at the slide program and can be printed for U.S.-run Abu Ghraib prison (right). To Zimbardo (2004, 2007), it was a bad classroom use. barrel rather than a few bad apples that led to the Abu Ghraib atrocities: “When Use Teacher Demonstration: Social ordinary people are put in a novel, evil Inﬂ uence from the TRM to help dem- place, such as most prisons, Situations Win, People Lose.” onstrate the power of the situation.

ENGAGEMyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 758 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 759 1/21/14 10:30 AM Online Activities Zimbardo spent most of his career investigating the negative eﬀ ects of social experiences. In recent years, he’s devoted his time to exploring how social factors can lead to positive behavior. His Heroic Imagination Project (http://heroicimagination.org) is an outgrowth of those eﬀ orts. Zimbardo and his team are interested in the factors that lead to heroism—not just heroic behavior on large scales but heroic actions and choices in everyday life. Have students check out this site and explore some of the group’s research.

758 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 758 3/5/14 12:43 PM Attribution, Attitudes, and Actions Module 74 759

Role playing can train torturers (Staub, 1989). In the early 1970s, the Greek military government eased men into their roles. First, a trainee stood guard outside an interrogation cell. TEACH After this “foot in the door” step, he stood guard inside. Only then was he ready to become actively involved in the questioning and torture. What we do, we gradually become. Flip It Yet people differ. In Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison simulation and in other atrocity- Regarding U.S. President Lyndon Students can get additional help Johnson’s commitment to the producing situations, some people have succumbed to the situation and others have Vietnam war: “A president who understanding cognitive dissonance not (Carnahan & McFarland, 2007; Haslam & Reicher, 2007; Mastroianni & Reed, 2006; justifi es his actions only to the Zimbardo, 2007). Person and situation interact. Much as water dissolves salt but not sand, so public might be induced to by watching the Flip It Video: Cogni- toxic situations corrupt some people but not others (Johnson, 2007). change them. A president who has justifi ed his actions to himself, tive Dissonance Theory. believing that he has the truth, COGNITIVE DISSONANCE: RELIEF FROM TENSION becomes impervious to self- So far we have seen that actions can affect attitudes, sometimes turning prisoners into correction.” -CAROL TAVRIS AND TEACH ELLIOT ARONSON, MISTAKES WERE collaborators, doubters into believers, and compliant guards into abusers. But why? One MADE (BUT NOT BY ME), 2007 explanation is that when we become aware that our attitudes and actions don’t coincide, TRMTRM Teaching Tip we experience tension, or cognitive dissonance. To relieve such tension, according to Leon Festinger’s (1957) cognitive dissonance theory, we often bring our attitudes into line Engage students in a discussion of with our actions. college hazing techniques, often Dozens of experiments have explored this cognitive dissonance phenomenon. Many cognitive dissonance theory perpetuated by cognitive disso- have made people feel responsible for behavior that clashed with their attitudes and had the theory that we act to reduce foreseeable consequences. In one of these experiments, you might agree for a measly $2 to the discomfort (dissonance) we nance. During fraternity pledging, feel when two of our thoughts help a researcher by writing an essay that supports something you don’t believe in (perhaps (cognitions) are inconsistent. For fi rst-year students must complete a school vending machine tax). Feeling responsible for the statements (which are inconsis- example, when we become aware activities designed to test their limits. tent with your attitudes), you would probably feel dissonance, especially if you thought an that our attitudes and our actions administrator would be reading your essay. To reduce the uncomfortable tension you might clash, we can reduce the resulting One pledge was told to dig his “own start believing your phony words. At such times, it’s as if we rationalize, “If I chose to do it dissonance by changing our grave.” After he complied with orders (or say it), I must believe in it.” The less coerced and more responsible we feel for a troubling attitudes. act, the more dissonance we feel. The more dissonance we feel, the more motivated we are to lie fl at in the fi nished hole, the sides to fi nd consistency, such as changing our attitudes to help justify the act. collapsed, suff ocating him before his The pressure to reduce dissonance helps explain the evolution of American attitudes to- fraternity brothers could dig him out. ward the U.S. invasion of Iraq. When the war began, the stated reason for the invasion was the presumed threat of Saddam Hussein’s weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Would the war Another pledge choked to death after be justifi ed if Iraq did not have WMD? Only 38 percent of Americans surveyed said it would be repeatedly trying to swallow a large (Gallup, 2003). Nearly 80 percent believed such weapons would be found (Duffy, 2003; New- slab of raw liver soaked in oil. Why do port et al., 2003). When no WMD were found, many Americans felt dissonance, which was heightened by their awareness of the war’s fi nancial and human costs, by scenes of chaos in hazing activities persist? As a result Iraq, and by infl amed anti- American and pro - terrorist sentiments in some parts of the world. of their experiences, new fraternity To reduce dissonance, some people revised their memories of the war’s rationale. The invasion then became a movement to liberate an oppressed people and promote democracy members may fi nd the group more in the Middle East. Before long, 58 percent of Americans—a majority—said they supported appealing and worthwhile. the war even if no WMD were found (Gallup, 2003). Use Student Activity: Introducing The attitudes- follow - behavior principle has a heartening implication: We cannot directly control all our feelings, but we can infl uence them by altering our behavior. (Recall Cognitive Dissonance Theory from the from Module 42 the emotional effects of facial expressions and of body postures.) If we are TRM to help students understand this down in the dumps, we can do as cognitive-behavioral therapists advise and talk in more positive, self- accepting ways with fewer self-put- downs. If we are unloving, we can become “Sit all day in a moping posture, concept. sigh, and reply to everything more loving by behaving as if we were so—by doing thoughtful things, expressing affection, with a dismal voice, and your giving affi rmation. That helps explain why teens’ doing volunteer work promotes a com- melancholy lingers. . . . If we wish passionate identity. “Assume a virtue, if you have it not,” says Hamlet to his mother. “For to conquer undesirable emotional tendencies in ourselves, we use can almost change the stamp of nature.” Pretense can become reality. Conduct sculpts must . . . go through the outward character. What we do we become. movements of those contrary The point to remember: Cruel acts shape the self. But so do acts of good will. Act as dispositions which we prefer though you like someone, and you soon may. Changing our behavior can change how we to cultivate.” -WILLIAM JAMES, PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY, 1890 think about others and how we feel about ourselves.

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 758 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.inddENGAGE 759 1/21/14 10:30 AM Enrichment The old adage “fake it ‘til you make it” rings true if you consider the research on cognitive dissonance. If we behave in a certain way, we are likely to develop attitudes that mirror those behaviors. If we feel sad, acting in happier ways can turn the tide, making us feel happy. If we harbor negative attitudes toward a particular group, acting kindly toward its members can lead to more positive attitudes.

Attribution, Attitudes, and Actions Module 74 759

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 759 3/5/14 12:43 PM 760 Unit XIV Social Psychology

CLOSE & ASSESS Before You Move On Exit Assessment ᭤ ASK YOURSELF Ask your students to imagine that a Do you have an attitude or tendency you would like to change? Using the attitudes-follow- behavior principle, how might you go about changing that attitude? student is eating by him- or herself in the cafeteria, and ask them to write a ᭤ TEST YOURSELF Driving to school one snowy day, Marco narrowly misses a car that slides through a red light. situational and dispositional attribu- “Slow down! What a terrible driver,” he thinks to himself. Moments later, Marco himself slips tion for that person’s behavior. This through an intersection and yelps, “Wow! These roads are awful. The city plows need to get will help you determine if students out here.” What social psychology principle has Marco just demonstrated? Explain. Answers to the Test Yourself questions can be found in Appendix E at the end of the book. really understand these often confused concepts.

Module 74 Review What do social psychologists study? How 74-174-1 74-274-2 Does what we think affect what we do, or do we tend to explain others’ behavior and does what we do affect what we think? our own? • Attitudes are feelings, often infl uenced by our beliefs, that • Social psychologists focus on how we think about, predispose us to respond in certain ways. infl uence, and relate to one another. They study the social Peripheral route persuasion uses incidental cues (such as infl uences that explain why the same person will act • celebrity endorsement) to try to produce fast but relatively differently in different situations. thoughtless changes in attitudes. When explaining others’ behavior, we may commit • Central route persuasion offers evidence and arguments to the fundamental attribution error (underestimating the • trigger thoughtful responses. infl uence of the situation and overestimating the effects of personality). When explaining our own behavior, we more • When other infl uences are minimal, attitudes that are readily attribute it to the infl uence of the situation. stable, specifi c, and easily recalled can affect our actions. • Actions can modify attitudes, as in the foot-in-the-door phenomenon (complying with a large request after having agreed to a small request) and role playing (acting a social part by following guidelines for expected behavior). • When our attitudes don’t fi t with our actions, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we will reduce tension by changing our attitudes to match our actions.

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 760 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 761 1/21/14 10:30 AM

760 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 760 3/5/14 12:43 PM Attribution, Attitudes, and Actions Module 74 761

Multiple-Choice Questions Answers to Multiple-Choice 1. What do we call the tendency for observers to 3. Which of the following best explains why we act to Questions underestimate the impact of the situation and reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts overestimate the impact of personal disposition? are inconsistent? 1. d 3. a a. Peripheral route persuasion a. Cognitive dissonance theory 2. e b. Social psychology b. Power of the situation c. Attribution theory c. Foot-in-the-door phenomenon d. Fundamental attribution error d. Role theory e. Central route persuasion e. Fundamental attribution error 2. Which of the following best describes a feeling, often inﬂ uenced by a belief, that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to people and events? a. Central route persuasion b. Anger c. Emotion d. Foot-in-the-door phenomenon e. Attitude

Practice FRQs Answer to Practice FRQ 2 1. Explain the fundamental attribution error. 2. Explain the difference between peripheral route persuasion and central route persuasion. 2 points: Student should explain any 2 Answer (4 points) of the following regarding peripheral 1 point: The fundamental attribution error occurs when we are analyzing someone’s behavior. route persuasion: 2 points: In order for the fundamental attribution error to Occurs when people are influenced occur, the person analyzing must underestimate the role of by incidental cues such as a the situation and overestimate the disposition of the person speaker’s attractiveness whose behavior is being analyzed. Doesn’t engage in systematic thinking Involves making snap judgments based on incidental cues 2 points: Student should explain any 2 of the following about central route persuasion: Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts Occurs mostly when people are naturally analytical or involved in the issue Offers evidence that aims to trigger favorable thoughts

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 760 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod74_B.indd 761 1/21/14 10:30 AM

Attribution, Attitudes, and Actions Module 74 761

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 761 3/5/14 12:43 PM 762 Unit XIV Social Psychology

TEACH TRMTRM Discussion Starter Module 75 Use the Module 75 Fact or Falsehood? activity from the TRM to introduce the concepts from this module. Conformity and Obedience

Cusp/SuperStock Module Learning Objectives

75-175-1 Describe automatic mimicry, and explain how conformity experiments reveal the power of social infl uence.

75-275-2 Describe what we learned about the power of social infl uence from Milgram’s obedience experiments.

ocial psychology’s great lesson is the enormous power of social infl uence. This infl u- S ence can be seen in our conformity, our obedience to authority, and our group behav- ENGAGE ior. Suicides, bomb threats, airplane hijackings, and UFO sightings all have a curious “Have you ever noticed how one tendency to come in clusters. On most high school campuses, jeans are the dress code; on Critical Questions example—good or bad—can New York’s Wall Street or London’s Bond Street, dress suits are the norm. When we know prompt others to follow? How how to act, how to groom, how to talk, life functions smoothly. Armed with social infl uence Students often underestimate the one illegally parked car can give permission for others to do principles, advertisers, fundraisers, and campaign workers aim to sway our decisions to buy, infl uence of others on their behaviors. likewise? How one racial joke can to donate, to vote. Isolated with others who share their grievances, dissenters may gradu- fuel another?” -MARIAN WRIGHT ally become rebels, and rebels may become terrorists. Let’s examine the pull of these social THE MEASURE OF OUR As teens search for their own individ- EDELMAN, strings. How strong are they? How do they operate? When do we break them? SUCCESS, ual identity, they may deny that peer 1992 pressure, conformity, and obedience Conformity: Complying With Social Pressures dictate many of their choices and 75-175-1 What is automatic mimicry, and how do conformity experiments behaviors. Have students ponder the Conforming to nonconformity reveal the power of social infl uence? Are these students asserting their following questions: individuality or identifying themselves with others of the same microculture? Automatic Mimicry Why do you obey some rules and Fish swim in schools. Birds fl y in fl ocks. And humans, too, disobey others at your school? tend to go with their group, to think what it thinks and do what it does. Behavior is contagious. Chimpanzees are Have friends ever convinced you more likely to yawn after observing another chimpanzee to do something you knew was yawn (Anderson et al., 2004). Ditto for humans. If one wrong? To do something you knew of us yawns, laughs, coughs, stares at the sky, or checks a cell phone, others in our group will soon do the same. was right? Like the chameleon lizards that take on the color of their Do you consider yourself a surroundings, we humans take on the emotional tones of those around us. Just hearing someone reading a neu- conformist? Nonconformist? Why? tral text in either a happy - or sad- sounding voice creates “mood contagion” in listeners (Neumann & Strack, 2000). We are natural mimics, unconsciously imitating

Ted Horowitz/CORBIS Ted others’ expressions, postures, and voice tones.

ENGAGEMyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.indd 762 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.indd 763 1/21/14 10:30 AM Critical Questions Conformity is a controversial issue among Was there more pressure to conform in teens who want to ﬁ t in, but who also want to middle school as compared to high school? be distinct individuals. Have students discuss Why or why not? conformity in your school: Where is the line between conformity Are the majority of students conformists or and nonconformity? Is a group of nonconformists? Why? nonconformists conforming to each other Is there pressure among students at your or nonconforming against society? school to dress a certain way or like certain types of music? Why or why not?

762 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 762 3/5/14 12:43 PM Conformity and Obedience Module 75 763

Tanya Chartrand and John Bargh captured this mimicry, which they call the chameleon effect (Chartrand & Bargh, 1999). They had students work in a room alongside another per- ENGAGE son, who was actually a confederate working for the experimenters. Sometimes the confederates rubbed their own face. Sometimes they shook their foot. Sure enough, the students TRMTRM Active Learning tended to rub their face when with the face -rubbing person and shake their foot when with If students believe that conformity is the foot- shaking person. Other studies have found people synchronizing their grammar to match material they are reading or people they are hearing (Ireland & Pennebaker, 2010). “When I see synchrony and not an issue for them, ask a question Perhaps we should not be surprised then that intricate studies show that obesity, sleep loss, mimicry—whether it concerns to which you will likely get a totally drug use, loneliness, and happiness spread through social networks (Christakis & Fowler, yawning, laughing, dancing, or aping—I see social connection positive or negative response. How 2009). We and our friends form a social system. and bonding.” -PRIMATOLOGIST Automatic mimicry helps us to empathize—to feel what others are feeling. This helps FRANS DE WAAL “THE EMPATHY many students raise their hands? Who explain why we feel happier around happy people than around depressed people. It also INSTINCT,” 2009 told them to raise their hands? While helps explain why studies of groups of British nurses and accountants have revealed mood linkage—sharing up and down moods (Totterdell et al., 1998). Empathic people yawn more this activity demonstrates the power after seeing others yawn (Morrison, 2007). And empathic mimicking fosters fondness (van of conditioning, it also shows how Baaren et al., 2003, 2004). Perhaps you’ve noticed that when someone nods their head as students conform to the behavior the you do and echoes your words, you feel a certain rapport and liking? Suggestibility and mimicry sometimes lead to tragedy. In the eight days following the school demands from them—such 1999 shooting rampage at Colorado’s Columbine High School, every U.S. state except Ver- as raising your hand in response to a mont experienced threats of copycat violence. Pennsylvania alone recorded 60 such threats teacher’s request. (Cooper, 1999). Sociologist David Phillips and his colleagues (1985, 1989) found that suicides, too, sometimes increase following a highly publicized suicide. In the wake of screen Use Student Activity: Violating a idol Marilyn Monroe’s suicide on August 5, 1962, for example, the number of suicides in the Social Norm from the TRM to help United States exceeded the usual August count by 200. What causes behavior clusters? Do people act similarly because of their inﬂ uence on students see the power of conformity. one another? Or because they are simultaneously exposed to the same events and condi- Adapted from Stork, E. (1992). Operant tions? Seeking answers to such questions, social psychologists have conducted experiments on group pressure and conformity. conditioning: Role in human behavior. In M. Sullivan, C. Blair-Broeker, T. Lindenberg, & A. Carlisle (Eds.), Learning. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

TEACH Concept Connections Point out that even though chameleon eff ect is not a bolded key term, Universal Press Syndicate it is important to remember. Con- Conformity and Social Norms nect this concept to mirror neurons, Suggestibility and mimicry are subtle types of conformity—adjusting our behavior or conformity adjusting our discussed in Unit VI. thinking toward some group standard. To study conformity, Solomon Asch (1955) devised a behavior or thinking to coincide simple test. As a participant in what you believe is a study of visual perception, you arrive in with a group standard. time to take a seat at a table with fi ve other people. The experimenter asks the group to state, one by one, which of three comparison lines is identical to a standard line. You see clearly that the answer is Line 2, and you await your turn to say so. Your boredom begins to show when the next set of lines proves equally easy. Now comes the third trial, and the correct answer seems just as clear- cut (FIGURE 75.1 on the next page). But the fi rst person gives what strikes you as a wrong answer: “Line 3.” When the second person and then the third and fourth give the same wrong

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.indd 762 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.inddENGAGE 763 1/21/14 10:30 AM Active Learning Copycat crimes are a concern for law enforce- If a criminal is still at large, how can the ment oﬃ cials. Contact a local police station police tell if a crime is a copycat crime and ask how it tries to limit the possibility of or one that has been committed by the copycat crimes: original suspect? Do the police sometimes limit the amount What can schools learn from the police of press coverage of particular crimes? Why about limiting copycat crimes or copycat or why not? If so, how? suicides?

Conformity and Obedience Module 75 763

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 763 3/5/14 12:43 PM 764 Unit XIV Social Psychology

TEACH Teaching Tip Have students note that the correct answer among the comparison lines in Figure 75.1 is quite obvious. There c American William Vendivert/Scientifi should be no question as to which line 123 Standard line Comparison lines to choose, but the power of confor- Figure 75.1 mity to a group may lead normally Asch’s conformity experiments answer, you sit up straight and squint. When the fi fth person agrees with the fi rst four, you confi dent people to choose the wrong Which of the three comparison lines feel your heart begin to pound. The experimenter then looks to you for your answer. Torn is equal to the standard line? What between the unanimity voiced by the fi ve others and the evidence of your own eyes, you answer instead of the right one. do you suppose most people would feel tense and suddenly unsure. You hesitate before answering, wondering whether you say after hearing five others say, “Line 3”? In this photo from one of Asch’s should suffer the discomfort of being the oddball. What answer do you give? ENGAGE experiments, the student in the center In Asch’s experiments, college students, answering questions alone, erred less than 1 shows the severe discomfort that percent of the time. But what about when several others—confederates working for the ex- comes from disagreeing with the Active Learning responses of other group members perimenter—answered incorrectly? Although most people told the truth even when others (in this case, accomplices of the did not, Asch was disturbed by his result: More than one- third of the time, these “intelligent Begin to yawn in class. Count how experimenter). and well-meaning ” college students were then “willing to call white black” by going along many other students then yawn. Try with the group. Later investigations have not always found as much conformity as Asch found, but they these alternate activities: have revealed that we are more likely to conform when we Stand outside your school and • are made to feel incompetent or insecure. look up at the building. Have an • are in a group with at least three people. observer count how many people • are in a group in which everyone else agrees. (If just one other person disagrees, the odds of our disagreeing greatly increase.) join in. • admire the group’s status and attractiveness. Go to a public place and start • have not made a prior commitment to any response. yawning. Have an observer count • know that others in the group will observe our behavior. the number of people who then • are from a culture that strongly encourages respect for social standards. yawn. Why do we so often think what others think and do what they do? Why in college resi- dence halls do students’ attitudes become more similar to those living near them (Cullum & Set up a booth to give away a Harton, 2007)? Why in college classrooms are hand-raised answers to controversial ques- pamphlet or some ballpoint tions less diverse than anonymous electronic clicker responses (Stowell et al., 2010)? Why pens. See how many people stop do we clap when others clap, eat as others eat, believe what others believe, say what others say, even see what others see? by during a certain time period. Frequently, we conform to avoid rejection or to gain social approval. In such cases, we Then ask several fellow students are responding to normative social infl uence. We are sensitive to social norms—understood rules for accepted and expected behavior—because the price we pay for being differ- to congregate around the booth, ent can be severe. We need to belong. To get along, we go along. posing questions and taking the At other times, we conform because we want to be accurate. Groups provide informa- normative social infl uence tion, and only an uncommonly stubborn person will never listen to others. “Those who nev- free items. In the same time period infl uence resulting from a person’s er retract their opinions love themselves more than they love truth,” observed Joseph Jou- as before, count how many people desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. bert, an eighteenth-century French essayist. When we accept others’ opinions about reality, we are responding to informational social infl uence. As Rebecca Denton demonstrated stop by. informational social infl uence in 2004, sometimes it pays to assume others are right and to follow their lead. Denton set a infl uence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ record for the furthest distance driven on the wrong side of a British divided highway—30 opinions about reality. miles, with only one minor sideswipe, before the motorway ran out and police were able

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.inddTEACH 764 TEACH 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.indd 765 1/21/14 10:30 AM Teaching Tip Flip It Ask your students to consider an ethical issue, Students can get additional help understand- such as cheating or bullying another student, ing how norms inﬂ uence behavior by watching where they might need to stand up to the the Flip It Video: Normative Social Inﬂ uence. majority in order to do the right thing. Would they vote their consciences or go with the crowd? Discuss what personal qualities and situations may make a person more likely to act according to his or her conscience.

764 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 764 3/5/14 12:43 PM Conformity and Obedience Module 75 765

to puncture her tires. Denton, who was intoxicated, later explained that she thought the hundreds of other drivers coming at her were all on the ENGAGE wrong side of the road (Woolcock, 2004). Is conformity good or bad? The answer depends partly on our cultur- Critical Questions ally infl uenced values. Western Europeans and people in most English - Most people will yield to the major- speaking countries tend to prize individualism. People in many Asian, African, and Latin American countries place a higher value on honor- ity opinion even when it confl icts ing group standards. In social infl uence experiments across 17 countries, © The New Yorker Collection, 2006, Mike Twohy from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved. with their own. When asked how we “ I love the little ways you’re identical to everyone else.” conformity rates have been lower in individualist cultures (Bond & Smith, would respond in the Asch situa- 1996). American university students, for example, tend to see themselves, in domains rang- ing from consumer purchases to political views, as less conforming than others (Pronin et al., tion, we predict that we would resist 2007). We are, in our own eyes, individuals amid a crowd of sheep. group pressure. We underestimate the power of social forces. Ask students to Obedience: Following Orders imagine themselves violating some 75-275-2 What did Milgram’s obedience experiments teach us about the power less-than-earthshaking norms: stand- of social infl uence? ing in the middle of a class, greeting Social psychologist Stanley Milgram (1963, 1974), a student of Solomon Asch, knew that people often give in to social pressures. But how would they respond to outright com- some distinguished city offi cials by mands? To fi nd out, he undertook what became social psychology’s most famous, contro- their fi rst names, munching popcorn versial, and infl uential experiments (Benjamin & Simpson, 2009). Imagine yourself as one of the nearly 1000 people who took part in Milgram’s 20 experi- at a piano recital, wearing shorts to a ments. You respond to an advertisement for participants in a Yale University psychology study place of worship. of the effect of punishment on learning. Professor Milgram’s assistant asks you and another ® How would they feel in these person to draw slips from a hat to see who will be the “teacher” and who will be the “learner.” AP Exam Tip You draw the “teacher” slip and are asked to sit down in front of a machine, which has a series Three of the most famous situations? of labeled switches. The learner, a mild and submissive-seeming man, is led to an adjoining research projects in psychology were done by social What consequences would they room and strapped into a chair. From the chair, wires run through the wall to “your” machine. psychologists, and you’ve now You are given your task: Teach and then test the learner on a list of word pairs. If the learner read about them all. Milgram, endure for violating these norms? gives a wrong answer, you are to fl ip a switch to deliver a brief electric shock. For the fi rst Asch, and Zimbardo (from the last Is that why they conform? wrong answer, you will fl ip the switch labeled “15 Volts—Slight Shock.” With each succeeding module) are all likely to appear on the AP® exam. error, you will move to the next higher voltage. The researcher demonstrates by fl ipping the fi rst switch. Lights fl ash, relay switches click on, and an electric buzzing fi lls the air. The experiment begins, and you deliver the shocks after the fi rst and second wrong an- Stanley Milgram (1933–1984) swers. If you continue, you hear the learner grunt when you fl ick the third, fourth, and fi fth This social psychologist’s obedience switches. After you activate the eighth switch (“120 Volts—Moderate Shock”), the learner experiments “belong to the self - cries out that the shocks are painful. After the tenth switch (“150 Volts—Strong Shock”), he understanding of literate people in our begins shouting. “Get me out of here! I won’t be in the experiment anymore! I refuse to go age” (Sabini, 1986). on!” You draw back, but the stern experimenter prods you: “Please continue—the experiment requires that you continue.” You resist, but the experimenter insists, “It is absolutely essential that you continue,” or “You have no other choice, you must go on.” If you obey, you hear the learner shriek in apparent agony as you continue to raise the shock level after each new error. After the 330-volt level, the learner refuses to answer and falls silent. Still, the experimenter pushes you toward the fi nal, 450-volt switch. Ask the question, he says, and if no correct answer is given, administer the next shock level. Would you follow the experimenter’s commands to shock someone? At what level would you refuse to obey? Milgram asked that question in a survey before he started his experiments. Most people were sure they would stop playing such a sadistic- seeming role soon after the learner fi rst indicated pain, certainly before he shrieked in agony. Forty psy- chiatrists agreed with that prediction when Milgram asked them. Were the predictions accurate? Not even close. When Milgram conducted the experiment with men aged 20 to 50, he was astonished. More than 60 percent complied fully—right up to the last switch.

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.indd 764 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.inddENGAGE 765 1/21/14 10:30 AM Active Learning Stanley Milgram asked his students to violate a observed, “I was overwhelmed by the need to social norm, such as asking another passenger behave in a way that would justify my request. for his or her seat on a city bus or subway. One My head sank between my knees. . . . I actually felt graduate student reported: “I just couldn’t go as if I were going to perish.” Not until he left the on. It was one of the most diffi cult things I ever train did his tension dissipate. This experiment did in my life.” Unconvinced, Milgram tried it demonstrated several social principles: himself. He approached a seated passenger but Enormous inhibitory anxiety ordinarily the words “seemed lodged in my trachea and prevents us from breaking social norms. would simply not emerge. I stood there frozen, We have a powerful need to justify our then retreated, the mission unfulfi lled.” He fi nally actions after violating a norm. choked out the request: “Excuse me, sir, may I The power of immediate circumstances on have your seat?” To Milgram’s surprise, the man our feelings and behavior is immense. gave up his seat! In taking the seat, Milgram Conformity and Obedience Module 75 765

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ENGAGE Percentage 100% of participants Active Learning who obeyed 90 Milgram completed his research experimenter 80 during a time when people were 70 dealing with the consequences of the 60 50 Holocaust and watching the televised 40 The majority of participants continued Nuremberg trials. Some believed that 30 to obey to the end the German people were evil, having 20 been complicit in the Holocaust, 10 and Milgram, himself a Jew, wanted 0 lm “Obedience.” Rights held by Alexandra Milgram Stanley Milgram, from the fi Slight Moderate Strong Very Intense Extreme Danger: XXX to demonstrate the power of social (15–60) (75–120) (135–180) strong (255–300) intensity severe (435–450) (195–240) (315–360) (375–420) Figure 75.2 situations on behavior. Have students Shock levels in volts Milgram’s follow- up obedience research this particularly painful time experiment In a repeat of the in world history: earlier experiment, 65 percent of the Even when Milgram ran a new study, with 40 new teachers, and the learner complained adult male “teachers” fully obeyed of a “slight heart condition,” the results were similar. A full 65 percent of the new teachers the experimenter’s commands to What techniques did Hitler and continue. They did so despite the obeyed every one of the experimenter’s commands, right up to 450 volts (FIGURE 75.2). his propaganda officials use to “learner’s” earlier mention of a heart Cultures change over time. Are people today less likely to obey an order to hurt some- condition and despite hearing cries one? To fi nd out, Jerry Burger (2009) replicated Milgram’s basic experiment. Seventy percent convince the German people to of protest after they administered what they thought were 150 volts and of the participants obeyed up to the 150-volt point, a slight reduction from Milgram’s result. remain silent in the face of the agonized protests after 330 volts. And in a French reality TV show replication, 80 percent of people, egged on by a cheering Holocaust? (Data from Milgram, 1974.) audience, obeyed and tortured a screaming victim (de Moraes, 2010). Could Milgram’s fi ndings refl ect some aspect of gender behavior found only in males? Highlight some examples of No. In 10 later studies, women obeyed at rates similar to men’s (Blass, 1999). German citizens who tried to save Did the teachers fi gure out the hoax—that no real shock was being delivered and the learner was in fact a confederate who was pretending to feel pain? Did they realize the Jews from the genocide. Why were experiment was really testing their willingness to comply with commands to infl ict pun- these people able to disobey? ishment? No. The teachers typically displayed genuine distress: They perspired, trembled, laughed nervously, and bit their lips. Milgram’s use of deception and stress triggered a debate over his research ethics. In his own defense, Milgram pointed out that, after the participants learned of the deception and actual research purposes, virtually none regretted taking part (though perhaps by then the participants had reduced their dissonance). When 40 of the teachers who had agonized most were later interviewed by a psychiatrist, none appeared to be suffering emotional af- tereffects. All in all, said Milgram, the experiments provoked less enduring stress than university students experience when facing and failing big exams (Blass, 1996). In later experiments, Milgram discovered some things that do infl uence people’s behavior. When he varied the situation, the percentage of participants who fully obeyed ranged from 0 to 93 percent. Obedience was highest when • the person giving the orders was close at hand and was perceived to be a legitimate authority fi gure. (Such was the case in 2005 when Temple University’s basketball coach sent a 250-pound bench player, Nehemiah Ingram, into a game with instructions to commit “hard fouls.” Following orders, Ingram fouled out in four minutes after breaking an opposing player’s right arm.) • the authority fi gure was supported by a prestigious institution. (Compliance was somewhat lower when Milgram dissociated his experiments from Yale University.)

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.inddTEACH 766 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.indd 767 1/21/14 10:30 AM TRMTRM Teaching Tip Subjects in Milgram’s studies were actually Milgram reports that only one subject opted to sheep, not wolves. Milgram designed an deliver the maximum shock, and in general the alternative experiment in which the “teacher” shock level remained in the 45-volt to 60-volt could select any shock levels on the genera- range. Students typically overestimate the level tor without coercion. Describe this proce- of shock subjects would choose, believing they dure, asking students to make the following are wolves, not sheep. predictions: Use Student Activity: Would You Obey? On average, what shock level did teachers from the TRM to help students see the power choose for the learner? of authority. What percentage of teachers set the shock Safer, M. (1980). Attributing evil to the subject, not at the highest setting of 450 volts? the situation. Personality and Social Psychology Bul- letin, 6, 205–209.

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• the victim was depersonalized or at a distance, TEACH even in another room. (Similarly, many soldiers in combat either have not ﬁ red their riﬂ es at an Concept Connections enemy they can see, or have not aimed them

properly. Such refusals to kill were rare among Photos, Inc. AP/Wide World Discuss with students the ethical soldiers who were operating long-distance issues that arise out of experiments artillery or aircraft weapons [Padgett, 1989].) like Milgram’s obedience study: • there were no role models for defi ance. (Teachers did not see any other participant disobey the Does the APA Ethics Code allow for experimenter.) deception? Why or why not? The power of legitimate, close - at -hand authori- Would this study be approved ties was apparent among those who followed orders to carry out the Holocaust atrocities. Obedience alone by an Institutional Review Board does not explain the Holocaust. Anti- Semitic ideol- today? Why or why not? ogy produced eager killers as well (Mastroianni, 2002). But obedience was a factor. In the Standing up for democracy summer of 1942, nearly 500 middle- aged German reserve police offi cers were dispatched Some individuals—roughly one in three What responsibilities do in Milgram’s experiments—resist social to German-occupied Jozefow, Poland. On July 13, the group’s visibly upset commander coercion, as did this unarmed man in researchers have for the well-being informed his recruits, mostly family men, of their orders. They were to round up the vil- Beijing, by single - handedly challenging lage’s Jews, who were said to be aiding the enemy. Able - bodied men would be sent to work an advancing line of tanks the day after of participants? the 1989 Tiananmen Square student camps, and all the rest would be shot on the spot. uprising was suppressed. For more information on the APA Eth- The commander gave the recruits a chance to refuse to participate in the executions. Only about a dozen immediately refused. Within 17 hours, the remaining 485 offi cers killed ics Code, visit www.apa.org/ethics. 1500 helpless women, children, and elderly, shooting them in the back of the head as they lay face down. Hearing the victims’ pleas, and seeing the gruesome results, some 20 percent of the offi cers did eventually dissent, managing either to miss their victims or to wander away and hide until the slaughter was over (Browning, 1992). In real life, as in Milgram’s experiments, those who resisted did so early, and they were the minority. Another story was being played out in the French village of Le Chambon. There, French Jews destined for deportation to Germany were sheltered by villagers who openly defi ed orders to cooperate with the “New Order.” The villagers’ Protestant ancestors had themselves been persecuted, and their pastors taught them to “resist whenever our adversaries will demand of us obedience contrary to the orders of the Gospel” (Rochat, 1993). Ordered by police to give a list of sheltered Jews, the head pastor modeled defi ance: “I don’t know of Jews, I only know of human beings.” Without realizing how long and terrible the war would be, or how much punishment and poverty they would suffer, the resisters made an initial commitment to resist. Supported by their beliefs, their role models, their interactions with one another, and their own initial acts, they remained defi ant to the war’s end. County Armagh, Northern Ireland/The Bridgeman Art Library The Argory, Lest we presume that obedience is always evil and resistance is always good, consider the obedience of British soldiers who, in 1852, were traveling with civilians aboard the steamship Birkenhead. As they neared their South African port, the Birkenhead became impaled on a rock. To calm the passengers and permit an orderly exit of civilians via the three available lifeboats, soldiers who were not assisting the passengers or working the pumps lined up at parade rest. “Steady, men!” said their offi cer as the lifeboats pulled away. Heroically, no one franti- The “Birkenhead drill” cally rushed to claim a lifeboat seat. As the boat sank, all were plunged into the sea, most to To calm and give priority to passengers, be drowned or devoured by sharks. For almost a century, noted James Michener (1978), “the soldiers obeyed orders to line up on Birkenhead drill remained the measure by which heroic behavior at sea was measured.” deck as their ship sank.

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.indd 766 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.inddENGAGE 767 1/21/14 10:30 AM Enrichment We can learn from the minority of Milgram’s that she “did not want to be responsible for any participants who chose to confront authority. harm to the learner.” Milgram notes that her Gretchen Brandt, a young medical technician, straightforward, courteous demeanor seemed is one fascinating example. She emigrated from to make disobedience a simple and rational Germany 5 years before the studies. Speaking deed. What made her diff erent? Gretchen grew with a thick German accent, she coolly turned to adolescence in Nazi Germany and, for the to the experimenter at diff erent points and greater part of her youth, was exposed to Hitler’s inquired, “Shall I continue?” At the delivery of propaganda. When asked about the infl uence of 210 volts, she announced fi rmly, “Well, I’m sorry, her background, she simply remarked, “Perhaps I don’t think we should continue.” In spite of we have seen too much pain.” the experimenter’s prompts, she refused to go Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York: further and the study ended. Gretchen never Harper & Row. appeared tense or nervous. She simply stated Conformity and Obedience Module 75 767

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Lessons From the Obedience Studies ENGAGE What do the Milgram experiments teach us about ourselves? How does fl icking a shock Active Learning switch relate to everyday social behavior? Recall from Module 6 that psychological experiments aim not to re - create the literal behaviors of everyday life but to capture and explore Most colleges and universities have the underlying processes that shape those behaviors. Participants in the Milgram experi- banned hazing for fraternities, ments confronted a dilemma we all face frequently: Do I adhere to my own standards, or do I respond to others? sororities, and clubs on campus. Why In these experiments and their modern replications, participants were torn. Should they does the practice still persist? Have respond to the pleas of the victim or the orders of the experimenter? Their moral sense students contact university student warned them not to harm another, yet it also prompted them to obey the experimenter and to be a good research participant. With kindness and obedience on a collision course, obedi- relations departments, fraternity and ence usually won. sorority members, and alumni of These experiments demonstrated that strong social infl uences can make people con- these organizations to discuss hazing “I was only following orders.” form to falsehoods or capitulate to cruelty. Milgram saw this as the fundamental lesson of -ADOLF EICHMANN, DIRECTOR OF this work: “Ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on practices past and present: NAZI DEPORTATION OF JEWS TO their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process” (1974, p. 6). CONCENTRATION CAMPS Focusing on the end point—450 volts, or someone’s real-life reprehensible deceit or What are current university policies violence—we can hardly comprehend the inhumanity. But we ignore how they get there, regarding hazing? What sanctions in tiny increments. Milgram did not entrap his teachers by asking them fi rst to zap learners will be imposed on organizations with enough electricity to make their hair stand on end. Rather, he exploited the foot - in - the- door effect, beginning with a little tickle of electricity and escalating step by step. In the that practice hazing? minds of those throwing the switches, the small action became justifi ed, making the next How did the university view hazing act tolerable. In Jozefow and Le Chambon, as in Milgram’s experiments, those who resisted usually did so early. After the fi rst acts of compliance or resistance, attitudes began to follow in the past? and justify behavior. How do fraternities’ and sororities’ So it happens when people succumb, gradually, to evil. In any society, great evils sometimes grow out of people’s compliance with lesser evils. The Nazi leaders suspected that national organizations view most German civil servants would resist shooting or gassing Jews directly, but they found hazing? them surprisingly willing to handle the paperwork of the Holocaust (Silver & Geller, 1978). Milgram found a similar reaction in his experiments. When he asked 40 men to administer Did alumni endure hazing? How “The normal reaction to an abnormal situation is abnormal the learning test while someone else did the shocking, 93 percent complied. Cruelty does did they view it then? Would they behavior.” -JAMES WALLER, not require devilish villains. All it takes is ordinary people corrupted by an evil situation. BECOMING EVIL: HOW ORDINARY Ordinary students may follow orders to haze initiates into their group. Ordinary employees condone their children enduring PEOPLE COMMIT GENOCIDE AND MASS KILLING, 2007 may follow orders to produce and market harmful products. Ordinary soldiers may follow hazing? orders to punish and then torture prisoners (Lankford, 2009).

Before You Move On ᭤ ASK YOURSELF How have you found yourself conforming, or perhaps “conforming to nonconformity”? In what ways have you seen others identifying themselves with those of the same culture or microculture? ᭤ TEST YOURSELF What types of situations have researchers found to be most likely to encourage obedience in participants? Answers to the Test Yourself questions can be found in Appendix E at the end of the book.

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.inddCLOSE & ASSESS 768 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.indd 769 1/21/14 10:30 AM Exit Assessment Have students turn in an exit slip contrasting obedience and conformity. Remind students that these terms are related, but diﬀ erent. Knowing the diﬀ erence is important for the AP® exam.

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Module 75 Review What is automatic mimicry, and how do 75-175-1 75-275-2 What did Milgram’s obedience experiments conformity experiments reveal the power of teach us about the power of social social infl uence? infl uence? • Automatic mimicry (the chameleon effect), our tendency • Stanley Milgram’s experiments—in which people to unconsciously imitate others’ expressions, postures, and obeyed orders even when they thought they were voice tones, is a form of conformity. harming another person—demonstrated that strong social infl uences can make ordinary people conform to Solomon Asch and others have found that we are most • falsehoods or give in to cruelty. likely to adjust our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard when (a) we feel incompetent • Obedience was highest when (a) the person giving orders or insecure, (b) our group has at least three people, was nearby and was perceived as a legitimate authority (c) everyone else agrees, (d) we admire the group’s status fi gure; (b) the research was supported by a prestigious and attractiveness, (e) we have not already committed to institution; (c) the victim was depersonalized or at a another response, (f ) we know we are being observed, distance; and (d) there were no role models for defi ance. and (g) our culture encourages respect for social standards. • We may conform to gain approval (normative social infl uence) or because we are willing to accept others’ opinions as new information (informational social infl uence).

Multiple-Choice Questions Answers to Multiple-Choice 1. Which of the following is an example of conformity? 3. Classic studies of obedience indicate that about Questions a. Malik has had a series of dogs over the years. Each of the participants were willing to administer has learned to curl up at his feet when he was what they believed to be 450-volt shocks to other 1. b 3. e watching television. humans. b. Renee begins to buy the same brand of sweatshirt a. one-tenth 2. d 4. d that most of the kids in her school are wearing. b. one-half c. Jonah makes sure to arrive home before his curfew c. one-third because he knows he will be grounded if he doesn’t. d. one-fourth d. Yuri makes sure to arrive home before her curfew e. two-thirds because she does not want her parents to be 4. Obedience to authority when the authority fi gure is disappointed in her. asking someone to shock another person is highest e. Terry cranks it up a notch during volleyball practice when because the team captain has been on her case for not showing enough effort. a. the person receiving orders has witnessed others defy the authority fi gure. 2. Groundbreaking research on obedience was conducted b. the person receiving orders wonders whether the by person giving orders has legitimate authority. a. Albert Bandura. c. the victim receiving the shocks is physically near the b. Solomon Asch. person receiving orders. c. Philip Zimbardo. d. the authority fi gure is from a prestigious institution. d. Stanley Milgram. e. the person receiving the orders is female. e. John Bargh.

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Answer to Practice FRQ 2 Practice FRQs 1. Defi ne conformity and obedience. Then, provide an 2. Stanley Milgram’s research on obedience triggered a 1 point: Milgram’s research placed example of each. debate over ethics. Explain the concern and Milgram’s undue stress on the participants since defense. Answer they believed they were administering (2 points) 1 point: Conformity is adjusting our behavior or thinking to powerful shocks to another person. coincide with a group standard. Also, Milgram used deception in his 1 point: Obedience is following the orders of an authority research. He told his participants fi gure. several things that were not true. For 1 point: Any correct example of conformity. Answers will example, it was untrue that the roles vary. of teacher and learner were assigned 1 point: Any correct example of obedience. Answers will vary. by chance. 1 point: Milgram noted that after the participants learned the truth behind the experiment, almost none regretted taking part in it. Also, none of the 40 teachers appeared to suff er emotional aftereff ects.

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.indd 770 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.indd 771 1/21/14 10:30 AM

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TEACH Module 76 TRMTRM Discussion Starter

Use the Module 76 Fact or Falsehood? s activity from the TRM to introduce the Group Behavior concepts from this module. TEACH

Module Learning Objectives Lumb/Demotix/Corbis James © Concept Connections 76-176-1 Describe how our behavior is affected by the presence of others. Relate social facilitation to test anxiety. 76-276-2 Explain group polarization and groupthink, and discuss the power Although some people experience of the individual. anxiety any time they take a test, most 76-376-3 Describe how behavior is infl uenced by cultural norms. only do so if they are not prepared for an assessment. Edward Thorndike proposed the so-called Law of Readi- ness, which states in part that if a 76-176-1 How is our behavior affected by the presence of others? person is not ready for a performance, Imagine yourself standing in a room, holding a fi shing pole. Your task is to wind the reel as he or she will feel frustrated and AP® Exam Tip fast as you can. On some occasions you wind in the presence of another participant who actively seek to avoid it. If the person is also winding as fast as possible. Will the other’s presence affect your own performance? As you work through this material, In one of social psychology’s fi rst experiments, Norman Triplett (1898) found that ado- identify examples of group is prepared, then he or she will be will- behavior in your own life. Then, lescents would wind a fi shing reel faster in the presence of someone doing the same thing. compare your examples with a ing and ready to perform. He and later social psychologists studied how others’ presence affects our behavior. Group classmate’s. This is a great way to infl uences operate in such simple groups—one person in the presence of another—and in make psychology come alive and to study effectively. more complex groups. ENGAGE

Social Facilitation Critical Questions If performance on tasks diminishes Triplett’s fi nding—of strengthened performance in others’ presence—is called social social facilitation improved when we are not good at that task, facilitation. But on tougher tasks (learning nonsense syllables or solving complex mul- performance on simple or well - tiplication problems), people perform worse when observers or others working on the learned tasks in the presence of consider the following scenarios: same task are present. Further studies revealed that the presence of others sometimes others. helps and sometimes hinders performance (Guerin, 1986; Zajonc, 1965). Why? Because Should students be able to when others observe us, we become aroused, and this arousal amplifi es our other re- schedule their tests so that they actions. It strengthens our most likely response—the correct one on an easy task, an can take them when they feel incorrect one on a diffi cult task. Thus, expert pool players who made 71 percent of their shots when alone made 80 percent when four people came to watch them (Michaels et ready? Why or why not? al., 1982). Poor shooters, who made 36 percent of their shots when alone, made only 25 Should a student be allowed to percent when watched. The energizing effect of an enthusiastic audience probably contributes to the home give an oral presentation in front advantage that has shown up in studies of more than a quarter-million college and profes- of the teacher or the class if he or sional athletic events in various countries (Jamieson, 2010). Home teams win about 6 in 10 she believes the project isn’t very games (somewhat fewer for baseball, cricket, and football, somewhat more for basketball, rugby, and soccer—see TABLE 76.1 on the next page). good or is uncomfortable when speaking in a public setting? Why or why not?

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod75_B.indd 770 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.indd TEACH 771 1/21/14 10:30 AM Flip It Students can get additional help understanding how other people aﬀ ect our behavior by watching the Flip It Video: Social Facilitation and Social Loaﬁ ng.

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The point to remember: TEACH Table 76.1 Home Advantage in What you do Team Sports well, you are likely to do even better in front of an audience, especially a friendly Concept Connections Home Team audience. What you normally fi nd dif- The Yerkes–Dodson Law also Games Winning fi cult may seem all but impossible when addresses how arousal impacts © Spencer Grant/age fotostock Sport Studied Percentage you are being watched. Social facilitation also helps explain Baseball 120,576 55.6% performance (Unit VIII, Figure 37.2, a funny effect of crowding. Comedians page 393). This law states that an opti- Cricket 513 57.0 and actors know that a “good house” is a full one. Crowding triggers arousal, mal level of arousal needs to be pres- American football 11,708 57.3 which, as we have seen, strengthens ent if we want to perform our best. other reactions, too. Comedy routines Ice hockey 50,739 59.5 Too little arousal means performance that are mildly amusing to people in Basketball 30,174 62.9 an uncrowded room seem funnier in a is half-hearted. Too much arousal densely packed room (Aiello et al., 1983; Rugby 2,653 63.7 leads performance to be sloppy. Freedman & Perlick, 1979). And in ex- Soccer 40,380 67.4 periments, when participants have been seated close to one another, they liked ENGAGE Source: From Jeremy Jamieson (2010). a friendly person even more, an unfriendly person even less (Schiffenbauer Active Learning & Schiavo, 1976; Storms & Thomas, 1977). So, for an energetic class or event, choose a Have students research your school’s room or set up seating that will just barely accommodate everyone. sports teams’ statistics. Do they notice Social Loafi ng signs of social facilitation in the following stats? Social facilitation experiments test the effect of others’ presence on performance on an individual task, such as shooting pool. But what happens to performance when people perform Home wins versus away wins the task as a group? In a team tug - of - war, for example, do you suppose your effort would be for team sports such as football, more than, less than, or the same as the effort you would exert in a one- on - one tug- of - war? To fi nd out, a University of Massachusetts research team asked blindfolded students “to pull soccer, basketball, and baseball as hard as you can” on a rope. When they fooled the students into believing three others Home wins versus away wins for were also pulling behind them, they exerted only 82 percent as much effort as when they thought they were pulling alone (Ingham et al., 1974). And consider what happened when individual sports such as track, blindfolded people seated in a group clapped or shouted as loud as they could while hear- wrestling, and cross-country ing (through headphones) other people clapping or shouting loudly (Latané, 1981). When they thought they were part of a group effort, the participants produced about one- third less Individual records/best games noise than when clapping or shouting “alone.” accomplished at home or away Working hard, or hardly for all sports. (For example, do working? In group basketball players make more projects, social loafing often occurs, as individuals free free throws at home or away? Do ride on the efforts of others. track athletes run faster at home Ted Humble Smith/Getty Images Ted or away? Do football players individually have higher stats for home games or away games?)

ENGAGEMyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.indd 772 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.indd 773 1/21/14 10:30 AM Critical Questions If social loaﬁ ng in group work is such a prob- If group members must evaluate each lem, why do teachers still assign group work? other, will that help minimize social loafing? Have students brainstorm ways to minimize Why or why not? social loaﬁ ng in group projects: Would assigning roles minimize social Should teachers stop assigning group loafing? Why or why not? projects altogether? Why or why not? How can group members motivate each other to their hardest during group work?

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Bibb Latané and his colleagues (1981; Jackson & Williams, 1988) described this diminished effort as social loafi ng. Experiments in the United States, India, Thailand, Japan, social loafi ng the tendency for ENGAGE people in a group to exert less effort China, and Taiwan have recorded social loafi ng on various tasks, though it was especially when pooling their efforts toward common among men in individualist cultures (Karau & Williams, 1993). What causes social attaining a common goal than Active Learning loafi ng? Three things: when individually accountable. Take students to your school’s gym • People acting as part of a group feel less accountable, and therefore worry less about deindividuation the loss of and have some volunteers shoot bas- what others think. self - awareness and self - restraint occurring in group situations that kets, with the rest of the class acting • Group members may view their individual contributions as dispensable (Harkins & foster arousal and anonymity. Szymanski, 1989; Kerr & Bruun, 1983). as either a supportive home crowd • When group members share equally in the benefi ts, regardless of how much they or a hostile away crowd (not too contribute, some may slack off (as you perhaps have observed on group assignments). hostile—only booing and distracting Unless highly motivated and strongly identifi ed with the group, people may free ride on others’ efforts. behavior allowed). Ask one student to record the number of shots each vol- Deindividuation unteer makes under each condition.

We’ve seen that the presence of others can arouse people Do the volunteers perform (social facilitation), or it can diminish their feelings of re- better under friendly or hostile sponsibility (social loaﬁ ng). But sometimes the presence of others does both. The uninhibited behavior that results can conditions? range from a food ﬁ ght to vandalism or rioting. This process How much experience does each of losing self-awareness and self-restraint, called deindividuation, often occurs when group participation makes people volunteer have shooting baskets?

both aroused and anonymous. In one experiment, New York Wire (Press Association via AP Images) Lewis Whyld/PA Will a basketball team member University women dressed in depersonalizing Ku Klux Klan – perform better under the “away style hoods. Compared with identiﬁ able women in a control group, the hooded women delivered twice as much electric crowd” condition than someone shock to a victim (Zimbardo, 1970). (As in all such experi- who has never played before? Why ments, the “victim” did not actually receive the shocks.) or why not? Deindividuation thrives, for better or for worse, in many different settings. Tribal war- riors who depersonalize themselves with face paints or masks are more likely than those Deindividuation During England’s with exposed faces to kill, torture, or mutilate captured enemies (Watson, 1973). Online, 2011 riots and looting, rioters were disinhibited by social arousal and by Internet trolls and bullies, who would never say “You’re so fake” to someone’s face, will the anonymity provided by darkness hide behind anonymity. Whether in a mob, at a rock concert, at a ballgame, or at worship, and their hoods and masks. Later, when we shed self-awareness and self-restraint, we become more responsive to the group some of those arrested expressed bewilderment over their own behavior. experience—bad or good. * * * We have examined the conditions under which being in the presence of others can motivate people to exert themselves or tempt them to free ride on the efforts of others, make easy tasks easier and difﬁ cult tasks harder, and enhance humor or fuel mob violence. Research also shows that interacting with others can similarly have both bad and good effects.

Group Polarization

76-276-2 What are group polarization and groupthink, and how much power do we have as individuals? Over time, initial differences between groups of college students tend to grow. If the ﬁ rst - year students at College X tend to be artistic and those at College Y tend to be business- savvy, those differences will probably be even greater by the time they graduate. Similarly, gender differences tend to widen over time, as Eleanor Maccoby (2002) noted from her decades of observing gender development. Girls talk more intimately than boys do and play

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.indd 772 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.inddENGAGE 773 1/21/14 10:30 AM Critical Questions Students may have seen news reports of sports Does alcohol use during sporting events fans rioting after either winning or losing major increase the effects of deindividuation? championship games. Have students come up Does dressing up or painting one’s face with reasons why this behavior occurs. increase or decrease the likelihood of What types of actions does the crowd deindividuation? engage in that are considered illegal? How does deindividuation play into these events?

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Figure 76.1 and fantasize less aggressively; these dif- ENGAGE ferences will be amplifi ed as boys and girls Group polarization If a group is like -minded, discussion strengthens its High +4 interact mostly with their own gender. TRMTRM Active Learning prevailing opinions. Talking over racial In each case, the beliefs and attitudes issues increased prejudice in a high - +3 we bring to a group grow stronger as we Divide students into 2 groups. Assign prejudice group of high school students High-prejudice discuss them with like-minded others. and decreased it in a low -prejudice +2 groups to each group the side of an issue that group (Myers & Bishop, 1970). This process, called group polarization, Discussion among like-minded it must defend, whether group mem- +1 people tends to strengthen can have benefi cial results, as when it preexisting attitudes bers believe in that position or not. amplifi es a sought-after spiritual aware- PREJUDICE 0 ness or reinforces the resolve of those Give students 10–15 minutes to dis- Low-prejudice in a self- help group. But it can also have –1 cuss the issue in their respective small groups dire consequences. George Bishop and I –2 discovered that when high- prejudice stu- groups, and then let the 2 groups dents discussed racial issues, they became debate it in class. Discuss their feelings –3 more prejudiced (FIGURE 76.1). (Low - prejudice students became even more ac- about the issue they addressed: Low –4 Before discussion After discussion cepting.) Thus ideological separation + de- How did students feel about their liberation = polarization between groups. assigned positions on the issue Group polarization can feed extremism and even suicide terrorism. Analysis of terror- group polarization ist organizations around the world reveals that the terrorist mentality does not erupt sud- when they started discussion the enhancement of a group’s denly, on a whim (McCauley, 2002; McCauley & Segal, 1987; Merari, 2002). It usually begins within their groups? prevailing inclinations through slowly, among people who share a grievance. As they interact in isolation (sometimes with discussion within the group. other “brothers” and “sisters” in camps) their views grow more and more extreme. Increas- Did their feelings about the issue ingly, they categorize the world as “us” against “them” (Moghaddam, 2005; Qirko, 2004). change as they discussed it within The like-minded echo chamber will continue to polarize people, speculated a 2006 U.S. their groups? National Intelligence estimate: “We assess that the operational threat from self-radicalized “What explains the rise of facism cells will grow.” Did they become more defensive in the 1930s? The emergence of When I got my start in social psychology with experiments on group polarization, I about their positions during the student radicalism in the 1960s? never imagined the potential dangers, or the creative possibilities, of polarization in vir- The growth of Islamic terrorism tual groups. Electronic communication and social networking have created virtual town in the 1990s?. . . The unifying whole-class debate? theme is simple: When people halls where people can isolate themselves from those whose perspective differs. People fi nd themselves in groups of like- read blogs that reinforce their views, and those blogs link to kindred blogs (FIGURE 76.2). Use Student Activity: Group Polar- minded types, they are especially As the Internet connects the like-minded and pools their ideas, climate-change skeptics, ization from the TRM for another likely to move to extremes. [This] is the phenomenon of group those who believe they’ve been abducted by aliens, and conspiracy theorists fi nd support for activity to put group polarization into polarization.” -CASS SUNSTEIN, their shared ideas and suspicions. White supremacists may become more racist. And militia GOING TO EXTREMES, 2009 members may become more terrorism prone. In the echo chambers of virtual worlds, as in practice. the real world, separation + conversation = polarization. But the Internet-as-social-amplifi er can also work for good. Social networking sites connect friends and family members sharing common interests or coping with challenges. Peace- makers, cancer survivors, and bereaved parents can fi nd strength and solace from kindred

Figure 76.2 Like minds network in the blogosphere Blue liberal blogs link mostly to one another, as do red conservative blogs. (The intervening colors display links across the liberal- conservative boundary.) Each blog’s size reflects the number of other blogs linking to it. (From Lazer et al., 2009.) pages 36–43, 2005. on Link Discovery, Lada Adamic and Natalie Glance. The political blogosphere and the 2004 U.S. election: Divided they blog. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop blog. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.inddTEACH 774 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.indd 775 1/21/14 10:30 AM Concept Connections Link group polarization and deindividuation by helping students see that being part of a group can release people from individual responsibility and often discourages critical thinking. Group polarization is fueled by deindividuation.

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spirits. By amplifying shared concerns and ideas, Internet-enhanced communication can also foster social ventures. (I know this personally from social networking with others with hearing ENGAGE loss to transform U. S. assistive-listening technology.) The point to remember: By linking and magnifying the inclinations of like-minded peo- Active Learning ple, the Internet can be very, very bad, but also very, very good. Groupthink has impacted several Groupthink famous historical events. Have students research the following So group interaction can infl uence our personal decisions. Does it ever distort important events, citing how groupthink was national decisions? Consider the “Bay of Pigs fi asco.” In 1961, President John F. Kennedy and his advisers decided to invade Cuba with 1400 CIA-trained Cuban exiles. When the either avoided or led to dreadful invaders were easily captured and soon linked to the U.S. government, Kennedy wondered consequences: in hindsight, “How could we have been so stupid?” Social psychologist Irving Janis (1982) studied the decision - making procedures lead- The space shuttle Columbia ing to the ill-fated invasion. He discovered that the soaring morale of the recently elected “One of the dangers in the White disaster president and his advisers fostered undue confi dence. To preserve the good feeling, group House, based on my reading of history, is that you get wrapped members suppressed or self- censored their dissenting views, especially after President Ken- up in groupthink and everybody The Bay of Pigs nedy voiced his enthusiasm for the scheme. Since no one spoke strongly against the idea, agrees with everything, and The Cuban Missile Crisis everyone assumed the support was unanimous. To describe this harmonious but unrealistic there’s no discussion and there are no dissenting views.” -BARACK groupthink. group thinking, Janis coined the term OBAMA, DECEMBER 1, 2008, PRESS The Vietnam war Later studies showed that groupthink—fed by overconfi dence, conformity, self- CONFERENCE justifi cation, and group polarization—contributed to other fi ascos as well. Among them The run-up to the Iraq war were the failure to anticipate the 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor; the escalation of the The Bernie Madoff scandal Vietnam war; the U.S. Watergate cover - up; the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident (Reason, 1987); the U.S. space shuttle Challenger explosion (Esser & Lindoerfer, 1989); and the Iraq war, launched on the false idea that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction (U.S. Senate Intelligence Committee, 2004). Despite the dangers of groupthink, two heads are better than one in solving many problems. Knowing this, Janis also studied instances in which U.S. presidents and their “Truth springs from argument advisers collectively made good decisions, such as when the Truman administration formu- among friends.” -PHILOSOPHER DAVID HUME, 1711–1776 lated the Marshall Plan, which offered assistance to Europe after World War II, and when the Kennedy administration successfully prevented the Soviets from installing missiles in Cuba. In such instances—and in the business world, too, Janis believed—groupthink is prevented when a leader welcomes various opinions, invites experts’ critiques of developing plans, and assigns people to identify possible problems. Just as the suppression of dissent bends a group toward bad decisions, so open debate often shapes good ones. This is especially so “If you have an apple and I have with diverse groups, whose varied perspectives often enable creative or superior outcomes an apple and we exchange apples (Nemeth & Ormiston, 2007; Page, 2007). None of us is as smart as all of us. then you and I will still each have one apple. But if you have an idea and I have an idea and The Power of Individuals we exchange these ideas, then each of us will have two ideas.” In affi rming the power of social infl uence, we must not overlook the power of indi- -ATTRIBUTED TO DRAMATIST GEORGE viduals. Social control (the power of the situation) and personal control (the power of BERNARD SHAW, 1856–1950 the individual) interact. People aren’t billiard balls. When feeling coerced, we may react by doing the opposite of what is expected, thereby reasserting our sense of freedom (Brehm & Brehm, 1981). Committed individuals can sway the majority and make social history. Were this not so, communism would have remained an obscure theory, Christianity would be a small Middle groupthink the mode of thinking Eastern sect, and Rosa Parks’ refusal to sit at the back of the bus would not have ignited the that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision - making U.S. civil rights movement. Technological history, too, is often made by innovative minorities group overrides a realistic appraisal who overcome the majority’s resistance to change. To many, the railroad was a nonsensical of alternatives. idea; some farmers even feared that train noise would prevent hens from laying eggs. People

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.indd 774 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.indd TEACH 775 1/21/14 10:30 AM Common Pitfalls Ask students if they have ever experienced Groupthink also reflects the presence of a groupthink or the pressure to conform. Stu- charismatic leader. Everyone in the group dents may confuse conformity and groupthink. seems to be going along with the leader, Help them distinguish between the 2 concepts making it difficult for an individual to speak using these explanations: out. Groupthink occurs when people suppress Conformity occurs simply when people their opinions (also known as self- don’t want to be different. They are not censoring) in order to maintain perceived necessarily self-censoring. Rather, they group harmony. In a groupthink situation, are going along due to normative or someone does not want to become informational social influence. the “odd one out.”

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derided Robert Fulton’s steamboat as “Fulton’s Folly.” As Fulton ENGAGE later said, “Never did a single encouraging remark, a bright hope, Active Learning a warm wish, cross my path.” Much the same reaction greeted

akg-images/Newscom the printing press, the telegraph, the incandescent lamp, and the Have students do a character study of typewriter (Cantril & Bumstead, 1960). The power of one or two individuals to sway majorities is mi- famous individuals who stood up to nority infl uence (Moscovici, 1985). In studies of groups in which the majority to enact positive change, one or two individuals consistently express a controversial atti- exploring the qualities and beliefs tude or an unusual perceptual judgment, one fi nding repeatedly stands out: When you are the minority, you are far more likely to they possessed that enabled them sway the majority if you hold fi rmly to your position and don’t to stand fi rm. Encourage students to waffl e. This tactic won’t make you popular, but it may make you infl uential, especially if your self- confi dence stimulates others to fi nd examples not found on the list consider why you react as you do. Even when a minority’s infl u- below that represent diverse cultural ence is not yet visible, people may privately develop sympathy backgrounds: for the minority position and rethink their views (Wood et al., Gandhi As the life of Hindu nationalist 1994). The powers of social infl uence are enormous, but so are the powers of the commit- Martin Luther King, Jr. and spiritual leader Mahatma Gandhi ted individual. powerfully testifies, a consistent Che Guevara and persistent minority voice can sometimes sway the majority. William Wallace (whose story was Gandhi’s nonviolent appeals and fasts Cultural Infl uences were instrumental in winning India’s featured in the movie Braveheart) independence from Britain in 1947. 76-376-3 How do cultural norms affect our behavior? Martin Luther Compared with the narrow path taken by fl ies, fi sh, and foxes, the road along which envi- Galileo Galilei ronment drives us is wider. The mark of our species—nature’s great gift to us—is our ability to learn and adapt. We come equipped with a huge cerebral hard drive ready to receive Joan of Arc cultural software. culture the enduring behaviors, Culture is the behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of ideas, attitudes, values, and people and transmitted from one generation to the next (Brislin, 1988; Cohen, 2009). Hu- traditions shared by a group of man nature, notes Roy Baumeister (2005), seems designed for culture. We are social animals, people and transmitted from one but more. Wolves are social animals; they live and hunt in packs. Ants are incessantly social, generation to the next. never alone. But “culture is a better way of being social,” notes Baumeister. Wolves function pretty much as they did 10,000 years ago. You and I enjoy things unknown to most of our century- ago ancestors, including electricity, indoor plumbing, antibiotics, and the Internet. Culture works. Other animals exhibit the rudiments of culture. Primates have local customs of tool use, grooming, and courtship. Younger chimpanzees and macaque monkeys sometimes invent customs—potato washing, in one famous example—and pass them on to their peers and offspring. But human culture does more. It supports our species’ survival and reproduction by enabling social and economic systems that give us an edge. Thanks to our mastery of language, we humans enjoy the preservation of innovation. Within the span of this day, I have, thanks to my culture, made good use of Post- it Notes, Google, and digital hearing technology. Moreover, culture enables an effi cient division of labor. Although one lucky person gets his name on this book’s cover, the product actually results from the coordination and commitment of a team of people, no one of whom could produce it alone. Across cultures, we differ in our language, our monetary systems, our sports, which fork—if any—we eat with, even which side of the road we drive on. But beneath these differences is our great similarity—our capacity for culture. Culture transmits the customs and beliefs that enable us to communicate, to exchange money for things, to play, to eat, and to drive with agreed - upon rules and without crashing into one another.

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.inddTEACH 776 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.indd 777 1/21/14 10:30 AM Concept Connections David Matsumoto deﬁ nes culture not as Technology access. How accessible nationalities or ethnic groups; he connects it to technology (computers versus hand tools) shared experiences. He says that the inﬂ uential is helps determine culture. factors for determining a culture are: Climate. Cultural practices can be largely Relative affluence. The relative wealth of determined by climate conditions—arid or people in a culture helps distinguish them wet, hot or cold. from others. Population density. The conditions under which people live (crowded apartment buildings or wide, open prairies) help distinguish cultural groups.

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Variation Across Cultures TEACH We see our adaptability in cultural variations among our beliefs and our values, in how we raise our children and bury our dead, and in what we wear (or whether we wear anything Teaching Tip at all). I am ever mindful that the readers of this book are culturally diverse. You and your ancestors reach from Australia to Africa and from Singapore to Sweden. Have students explore cultural-spe- Riding along with a unifi ed culture is like biking with the wind: As it carries us along, cifi c behaviors and customs. They can we hardly notice it is there. When we try riding against the wind, we feel its force. Face to interview people from a single culture, face with a different culture, we become aware of the cultural winds. Stationed in Iraq, Af- ghanistan, and Kuwait, American and European soldiers were reminded how liberal their look up information about that culture home cultures were. on the Internet, or research diff erent Humans in varied cultures nevertheless share some basic moral ideas, as we noted books that contain cultural informa- earlier. Even before they can walk, babies display a moral sense by showing disapproval of what’s wrong or naughty (Bloom, 2010). Yet each cultural group also evolves its own tion. The diff erences in culture that norms—rules for accepted and expected behavior. The British have a norm for orderly wait- are uncovered should help students ing in line. Many South Asians use only the right hand’s fi ngers for eating. Sometimes social expectations seem oppressive: Why should it matter how I dress? Yet, norms grease the understand diverse cultural traditions. “ ” norm an understood rule for social machinery and free us from self-preoccupation. accepted and expected behavior. When cultures collide, their differing norms often befuddle. Should we greet people Norms prescribe “proper” behavior. ENGAGE by shaking hands or kissing each cheek? The answer depends on the surrounding culture. Learning when to clap or bow, how to order at a new restaurant, and what sorts of gestures Active Learning and compliments are appropriate help us avoid accidental insults and embarrassment. When we don’t understand what’s expected or accepted, we may experience culture shock. Have students conduct an informal People from Mediterranean cultures have perceived survey of their friends, family, and northern Europeans as effi cient but cold and preoccupied with punctuality (Triandis, 1981). People from neighbors to see what behaviors or time-conscious Japan—where bank clocks keep ex- customs they consider to be rude act time, pedestrians walk briskly, and postal clerks within their cultures: fi ll requests speedily—have found themselves growing impatient when visiting Indonesia, where clocks What do you consider rude? Why keep less accurate time and the pace of life is more do you consider it rude? leisurely (Levine & Norenzayan, 1999). In adjusting to their host countries, the fi rst wave of U.S. Peace Corps What kind of politeness do you volunteers reported that two of their greatest culture expect from others? Why? shocks, after the language differences, were the differing pace of life and the people’s differing sense of Do you confront people who are punctuality (Spradley & Phillips, 1972). © The New Yorker Collection, 2010, Harry Bliss from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved rude or impolite? Why or why not? Variation Over Time Like biological creatures, cultures vary and compete for resources, and thus evolve over time (Mesoudi, 2009). Consider how rapidly cultures may change. English poet Geoffrey Chaucer (1342–1400) is separated from a modern Briton by only 25 generations, but the two would converse with great diffi culty. In the thin slice of history since 1960, most West- ern cultures have changed with remarkable speed. Middle- class people today fl y to places they once only read about. They enjoy the convenience of air-conditioned housing, on line shopping, anywhere-anytime electronic communication, and—enriched by doubled per - person real income—eating out more than twice as often as did their grandparents back in the culture of 1960. Many minority groups enjoy expanded human rights. And, with greater economic independence, today’s women more often marry for love and less often endure abusive relationships (Circle of Prevention, 2002). But some changes seem not so wonderfully positive. Had you fallen asleep in the United States in 1960 and awakened today, you would open your eyes to a culture with

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.indd 776 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod76_B.indd TEACH 777 1/21/14 10:30 AM Diversity Connections Have students write a refl ective paper about Culture- and class-related values their cultural experiences. Recall your fi rst (or a Racism and stereotypes recent) experience of cultural diff erence. How Adapted from Ernst, R. M. (1997, January). A matter of did it happen? How did you feel? Given the context. Presentation to the National Institute for the importance of cultural context, explain how Teaching of Psychology, St. Petersburg, FL. the following may be considered ethnic and cultural stumbling blocks: Language and nonverbal communications Ethnocentricity

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more divorce and depression. You would also fi nd North Americans—like their counterparts CLOSE & ASSESS in Britain, Australia, and New Zealand—spending more hours at work, fewer hours with friends and family, and fewer hours asleep (BLS, 2011; Putnam, 2000). Exit Assessment Whether we love or loathe these changes, we cannot fail to be impressed by their As preparation for the AP® exam, have breathtaking speed. And we cannot explain them by changes in the human gene pool, which evolves far too slowly to account for high- speed cultural transformations. Cultures students explain how a group can be vary. Cultures change. And cultures shape our lives. positively and negatively infl uenced in a short paper. Students should be able Before You Move On to accurately describe social facilita- c ASK YOURSELF tion and, at times, group polarization What two examples of social infl uence have you experienced this week? (Remember, on the positive side and social loafi ng, infl uence may be informational.) deindividuation, and groupthink on c TEST YOURSELF the negative side. You are organizing a Town Hall–style meeting of fi ercely competitive political candidates. To add to the fun, friends have suggested handing out masks of the candidates’ faces for supporters to wear. What phenomenon might these masks engage? Answers to the Test Yourself questions can be found in Appendix E at the end of the book.

Module 76 Review How is our behavior affected by the 76-1 76-376-3 How do cultural norms affect our behavior? presence of others?

• In social facilitation, the mere presence of others arouses • A culture is a set of behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and us, improving our performance on easy or well-learned traditions shared by a group and transmitted from one tasks but decreasing it on difﬁ cult ones. generation to the next. • In social loaﬁ ng, participating in a group project makes us • Cultural norms are understood rules that inform members feel less responsible, and we may free ride on others’ efforts. of a culture about accepted and expected behaviors. • When the presence of others both arouses us and makes • Cultures differ across time and space. us feel anonymous, we may experience deindividuation— loss of self-awareness and self-restraint.

76-2 What are group polarization and groupthink, and how much power do we have as individuals?

• In group polarization, group discussions with like-minded others strengthen members’ prevailing beliefs and attitudes. Internet communication magniﬁ es this effect, for better and for worse. • Groupthink is driven by a desire for harmony within a decision-making group, overriding realistic appraisal of alternatives. • The power of the individual and the power of the situation interact. A small minority that consistently expresses its views may sway the majority.

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Multiple-Choice Questions Answers to Multiple-Choice 1. What do we call the improved performance on simple or 3. Which of the following is most likely to occur when the Questions well-learned tasks in the presence of others? desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a. Social facilitation a realistic appraisal of alternatives? 1. a 3. b b. Group behavior a. Group polarization 2. d 4. d c. Social loaﬁ ng b. Groupthink d. Deindividuation c. Social loaﬁ ng e. Group polarization d. Norming e. Prejudice 2. Which of the following terms or phrases best describes the behavior of rowdy fans yelling obscenities at a 4. What do we call the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, football or soccer referee after a controversial penalty has values, and traditions shared by a group of people and been called? transmitted from one generation to the next? a. Culture a. Deindividuation b. Social facilitation b. Norms c. Groupthink c. Social facilitation d. Deindividuation d. Culture e. Group polarization e. Social control

Practice FRQs Answer to Practice FRQ 2 1. Describe the three causes of social loafi ng. 2. Defi ne groupthink and group polarization. Then, provide an example of each. 1 point: Groupthink is the mode of Answer (4 points) thinking that occurs when the desire 1 point: People acting as part of a group feel less accountable. for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of 1 point: Group members may view their individual contributions as dispensable. alternatives. 1 point: Unless highly motivated and strongly identifi ed 1 point: Group polarization is the with the group, people may free ride on others’ efforts. enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group. 1 point: Any correct example of groupthink can earn credit. Answers will vary. 1 point: Any correct example of group polarization can earn credit. Answers will vary.

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TEACH TRMTRM Discussion Starter Module 77 Use the Module 77 Fact or Falsehood? activity from the TRM to introduce the Prejudice and Discrimination concepts from this module.

TEACH Module Learning Objectives

Paolo Bruno/Getty Images Teaching Tip 77-177-1 Defi ne prejudice, and identify its social and emotional roots.

This unit primarily focuses on ways 77-277-2 Identify the cognitive roots of prejudice. in which groups infl uence behavior negatively. Students may thus miss the ways in which group infl uence can be positive. Have students create e have sampled how we think about and infl uence a chart in which they list the ways W one another. Now we come to social psychology’s third focus—how we relate to one another. What in which groups infl uence individu- causes us to harm or to help or to fall in love? How can we move a als both positively and negatively. destructive confl ict toward a just peace? We will ponder the bad and the good: from prejudice and aggression to attraction, altruism, and peacemaking. This may help them understand the prejudice an unjustifi able and nuances of these concepts. usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice Prejudicej generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition 77-177-1 What is prejudice? What are its social and emotional roots? TEACH to discriminatory action. Teaching Tip stereotype a generalized Prejudice means “prejudgment.” It is an unjustifi able and usually negative attitude toward (sometimes accurate but often a group—often a different cultural, ethnic, or gender group. Like all attitudes, prejudice is a Point out that even though ethnocen- overgeneralized) belief about a three-part mixture of group of people. trism is not a bolded key term, it is • beliefs (in this case, called stereotypes). discrimination unjustifi able important to remember. This is a term negative behavior toward a group • emotions (for example, hostility or fear). they may see on the AP® exam. and its members. • predispositions to action (to discriminate). Ethnocentrism—assuming the superiority of one’s ethnic group—is one example of prejudice. To believe that a person of another ethnicity is somehow inferior or threatening, to feel dislike for that person, and to be hesitant to hire or date that person is to be prejudiced. Prejudice is a negative attitude. Discrimination is a negative behavior.

FYI How Prejudiced Are People? Percentage of 2010 American To assess prejudice, we can observe what people say and what they do. Americans’ ex- marriages to someone whose race or ethnicity differed from pressed gender and racial attitudes have changed dramatically in the last half - century. one’s own: The one- third of Americans who in 1937 told Gallup pollsters that they would vote for a Whites 9% qualiﬁ ed woman whom their party nominated for president soared to 89 percent in 2007 Blacks 17% Hispanics 26% (Gallup Brain, 2008; Jones & Moore, 2003). Nearly everyone now agrees that women and Asians 28% men should receive the same pay for the same job, and that children of all races should Source: Wang, 2012 attend the same schools.

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Support for all forms of racial contact, including interracial dating (FIGURE 77.1), has AP® Exam Tip also dramatically increased. Among 18- to 29-year old Americans, 9 in 10 now say they TEACH It’s worth spending a little time would be fi ne with a family member marrying someone of a different race (Pew, 2010). focusing on the distinction Common Pitfalls Yet as overt prejudice wanes, subtle prejudice lingers. Despite increased verbal support between discrimination and for interracial marriage, many people admit that in socially intimate settings (dating, danc- prejudice. They are related, but Adults who lived through the civil ing, marrying) they would feel uncomfortable with someone of another race. And many different. The most important thing to note is that prejudice is rights movement know that prejudice people who say they would feel upset with someone making racist slurs actually, when hear- cognitive in nature. Discrimination, ing such racism, respond indifferently (Kawakami et al., 2009). In Western Europe, where on the other hand, is behavior and discrimination involved clashes many “guest workers” and refugees settled at the end of the twentieth century, “modern motivated by prejudice. among people of diff erent racial prejudice”—rejecting immigrant minorities as job applicants for supposedly nonracial reasons—has been replacing blatant prejudice (Jackson et al., 2001; Lester, 2004; Pettigrew, or ethnic groups. Today, students 1998, 2006). A slew of recent experiments illustrates that prejudice can be not only subtle are confronted with prejudice and but also automatic and unconscious (see Close-up: Automatic Prejudice on the next page). discrimination based on religion, race, Nevertheless, overt prejudice persists in many places. Just ask Italy’s AC Milan soccer star Kevin-Prince Boateng (pictured at the beginning of this module), of Ghanaian ethnicity, sexual orientation, and body descent, who strode off the fi eld in protest after being subjected to racial taunts from type. Help students see the varied spectators. And in the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks and the Iraq and Afghanistan ways people hold prejudices and wars, 4 in 10 Americans acknowledged “some feelings of prejudice against Muslims,” and about half of non-Muslims in Western Europe and the United States perceived Muslims discriminate against each other. This as “violent” (Saad, 2006; Wike & Grim, 2007). With Americans feeling threatened by Ar- will help them apply studies regarding abs, and as opposition to Islamic mosques and immigration fl ared in 2010, one national observer noted that “Muslims are one of the last minorities in the United States that it one type of prejudice with another. is still possible to demean openly” (Kristof, 2010; Lyons et al., 2010). Muslims recipro- “Unhappily, the world has yet to cated the negativity, with most in Jordan, Egypt, Turkey, and Britain seeing Westerners as learn how to live with diversity.” ENGAGE “greedy” and “immoral.” -POPE JOHN PAUL II, ADDRESS TO THE UNITED NATIONS, 1995 In most places in the world, gays and lesbians cannot comfortably acknowledge who Enrichment they are and whom they love. Gender prejudice and discrimination persist, too. Despite gender equality in intelligence scores, people have tended to perceive their fathers as In 1942, less than one-third of whites more intelligent than their mothers (Furnham & Rawles, 1995). In Saudi Arabia, women supported school integration. Today, are not allowed to drive. In Western countries, we pay more to those (usually men) who care for our streets than to those (usually women) who care for our children. Worldwide, nearly everyone agrees that children women are more likely to live in poverty (Lipps, 1999), and two-thirds of illiterate adults of all races should attend the same are women (CIA, 2010). schools. Still, prejudice persists. Unwanted female infants are no longer left out on a hillside to die of exposure, as was the practice in ancient Greece. Yet natural female mortality and the normal male - Opinions about interracial contacts to- female newborn ratio (105-to-100) hardly explain the world’s estimated 163 million reveal prejudice. In one survey, only 3 percent of whites indicated that 100% Figure 77.1 Support for they didn’t want their children to 90 Born 1977+ Prejudice over time interracial Born 1965–76 Americans’ attend an integrated school, but 57 dating 80 Born 1946–64 approval of interracial dating has soared over the past quarter-century 70 percent suggested that a Black son- or Born 1928–45 (Pew, 2010). 60 daughter-in-law would make them 50 40 Born before 1928 unhappy. 30 Patterson, J., & Kim, P. (1991). The day 20 10 America told the truth. New York: Prentice 0 Hall. 1987 199119891993 1995 19991997 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 Year

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd 780 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd TEACH 781 1/21/14 10:30 AM Concept Connections Link the discussion of prejudice to framing, as discussed in Unit VII. People will respond in a prejudiced fashion or not, depending on how the situation is framed. If we are aware of the eﬀ ects of framing, we are less likely to succumb to it.

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Close-up ENGAGE Automatic Prejudice

Online Activities As we have seen throughout this book, the human mind pro- this killing of an unarmed man, two research teams reenacted the Have students prepare a 1- to 2-page cesses thoughts, memories, and attitudes on two different tracks. situation (Correll et al., 2002, 2007; Greenwald et al., 2003). They Sometimes that processing is explicit—on the radar screen of our asked viewers to press buttons quickly to “shoot” or not shoot men profi le of one of the hate groups awareness. To an even greater extent, it is implicit—below the who suddenly appeared on screen. Some of the on-screen men described on the www.tolerance.org radar, leaving us unaware of how our attitudes are infl uencing our held a gun. Others held a harmless object, such as a fl ashlight or behavior. Modern studies indicate that prejudice is often implicit, bottle. People (both Blacks and Whites, in one study) more often site, which is a project of the Southern an automatic attitude that is an unthinking knee -jerk response. shot Black men holding the harmless objects. Priming people with Poverty Law Center. Consider these fi ndings: a fl ashed Black rather than White face also makes them more likely Implicit Racial Associations Using Implicit Association Tests, to misperceive a fl ashed tool as a gun (FIGURE 77.2). How are the beliefs of this researchers have demonstrated that even people who deny harbor- Refl exive Bodily Responses Even people who consciously ing racial prejudice may carry negative associations (Greenwald et express little prejudice may give off telltale signals as their body particular group prejudiced? al., 1998, 2009). (By 2011, nearly 5 million people had taken the responds selectively to another’s race. Neuroscientists can detect What stereotypes does the group Implicit Association Test, as you can at www.implicit.harvard.edu.) these signals when people look at White and Black faces. The For example, 9 in 10 White respondents took longer to identify pleas- viewers’ implicit prejudice may show up in facial- muscle respons- embrace and against whom? ant words (such as peace and paradise) as “good” when presented es and in the activation of their emotion- processing amygdala What type of discrimination is with Black-sounding names (such as Latisha and Darnell) rather than (Cunningham et al., 2004; Eberhardt, 2005; Stanley et al., 2008). White-sounding names (such as Katie and Ian). Moreover, people If your own gut check reveals you sometimes have feelings you recommended against the hated who more quickly associate good things with White names or faces would rather not have about other people, remember this: It is what group? also are the quickest to perceive anger and apparent threat in Black we do with our feelings that matters. By monitoring our feelings and faces (Hugenberg & Bodenhausen, 2003). actions, and by replacing old habits with new ones based on new Does the First Amendment protect Although the test is useful for studying automatic prejudice, friendships, we can work to free ourselves from prejudice. critics caution against using it to assess or label individuals (Blan- this type of behavior? Why or why ton et al., 2006, 2007, 2009). Defenders counter that implicit not? biases predict behaviors that range from simple acts of friendliness to the evaluation of work quality (Greenwald et al., 2009). In the 2008 U.S. presidential election, implicit as well as explicit TEACH prejudice predicted voters’ support for candidate Barack Obama, whose election in turn served to reduce implicit prejudice (Bern- TRMTRM Concept Connections stein et al., 2010; Payne et al., 2010). Inti St Clair/Blend Images/Corbis Unconscious Patronization When White university women Visual Mask Link stereotyping to Jean Piaget’s con- evaluated a fl awed essay said to be written by a Black fellow stu- (a) cept of schema (Unit IX). As children, dent, they gave markedly higher ratings and never expressed the harsh criticisms they assigned to fl awed essays supposedly writ- we categorize the world around us ten by White students (Harber, 1998). Did the evaluators calibrate into schemas. We form schemas for their evaluations to their racial stereotypes, leading to less exact- Stanislav Popov/Shutterstock ing standards and a patronizing attitude? In real - world evalua- (b) everything, from people to animals tions, such low expectations and the resulting “infl ated praise and to plants. When we learn something insuffi cient criticism” could hinder minority student achievement, the researcher noted. (To preclude such bias, many teachers read new, we assimilate that information essays while “blind” to their authors.) (c) Race -Infl uenced Perceptions Our expectations infl uence into our existing schemas. When what Figure 77.2 Race primes perceptions our perceptions. In 1999, Amadou Diallo was accosted as he ap- In experiments by Keith Payne (2006), people viewed (a) a White or Black face, immediately we learn confl icts with a schema, proached his apartment house doorway by police offi cers looking followed by (b) a gun or hand tool, which was then followed by (c) a we will need to adjust our schemas for a rapist. When he pulled out his wallet, the offi cers, perceiving a visual mask. Participants were more likely to misperceive a tool as a gun, riddled his body with 19 bullets from 41 shots. Curious about gun when it was preceded by a Black rather than White face. through a process called accommoda- tion. Hopefully, prejudiced schemas are accommodated quickly when we (say that number slowly) “missing women” (Hvistendahl, 2011). In many places, sons are valued more than daughters. With testing that enables sex - selective abortions, several learn positive qualities about a person Asian countries have experienced a shortfall in female births (FIGURE 77.3). Although or group of people! China has declared that sex- selective abortions—gender genocide—are now a criminal Use Student Activity: Measuring offense, the country’s newborn sex ratio is still 118 boys for every 100 girls (Hvistendahl, Stereotypes from the TRM to provide an activity on how researchers measure stereotypes.

ENGAGEMyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd 782 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd 783 1/21/14 10:30 AM TRMTRM Online Activities Students can test their own implicit prejudices with the Harvard Implicit Association Test (IAT) found online at http://implicit.harvard.edu. The researchers have posted several versions of the IAT, including items that test for age, gender-career, Arab-Muslim, disability, Native American/Alaska Native, race, religion, and weight prejudices. Use Student Activity: Implicit Association Test from the TRM for a worksheet that students can use in conjunction with the Harvard IAT.

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Figure 77.3 Percent boys ENGAGE at birth China Missing girls In several Asian 54% countries, especially in China, which has mandated one-child families, boy Active Learning babies are overrepresented (Abrevaya, 2009). In China, this overrepresentation Divide students into homogeneous still occurred in 2009: 54.5 percent groups according to race, gender, or 53 of babies were boys and only 45.5 India percent were girls (Hvistendahl, 2010). school group aﬃ liation (band members, athletes, drama club members, South Korea 52 and the like). Have them write down the positive and negative stereotypes others may associate with their United States

51 groups. 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Year Which aspects of your group’s stereotype do you like? Which do 2009, 2010, 2011), and 95 percent of the children in Chinese orphanages are girls (Webley, you not like? 2009). With males under age 20 exceeding females by 32 million, many Chinese bachelors Do all members of your group fit will be unable to ﬁ nd mates (Zhu et al., 2009). In the United States, a striking sex-ratio bias appears among Chinese, Korean, and the common stereotype? Why or Asian Indian parents with a third child. Sons outnumber daughters by 50 percent after two why not? previous girl births. Given a previous boy birth, or given Caucasian parents, there is no sex- ratio bias (Almond & Edlund, 2008). How can your group communicate Studies have shown, however, that most people feel more positively about women to others that all its members don’t in general than they do about men (Eagly, 1994; Haddock & Zanna, 1994). Worldwide, people see women as having some traits (such as nurturance, sensitivity, and less aggres- necessarily correspond to the siveness) that most people prefer (Glick et al., 2004; Swim, 1994). That may explain why stereotype? women tend to like women more than men like men (Rudman & Goodwin, 2004). And perhaps that is also why people prefer slightly feminized computer-generated faces— men’s and women’s—to slightly masculinized faces. Researcher David Perrett and his ENGAGE colleagues (1998) have speculated that a slightly feminized male face connotes kindness, cooperativeness, and other traits of a good father. When the British Broadcasting Corpo- TRMTRM Active Learning ration invited 18,000 women to guess which of the men in FIGURE 77.4 was most likely Have students research laws to place a personal ad seeking a “special lady to love and cherish forever,” which one do you think they picked? that encourage and prohibit discrimination. Figure 77.4 What types of discrimination does Who do you like best? Which the law allow? Why? (Consider the one placed an ad seeking “a special lady to love and cherish forever”? treatment of people with special

(See answer below.) needs in school and affirmative response to both of these questions. these of both to response

generated face (b) in in (b) face generated -

computer computer action in many arenas.)

66 percent of the women picked picked women the of percent 66

than with promiscuous cads. Thus, Thus, cads. promiscuous with than What types of discrimination does associate more with committed dads dads committed with more associate

Professor Dave Perrett, St. Andrews University

image, which people tend to to tend people which image, the law not allow? Why? (Consider

feminized features convey a likable likable a convey features feminized Research suggests that subtly subtly that suggests Research the applications people fill out when

(a) (b) registering to vote or applying for a job. Most states prohibit employers from asking about a person’s race on a job application.) What types of discrimination

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd 782 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd 783 1/21/14 10:30 AM does the law seem ambivalent about? (Consider the vague areas, for example, of age discrimination and discrimination against people because of their sexual orientation or gender.) Use Student Activity: Positions of Privilege and Institutional Racism and Student Activity: Institutional Discrim- ination from the TRM to help students explore the eﬀ ects of discrimination.

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Social Roots of Prejudice TEACH just - world phenomenon the tendency for people to believe Why does prejudice arise? Social inequalities and divisions are partly responsible. Common Pitfalls the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and SOCIAL INEQUALITIES deserve what they get. Remind students that sometimes When some people have money, power, and prestige and others do not, the “haves” usually having a group identity is desirable. develop attitudes that justify things as they are. The just-world phenomenon refl ects an Sports teams and performing groups idea we commonly teach our children—that good is rewarded and evil is punished. From this it is but a short leap to assume like a choir or band would be less that those who succeed must be good and those who suffer eff ective if everyone didn’t dress the must be bad. Such reasoning enables the rich to see both their own wealth and the poor’s misfortune as justly deserved. same or bond on a personal level. Are women naturally unassertive and sensitive? This common perception suggests that women are well-suited for the TEACH caretaking tasks they have traditionally performed (Hoffman & Hurst, 1990). In an extreme case, slave “owners” perceived Flip It slaves as innately lazy, ignorant, and irresponsible—as having the very traits that justifi ed enslaving them. Stereotypes ratio- © The New Yorker Collection, Robert 1981, Mankoff from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved. Students can get additional help nalize inequalities. Victims of discrimination may react with either self- blame or anger (Allport, 1954). Ei- understanding biases by watching “If the King destroys a man, that’s proof to the King it must ther reaction can feed prejudice through the classic blame - the - victim dynamic. Do the cir- the Flip It Video: Ingroup and Out- have been a bad man.” -THOMAS cumstances of poverty breed a higher crime rate? If so, that higher crime rate can be used to CROMWELL, IN ROBERT BOLT’S A MAN justify discrimination against those who live in poverty. group Bias. FOR ALL SEASONS, 1960 US AND THEM: INGROUP AND OUTGROUP ENGAGE We have inherited our Stone Age ancestors’ need to belong, to live and love in groups. There ingroup “Us”—people with was safety in solidarity (those who didn’t band together left fewer descendants). Whether Active Learning whom we share a common identity. hunting, defending, or attacking, 10 hands were better than 2. Dividing the world into “us” outgroup “Them”—those Illustrate how easy it is to fall victim to and “them” entails racism and war, but it also provides the benefi ts of communal solidar- perceived as different or apart from ity. Thus we cheer for our groups, kill for them, die for them. Indeed, we defi ne who we are our ingroup. ingroup bias. Divide the class on the partly in terms of our groups. Through our social identities we associate ourselves with cer- ingroup bias the tendency to tain groups and contrast ourselves with others (Hogg, 1996, 2006; Turner, 1987, 2007). When basis of some arbitrary characteristic favor our own group. Ian identifi es himself as a man, an Aussie, a University of Sydney student, a Catholic, and a (wearing sneakers or having blue MacGregor, he knows who he is, and so do we. eyes), making sure that at least one- The ingroup Basketball fans, shown Evolution prepared us, when encountering strangers, to make instant judgments: friend here from my own college during a or foe? Those from our group, those who look like us, and also those who sound like us— third of the students are in a given game against their archrival, share a social identity that defines “us” (the with accents like our own—we instantly tend to like, from childhood onward (Gluszek & group. When you have defi ned the ingroup) and “them” (the outgroup). Dovidio, 2010; Kinzler et al., 2009). Mentally drawing a circle defi nes “us,” the ingroup. But groups, have them sit together. Ask the social defi nition of who you are also states who you are each group to compile a list of reasons not. People outside that circle are “them,” the outgroup. An ingroup bias—a favoring of our own group—soon follows. why those in the other groups are not Even arbitrarily creating us - them groups by tossing a coin cre- like them. ates this bias. In experiments, people have favored their own group when dividing any rewards (Tajfel, 1982; Wilder, 1981). Each group usually begins by The urge to distinguish enemies from friends predis- listing neutral reasons, which quickly poses prejudice against strangers (Whitley, 1999). To Greeks become more derogatory. If the of the classical era, all non- Greeks were “barbarians.” In our own era, most students believe their school is better than groups overhear each other’s less all other schools in town. Perhaps you can recall being most complimentary reasons, the hostility conscious of your school identity when competing with an archrival school. Many high school students form cliques— heightens. At the end of the exercise, Courtesy Hope College Public Relations jocks, gamers, stoners, theater types, LGBT supporters—and the groups should share their lists. disparage those outside their own group. Even chimpanzees Students quickly learn how easily we categorize and develop ingroup bias. Mueller, J. (1995, February 11). Teaching about prejudice and discrimination. Teach- ing in the psychological sciences (TIPS- ENGAGEMyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd 784 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd 785 1/21/14 10:30 AM Online Discussion Group), Critical Questions Most schools have loosely defi ned cliques that separate people. Have students brainstorm about the diff erent cliques that exist in your school, noting particular behaviors that set each group apart: How many different cliques exist in your school? What defines these groups? How do these groups differentiate themselves from others? Where do these groups hang out during down times at school? Where do they eat lunch? If someone from another group or a new kid enters their areas, how do they react?

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have been seen to wipe clean the spot where they were touched by a chimpanzee from another group (Goodall, 1986). They also display ingroup empathy, by yawning more after “For if [people were] to choose TEACH out of all the customs in the world seeing ingroup (rather than outgroup) members yawn (Campbell & de Waal, 2011). [they would] end by preferring Diversity Connections Ingroup bias explains the cognitive power of partisanship (Cooper, 2010; Douthat, their own.” -GREEK HISTORIAN 2010). In the United States in the late 1980s, most Democrats believed infl ation had risen HERODOTUS, 440 B.C.E. The term scapegoat derives from under Republican president Ronald Reagan (it had dropped). In 2010, most Republicans the Hebrew tradition of Yom Kip- believed that taxes had increased under Democrat president Barack Obama (for most, they had decreased). pur. According to the Torah, on Yom scapegoat theory the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger Kippur, the Day of Atonement for the Emotional Roots of Prejudice by providing someone to blame. people of Israel, the high priest desig- Prejudice springs not only from the divisions of society but also from the passions of the heart. Scapegoat theory notes that when things go wrong, fi nding someone to blame can nated a goat that would symbolically provide a target for anger. Following 9/11, some outraged people lashed out at innocent bear the sins of the entire nation. This Arab- Americans. Others called for eliminating Saddam Hussein, the Iraqi leader whom “If the Tiber reaches the walls, if the Nile does not rise to the goat would then be sent out into the Americans had been grudgingly tolerating. “Fear and anger create aggression, and aggres- fi elds, if the sky doesn’t move or sion against citizens of different ethnicity or race creates racism and, in turn, new forms of the Earth does, if there is famine, wilderness to fend for itself, carry- terrorism,” noted Philip Zimbardo (2001). A decade after 9/11, anti-Muslim animosities still if there is plague, the cry is at ing away the sins of the people for once: ‘The Christians to the lion!’” fl ared, with mosque burnings and efforts to block an Islamic community center near New -TERTULLIAN, APOLOGETICUS, 197 C.E. another year. York City’s Ground Zero. Evidence for the scapegoat theory of prejudice comes from high prejudice levels among economically frustrated people, and from experiments in which a temporary frustration in- tensifi es prejudice. Students who experience failure or are made to feel insecure often restore “The misfortunes of others are the their self- esteem by disparaging a rival school or another person (Cialdini & Richardson, taste of honey.” -JAPANESE SAYING 1980; Crocker et al., 1987). To boost our own sense of status, it helps to have others to deni- grate. That is why a rival’s misfortune sometimes provides a twinge of pleasure. By contrast, those made to feel loved and supported become more open to and accepting of others who differ (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2001). Negative emotions nourish prejudice. When facing death, fearing threats, or experiencing AP® Exam Tip frustration, people cling more tightly to their ingroup and their friends. As the terror of death Pause for a minute and try to heightens patriotism, it also produces loathing and aggression toward “them”—those who identify examples of the just-world threaten our world (Pyszczynski et al., 2002, 2008). The few individuals who lack fear and phenomenon, ingroup bias, and its associated amygdala activity—such as children with the genetic disorder Williams syn- scapegoating in your own school. Are there a few or a lot? drome—also display a notable lack of racial stereotypes and prejudice (Santos et al., 2010). Cognitive Roots of Prejudice

77-277-2 What are the cognitive roots of prejudice?

Prejudice springs from a culture’s divisions, the heart’s passions, and also from the mind’s natural workings. Stereotyped beliefs are a by - product of how we cognitively simplify the world.

FORMING CATEGORIES One way we simplify our world is to categorize. A chemist categorizes molecules as organic and inorganic. A football coach categorizes offensive players as quarterbacks, running backs, and wide receivers. Therapists categorize psychological disorders. Human beings categorize people by race, with mixed-race people often assigned to their minority identity. Despite his mixed-race background and being raised by a White mother and White grandparents, Barack Obama has been perceived by White Americans as Black. Research- ers believe this happens because, after learning the features of a familiar racial group, the observer’s selective attention is drawn to the distinctive features of the less-familiar minority. Jamin Halberstadt and his colleagues (2011) illustrated this learned-association effect by showing New Zealanders blended Chinese-Caucasian faces. Compared with

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ENGAGE Enrichment The other-race eff ect (or outgroup Sherman, and Gillian Rhodes homogeneity) comes into play when people off er descriptions of people 100% Chinese 80% Chinese 60% Chinese 40% Chinese 20% Chinese 100% Caucasian from other races. People tend to focus 20% Caucasian 40% Caucasian 60% Caucasian 80% Caucasian Jamin Halberstadt, Steven J. Sherman, Jeff Dr. on the traits that typically diff erenti- Figure 77.5 Categorizing mixed-race participants of Chinese descent, European-descent New Zealanders more readily classi- ate people within their own race. people When New Zealanders fi ed ambiguous faces as Chinese (see FIGURE 77.5). For instance, White people tend to quickly classified 104 photos by race, In categorizing people into groups, however, we often stereotype them. We recognize how those of European descent more we our focus on traits like hair and eye color often than those of Chinese descent greatly differ from other individuals in groups. But we overestimate the homogeneity of classified the ambiguous middle two other groups (we perceive outgroup homogeneity). “They”—the members of some other group— when describing others, which can be as Chinese (Halberstadt et al., 2011). seem to look and act alike, while “we” are more diverse (Bothwell et al., 1989). To those in one meaningless when describing Blacks ethnic group, members of another often seem more alike than they really are in attitudes, personality, and appearance. Our greater recognition for faces of our own race—called the other- or Asians, most of whom share similar race effect (also called the cross-race effect or own-race bias)—emerges during infancy, hair and eye color. between 3 and 9 months of age (Gross, 2009; Kelly et al., 2007). With effort and with experience, people get better at recognizing individual faces from another group (Hugenberg et al., 2010). People of European descent, for TEACH example, more accurately identify individual African faces if they have watched a great deal of basketball on television, exposing them to many African-heritage faces Concept Connections (Li et al., 1996). And the longer Chinese people have resided in a Western country, Remind students that the term for the less they exhibit the other-race effect (Hancock & Rhodes, 2008). making judgments based on vivid REMEMBERING VIVID CASES cases is availability heuristic (Unit VII). As we saw in Module 35’s discussion of the availability heuristic, we often judge the frequency of events by instances that readily come to mind. In a classic experiment, researchers showed two groups of University of Oregon students lists containing information about 50 men (Rothbart et al., 1978). The fi rst group’s list included 10 men arrested for nonviolent crimes, such as forgery. The second group’s list included violent © Dave Coverly Dave © 10 men arrested for crimes, such as assault. Later, both groups were asked how many men on their list had committed any sort of crime. The second group overestimated the number. Vivid (violent) cases are more readily available to our memory and feed our stereotypes (FIGURE 77.6). other-race effect the tendency ENGAGE to recall faces of one’s own race BELIEVING THE WORLD IS JUST more accurately than faces of other As we noted earlier, people often justify their prejudices by blaming victims. If the world is races. Also called the cross-race effect just, “people must get what they deserve.” As one German civilian is said to have remarked Critical Questions or the own-race bias. when visiting the Bergen- Belsen concentration camp shortly after World War II, “What ter- Some adults believe physical illness rible criminals these prisoners must have been to receive such treatment.” can be a payback for bad behavior.

Even victims themselves may attribute Figure 77.6 their serious illnesses to bad choices. Vivid cases feed stereotypes The 9/11 Muslim terrorists created, in many minds, an exaggerated Just weeks before his death from pan- stereotype of Muslims as terrorism prone. Actually, creatic cancer, actor Michael Landon reported a U.S. National Research Council panel on Islam Terrorism terrorism, when offering this inexact illustration, most stated, terrorists are not Muslim and “the vast majority of Islamic people have no connection with and do not I think I have it because for most of sympathize with terrorism” (Smelser & Mitchell, 2002). my life, though I was never a drunk, I drank too much. I also smoked too many cigarettes and ate a lot of wrong things. And if you do that, MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd 786 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd 787 1/21/14 10:30 AM even if you think you are too strong If you were diagnosed with a terminal to get anything, somehow you’re illness, would you wonder what you did to going to pay. deserve such an illness? Why or why not? Do you believe that illness is payback for mistakes in life? For example, do you think that AIDS is a punishment for people who have lived a risky life? Would this apply to all people with AIDS? Why or why not?

786 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 786 3/5/14 12:44 PM Prejudice and Discrimination Module 77 787

Hindsight bias is also at work here (Carli & Leonard, 1989). Have you ever heard people say that rape victims, abused spouses, or people with AIDS got what they deserved? In some TEACH countries, such as Pakistan, women who have been raped have sometimes been sentenced to severe punishment for having violated a law against adultery (Mydans, 2002). In one TRMTRM Teaching Tip experiment illustrating the blame-the-victim phenomenon, people were given a detailed To test the just-world phenomenon, account of a date that ended with the woman being raped (Janoff-Bulman et al., 1985). They perceived the woman’s behavior as at least partly to blame, and in hindsight, they thought, you could have students participate in “She should have known better.” (Blaming the victim also serves to reassure people that it a study presumably on the perception couldn’t happen to them.) Others, given the same account with the rape ending deleted, did of emotional cues. One of the partici- not perceive the woman’s behavior as inviting rape. People also have a basic tendency to justify their culture’s social systems (Jost et al., pants (actually a confederate) would 2009; Kay et al, 2009). We’re inclined to see the way things are as the way they ought to be. be selected to perform a memory This natural conservatism makes it diffi cult to legislate major social changes, such as health care or climate-change policies. Once such policies are in place, our “system justifi cation” task. She would receive what appears tends to preserve them. to be a painful shock for each error; the other students would be asked Before You Move On to observe and note her emotional ᭤ ASK YOURSELF responses. Do you think the students What are some examples of ingroup bias in your community? would respond with compassion and ᭤ TEST YOURSELF sympathy? No. Results from similar What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination? experiments indicate that when the Answers to the Test Yourself questions can be found in Appendix E at the end of the book. observers are powerless to alter her fate, they tend to reject and devalue her. Subsequent research has suggested that this is particularly true of Module 77 Review those who have a strong belief in a What is prejudice? What are its social and just world. 77-177-1 77-277-2 What are the cognitive roots of prejudice? emotional roots? Use Student Activity: Belief in a The cognitive roots of prejudice grow from our natural Prejudice • Just World from the TRM to help stu- • is an unjustifi able, usually negative attitude ways of processing information: forming categories, toward a group and its members. remembering vivid cases, and believing that the world is dents further explore this topic. • Prejudice’s three components are beliefs (often stereotypes), just and our own and our culture’s ways of doing things emotions, and predispositions to action (discrimination). are the right ways. • Overt prejudice in North America has decreased over time, but implicit prejudice—an automatic, unthinking attitude—continues. • The social roots of prejudice include social inequalities and divisions. • Higher-status groups often justify their privileged position with the just-world phenomenon. • We tend to favor our own group (ingroup bias) as we divide ourselves into “us” (the ingroup) and “them” (the outgroup). • Prejudice can also be a tool for protecting our emotional well-being, as when we focus our anger by blaming events on a scapegoat.

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd 786 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd CLOSE787 & ASSESS 1/21/14 10:30 AM Exit Assessment Have students create scenarios on ﬂ ashcards to help them diﬀ erentiate among the commonly confused words found in this unit (particularly discrimination/prejudice and ingroup/outgroup/ ingroup bias). They should construct sentences or scenarios that make the nuances of each term apparent.

Prejudice and Discrimination Module 77 787

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 787 3/5/14 12:44 PM 788 Unit XIV Social Psychology

Answers to Multiple-Choice Multiple-Choice Questions Questions 1. Which of the following is the primary distinction 4. Which of the following is an example of ingroup bias? between prejudice and discrimination? a. Hinata talked only to her ﬁ ve best friends when she 1. a 3. c 5. b a. Prejudice is cognitive and discrimination is was in ninth grade. 2. e 4. e behavioral. b. Sabrina has been a New York Yankee fan since she b. Prejudice is based on anger and discrimination is was in fourth grade. based on fear. c. Kimia believes she is the best student in her AP® c. Prejudice is a legal term and discrimination is a Psychology class, but her grades are not as good as psychological term. several students. d. Discrimination typically develops in infancy and d. Francisco believes he is the best student in his AP® prejudice typically develops in adolescence. Psychology class, and in fact he has the highest test e. Discrimination is primarily caused by nature and average. prejudice is primarily caused by nurture. e. Derek believes his t-ball team is the best in the league. 2. Which of the following is true of prejudice in recent years? 5. a. Both overt and subtle prejudice have shown steady A member of one racial group viciously beats someone and equal increases. from a different racial group. The incident is widely b. Subtle prejudice has been decreasing more than publicized in the local media. Which of the following overt prejudice. terms best describes this incident? c. Both overt and subtle prejudice have been increasing, a. Scapegoat theory but overt prejudice is increasing at a faster rate. b. Vivid case d. Both overt and subtle prejudice have been increasing, c. Just-world phenomenon but subtle prejudice is increasing at a faster rate. d. Other-race effect e. Overt prejudice has been decreasing more than e. Ingroup bias subtle prejudice. 3. Which of the following accurately describes the just- world phenomenon? a. It’s the reduction in prejudice that has resulted from improvements in our laws and judicial system. b. It’s the reduction in discrimination that has resulted from improvements in our laws and judicial system. c. It’s the belief that most people get what they deserve and deserve what they get. d. It’s the tendency of people to deny that prejudice is still a problem. e. It’s our mind’s desire to categorize daily events as either “fair” or “unfair.”

Practice FRQs Answer to Practice FRQ 2 1. Describe the three major components of prejudice. 2. Describe an example of a social root of prejudice, an 1 point: Social root: social inequalities emotional root of prejudice, and a cognitive root of Answer prejudice. or ingroup bias 1 point: Stereotyped judgments, which are generalized, (3 points) 1 point: Emotional root: scapegoat negative beliefs about a group of people. 1 point: theory Negative emotions, such as hostility or fear, toward the members of a group. 1 point: Cognitive root: categoriza- 1 point: A predisposition to discriminate against members tion, vivid cases, or the just-world of a group. phenomenon

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd 788 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod78_B.indd 789 1/21/14 10:31 AM

788 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 788 3/5/14 12:44 PM Aggression Module 78 789

TEACH Module 78 TRMTRM Discussion Starter Use the Module 78 Fact or Falsehood? activity from the TRM to introduce the Aggression concepts from this module. TEACH

Module Learning Objectives Images/Corbis Love I TRMTRM aggression Teaching Tip 78-178-1 Explain how psychology’s defi nition of differs from everyday usage, and identify the biological factors that make us Have students make a chart with 2 more prone to hurt one another. columns—one labeled “Appropriate

78-278-2 Outline psychological and social-cultural triggers of aggression. Aggression” and one labeled “Inap- propriate Aggression.” Have them brainstorm about what aggression society deems appropriate and what

How does psychology’s defi nition of aggression differ from everyday aggression any physical or verbal behavior is considered inappropriate. 78-178-1 behavior intended to hurt or destroy. usage? What biological factors make us more prone to hurt one Then create a class list to see if every- another? one agrees on what constitutes an Prejudice hurts, but aggression often hurts more. In psychology, aggression is any physical appropriate expression of aggression: or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy, whether done out of hostility or as a calcu- FYI lated means to an end. The assertive, persistent salesperson is not aggressive. Nor is the In the last 40 years in the United Which list is longer, appropriate or dentist who makes you wince with pain. But the person who passes along a vicious rumor States, well over 1 million people—more than all deaths in inappropriate aggression? about you, the person who verbally assaults you, and the attacker who mugs you for your all wars in American history—have money are aggressive. been killed by fi rearms in nonwar Does there seem to be a gender Aggressive behavior emerges from the interaction of biology and experience. For a settings. Compared with people difference in the perception of of the same sex, race, age, and gun to fi re, the trigger must be pulled; with some people, as with hair- trigger guns, it neighborhood, those who keep a appropriate aggression? doesn’t take much to trip an explosion. Let’s look fi rst at some biological factors that in- gun in the home (ironically, often fl uence our thresholds for aggressive behavior, then at the psychological factors that pull for protection) are almost three Do students from different cultural the trigger. times more likely to be murdered in the home—nearly always backgrounds have different ideas by a family member or close acquaintance. For every self - about what is appropriate? The Biology of Aggression defense use of a gun in the home, there have been 4 unintentional Use Student Activity: Defi ning Aggres- Aggression varies too widely from culture to culture, era to era, and person to person to be shootings, 7 criminal assaults or considered an unlearned instinct. But biology does infl uence aggression. We can look for homicides, and 11 attempted or sion from the TRM to help students biological infl uences at three levels—genetic, neural, and biochemical. completed suicides (Kellermann et al., 1993, 1997, 1998; see also further explore the concept of Genetic Infl uences Branas et al., 2009). aggression. Genes infl uence aggression. We know this because animals have been bred for aggressiveness—sometimes for sport, sometimes for research. The effect of genes also appears in AP® Exam Tip human twin studies (Miles & Carey, 1997; Rowe et al., 1999). If one identical twin admits Notice that you’re back to a nature to “having a violent temper,” the other twin will often independently admit the same. and nurture analysis again. The Fraternal twins are much less likely to respond similarly. Researchers continue to search biology section is, of course, the nature component. When you get to for genetic markers in those who commit the most violence. (One is already well known the psychological and social-cultural and is carried by half the human race: the Y chromosome.) factors coming up, that’s nurture.

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod77_B.indd 788 1/21/14 10:30 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod78_B.indd 789 1/21/14 10:31 AM

Aggression Module 78 789

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 789 3/5/14 12:44 PM 790 Unit XIV Social Psychology

Neural Infl uences There is no one spot in the brain that controls aggression. Aggression is a complex behavior, and it occurs in particular contexts. But animal and human brains have neural systems that, given provocation, will either inhibit or facilitate aggressive behavior (Denson, 2011; Moyer, 1983). Consider: • Researchers implanted a radio - controlled electrode in the brain of the domineering leader of a caged monkey colony. The electrode was in an area that, when stimulated, inhibits aggression. When researchers placed the control button for the electrode in the colony’s cage, one small monkey learned to push it every time the boss became threatening. • A neurosurgeon, seeking to diagnose a disorder, implanted an electrode in the amygdala of a mild - mannered woman. Because the brain has no sensory receptors, she was unable to feel the stimulation. But at the fl ick of a switch she snarled, “Take my blood pressure. Take it now,” then stood up and began to strike the doctor. © The New Yorker Collection, 1995, Donald Reilly from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved. “It’s a guy thing.” • Studies of violent criminals have revealed diminished activity in the frontal lobes, which play an important role in controlling impulses. If the frontal lobes are damaged, inactive, disconnected, or not yet fully mature, aggression may be more likely (Amen et al., 1996; Davidson et al., 2000; Raine, 1999, 2005). TEACH Biochemical Infl uences Our genes engineer our individual nervous systems, which operate electrochemically. The Concept Connections hormone testosterone, for example, circulates in the bloodstream and infl uences the neural Link the discussion of testosterone systems that control aggression. A raging bull will become a gentle Ferdinand when castra- tion reduces its testosterone level. The same is true of mice. When injected with testoster- and biochemistry to the endocrine one, gentle, castrated mice once again become aggressive. system (Unit III). Major endocrine Humans are less sensitive to hormonal changes. But as men age, their testosterone levels—and their aggressiveness—diminish. Hormonally charged, aggressive 17-year-olds glands include the following: mature into hormonally quieter and gentler 70-year-olds. Also, violent criminals tend to be ᭹ Adrenal glands (located atop muscular young males with higher -than - average testosterone levels, lower- than - average intelligence scores, and low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin (Dabbs et al., 2001a; the kidneys)—adrenaline and “We could avoid two - thirds of all crime simply by putting all able- Pendick, 1994). Men more than women tend to have wide faces, a testosterone-linked trait, noradrenaline bodied young men in cryogenic rather than roundish or long faces. And men’s facial width is a predictor of their aggressive- sleep from the age of 12 through ness (Carré et al., 2009; Stirrat & Perrett, 2010). ᭹ Pancreas—insulin, which regulates 28.” -DAVID T. LYKKEN, THE ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITIES, 1995 High testosterone correlates with irritability, assertiveness, impulsiveness, and low tolerance the body’s sugar levels for frustration—qualities that predispose somewhat more aggressive responses to provocation or competition for status (Dabbs et al., 2001b; Harris, 1999; McAndrew, 2009). Among both teen- ᭹ Thyroid—calcitonin, which age boys and adult men, high testosterone levels correlate with delinquency, hard drug use, and regulates calcium and phosphorus aggressive - bullying responses to frustration (Berman et al., 1993; Dabbs & Morris, 1990; Olweus levels in the body et al., 1988). Drugs that sharply reduce testosterone levels subdue men’s aggressive tendencies. ᭹ Ovaries—estrogen and progesterone Ocean/Corbis ᭹ Testes—testosterone

A lean, mean fighting machine— the testosterone-laden female hyena The hyena’s unusual embryology pumps testosterone into female fetuses. The result is revved - up young female hyenas who seem born to fight.

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790 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 790 3/5/14 12:44 PM Aggression Module 78 791

Another drug that sometimes circulates in the bloodstream—alcohol—unleashes aggressive responses to frustration. In police data and prison surveys, as in experiments, TEACH aggression- prone people are more likely to drink, and they are more likely to become violent when intoxicated (White et al., 1993). People who have been drinking commit 4 in 10 violent Concept Connections crimes and 3 in 4 acts of spousal abuse (Karberg & James, 2005). Alcohol’s effects are both Frustration is typically deﬁ ned as the biological and psychological (Bushman, 1993; Ito et al., 1996; Taylor & Chermack, 1993). Those failure to achieve a desired goal. Have who only think they’ve imbibed alcohol will be somewhat affected, but so, too, will those who have had alcohol unknowingly slipped into a drink. Unless people are distracted, alcohol students discuss how not achieving tends to focus their attention on a provocation rather than on inhibitory cues (Giancola & a goal might lead to frustration and Corman, 2007). Alcohol also inclines people to interpret ambiguous acts (such as a bump in a crowd) as provocations (Bègue et al., 2010). then aggression. Also discuss ways to keep frustration from building Psychological and Social-Cultural Factors into aggression, citing research from in Aggression Unit VIII.

78-278-2 What psychological and social-cultural factors may trigger aggressive behavior? ENGAGE Biological factors inﬂ uence the ease with which aggression is triggered. But what psychological and social-cultural factors pull the trigger? Enrichment Aversive Events Psychologists in the late 1930s pro- Suffering sometimes builds character. In laboratory experiments, however, those made miser- posed that frustration was the cause able have often made others miserable (Berkowitz, 1983, 1989). This phenomenon is called the frustration - aggression principle of aggression. Research seems to frustration -aggression principle: Frustration creates anger, which can spark aggression. the principle that frustration—the One analysis of 27,667 hit-by-pitch Major League Baseball incidents between 1960 and 2004 blocking of an attempt to achieve point to several ways that frustration some goal—creates anger, which revealed this link (Timmerman, 2007). Pitchers were most likely to hit batters when can generate aggression. is linked to aggression: • they had been frustrated by the previous batter hitting a home run. If aggression helps to alleviate • the current batter had hit a home run the last time at bat. frustration, aggression is more • a teammate had been hit by a pitch in the previous half-inning. likely to occur. Other aversive stimuli—hot temperatures, physical pain, personal insults, foul odors, cigarette smoke, crowding, and a host of others—can also evoke hostility. In laboratory If a goal is almost accomplished experiments, when people get overheated, they think, feel, and act more aggressively. In and frustration sets in, aggression baseball games, the number of hit batters rises with the temperature (Reifman et al., 1991; see FIGURE 78.1). And in the wider world, violent crime and spousal abuse rates have is more likely. been higher during hotter years, seasons, months, and days (Anderson & Anderson, 1984). If an aggressive stimulus is perceived while frustration is being .012 Figure 78.1 Probability Number of teammates hit: experienced, aggression is more of hit batter 3 or more Temperature and retaliation .011 2 Richard Larrick and his likely. 1 colleagues (2011) looked for occurrences of batters hit by .010 0 Does frustration always lead to pitchers during 4,566,468 AP Photo/Brita Meng Outzen pitcher-batter matchups aggression? No, but environmental .009 across 57,293 Major League Baseball games since 1952. factors can determine when a frustrat- .008 The probability of a hit batter ing situation will lead someone to act increased if one or more of the pitcher’s teammates had been aggressively. .007 hit, and also with temperature.

.006 59 and 60–69 70–79 80–89 90 and below above Temperature (°F)

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod78_B.indd 790 1/21/14 10:31 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod78_B.indd TEACH 791 1/21/14 10:31 AM TRMTRM Diversity Connections Compare crime rates in the U.S. and other Do these statistics suggest that people countries to see if people in the U.S. are the living in the U.S. are more aggressive than perpetrators and victims of more aggressive people living in other countries? forms of crime. Use Student Activity: Road Rage from the TRM Consider all aggressive forms of crime— to help students learn more about the eﬀ ects from murder to assault. Where do the of aggression. higher rates of these crimes occur—in the U.S. or in other countries? How does the U.S. compare to other Westernized nations? How do we compare to developing or third world countries?

Aggression Module 78 791

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 791 3/5/14 12:44 PM 792 Unit XIV Social Psychology

From the available data, Craig Anderson and his colleagues (2000; 2011) have projected TEACH that, other things being equal, global warming of 4 degrees Fahrenheit (about 2 degrees centigrade) would induce tens of thousands of additional assaults and murders—and that’s Teaching Tip before the added violence inducement from climate-change-related drought, poverty, food Quiz students on how aggression insecurity, and migration. can be reinforced. Remind students Reinforcement and Modeling that reinforcement occurs when we AP® Exam Tip Aggression may be a natural response to aversive events, but learning can alter natural are rewarded, or when something David Myers points out that reactions. As Unit VI explained, we learn when our behavior is reinforced, and we learn by unpleasant is taken away because this section is an application of watching others. material that was introduced in In situations where experience has taught us that aggression pays, we are likely to act ag- we behave a certain way. If a child is Unit VI. You should go back there for a quick review if you don’t gressively again. Children whose aggression has successfully intimidated other children may looking for attention and learns that recognize the basic components become bullies. Animals that have successfully fought to get food or mates become increasingly of operant conditioning and ferocious. To foster a kinder, gentler world we had best model and reward sensitivity and coop- a parent will off er it in response to observational learning in this material. eration from an early age, perhaps by training parents to discipline without modeling violence. aggressive behavior, then the child Parents of delinquent youth frequently cave in to (reward) their children’s tears and tem- will learn to be aggressive to get per tantrums. Then, exasperated, they discipline with beatings (Patterson et al., 1982, 1992). attention. Parent- training programs often advise parents to avoid modeling violence by screaming and hitting. Instead, parents should reinforce desirable behaviors and frame statements positively. (“When you fi nish loading the dishwasher you can go play,” rather than “If you don’t load the dishwasher, there’ll be no playing.”) One aggression - replacement program worked with juvenile offenders and gang members and their parents. It taught both generations new ways to control anger, and more thoughtful approaches to moral reasoning (Goldstein et al., 1998). The result? The youths’ re-arrest rates dropped. Different cultures model, reinforce, and evoke different tendencies toward violence. For example, crime rates are higher (and average happiness is lower) in countries marked by a great disparity between rich and poor (Triandis, 1994). In the United States, cultures and families that experience minimal father care also have high violence rates (Triandis, 1994). Even after controlling for parental education, race, income, and teen motherhood, American male youths from father-absent homes have double their peers’ incarceration rate (Harper & McLanahan, 2004). Violence can also vary by culture within a country. Richard Nisbett and Dov Cohen (1996) analyzed violence among White Americans in southern towns settled by Scots-Irish herders whose tradition emphasized “manly honor,” the use of arms to protect one’s fl ock, and a history of coercive slavery. Compared with their White counterparts in New England towns settled by the more traditionally peaceful Puritan, Quaker, and Dutch farmer- artisans, the cultural descendants of those herders have triple the homicide rates and are more supportive of physically punishing children, of warfare initiatives, and of uncontrolled gun ownership. “Culture-of-honor” states also have higher rates of students bringing weapons to school and of school shootings (Brown et al., 2009). Media Models for Violence Parents are hardly the only aggression models. In the United States and elsewhere, TV shows, fi lms, video games, and YouTube offer supersized portions of violence. Repeatedly viewing on-screen violence teaches us social scripts—culturally provided mental fi les for how to act. When we fi nd ourselves in new situations, uncertain how to behave, we rely on social script culturally modeled social scripts. After so many action fi lms, teens may acquire a script that plays in their head guide for how to act in various when they face real- life confl icts. Challenged, they may “act like a man” by intimidating situations. or eliminating the threat. Likewise, after viewing the multiple sexual innuendoes and acts found in most prime- time TV shows—often involving impulsive or short - term relationships—youths may acquire sexual scripts they later enact in real- life relationships (Kunkel et al., 2001; Sapolsky & Tabarlet, 1991).

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod78_B.indd 792 1/21/14 10:31 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod78_B.indd 793 1/21/14 10:31 AM

792 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 792 3/5/14 12:44 PM Aggression Module 78 793

Music lyrics also write social scripts. In one set of experiments, German university men administered hotter chili sauce to a woman and recalled more negative feelings TEACH and beliefs about women after listening to woman-hating song lyrics. Man-hating song lyrics had a similar effect on the aggressive behavior of women listeners (Fischer & Concept Connections Greitemeyer, 2006). Link viewing television violence to Sexual aggression is sometimes modeled in X-rated fi lms and pornography. Content Albert Bandura’s famous Bobo doll analyses have revealed that most X-rated fi lms depict quick, casual sex between strangers, but sometimes also provide scenes of rape and sexual exploitation of women by men (Cow- studies (Unit VI). Bandura and his an et al., 1988; NCTV, 1987; Yang & Linz, 1990). These scenes often include enactments of colleagues showed young children the rape myth—the idea that some women invite or enjoy rape and get “swept away” while being “taken.” (In actuality, rape is traumatic, and it frequently harms women’s reproductive videos of adults playing with a Bobo and psychological health [Golding, 1996].) Most rapists accept this myth (Brinson, 1992). So doll (an infl ated doll with sand in the do many men and women who watch a great deal of TV: Compared with those who watch bottom that rights itself whenever it is little television, heavy viewers are more accepting of the rape myth (Kahlor & Morrison, 2007). Might sexually explicit media models in the $97 billion global pornography business knocked over). One group of children contribute to sexually aggressive tendencies (D’Orlando, 2011)? observed adults acting aggressively Most consumers of child and adult pornography commit no known sexual crimes (Seto, toward the doll. The other group saw 2009). But they are more likely to accept the rape myth as reality (Kingston et al., 2009). Canadian and U.S. sex offenders acknowledge a greater- than - usual appetite for sexually ex- the adults playing nicely. How did the plicit and sexually violent materials—materials typically labeled as pornography (Kingston children react when put in a room et al., 2009; Marshall, 1989, 2000; Oddone - Paolucci et al., 2000). The Los Angeles Police De- partment, for example, reported that pornography was “conspicuously present” in 62 per- with a Bobo doll? Those who saw the cent of its extrafamilial child sexual abuse cases during the 1980s (Bennett, 1991). High por- aggressive behavior played aggres- nography consumption also has predicted greater sexual aggressiveness among university sively with it. Those who witnessed men, even after controlling for other predictors of antisocial behavior (Vega & Malamuth, 2007). But critics object. Since 1990, the reported U.S. rape rate has declined while pornog- the nice behavior played nicely. raphy consumption has increased (Ferguson & Hartley, 2009). And aren’t many sexual ag- gressors merely, as sex researcher John Money (1988) suspected, using pornography “as an alibi to explain to themselves what otherwise is inexplicable”? People heavily exposed to televised crime see the world as more dangerous. People heavily exposed to pornography see the world as more sexual. Repeatedly watching X-rated fi lms, even nonviolent fi lms, has many effects (Kingston et al., 2009). One’s own partner seems less attractive (Module 39). Extramarital sex seems less troubling (Zillmann, 1989). A woman’s friendliness seems more sexual. Sexual aggression seems less serious (Harris, 1994; Zillmann, 1989). These effects feed the ingredients of coercion against women. In one experiment, undergraduates viewed six brief, sexually explicit fi lms each week for six weeks (Zillmann & Bryant, 1984). A control group viewed nonerotic fi lms during the same six- week period. Three weeks later, both groups read a newspaper report about a man convicted but not yet sentenced for raping a hitchhiker. When asked to suggest an appropriate prison term, viewers of the sexually explicit fi lms recommended sentences half as long ® as those recommended by the control group. AP Exam Tip Experiments cannot elicit actual sexual violence, but they can assess a man’s willingness In the experiment described here, to hurt a woman. Often the research gauges the effect of violent versus nonviolent erotic can you identify the independent and dependent variables? fi lms on men’s willingness to deliver supposed electric shocks to women who had earlier It’s great practice to do this provoked them. These experiments suggest that it’s less the eroticism than the depictions of every time you read about an sexual violence (whether in R-rated slasher fi lms or X-rated fi lms) that most directly affect experiment. men’s acceptance and performance of aggression against women. To a lesser extent, nonviolent pornography can also infl uence aggression. In a series of studies, Nathaniel Lambert and his colleagues (2011) used various methods to explore pornography’s effects on aggression against relationship partners. They found that pornography consumption predicted both self-reported aggression and laboratory noise blasts to their partner, and that abstaining from customary pornography consumption decreased aggression (while abstaining from their favorite food did not).

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod78_B.indd 792 1/21/14 10:31 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod78_B.inddENGAGE 793 1/21/14 10:31 AM Active Learning Have students watch several diff erent types of Did one type of program depict more television programs to see how many acts of violence than others? violence are depicted. Suggest that they watch What was different about the violence a news broadcast (both local and national), a depicted on the different types of shows? sitcom, a police drama, a medical drama, and a How did watching this violence affect you? nonspecifi c drama (family or relational shows). Would you feel comfortable allowing young Be sure to defi ne operationally what an “act children to watch the acts you observed? of violence” is before they start viewing the programs. How many acts of violence occurred overall? How many occurred in each show?

Aggression Module 78 793

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 793 3/5/14 12:44 PM 794 Unit XIV Social Psychology

Neil Malamuth (1996) has shown that sexually coercive men typically are sexually pro- Sexual miscuous and hostile in their relationships with women (FIGURE 78.2). Several factors can promiscuity create a predisposition to sexual violence (Malamuth et al., 1991, 1995). They include media infl uences but also dominance motives, disinhibition by alcohol, and a history of child abuse. Still, media depictions of violence can disinhibit and desensitize; viewing sexual vio- Coerciveness lence fosters hostile, domineering attitudes and behaviors; and viewing pornography leads against women viewers to trivialize rape, devalue their partners, and engage in uncommitted sex. Media infl uence is not a minor issue. Might public consciousness be raised by making people aware of the information you Hostile have just been reading? In the 1940s, movies often depicted African- Americans as childlike, masculinity superstitious buffoons, images we would not tolerate today. Many hope that entertainers, producers, and audiences might someday look back with embarrassment on the days when Figure 78.2 movies “entertained” us with scenes of sexual coercion, torture, and mutilation. Men who sexually coerce women The recipe for coercion Do Violent Video Games Teach Social Scripts for Violence? ENGAGE against women combines an impersonal approach to sex with a Violent video games became an issue for public debate after teenagers in more than a doz- Active Learning hostile masculinity. (Adapted from Malamuth, 1996.) en places seemed to mimic the carnage in the shooter games they had so often played Have students research the popular- (Anderson, 2004a). In 2002, two Grand Rapids, Michigan, teens and a man in his early twenties spent part of a night drinking beer and playing Grand Theft Auto III. Using simulated cars, ity of violent video games and survey they ran down pedestrians, then beat them with fi sts, leaving a bloody body behind (Kolker, their own video game collections. 2002). The same teens and man then went out for a real drive. Spotting a 38-year-old man on a bicycle, they ran him down with their car, got out, stomped and punched him, and returned What are the most popular video home to play the game some more. (The victim, a father of three, died six days later.) games today? How many of them As we noted in Module 30, observing media violence tends to desensitize people to are considered violent? cruelty and prime them to respond aggressively when provoked. Does this violence-viewing effect extend to playing violent video games? Should parents worry about the ways actively What impact does the rating role-playing aggression will affect their children? Experiments indicate that playing positive Lemmings, system have on the popularity of a games has positive effects. For example, playing where a goal is to help others, increases real-life helping (Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2010). So, might a parallel effect occur particular video game? after playing games that enact violence? Do students own many violent When combining data from 400 studies with 130,296 participants, Craig Anderson and his colleagues (2010) found such an effect: Playing violent video games increased aggression. The video games? fi nding held for youth and for young adults; in North America, Japan, and Western Europe; Do students believe that and with each of three major research designs (correlational, experimental, and longitudinal). In a 2010 statement submitted for a U.S. Supreme Court case, Anderson was joined by more

violent video games affect their freak.no/Handout www. than 100 social scientists in explaining that “the psychological processes underlying such ef-

behaviors? REUTERS/Andrew Berwick via fects are well understood and include: imitation; observational learning; priming of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral scripts; physiological arousal; and emotional desensitization.” Consider some evidence: • University men who spent the most hours playing violent video games tended to be the most physically aggressive (for example, more likely to acknowledge having hit or Coincidence or cause? In 2011, Norwegian Anders Behring Breivik attacked someone else) (Anderson & Dill, 2000). bombed government buildings in Oslo, • People randomly assigned to play a game involving bloody murders with groaning and then went to a youth camp where Myst he shot and killed 69 people, mostly victims (rather than to play nonviolent ) became more hostile. On a follow - up teens. As a player of first-person shooter task, they also were more likely to blast intense noise at a fellow student. games, Breivik stirred debate when he commented that “I see MW2 [Modern • People with extensive experience in violent video gaming display desensitization to Warfare 2] more as a part of my training- violence, as shown by blunted brain responses; they also are less likely to help an simulation than anything else.” Did his injured victim (Bartholow et al., 2006; Bushman & Anderson, 2009). violent game playing contribute to his violence, or was it a mere coincidental • After playing a violent rather than a neutral or prosocial video game, people association? To explore such questions, become more likely to express dehumanized perceptions of immigrant outgroups psychologists experiment. (Greitemeyer & McLatchie, 2011).

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod78_B.inddTEACH 794 1/21/14 10:31 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod78_B.indd 795 1/21/14 10:31 AM Concept Connections Students may have already protested that not mean that every person exposed to media many people watch violence in the media and violence will become more aggressive. As the play violent video games and do not ulti- text explains, many other factors also contrib- mately turn to violence to solve their prob- ute to aggressive behavior. Still, it would be lems. Remind them that just because research unwise not to consider the eﬀ ects of the media suggests exposure to media violence tends to to which we are exposed. lead to more expressions of aggression does

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Young adolescents who play a lot of violent video games see the world as more hostile. Compared with nongaming kids, they get into more arguments and fi ghts and get worse ENGAGE grades (Gentile, 2009). Ah, but is this merely because naturally hostile kids are drawn to such games? Apparently not. Comparisons of gamers and nongamers who scored low in Enrichment hostility revealed a difference in the number of reported fi ghts: 38 percent of the violent- Psychological research off ers limited game players had been in fi ghts, versus only 4 percent of the nongamers. Over time, the nongamers became more likely to have fi ghts only if they started playing the violent games support for the catharsis hypothesis, (Anderson, 2004a). Another study, with German adolescents, found that today’s violent which states that people experience game playing predicts future aggression, but today’s aggression does not predict future a release (catharsis) when they vent game playing (Möller & Krahé, 2008). Some researchers believe that, due partly to the more active participation and rewarded violence of game play, violent video games have even their anger. Laboratory tests of cathar- greater effects on aggressive behavior and cognition than do violent TV shows and movies sis have produced mixed results at (Anderson et al., 2007). The effects of violent gaming, some say, are comparable to the toxic effects of asbestos or second-hand smoke exposure (Bushman et al., 2010). “Playing violent best. One study found that when stu- video games probably will not turn your child into a psychopathic killer,” acknowledges dents were allowed to counterattack researcher Brad Bushman (2011), “but I would want to know how the child treats his or her someone who had provoked them, parents, how they treat their siblings, how much compassion they have.” Others are unimpressed by violent-game-effect fi ndings (Ferguson & Kilburn, 2010). their blood pressure more quickly They note that from 1996 to 2006, youth violence was declining while video game sales returned to normal. The calming eff ect were increasing. Moreover, some point out that avid game players are quick and sharp: they seems to occur, however, only when develop speedy reaction times and enhanced visual skills (Dye et al., 2009; Green et al., 2010). The focused fun of game playing can satisfy basic needs for a sense of competence, the target is one’s actual tormenter, control, and social connection (Przbylski et al., 2010). That helps explain why, in one experi- the retaliation is justifi ed, and the ment, elementary school boys randomly selected to receive a game system spent enormous amounts of time on it over the next four months, with diminished time spent on schoolwork target is nonintimidating. and with more academic problems (Weis & Cerankosky, 2010). Figure 78.3 Does the viewing of aggression This much seems clear. Aggressive thoughts can lead to violent behavior and role play- Bio psy cho social understanding prove cathartic? Alfred Hitchcock ing can increase aggressive thoughts and emotions. As the Greek philosopher Aristotle ob- of aggression Because many served, “We are what we repeatedly do.” factors contribute to aggressive once said, “One of television’s great Nevertheless, a 2011 Supreme Court decision overturned a California state law that behavior, there are many ways to change such behavior, including contributions is that it brought banned violent video game sales to children (much like the ban on sales of sexually ex- learning anger management and murder back into the home where it plicit materials to children). The First Amendment’s free speech guarantee protects even communication skills, and avoiding offensive games, said the court’s majority, violent media and video games. belongs. Seeing a murder on televi- which was unpersuaded by the evidence of Biological influences: Psychological influences: sion can be good therapy. It can help harm. But the debate goes on. “What sense • genetic influences • dominating behavior (which boosts does it make to forbid selling to a 13-year- • biochemical influences, such as testosterone levels in the blood) work off one’s antagonisms. If you testosterone and alcohol • believing the alcohol’s been drunk old a magazine with an image of a nude • neural influences, such as a severe (whether it actually has or not) have no antagonisms, the commer- woman,” wrote Justice Stephen Breyer, in head injury • frustration • aggressive role models cials will give you some.” Once again, a dissenting opinion, “while protecting the • rewards for aggressive behavior sale to that 13-year-old of an interactive vid- • low self-control research is not supportive. Spectators eo game in which he actively, but virtually, of football, wrestling, and hockey binds and gags the woman, then tortures and AggressiveA ressive behabehaviorr exhibit more hostility after watch- kills her?” * * * ing the sports event than before it. To sum up, signifi cant behaviors, such as violence, usually have Similarly, after a war a nation’s murder many determinants, making any single explanation an oversim- Social-cultural influences: • deindividuation from being in a crowd rate tends to increase, not decrease. plifi cation. Asking what causes violence is therefore like asking • challenging environmental factors, such what causes cancer. Asbestos exposure, for example, is indeed a as crowding, heat, and direct provocations The near consensus in the research • parental models of aggression cancer cause, albeit only one among many. Research reveals many • minimal father involvement community is that viewing television different biological, psychological, and social-cultural infl uences • being rejected from a group • exposure to violent media violence increases aggression in the on aggressive behavior. Like so much else, aggression is a biopsychosocial phenomenon (FIGURE 78.3). viewer.

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Aggression Module 78 795

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 795 3/5/14 12:44 PM 796 Unit XIV Social Psychology

It is also important to note that many people are leading gentle, even heroic lives amid CLOSE & ASSESS personal and social stresses, reminding us again that individuals differ. The person matters. That people vary over time and place reminds us that environments also differ. Yesterday’s Exit Assessment plundering Vikings have become today’s peace-promoting Scandinavians. Situations mat- Use Figure 78.3 to highlight the ter. Like all behavior, aggression arises from the interaction of persons and situations. biopsychosocial model of aggression. Before You Move On Have students provide explanations ᭤ ASK YOURSELF for aggressive behavior based on the Do you think there should be laws to prevent children’s exposure to violent media? Why or components of the model. why not? ᭤ TEST YOURSELF What psychological, biological, and social-cultural inﬂ uences interact to produce aggressive behaviors? Answers to the Test Yourself questions can be found in Appendix E at the end of the book.

Module 78 Review How does psychology’s defi nition of 78-1 78-278-2 What psychological and social-cultural aggression differ from everyday usage? factors may trigger aggressive behavior? What biological factors make us more prone to hurt one another? • Frustration (frustration-aggression principle), previous reinforcement for aggressive behavior, and observing an • In psychology, aggression is any physical or verbal behavior aggressive role model can all contribute to aggression. intended to hurt or destroy. • Media portrayals of violence provide social scripts that children learn to follow. Biology inﬂ uences our threshold for aggressive behaviors • • Viewing sexual violence contributes to greater at three levels: genetic (inherited traits), neural (activity aggression toward women. in key brain areas), and biochemical (such as alcohol or • Playing violent video games increases aggressive excess testosterone in the bloodstream). thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. • Aggression is a complex behavior resulting from the interaction of biology and experience.

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796 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 796 3/5/14 12:44 PM Aggression Module 78 797

Multiple-Choice Questions Answers to Multiple-Choice 1. A friend fails to meet an achievement goal. As a result, 3. Which of the following is an example of a social-cultural Questions he gets angry and behaves aggressively. Which of the infl uence on aggressive behavior? following terms best identifi es this chain of events? a. Exposure to violent media 1. c 3. a a. Aggression b. Frustration 2. d b. Fundamental attribution error c. Testosterone c. Frustration-aggression principle d. Believing you’ve drunk alcohol d. Social scripts e. Genetics e. Biopsychosocial hypothesis 2. What do we call culturally modeled guides for how to act in various situations? a. Aggressive behavior b. Cultures of honor c. Reinforcement modeling d. Social scripts e. Social-cultural infl uences

Practice FRQs Answer to Practice FRQ 2 1. Using the biopsychosocial model, give a biological 2. Defi ne social scripts and the frustration-aggression infl uence, social-cultural infl uence, and a psychological principle. Then, provide an example of each. 1 point: A social script is a culturally infl uence on aggressive behavior. (4 points) modeled guide for how to act in vari- Answer ous situations. 1 point: Biological: genetics, biochemicals (for example, testosterone), or neural (for example, severe frontal lobe 1 point: The frustration-aggression injury). principle is the notion that a blocked 1 point: Social-cultural: exposure to violent media, rejection goal frustrates, causes anger, and from a group, or parental models of aggression. elicits aggression. 1 point: Psychological: frustration, aggressive role models, or rewards for aggressive behavior. 1 point: Any correct example of a social script can earn credit. Answers will vary. 1 point: Any correct example of the group frustration-aggression principle can earn credit. Answers will vary.

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Aggression Module 78 797

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 797 3/5/14 12:44 PM 798 Unit XIV Social Psychology

TEACH TRMTRM Discussion Starter Module 79 Use the Module 79 Fact or Falsehood? activity from the TRM to introduce the concepts from this module. Attraction

Klaus Tiedge/Corbis TEACH Module Learning Objectives TRMTRM Teaching Tip 79-1 Explain why we befriend or fall in love with some people but not Have students consider the following others. aphorisms: 79-279-2 Describe how romantic love typically changes as time passes. Birds of a feather flock together. Opposites attract. Which statement is true? Are both? How can that be? mere exposure effect ause a moment and think about your relationships with two people—a close friend, and someone who has stirred your feelings of romantic love. What psychological Use Student Activity: Love Styles the phenomenon that repeated P exposure to novel stimuli increases chemistry binds us together in these special sorts of attachments that help us cope from the TRM to help students under- liking of them. with all other relationships? Social psychology suggests some answers. stand the diﬀ erent types of love. AP® Exam Tip The Psychology of Attraction

Can you remember the other use 79-179-1 Why do we befriend or fall in love with some people but not others? of the term proximity earlier in the course? It’s one of the Gestalt principles from Unit IV, Sensation We endlessly wonder how we can win others’ affection and what makes our own affections and Perception. fl ourish or fade. Does familiarity breed contempt, or does it intensify affection? Do birds of a feather fl ock together, or do opposites attract? Is beauty only skin deep, or does attractiveness matter greatly? To explore these questions, let’s consider three ingredients of our liking for one another: proximity, attractiveness, and similarity. Rex USA Proximity Before friendships become close, they must begin. Proximity—geographic nearness—is friendship’s most powerful predictor. Proximity provides opportunities for aggression, but much more often it breeds liking. Study after study reveals that people are most inclined to like, and even to marry, those who live in the same neighborhood, who sit nearby in class, who work in the same offi ce, who share the same parking lot, who eat in the same cafeteria. Look around. Mating starts with meeting. (For more on modern ways to connect people, see Close-up: Online Matchmaking and Speed Dating.) ENGAGE Proximity breeds liking partly because of the mere exposure effect. Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases our liking for them. This applies to nonsense syllables, Familiarity breeds acceptance musical selections, geometric fi gures, Chinese characters, human faces, and the letters of Enrichment When this rare white penguin was born in the Sydney, Australia, zoo, our own name (Moreland & Zajonc, 1982; Nuttin, 1987; Zajonc, 2001). We are even some- Relate these 2 anecdotes to illustrate his tuxedoed peers ostracized him. what more likely to marry someone whose fi rst or last name resembles our own (Jones et Zookeepers thought they would need al., 2004). how familiarity breeds fondness rather to dye him black to gain acceptance. But after three weeks of contact, the So, within certain limits, familiarity breeds fondness (Bornstein, 1989, 1999). Re- than contempt. other penguins came to accept him. searchers demonstrated this by having four equally attractive women silently attend a Several years ago the Associated Press carried the following story from Corvallis, Oregon: A mysterious student had been attending a class at Oregon State MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod79_B.indd In 1972, a small 798 town in Ecuador was 1/21/14 10:31 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod79_B.indd 799 1/21/14 10:31 AM University for the past 2 months confronted with this challenge: how to deal enveloped in a big black bag. Only with its new mayor, Pulvapies. Pulvapies his bare feet showed. Each Monday, had been fairly elected, having beaten Wednesday, and Friday at 11 o’clock his nearest opponent by a comfortable in the morning, the black bag sat margin. There was only one problem: at a small table near the back of Pulvapies was a foot deodorant! During the classroom. Professor Charles the election, the deodorant’s manufacturer Goetzinger knew the identity of launched what it believed to be a clever the person inside, but none of the marketing campaign. It posted billboards students did. Goetzinger indicated and distributed flyers saying, “For mayor: that his students’ attitudes changed Honorable Pulvapies.” Little did the from hostility toward the black bag company realize that its deodorant might to curiosity and finally to friendship. be elected.

798 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 798 3/5/14 12:44 PM Attraction Module 79 799

Close-up ENGAGE Online Matchmaking and Speed Dating Critical Question Those who have not found a romantic people meet a succession of prospec- partner in their immediate proximity may tive partners, either in person or via Students will likely have much to say cast a wider net by joining the estimated webcam (Bower, 2009). After a 3- to about online relationships. With the 30 million people who each year try one 8-minute conversation, people move of the some 1500 online dating services on to the next person. (In an in-per- advance of social networking sites (Ellin, 2009). Online matchmaking works son meeting, one partner—usually the such as Facebook, Google Buzz, and mostly by expanding the pool of potential woman—remains seated and the oth- mates (Finkel et al., 2012a,b). er circulates.) Those who want to meet Twitter, maintaining online relation- Although published research on the again can arrange for future contacts. ships with hundreds, if not thousands, effectiveness of Internet matchmaking For many participants, 4 minutes is services is sparse, this much seems enough time to form a feeling about a of people is quite possible. Ask well established: Some people, includ- conversational partner and to register students to discuss the implications of ing occasional predators, dishonestly whether the partner likes them (East- represent their age, attractiveness, oc- wick & Finkel, 2008a,b). social networking: cupation, or other details, and thus are Researchers have quickly realized

© Dave Coverly Dave © not who they seem to be. Nevertheless, that speed dating offers a unique op- Have students developed their Katelyn McKenna and John Bargh and their colleagues have portunity for studying infl uences on our fi rst impressions of own “rules” about whom they offered a surprising fi nding: Compared with relationships potential romantic partners. Among recent fi ndings are these: friend online and whom they do formed in person, Internet-formed friendships and romantic • Men are more transparent. Observers (male or female) relationships have been, on average, more likely to last be- watching videos of speed-dating encounters can read a not? yond two years (Bargh et al. 2002, 2004; McKenna & Bargh, man’s level of romantic interest more accurately than a How have your students handled 1998, 2000; McKenna et al., 2002). In one of their studies, woman’s (Place et al., 2009). people disclosed more, with less posturing, to those whom failed relationships online? How they met online. When conversing online with someone for 20 • Given more options, people’s choices become more minutes, they felt more liking for that person than they did for superfi cial. Meeting lots of potential partners leads people easy is it to “unfriend” someone someone they had met and talked with face to face. This was to focus on more easily assessed characteristics, such as online? true even when (unknown to them) it was the same person! height and weight (Lenton & Francesconi, 2010). This was Internet friendships often feel as real and important to people true even when researchers controlled for time spent with Has students’ openness changed as in-person relationships. That helps explain why one-third of each partner. American marriages occur among partners who met online, • Men wish for future contact with more of their speed as result of spending more time and why those marriages are slightly more stable and satisfy- dates; women tend to be more choosy. But this gender on social networking sites? Are ing than marriages that began offl ine (Cacioppo et al., 2013). difference disappears if the conventional roles are students now more open or more Speed dating pushes the search for romance into high reversed, so that men stay seated while women circulate gear. In a process pioneered by a matchmaking Jewish rabbi, (Finkel & Eastwick, 2009). closed than when they started?

200-student class for zero, 5, 10, or 15 class sessions (Moreland & Beach, 1992). At the end of the course, students were shown slides of each woman and asked to rate her attractiveness. The most attractive? The ones they’d seen most often. The phenomenon would come as no surprise to the The mere exposure effect young Taiwanese man who wrote more The mere exposure effect applies even to ourselves. Because than 700 letters to his girlfriend, urging the human face is not perfectly her to marry him. She did marry—the Ben Pruchnie/Getty Images symmetrical, the face we see in mail carrier (Steinberg, 1993). the mirror is not the same face our friends see. Most of us prefer the No face is more familiar than your familiar mirror image, while our own. And that helps explain an inter- friends like the reverse (Mita et al., esting ﬁ nding by Lisa DeBruine (2004): 1977). The Maggie Smith (actor) We like other people when their faces known to her fans is at left. The person she sees in the mirror each incorporate some morphed features of morning is shown at right, and that’s our own. When DeBruine (2002) had the photo she would probably prefer.

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Attraction Module 79 799

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 799 3/5/14 12:44 PM 800 Unit XIV Social Psychology

McMaster University students (both men and women) play a game with a supposed other ENGAGE player, they were more trusting and cooperative when the other person’s image had some of their own facial features morphed into it. In me I trust. Active Learning For our ancestors, the mere exposure effect had survival value. What was familiar was Have students conduct research on generally safe and approachable. What was unfamiliar was more often dangerous and threatening. Evolution may therefore have hard - wired into us the tendency to bond with attractiveness. Ask them to collect those who are familiar and to be wary of those who are unfamiliar (Zajonc, 1998). If so, pictures of “attractive” and “unat- gut- level prejudice against those who are culturally different could be a primitive, automatic tractive” people and then to show emotional response (Devine, 1995). It’s what we do with our knee-jerk prejudice that matters, say researchers. Do we let those feelings control our behavior? Or do we monitor our them to various participants. Par- feelings and act in ways that refl ect our conscious valuing of human equality? ticipants will then be asked to guess Physical Attractiveness what kind of job, personality, and AP Photo/Herman Miller Once proximity affords us contact, what most affects our fi rst impressions? The person’s sin- education each pictured person has. cerity? Intelligence? Personality? Hundreds of experiments reveal that it is something far more Compare the answers off ered for Beauty grows with mere superfi cial: physical appearance. This fi nding is unnerving for most of us who were taught that exposure Herman Miller, Inc.’s “beauty is only skin deep” and that “appearances can be deceiving.” the “attractive” and “unattractive” famed Aeron chair initially received high comfort ratings but abysmal beauty In one early study, researchers randomly matched new University of Minnesota students individuals to determine if more posi- ratings. To some it looked like “lawn for a Welcome Week dance (Walster et al., 1966). Before the dance, the researchers gave each tive predictions are made for those furniture” or “a giant prehistoric insect” student a battery of personality and aptitude tests, and they rated each student’s level of physi- (Gladwell, 2005). But then, with design cal attractiveness. On the night of the blind date, the couples danced and talked for more than labeled “attractive.” awards, media visibility, and imitators, the ugly duckling came to be the two hours and then took a brief intermission to rate their dates. What determined whether Be sure to obtain Institutional company’s best - selling chair ever and they liked each other? Only one thing seemed to matter: appearance. Both the men and the to be seen as beautiful. With people, women liked good- looking dates best. Women are more likely than men to say that another’s Review Board approval and informed too, beauty lies partly in the beholder’s eye and can grow with exposure. looks don’t affect them (Lippa, 2007). But studies show that a man’s looks do affect women’s consent for all research endeavors. behavior (Feingold, 1990; Sprecher, 1989; Woll, 1986). Speed-dating experiments confi rm that attractiveness infl uences fi rst impressions for both sexes (Belot & Francesconi, 2006; Finkel & ENGAGE Eastwick, 2008). Physical attractiveness also predicts how often people date and how popular they feel. Active Learning It affects initial impressions of people’s personalities. We don’t assume that attractive people are more compassionate, but we do perceive them as healthier, happier, more sensitive, Have students consider their favorite more successful, and more socially skilled (Eagly et al., 1991; Feingold, 1992; Hatfi eld & movies and TV shows, and ask them Sprecher, 1986). Attractive, well - dressed people are more likely to make a favorable impression on potential employers, and they tend to be more successful in their jobs (Cash to describe the physical appearance of & Janda, 1984; Langlois et al., 2000; Solomon, 1987). Income analyses show a penalty for the villains and the heroes. plainness or obesity and a premium for beauty (Engemann & Owyang, 2005). An analysis of 100 top- grossing fi lms since 1940 found that attractive characters were Are people who are villainous “Personal beauty is a greater recommendation than any letter portrayed as morally superior to unattractive characters (Smith et al., 1999). But Hollywood or less than heroic portrayed as of introduction.” -ARISTOTLE, modeling doesn’t explain why, to judge from their gazing times, even babies prefer attractive APOTHEGEMS, 330 B.C.E. physically attractive? Why or why over unattractive faces (Langlois et al., 1987). So do some blind people, as University of Bir- mingham professor John Hull (1990, p. 23) discovered after going blind. A colleague’s remarks not? on a woman’s beauty would strangely affect his feelings. He found this “deplorable. . . . What can it matter to me what sighted men think of women . . . yet I do care what sighted men think, How are the heroes physically FYI and I do not seem able to throw off this prejudice.” different from the villains? Percentage of Men and Women For those who fi nd importance of looks unfair and unenlightened, two attractiveness Who “Constantly Think About Their Looks” fi ndings may be reassuring. First, people’s attractiveness is surprisingly unrelated to their Men Women self- esteem and happiness (Diener et al., 1995; Major et al., 1984). Unless we have just Canada 18% 20% compared ourselves with superattractive people, few of us (thanks, perhaps, to the mere United States 17 27 exposure effect) view ourselves as unattractive (Thornton & Moore, 1993). Second, strik- Mexico 40 45 Venezuela 47 65 ingly attractive people are sometimes suspicious that praise for their work may simply be From Roper Starch survey, a reaction to their looks. Less attractive people are more likely to accept praise as sincere reported by McCool (1999). (Berscheid, 1981).

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800 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 800 3/5/14 12:44 PM Attraction Module 79 801

In the eye of the beholder Conceptions of attractiveness ENGAGE vary by culture. Yet some adult physical features, such as a © SCPhotos/Alamy youthful form and face, seem Active Learning Caterina Bernardi/Corbis © Michele Falzone/Alamy attractive everywhere. Collect current fashion magazine cover photos of contemporary women, and compare them with past cover images of women as displayed in magazines of the 1980s, the 1970s, or even the 1960s. How were women physically Beauty is in the eye of the culture. Hoping to look attractive, people across the globe have pierced their noses, lengthened their necks, bound their feet, and dyed or painted different in the past? their skin and hair. They have gorged themselves to achieve a full fi gure or liposuctioned Was makeup applied differently? fat to achieve a slim one, applied chemicals hoping to rid themselves of unwanted hair or FYI to regrow wanted hair, strapped on leather garments to make their breasts seem smaller or Were hairstyles different? Do surgically fi lled their breasts with silicone and put on Wonderbras to make them look bigger. New York Times columnist women seem more “natural” today Cultural ideals also change over time. For women in North America, the ultra- thin ideal of Maureen Dowd on liposuction (January 19, 2000): “Women than in years past? the Roaring Twenties gave way to the soft, voluptuous Marilyn Monroe ideal of the 1950s, in the 50’s vacuumed. Women only to be replaced by today’s lean yet busty ideal. in the 00’s are vacuumed. Our If we’re not born attractive, we may try to buy beauty. Americans now spend more on Hoovers have turned on us!” TEACH beauty supplies than on education and social services combined. Still not satisfi ed, millions undergo plastic surgery, teeth capping and whitening, Botox skin smoothing, and laser hair FYI Diversity Connections removal (ASPS, 2010). Some aspects of attractiveness, however, do cross place and time (Cunningham et al., Women have 91 percent of Have students obtain fashion maga- cosmetic procedures (ASPS, 2005; Langlois et al., 2000). By providing reproductive clues, bodies infl uence sexual attrac- 2010). Women also recall others’ zines from diff erent cultures to see tion. As evolutionary psychologists explain (Module 15), men in many cultures, from Aus- appearance better than do men tralia to Zambia, judge women as more attractive if they have a youthful, fertile appearance, (Mast & Hall, 2006). how their standards of beauty are suggested by a low waist-to-hip ratio (Karremans et al., 2010; Perilloux et al., 2010; Platek & diff erent from and similar to those in Singh, 2010). Women feel attracted to healthy -looking men, but especially—and the more the United States. so when ovulating—to those who seem mature, dominant, masculine, and affl uent (Gallup & Frederick, 2010; Gangestad et al., 2010). But faces matter, too. When people separately rate opposite-sex faces and bodies, the face tends to be the better predictor of overall physi- Figure 79.1 cal attractiveness (Currie & Little, 2009; Peters et al., 2007). Average is attractive Which of People everywhere also seem to prefer physical features—noses, legs, physiques— these faces offered by University of St. Andrews psychologist that are neither unusually large nor small. An averaged face is attractive (FIGURE 79.1). David Perrett (2002, 2010) is most In one clever demonstration, researchers digitized the faces of up to 32 college stu- attractive? Most people say it’s the dents and used a computer to average them (Langlois & Roggman, 1990). Students face on the right—of a nonexistent person that is the average composite of these 3 plus 57 other actual faces. David Perrett/ University of St. Andrews

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod79_B.indd 800 1/21/14 10:31 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod79_B.indd 801 1/21/14 10:31 AM

Attraction Module 79 801

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 801 3/5/14 12:45 PM 802 Unit XIV Social Psychology

Extreme makeover Greater wealth judged the averaged, composite ENGAGE and concerns about appearance in faces as more attractive than 96 China have led to increasing numbers of women seeking to alter their percent of the individual faces. Critical Questions appearance. This woman underwent One reason is that averaged faces six months of grueling plastic surgery to are symmetrical, and people with Students may insist that opposites transform her eyes, nose, chin, breasts, symmetrical faces and bodies are do attract. They will cite examples of abdomen, bottom, legs, and skin in

hopes of obtaining a career in film. EyePress/Newscom PhotoTex/EyePress; more sexually attractive (Rhodes friends in their intimate circle who et al., 1999; Singh, 1995; Thornhill are completely unlike them. Have & Gangestad, 1994). Merge either half of your face with its mirror them discuss these diff erences to see image and your symmetrical new whether the friends they mention face would boost your attractiveness a notch. really are diff erent: Our feelings also infl uence our attractiveness judgments. Imagine two people. The How are you different from fi rst is honest, humorous, and polite. The second is rude, unfair, and abusive. Which one is more attractive? Most people perceive the person with the appealing traits as also more someone whom you consider physically attractive (Lewandowski et al., 2007). Those we like we fi nd attractive. In a an “opposite” ? Do such differences Rodgers and Hammerstein musical, Prince Charming asks Cinderella, “Do I love you be- exist in areas that involve strongly cause you’re beautiful, or are you beautiful because I love you?” Chances are it’s both. As we see our loved ones again and again, their physical imperfections grow less noticeable held values and beliefs? For and their attractiveness grows more apparent (Beaman & Klentz, 1983; Gross & Crofton, example, are you friends with 1977). Shakespeare said it in A Midsummer Night’s Dream: “Love looks not with the eyes, someone who is a racist even but with the mind.” Come to love someone and watch beauty grow. though you are strongly opposed Similarity to racism? So proximity has brought you into contact with someone, and your appearance has made Does the friend you consider an acceptable fi rst impression. What now infl uences whether you will become friends? As you get to know each other better, will the chemistry be better if you are opposites or if you an “opposite” represent values are alike? very different from those of your It makes a good story—extremely different types living in harmonious union: Rat, Mole, The Wind in the Willows, parents? If so, could that explain and Badger in Frog and Toad in Arnold Lobel’s books. The stories delight us by expressing what we seldom experience, for in real life, opposites retract the attraction of this friendship? (Rosenbaum, 1986). Compared with randomly paired people, friends and couples are far more likely to share common attitudes, beliefs, and interests (and, for that matter, age, religion, race, education, intelligence, smoking behavior, and economic status). Moreover, the more alike people are, the more their liking endures (Byrne, 1971). Journalist Walter Lippmann was right to suppose that love lasts “when the lovers love many things together, and not merely each other.” Similarity breeds content. Dissimi- larity often fosters disfavor, which helps explain many straight men’s disapproval of gay men who are doubly dissimilar from themselves in sexual orientation and gender roles (Lehavot & Lambert, 2007). Proximity, attractiveness, and similarity are not the only determinants of attraction. We also like those who like us. This is especially so when our self- image is low. When we believe someone likes us, we feel good and respond to them warmly, which leads them to like us even more (Curtis & Miller, 1986). To be liked is powerfully rewarding. Indeed, all the fi ndings we have considered so far can be explained by a simple reward theory of attraction: We will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us, and we will continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs. When people live or work in close proximity with us, it costs less time and effort to develop the friendship and enjoy its benefi ts. When people are attractive, they are aesthetically pleasing, and associating with them can be socially rewarding. When people share our views, they reward us by validat- ing our own.

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802 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 802 3/5/14 12:45 PM Attraction Module 79 803

Romantic Love TEACH 79-279-2 How does romantic love typically change as time passes? Diversity Connections Sometimes people move quickly from initial impressions, to friendship, to the more Investigate the success of arranged intense, complex, and mysterious state of romantic love. If love endures, temporary passionate love will mellow into a lingering companionate love (Hatfi eld, 1988). marriages. If students in your school are from cultures where marriages are Passionate Love arranged, have them come to your A key ingredient of passionate love is arousal. The two- factor theory of emotion class to discuss this custom. You may (Module 41) can help us understand this intense positive absorption in another (Hat- fi eld, 1988). That theory assumes that: even invite their parents to class if • Emotions have two ingredients—physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal. they will feel comfortable doing so. Snapshots jasonlove.com at • Arousal from any source can enhance one emotion or another, depending on Bill looked at Susan, Susan at Bill. Suddenly How long do arranged marriages how we interpret and label the arousal. death didn’t seem like an option. This was typically last? In tests of the two-factor theory, college men have been aroused by fright, by love at first sight. running in place, by viewing erotic materials, or by listening to humorous or repulsive Do couples in arranged marriages monologues. They were then introduced to an attractive woman and asked to rate her (or grow to love each other? Why or their girlfriend). Unlike unaroused men, the stirred-up men attributed some of their arousal why not? to the woman or girlfriend, and felt more attracted to her (Carducci et al., 1978; Dermer & Pyszczynski, 1978; White & Kight, 1984). FYI Do young people who will A sample experiment: Researchers studied people crossing two bridges above British Note the difference between lust probably enter into arranged Columbia’s rocky Capilano River (Dutton & Aron, 1974, 1989). One, a swaying footbridge, (immediate desire) and romantic was 230 feet above the rocks; the other was low and solid. The researchers had an attractive love (desire + attachment). marriages agree with the practice? young woman intercept men coming off each bridge, and ask their help in fi lling out a short Why or why not? questionnaire. She then offered her phone number in case they wanted to hear more about her project. Far more of those who had just crossed the high bridge—which left their hearts Would your students trust their pounding—accepted the number and later called the woman. To be revved up and to as- parents to find them a suitable sociate some of that arousal with a desirable person is to feel the pull of passion. Adrenaline makes the heart grow fonder. And when sexual desire is supplemented by a growing attach- mate? Why or why not? ment, the result is the passion of romantic love (Berscheid, 2010). Companionate Love Although the desire and attachment of romantic love often endure, the intense absorption in passionate love an aroused state of intense positive absorption the other, the thrill of the romance, the giddy fl oating on a cloud feelings typically fade. Does “ ” in another, usually present at the this mean the French are correct in saying that “love makes the time pass and time makes love beginning of a love relationship. pass”? Or can friendship and commitment keep a relationship going after the passion cools? companionate love the deep The evidence indicates that, as love matures, it becomes a steadier companionate TEACH affectionate attachment we feel love—a deep, affectionate attachment (Hatfi eld, 1988). The fl ood of passion-facilitating for those with whom our lives are hormones (testosterone, dopamine, adrenaline) subsides and another hormone, oxytocin, intertwined. Concept Connections supports feelings of trust, calmness, and bonding with the mate. In the most satisfying of Remind students which 2 factors are marriages, attraction and sexual desire endure, minus the obsession of early stage romance (Acevedo & Aron, 2009). included in the 2-factor theory of There may be adaptive wisdom to the shift from passion to attachment (Reis & Aron, “When two people are under the emotion (Unit VIII): 2008). Passionate love often produces children, whose survival is aided by the parents’ wan- infl uence of the most violent, most insane, most delusive, and most Physiological response ing obsession with each other. Failure to appreciate passionate love’s limited half - life can transient of passions, they are doom a relationship (Berscheid et al., 1984). Indeed, recognizing the short duration of ob- required to swear that they will Cognitive label sessive passionate love, some societies deem such feelings to be an irrational reason for remain in that excited, abnormal, marrying. Better, they say, to choose (or have someone choose for you) a partner with a and exhausting condition continuously until death do them According to this theory, which compatible background and interests. Non - Western cultures, where people rate love less part.” -GEORGE BERNARD SHAW, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer important for marriage, do have lower divorce rates (Levine et al., 1995). “GETTING MARRIED,” 1908 developed, both factors must be present in order to experience an emotion.

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Attraction Module 79 803

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 803 3/7/14 9:54 AM 804 Unit XIV Social Psychology

ENGAGE Active Learning The divorce rate is much higher today than it was when your students’ great- grandparents married. Have students

investigate why people get divorced: HI & LOIS © 1990 by King Features Syndicate, Inc. World rights reserved. Are the values of society different today than they were a generation One key to a gratifying and enduring relationship is equity. When equity exists—when ago regarding divorce? both partners receive in proportion to what they give—their chances for sustained and satisfying companionate love are good (Gray- Little & Burks, 1983; Van Yperen & Buunk, 1990). What are some common reasons In one national survey, “sharing household chores” ranked third, after “faithfulness” and a that people cite for getting a “happy sexual relationship,” on a list of nine things people associated with successful marriages. “I like hugs. I like kisses. But what I really love is help with the dishes,” summarized divorce? Do these reasons point to the Pew Research Center (2007). a lack of companionship between Equity’s importance extends beyond marriage. Mutually sharing self and possessions, spouses? making decisions together, giving and getting emotional support, promoting and caring about each other’s welfare—all of these acts are at the core of every type of loving relationship (Sternberg & Grajek, 1984). It’s true for lovers, for parent and child, and for intimate friends. ENGAGE Another vital ingredient of loving relationships is self - disclosure, the revealing of intimate details about ourselves—our likes and dislikes, our dreams and worries, our proud equity a condition in which and shameful moments. “When I am with my friend,” noted the Roman statesman Sen- Active Learning people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it. eca, “me thinks I am alone, and as much at liberty to speak anything as to think it.” Self - Have students come up with a list of disclosure breeds liking, and liking breeds self- disclosure (Collins & Miller, 1994). As one self - disclosure revealing intimate person reveals a little, the other reciprocates, the ﬁ rst then reveals more, and on and on, as self-disclosing questions. Then ask aspects of oneself to others. them to partner with someone they friends or lovers move to deeper and deeper intimacy (Baumeister & Bratslavsky, 1999). One experiment marched student pairs through 45 minutes of increasingly self- don’t know well and answer the ques- disclosing conversation—from “When did you last sing to yourself?” to “When did you last tions for each other. cry in front of another person? By yourself?” Others spent the time with small- talk questions, such as “What was your high school like?” (Aron et al., 1997). By the experiment’s How did students feel about each end, those experiencing the escalating intimacy felt remarkably close to their conversation other before this exercise? partner, much closer than did the small-talkers. Intimacy can also grow from pausing to ponder and What new things did they learn write our feelings. In another study, researchers invited about each other? one person from each of 86 dating couples to spend 20 minutes a day over three days either writing their deep- What was the most interesting est thoughts and feelings about the relationship or writing thing they learned? What would merely about their daily activities (Slatcher & Pennebaker, they like to know more about? 2006). Those who had written about their feelings expressed more emotion in their instant messages with their AP Photo/Archaeological Society SAP, ho AP Photo/Archaeological Society SAP, partners in the days following, and 77 percent were still dating three months later (compared with 52 percent of those who had written about their activities). Love is an ancient In addition to equity and self-disclosure, a third key thing In 2007, a 5000- to to enduring love is positive support. While relationship 6000-year-old “Romeo conﬂ icts are inevitable, we can ask ourselves whether our and Juliet” young couple was unearthed locked in communications more often express sarcasm or support, embrace, near Rome. scorn or sympathy, sneers or smiles. For unhappy couples,

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod79_B.indd 804 1/21/14 10:31 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod79_B.indd 805 1/21/14 10:31 AM

804 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 804 3/5/14 12:45 PM Attraction Module 79 805

disagreements, criticisms, and put downs are routine. For happy couples in enduring relationships, positive interactions (compliments, touches, laughing) outnumber negative in- CLOSE & ASSESS teractions (sarcasm, disapproval, insults) by at least 5 to 1 (Gottman, 2007; see also Sullivan et al., 2010). Exit Assessment In the mathematics of love, self - disclosing intimacy + mutually supportive equity = Ask students to describe the factors enduring companionate love. that lead people to fall in love and Before You Move On the factors that help them stay in a relationship. c ASK YOURSELF When you think of some of the older couples you know, which ones seem to experience companionate love? How do you think they’ve achieved it? c TEST YOURSELF How does being physically attractive inﬂ uence others’ perceptions? Answers to the Test Yourself questions can be found in Appendix E at the end of the book.

Module 79 Review Why do we befriend or fall in love with some 79-179-1 79-279-2 How does romantic love typically change as people but not others? time passes?

• Proximity (geographical nearness) increases liking, in part • Intimate love relationships start with passionate love—an because of the mere exposure effect—exposure to novel intensely aroused state. stimuli increases liking of those stimuli. • Over time, the strong affection of companionate love may • Physical attractiveness increases social opportunities and develop, especially if enhanced by an equitable relationship improves the way we are perceived. and by intimate self-disclosure. • Similarity of attitudes and interests greatly increases liking, especially as relationships develop. We also like those who like us.

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod79_B.indd 804 1/21/14 10:31 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod79_B.indd 805 1/21/14 10:31 AM

Attraction Module 79 805

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 805 3/5/14 12:45 PM 806 Unit XIV Social Psychology

Answers to Multiple-Choice Multiple-Choice Questions Questions 1. Which of the following terms describes our geographic 3. Which of the following is an aspect of physical nearness to another person? attractiveness that appears to be true across cultures? 1. b 3. a a. Mere exposure effect a. Indications of reproductive health 2. e 4. d b. Proximity b. Height c. Similarity c. Weight d. Ingroup bias d. Size of the ears e. Symmetry e. Shape of the chin 2. Which of the following is an example of the mere 4. Over time, which of the following is typically true of the exposure effect? relationship between passionate love and companionate a. Adrianna has started arriving tardy to her second love? period class to avoid a group of kids in the hall who a. Passionate and companionate love both decrease. constantly tease her. b. Passionate love increases and companionate love b. Abe has biked the same route to school so many times decreases. that he no longer has to think about where to turn. c. Passionate and companionate love both increase. c. Daiyu has seen the same toothpaste ad on television d. Passionate love decreases and companionate love a hundred times. Each time she sees it she hates it increases. more. e. There is no consistent relationship between the levels d. Abdul has always loved dogs, so he adopted one of passionate love and companionate love. from the local shelter. e. Guiren didn’t like sushi the ﬁ rst couple times he tried it, but his friend encouraged him to keep eating it and now it’s one of his favorite foods.

Practice FRQs Answer to Practice FRQ 2 1. List the three major factors that inﬂ uence attraction. 2. Describe one key factor present in passionate love and 1 point: Physical arousal is the key fac- two key factors present in companionate love. Answer tor that accompanies passionate love. (3 points) 1 point: Proximity, which is geographic nearness. 2 points: Equity and self-disclosure 1 point: Physical attractiveness. are the key factors that accompany 1 point: Similarity. companionate love. Equity occurs when people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it. Self-disclosure is revealing intimate aspects of yourself to others.

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod79_B.indd 806 1/21/14 10:31 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod80_B.indd 807 1/21/14 10:31 AM

806 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 806 3/5/14 12:45 PM Altruism, Conflict, and Peacemaking Module 80 807

TEACH Module 80 TRMTRM Discussion Starter Use the Module 80 Fact or Falsehood? activity from the TRM to introduce the Altruism, Conﬂ ict, and Peacemaking concepts from this module.

Paul Conklin/Photo Edit Conklin/Photo Paul ENGAGE Module Learning Objectives Active Learning 80-1 Identify the times when people are most—and least—likely to help. Have students research back issues of 80-280-2 Discuss how social exchange theory and social norms explain the local paper for stories of people helping behavior. who acted heroically. Contact these people if possible and interview them 80-380-3 Explain how social traps and mirror-image perceptions fuel social confl ict. over the phone, asking them about their particular acts of courage. 80-480-4 Discuss how we can transform feelings of prejudice, aggression, and confl ict into attitudes that promote peace. What caused them to act in the first place? How did they feel before, during, Altruism and after the event? Why weren’t they paralyzed by fear or more 80-180-1 When are people most—and least—likely to help? concerned for their own safety? Altruism is an unselfi sh concern for the welfare of others. In rescuing his jailer, Dirk altruism unselfi sh regard for the Have they received recognition Willems exemplifi ed altruism (Unit XIV opener). So also did Carl Wilkens and Paul welfare of others. Rusesabagina in Kigali, Rwanda. Wilkens, a Seventh Day Adventist missionary, was liv- for their heroic acts? How did such ing there in 1994 with his family when Hutu militia began to slaughter the Tutsi. The U.S. recognition make them feel? government, church leaders, and friends all implored Wilkens to leave. He refused. After evacuating his family, and even after every other American had left Kigali, he alone stayed and contested the 800,000-person genocide. When the militia came to kill him and his Tutsi ENGAGE servants, Wilkens’ Hutu neighbors deterred them. Despite repeated death threats, he spent his days running roadblocks to take food and water to orphanages and to negotiate, plead, Enrichment and bully his way through the bloodshed, saving lives time and again. “It just seemed the Andrew Carnegie was inspired to right thing to do,” he later explained (Kristof, 2004). Elsewhere in Kigali, Rusesabagina, a Hutu married to a Tutsi and the acting manager establish the Hero Fund Commission of a luxury hotel, was sheltering more than 1200 terrifi ed Tutsis and moderate Hutus. When in 1904 after 2 attempted rescues international peacekeepers abandoned the city and hostile militia threatened his guests in the “Hotel Rwanda” (as it came to be called in a 2004 movie), the courageous Rusesabagina from a coal mining disaster in which began cashing in past favors. He bribed the militia and telephoned infl uential people abroad both rescuers died. Carnegie set aside to exert pressure on local authorities, thereby sparing the lives of the hotel’s occupants from $5 million to compensate rescuers the surrounding chaos. “Probably no single incident has Both Wilkens and Rusesabagina were displaying altruism. Altruism became a major caused social psychologists to pay or their families. The commission has as much attention to an aspect of concern of social psychologists after an especially vile act of sexual violence. On March social behavior as Kitty Genovese’s recognized more than 8300 acts of 13, 1964, a stalker repeatedly stabbed Kitty Genovese, then raped her as she lay dying murder.” -R. LANCE SHOTLAND (1984) heroism. In addition to the medal, outside her Queens, New York, apartment at 3:30 A.M. “Oh, my God, he stabbed me!” awardees or their survivors receive $3500 and, occasionally, a pension or scholarship. For more information, go to the commission’s website at www.carnegiehero.org. MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod79_B.indd 806 1/21/14 10:31 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod80_B.inddENGAGE 807 1/21/14 10:31 AM Active Learning It is usually fairly easy to have students both provide the basis for a lively classroom discus- enjoy and learn from performing a random sion. Extend the text discussion of altruism by act of kindness. After performing an act of asking students to refl ect on why some recipi- kindness, students should write a brief paper ents might react negatively to receiving help. describing the act, the recipient’s reaction, Radmacher, S. (1997, January 19). Social psychology and their own reaction. Recipients’ reactions, projects. Teaching in the psychological sciences (TIPS- particularly when the recipient is not grateful, Online Discussion Group).

Altruism, Conflict, and Peacemaking Module 80 807

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 807 3/5/14 12:45 PM 808 Unit XIV Social Psychology

Genovese screamed into the early morning stillness. “Please help me!” Windows opened ENGAGE and lights went on as neighbors (38 of them, said an initial New York Times report, though that number was later contested) heard her screams. Her attacker fl ed and then returned Active Learning to stab and rape her again. Not until he had fl ed for good did anyone so much as call the Although the story of Kitty Genovese police, at 3:50 A.M. is tragic and horrifi c, there are other Bystander Intervention stories of people who did help in Refl ecting on initial reports of the Genovese murder and other such tragedies, most com- similar situations. Have students inves- mentators were outraged by the bystanders’ “apathy” and “indifference.” Rather than blaming the onlookers, social psychologists John Darley and Bibb Latané (1968b) attributed tigate some of these stories, noting their inaction to an important situational factor—the presence of others. Given certain cir- how they are diff erent from cases like cumstances, they suspected, most of us might behave similarly. Genovese’s. After staging emergencies under various conditions, Darley and Latané assembled their fi ndings into a decision scheme: We will help only if the situation enables us fi rst to notice Many people both in and out of the incident, then to interpret it as an emergency, and fi nally to assume responsibility for help- Nazi Germany helped Jews escape ing (FIGURE 80.1). At each step, the presence of others can turn us away from the path that leads to helping. the Holocaust. Why did they risk their own lives to help people Figure 80.1 Interprets The decision - Notices Yes Yes Assumes Yes Attempts whom their society had deemed incident? incident as responsibility to help making process emergency? unworthy? for bystander intervention Before No No No White Southerners in the helping, one must first notice an emergency, Confederate South helped establish then correctly interpret it, and then feel No No No and maintain the Underground responsible. (From help help help Darley & Latané, Railroad, the network of secret 1968b.) Viviane Moos/CORBIS routes and safe houses that helped Darley and Latané reached their conclusions after interpreting the results of a series of thousands of slaves escape to experiments. For example, they simulated a physical emergency in their laboratory as stu- freedom. What caused these people dents participated in a discussion over an intercom. Each student was in a separate cubicle, and only the person whose microphone was switched on could be heard. When his turn to rebel against their society’s came, one student (an accomplice of the experimenters) made sounds as though he were norms and laws? having an epileptic seizure, and he called for help (Darley & Latané, 1968a). bystander effect the tendency How did the other students react? As FIGURE 80.2 shows, those who believed only for any given bystander to be less they could hear the victim—and therefore thought they alone were responsible for helping ENGAGE likely to give aid if other bystanders him—usually went to his aid. Students who thought others also could hear the victim’s cries are present. were more likely to ignore the victim. When more people shared responsibility for help- TRMTRM Enrichment ing—when there was a diffusion of responsibility—any single listener was less likely to help. The results of the original studies by Hundreds of additional experiments have confi rmed this bystander effect. For example, researchers and their assistants took 1497 elevator rides in three cities and “acciden- John Darley and Bibb Latané were tally” dropped coins or pencils in front of 4813 fellow passengers (Latané & Dabbs, 1975). robust. When bystanders were alone, When alone with the person in need, 40 percent helped; in the presence of 5 other bystand- AP® Exam Tip 85 percent would seek help. When ers, only 20 percent helped. Common sense suggests that you Observations of behavior in thousands of such situations—relaying an emergency they were in a crowd, only 31 percent would be more likely to get help phone call, aiding a stranded motorist, donating blood, picking up dropped books, con- if there are more people around, tributing money, giving time—show that the best odds of our helping someone occur when would do so. So if you need help, but research on the bystander hope that there isn’t a big crowd effect has in fact shown just the • the person appears to need and deserve help. opposite is true. This concept ® • the person is in some way similar to us. around! often shows up on the AP exam, so be sure you understand it. • the person is a woman. Use Student Activity: Why Do Peo- ple Volunteer? from the TRM to help students explore helping behavior.

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod80_B.inddTEACH 808 1/21/14 10:31 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod80_B.indd 809 1/21/14 10:31 AM Concept Connections Link the bystander eﬀ ect to deindividuation and social loaﬁ ng. When individuals are in a crowd, they are less likely to behave rationally. Their sense of responsibility will diffuse, causing them to do things like riot, loot, or vandalize. When people are in a group, they are less likely to make their best efforts, especially if they believe others are available to help.

808 Unit XIV Social Psychology

MyersPsyAP_TE_2e_U14.indd 808 3/7/14 9:54 AM Altruism, Conflict, and Peacemaking Module 80 809

• we have just observed someone Figure 80.2 else being helpful. Percentage 90% Fewer people help Responses to a simulated • we are not in a hurry. attempting if others seem physical emergency When to help available • we are in a small town or rural 80 people thought they alone heard the calls for help from a person they area. 70 believed to be having an epileptic • we are feeling guilty. seizure, they usually helped. But 60 when they thought four others were • we are focused on others and not also hearing the calls, fewer than preoccupied. 50 one-third responded. (From Darley & Latané, 1968a.) • we are in a good mood. 40

This last result, that happy people are helpful 30 people, is one of the most consistent fi ndings in all of psychology. As poet Robert Browning (1868) 20 observed, “Oh, make us happy and you make 10 us good!” It doesn’t matter how we are cheered. 0 Whether by being made to feel successful and in- 1 2 3 4 telligent, by thinking happy thoughts, by fi nding Number of others ENGAGE money, or even by receiving a posthypnotic sug- presumed available to help gestion, we become more generous and more ea- Active Learning ger to help (Carlson et al., 1988). And given a feeling of elevation after witnessing or learning of someone else’s self-giving deed, our helping will become even more pronounced Have student pairs go to a public (Schnall et al., 2010). area in school. The “displayer” should So happiness breeds helpfulness. But it’s also true that helpfulness breeds happiness. Making charitable donations activates brain areas associated with reward (Har- walk or stand about 5 feet in front of baugh et al., 2007). That helps explain a curious fi nding: People who give money away the “coder” and make eye contact are happier than those who spend it almost entirely on themselves. In one experiment, researchers gave people an envelope with cash and instructions either to spend it on with a single oncoming subject. The themselves or to spend it on others (Dunn et al., 2008). Which group was happiest at the displayer should then signal the coder day’s end? It was, indeed, those assigned to the spend-it-on-others condition. to discreetly observe the respondent’s The Norms for Helping facial expression. In the original study, over half the 80-280-2 How do social exchange theory and social norms explain helping behavior? subjects responded to a smile with Why do we help? One widely held view is that self- interest underlies all human interac- a smile, but few subjects responded tions, that our constant goal is to maximize rewards and minimize costs. Accountants call to a frown with a frown. The reci- it cost - benefi t analysis. Philosophers call it utilitarianism. Social psychologists call it social exchange theory. If you are pondering whether to donate blood, you may weigh the costs procity norm may explain why we of doing so (time, discomfort, and anxiety) against the benefi ts (reduced guilt, social approval, should respond in kind to rewarding and good feelings). If the rewards exceed the costs, you will help. Others believe that we help because we have been socialized to do so, through norms actions. A frown generally represents that prescribe how we ought to behave. Through socialization, we learn the reciprocity unfriendly or negative aff ect. Pass- norm, the expectation that we should return help, not harm, to those who have helped us. ersby seemed to respond to a frown In our relations with others of similar status, the reciprocity norm compels us to give (in favors, gifts, or social invitations) about as much as we receive. social exchange theory with a look of bewilderment. Females the theory that our social behavior The reciprocity norm kicked in after Dave Tally, a Tempe, Arizona, homeless man, found is an exchange process, the aim of were more likely to smile than males. $3300 in a backpack that had been lost by an Arizona State University student headed to which is to maximize benefi ts and People were more likely to smile at buy a used car (Lacey, 2010). Instead of using the cash for much-needed bike repairs, food, minimize costs. a female. Did your students obtain and shelter, Tally turned the backpack in to the social service agency where he volunteered. reciprocity norm an expectation To reciprocate Tally’s help, the student thanked him with a reward. Hearing about Tally’s that people will help, not hurt, similar results? Why or why not? self-giving deeds, dozens of others also sent him money and job offers. those who have helped them. Hinsz, V., & Tomhave, J. (1991). Smile and (half) the world smiles with you, frown and you frown alone. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 586–592.

MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod80_B.indd 808 1/21/14 10:31 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod80_B.indd TEACH 809 1/21/14 10:31 AM TRMTRM Teaching Tip Reciprocity is a powerful social norm. often wind up buying the product even if A professor sent holiday cards to strangers. they do not need it. Cards poured back from people who had Use Student Activity: Pleasurable Versus Phil- never met him. anthropic Activities—Which Brings More Hap- Many people who receive free samples in piness? from the TRM to help students explore the supermarket find it difficult to return the beneﬁ ts of helping behavior. to discard the sample’s trash (for example, Cialdini, R. (1998). Infl uence: The psychology of persua- a cup or spoon) after it’s been used. They sion. New York: William Morrow.

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We also learn a social - responsibility norm: that we should help those who need our help—young children and others who cannot give as much as they receive—even if the costs outweigh the beneﬁ ts. Construction worker Wesley Autrey exempliﬁ ed the social-responsibility norm on January 2, 2007. He and his 6- and 4-year-old daughters were awaiting a New York City subway train when, before them,

AP Photo/Newsday, Nick Brooks AP Photo/Newsday, a man collapsed in a seizure, got up, then stumbled to the platform’s edge and fell onto the tracks. With train headlights approaching, “I had to make a split decision,” ENGAGE Autrey later recalled (Buckley, 2007). His decision, as his girls looked on in horror, was to leap from the platform, push the man off the tracks and into a foot-deep space Enrichment between them, and lay atop him. As the train screeched to a halt, fi ve cars traveled just above his head, leaving grease on his knit cap. When Autrey cried out, “I’ve got Researchers identify 5 specifi c strate- two daughters up there. Let them know their father is okay,” the onlookers erupted gies for dealing with social confl ict. into applause. People who attend weekly religious services often are admonished to practice the Consider the hypothetical case of social-responsibility norm, and sometimes they do. In American surveys, they have Peter, who is looking forward to a reported twice as many volunteer hours spent helping the poor and infi rm, compared with those who rarely or never attend religious services (Hodgkinson & Weitzman, vacation at a mountain lodge. His wife 1992; Independent Sector, 2002). Between 2006 and 2008, Gallup polls sampled more Subway hero Wesley Autrey wants to go to a seaside resort. “I don’t feel like I did something than 300,000 people across 140 countries, comparing those “highly religious” (who said spectacular; I just saw someone who religion was important to them and who had attended a religious service in the prior week) He can respond by stubbornly needed help.” with those less religious. The highly religious, despite being poorer, were about 50 percent insisting on the mountain vacation, more likely to report having “donated money to a charity in the last month” and to have even threatening to go alone. volunteered time to an organization (Pelham & Crabtree, 2008). Although positive social norms encourage generosity and enable group living, confl icts often divide us. Concern only about his own needs would lead to this response. Confl ict and Peacemaking He can yield to his wife’s preference. We live in surprising times. With astonishing speed, recent democratic movements swept Concern only for others’ needs away totalitarian rule in Eastern European and Arab countries, and hopes for a new world might lead to this response. order displaced the Cold War chill. And yet, the twenty - fi rst century began with terrorist acts and war. Every day, the world has continued to spend more than $3 billion for arms and He can take a problem-solving armies—money that could have been used for housing, nutrition, education, and health approach and come up with a care. Knowing that wars begin in human minds, psychologists have wondered: What in the human mind causes destructive confl ict? How might the perceived threats of social diversity vacation plan that will satisfy both him be replaced by a spirit of cooperation? and his wife. Concerns for the self and Elements of Confl ict others can lead to problem solving. 80-380-3 How do social traps and mirror-image perceptions fuel social He can be inactive and hope the confl ict? disagreement will just dissipate. To a social psychologist, a confl ict is a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. When both concerns for the self social - responsibility norm The elements of confl ict are much the same, whether we are speaking of nations at war, cul- an expectation that people will help tural groups feuding within a society, or partners sparring in a relationship. In each situation, and others are weak, inaction is the those needing their help. people become enmeshed in potentially destructive processes that can produce results no likely approach. confl ict a perceived one wants. Among these processes are social traps and distorted perceptions. incompatibility of actions, goals, or Peter can withdraw from the ideas. SOCIAL TRAPS controversy by deciding not to take social trap a situation in which In some situations, we support our collective well- being by pursuing our personal inter- the confl icting parties, by each ests. As capitalist Adam Smith wrote in The Wealth of Nations (1776), “It is not from the any vacation. The model makes no rationally pursuing their self - benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from prediction about the antecedents interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually their regard to their own interest.” In other situations, we harm our collective well- being by of withdrawing. destructive behavior. pursuing our personal interests. Such situations are social traps. Pruitt, D., Rubin, J., & Kim, S. (1994). Social confl ict: Escalation, stalemate, and settlement (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

ENGAGEMyersAP_SE_2e_Mod80_B.indd 810 1/21/14 10:31 AM MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod80_B.indd 811 1/21/14 10:31 AM TRMTRM Active Learning Have students sit around a shallow bowl that for conservation, 65 percent of the groups will initially contains 10 metal “nuts.” State that never reach the ﬁ rst 10-second replenishment. the goal is for each student to accumulate as Often they knock the bowl right oﬀ the table, many nuts as possible. A student may take as grabbing for their shares! many as he or she wants, and every 10 seconds Use Teacher Demonstration: Social Traps the number of nuts remaining in the bowl will from the TRM to help demonstrate social traps be doubled. What happens? Unless students to students. are allowed some time to devise a strategy

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Person 1 Figure 80.3 ENGAGE Choose A Choose B Social-trap game matrix By pursuing our self -interest and not trusting others, we can end TRMTRM up losers. To illustrate this, imagine playing the Critical Questions Optimal +$5 +$10 outcome game on the left. The light-orange triangles show the outcomes for Person 1, which depend on the Many teachers use cooperative learn- –$5 choices made by both players. If you were Person Choose A +$5 ing groups, but are these groups truly 1, would you choose A or B? (This game is called a non-zero- sum game because the outcomes cooperative? Discuss with students need not add up to zero; both sides can win or

Person 2 Person –$5 Probable both can lose.) what a truly cooperative situation outcome 0 looks like, including the use of super-

Choose B 0 ordinate goals, common values, and +$10 mutual benefi ts. Do the work groups for projects Consider the simple game matrix in FIGURE 80.3, which is similar to those used in experiments with countless thousands of people. Both sides can win or both can lose, depend- at school typically reflect these ing on the players’ individual choices. Pretend you are Person 1, and that you and Person 2 qualities? will each receive the amount shown after you separately choose either A or B. (You might invite someone to look at the matrix with you and take the role of Person 2.) Which do you Do the groups have any choose—A or B? superordinate goals other than You and Person 2 are caught in a dilemma. If you both choose A, you both benefi t, mak- getting a good grade? ing $5 each. Neither of you benefi ts if you both choose B, for neither of you makes anything. Nevertheless, on any single trial you serve your own interests if you choose B: You can’t lose, Do the group members share and you might make $10. But the same is true for the other person. Hence, the social trap: common values such as hard work As long as you both pursue your own immediate best interest and choose B, you will both end up with nothing—the typical result—when you could have made $5. and attention to detail? Many real - life situations similarly pit our individual interests against our communal How are groups typically graded? well - being. Individual whalers reasoned that the few whales they took would not threaten the species and that if they didn’t take them others would anyway. The result: Some species Do such grading practices reduce of whales became endangered. Ditto for the buffalo hunters of yesterday and the elephant- cooperation or improve it? tusk poachers of today. Individual car owners and home owners reason, “It would cost me comfort or money to buy a more fuel- effi cient car and furnace. Besides, the fossil fuels I burn How does social loafing fit into all don’t noticeably add to the greenhouse gases.” When enough others reason similarly, the this? collective result threatens disaster—climate change, rising seas, and more extreme weather. Use Student Activity: A Matter of Con- text from the TRM to help students explore cooperation in context. AP Photo/Lisa Poole

Not in my ocean! Many people support alternative energy sources, including wind turbines. But proposals to construct wind farms in real-world neighborhoods elicit less support. One such proposal, for locating wind turbines off the coast of Massachusetts’ Nantucket Island, produced heated debate over the future benefits of clean energy versus the costs of altering treasured ocean views and, possibly, migratory bird routes.

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Social traps challenge us to fi nd ways of reconciling our right to pursue our personal TEACH well- being with our responsibility for the well- being of all. Psychologists have therefore explored ways to convince people to cooperate for their mutual betterment—through agreed - Concept Connections upon regulations, through better communication, and through promoting awareness of our re- Link mirror-image perceptions to sponsibilities toward community, nation, and the whole of humanity (Dawes, 1980; Linder, ingroup bias and other-race eff ect, 1982; Sato, 1987). Given effective regulations, communication, and awareness, people more often cooperate, whether it be in playing a laboratory game or the real game of life. topics discussed earlier in this unit. We ENEMY PERCEPTIONS tend to feel defensive and protective Psychologists have noted that those in confl ict have a curious tendency to form diabolical of our own group and to view those images of one another. These distorted images are, ironically, so similar that we call them in the outgroup as being homoge- mirror-image perceptions mirror - image perceptions: As we see “them”—as untrustworthy, with evil intentions— mutual views often held by neous and indistinguishable. These so “they” see us. Each demonizes the other. confl icting people, as when each Mirror- image perceptions can often feed a vicious cycle of hostility. If Juan believes side sees itself as ethical and tendencies lead to quicker responses Maria is annoyed with him, he may snub her, causing her to act in ways that justify his peaceful and views the other side as to others that may not be well rea- evil and aggressive. perception. As with individuals, so with countries. Perceptions can become self-fulfi lling prophecies. They may confi rm themselves by infl uencing the other country to react in self-fulfi lling prophecy a belief soned, resulting in rash behaviors and ways that seem to justify them. that leads to its own fulfi llment. statements. Participants tend to see their own actions as responses to provocation, not as the causes of what happens next. Perceiving themselves as returning tit for tat, they often hit back harder, as University College London volunteers did in one experiment (Shergill et al., TEACH 2003). Their task: After feeling pressure on their own fi nger, they were to use a mechanical device to press on another volunteer’s fi nger. Although told to reciprocate with the same Common Pitfalls amount of pressure, they typically responded with about 40 percent more force than they Students often get confused by had just experienced. Despite seeking only to respond in kind, their touches soon escalated to hard presses, much as when each child after a fi ght claims that “I just poked him, but he self-fulfi lling prophecies. Using the hit me harder.” following example, help them better Perceived provocations feed similar cycles of hostility on the world stage. In 2001, newly understand this concept: elected U.S. President George W. Bush spoke of Saddam Hussein: “Some of today’s tyrants are gripped by an implacable hatred of the United States of America. They hate our friends, A student believes that she will not they hate our values, they hate democracy and freedom and individual liberty. Many care pass the next AP® Psychology test. little for the lives of their own people.” Hussein reciprocated the perception in 2002. The United States, he said, is “an evil tyrant,” with Satan as its protector. It lusts for oil and ag- The student then does not study gressively attacks those who “defend what is right.” for the test, since she is certain she The point is not that truth must lie midway between two such views (one may be more accurate). The point is that enemy perceptions often form mirror images. Moreover, as en- will fail anyway. emies change, so do perceptions. In American minds and media, the “bloodthirsty, cruel, The student fails the test, treacherous” Japanese of World War II later became our “intelligent, hardworking, self- disciplined, resourceful allies” (Gallup, 1972). confirming her belief. Promoting Peace The prophecy is fulfilled, even though her actions could have 80-480-4 How can we transform feelings of prejudice, aggression, and confl ict into attitudes that promote peace? altered the prophecy. How can we make peace? Can contact, cooperation, communication, and conciliation Students need to understand that transform the antagonisms fed by prejudice and confl icts into attitudes that promote peace? their own subsequent action is what Research indicates that, in some cases, they can. creates the self-fulfi lling prophecy, not CONTACT the belief itself. Does it help to put two confl icting parties into close contact? It depends. When contact is noncompetitive and between parties of equal status, such as fellow store clerks, it typically helps. Initially prejudiced co- workers of different races have, in such circumstances, usually

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come to accept one another. This fi nding is confi rmed by a statistical digest of more than 500 studies of face-to-face contact with outgroups (such as ethnic minorities, the elderly, and ENGAGE those with disabilities). Among the quarter-million people studied across 38 nations, contact has been correlated with, or in experimental studies has led to, more positive attitudes TRMTRM Online Activities (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2011). Some examples: Do diff erent racial, ethnic, cultural, • With interracial contact, South African Whites’ and Blacks’ “attitudes [have or social groups resegregate during moved] into closer alignment” (Dixon et al, 2007; Finchilescu & Tredoux, 2010). In South Africa, as elsewhere, the contact effect is somewhat less for lower-status lunch or other common activities at ethnic groups’ views of higher-status groups (Durrheim & Dixon, 2010; Gibson & your school? If so, have your students Claassen, 2010). participate in some version of a Mix • Heterosexuals’ attitudes toward gay people are infl uenced not only by what they know It Up at Lunch Day (http://www. but also by whom they know (Smith et al., 2009). In surveys, the reason people most often give for becoming more supportive of same-sex marriage is “having friends, tolerance.org/mix-it-up/what-is-mix), family or acquaintances who are gay or lesbian” (Pew, 2013). a project of the Southern Poverty • Friendly contact, say between Blacks and Whites, improves attitudes not only toward Law Center. With Mix It Up, students one another, but also toward other outgroups, such as Hispanics (Tausch et al., 2010). • Even indirect contact with an outgroup member (via story reading or through a friend sit with people from outside their who has an outgroup friend) has reduced prejudice (Cameron & Rutland, 2006; ingroups during lunch, promoting Pettigrew et al., 2007). contact and encouraging tolerance. However, contact is not always enough. In most desegregated schools, ethnic groups Challenge students to continue this resegregate themselves in the lunchrooms and classrooms, and on the school grounds (Al- exander & Tredoux, 2010; Clack et al., 2005; Schofi eld, 1986). People in each group often practice once a week. think that they would welcome more contact with the other group, but they assume the Use Student Activity: Intercultural other group does not reciprocate the wish (Richeson & Shelton, 2007). “I don’t reach out to Learning Activities from the TRM to them, because I don’t want to be rebuffed; they don’t reach out to me, because they’re just “You cannot shake hands with not interested.” When such mirror- image misperceptions are corrected, friendships may a clenched fi st.” -INDIRA GANDHI, help students explore perspectives then form and prejudices melt. 1971 from other cultures. COOPERATION To see if enemies could overcome their differences, researcher Muzafer Sherif (1966) set a confl ict in motion. He separated 22 Oklahoma City boys into two separate camp areas. Then he had the two groups compete for prizes in a series of activities. Before long, each group became intensely proud of itself and hostile to the other group’s “sneaky,” “smart-alecky stinkers.” Food wars broke out. Cabins were ransacked. Fistfi ghts had to be broken up by camp counselors. Brought together, the two groups avoided each other, except to taunt and threaten. Little did they know that within a few days, they would be friends. Sherif accomplished this by giving them superordinate goals—shared goals that superordinate goals shared could be achieved only through cooperation. When he arranged for the camp water sup- goals that override differences ply to “fail,” all 22 boys had to work together to restore water. To rent a movie in those among people and require their pre-DVD days, they all had to pool their resources. To move a stalled truck, the boys cooperation. needed to combine their strength, pulling and pushing together. Having used isolation and competition to make strangers into enemies, Sherif used shared predicaments and goals to turn enemies into friends. What reduced confl ict was not mere contact, but cooperative contact. A shared predicament likewise had a powerfully unifying effect in the weeks after 9/11. Patriotism soared as Americans felt “we” were under attack. Gallup - surveyed approval of “our President” shot up from 51 percent the week before the attack to a highest - ever 90 percent level 10 days after (Newport, 2002). In chat groups and everyday speech, even the word we (relative to I) surged in the immediate aftermath (Pennebaker, 2002).

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At such times, cooperation can lead people to defi ne TEACH a new, inclusive group that dissolves their former sub- groups (Dovidio & Gaertner, 1999). To accomplish this, AFP/Getty Images Concept Connections you might seat members of two groups not on opposite Help students remember that simply sides, but alternately around a table. Give them a new, bringing people together does not shared name. Have them work together. Then watch “us” and “them” become “we.” After 9/11, one 18-year - old mean they will fully cooperate and get New Jersey man described this shift in his own social along. Engage students in a discus- identity: “I just thought of myself as Black. But now I feel like I’m an American, more than ever” (Sengupta, 2001). sion of how to avoid the following In a real experiment, White Americans who read a news- when working toward peace and paper article about a terrorist threat against all Americans cooperation: subsequently expressed reduced prejudice against Black Americans (Dovidio et al., 2004). Group polarization If cooperative contact between rival group members Striving for peace The road to encourages positive attitudes, might this principle bring Groupthink reconciliation in the Middle East people together in multicultural schools? Could interracial friendships replace competitive may be arduous, but as former U.N. Ingroup and outgroup bias Secretary-General Kofi Annan noted classroom situations with cooperative ones? Could cooperative learning maintain or even in his Nobel lecture, “Most of us have enhance student achievement? Experiments with adolescents from 11 countries confi rm overlapping identities which unite us that, in each case, the answer is Yes (Roseth et al., 2008). In the classroom as in the sports can with very different groups. We love arena, members of interracial groups who work together on projects typically come to feel what we are, without hating what—and who—we are not. We can thrive in friendly toward one another. Knowing this, thousands of teachers have made interracial our own tradition, even as we learn cooperative learning part of their classroom experience. from others” (2001). Pictured here The power of cooperative activity to make friends of former enemies has led psycholo- are Palestinian statesman Mahmoud Abbas, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin gists to urge increased international exchange and cooperation. As we engage in mutually Netanyahu, and U. S. President Barack benefi cial trade, as we work to protect our common destiny on this fragile planet, and as we Obama. become more aware that our hopes and fears are shared, we can transform misperceptions that feed confl ict into feelings of solidarity based on common interests.

COMMUNICATION When real - life conﬂ icts become intense, a third-party mediator—a marriage counselor, labor mediator, diplomat, community volunteer—may facilitate much- needed communication (Rubin et al., 1994). Mediators help each party to voice its viewpoint and to understand the other’s needs and goals. If successful, mediators can replace a competitive win-lose orientation with a cooperative win-win orientation that leads to a mutually ben- eﬁ cial resolution. A classic example: Two friends, after quarreling over an orange, agreed to AP Photo/Grant Hindsley

Superordinate goals override differences Cooperative efforts to achieve shared goals are an effective way to break down social barriers.

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split it. One squeezed his half for juice. The other used the peel from her half to ﬂ avor a cake. If only the two had understood CLOSE & ASSESS each other’s motives, they could have hit on the win-win solution of one having all the juice, the other all the peel. Exit Assessment

CONCILIATION Have students outline a strategy Understanding and cooperative resolution are most needed, yet based on the concepts in this module least likely, in times of anger or crisis (Bodenhausen et al., 1994; for reconciling 2 opposing groups. Tetlock, 1988). When confl icts intensify, images become more ste- Make sure students correctly apply reotyped, judgments more rigid, and communication more diffi - cult, or even impossible. Each party is likely to threaten, coerce, or the strategies they choose. retaliate. In the weeks before the Persian Gulf war, the fi rst Presi- © The New Yorker Collection, 1983, Miller W. from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved. dent George Bush threatened, in the full glare of publicity, to “kick “To begin with, I would like to express my sincere thanks and Saddam’s ass.” Saddam Hussein communicated in kind, threat- deep appreciation for the opportunity to meet with you. While ening to make Americans “swim in their own blood.” there are still profound differences between us, I think the very fact of my presence here today is a major breakthrough.” Under such conditions, is there an alternative to war or sur- render? Social psychologist Charles Osgood (1962, 1980) advo- cated a strategy of Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction, nicknamed GRIT. In applying GRIT, one side fi rst announces its recognition of mutual interests and its intent to reduce tensions. It then initiates one or more small, conciliatory acts. Without G R weakening one’s retaliatory capability, this modest beginning opens the door for reciprocity GRIT raduated and eciprocated Initiatives in Tension - R eduction—a by the other party. Should the enemy respond with hostility, one reciprocates in kind. But strategy designed to decrease so, too, with any conciliatory response. international tensions. In laboratory experiments, small conciliatory gestures—a smile, a touch, a word of apology—have allowed both parties to begin edging down the tension ladder to a safer rung where communication and mutual understanding can begin (Lindskold et al., 1978, 1988). In a real-world international confl ict, U.S. President John F. Kennedy’s gesture of stopping atmospheric nuclear tests began a series of reciprocated conciliatory acts that culminated in the 1963 atmospheric test-ban treaty. As working toward shared goals reminds us, we are more alike than different. Civili- zation advances not by confl ict and cultural isolation, but by tapping the knowledge, the skills, and the arts that are each culture’s legacy to the whole human race. Thanks to cultural sharing, every modern society is enriched by a cultural mix (Sowell, 1991). We have China to thank for paper and printing and for the magnetic compass that opened the great explora- tions. We have Egypt to thank for trigonometry. We have the Islamic world and India’s Hin- dus to thank for our Arabic numerals. While celebrating and claiming these diverse cultural legacies, we can also welcome the enrichment of today’s social diversity. We can view ourselves as instruments in a human orchestra. And we—this book’s worldwide readers—can therefore each affi rm our own culture’s heritage while building bridges of communication, understanding, and cooperation across our cultural traditions. Before You Move On ᭤ ASK YOURSELF Do you regret not getting along with some friend or family member? How might you go about reconciling that relationship? ᭤ TEST YOURSELF Why didn’t anybody help Kitty Genovese? What social relations principle did this incident illustrate? Answers to the Test Yourself questions can be found in Appendix E at the end of the book.

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* * * If you just ﬁ nished reading this book, your introduction to psychological science is completed. Our tour of psychological science has taught me much—and you, too?—about our moods and memories, about the reach of our unconscious, about how we ﬂ ourish and struggle, about how we perceive our physical and social worlds, and about how our biology and culture in turn shape us. My hope, as your guide on this tour, is that you have shared some of my fascination, grown in your understanding and compassion, and sharpened your critical thinking. I also hope you enjoyed the ride. With every good wish in your future endeavors (including the AP® exam!), David G. Myers www.davidmyers.org

Module 80 Review When are people most—and least—likely to 80-1 80-380-3 How do social traps and mirror-image help? perceptions fuel social confl ict?

• Altruism is unselfi sh regard for the well-being of others. • A confl ict is a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. • We are most likely to help when we (a) notice an incident, (b) interpret it as an emergency, and (c) assume • Social traps are situations in which people in confl ict responsibility for helping. Other factors, including our pursue their own individual self-interest, harming the mood and our similarity to the victim, also affect our collective well-being. willingness to help. • Individuals and cultures in confl ict also tend to • We are least likely to help if other bystanders are present form mirror-image perceptions that may become self- (the bystander effect). fulfi lling prophecies: Each party views the opponent as untrustworthy and evil-intentioned, and itself as an 80-280-2 How do social exchange theory and social ethical, peaceful victim. norms explain helping behavior? 80-480-4 How can we transform feelings of prejudice, • Social exchange theory is the view that we help others aggression, and confl ict into attitudes that because it is in our own self-interest; in this view, the goal promote peace? of social behavior is maximizing personal benefi ts and minimizing costs. • Peace can result when individuals or groups work together to achieve superordinate (shared) goals. • Others believe that helping results from socialization, in which we are taught guidelines for expected behaviors • Research indicates that four processes—contact, in social situations, such as the reciprocity norm and the cooperation, communication, and conciliation—help social-responsibility norm. promote peace.

Multiple-Choice Questions Answers to Multiple-Choice 1. Which of the following is the best term or phrase for the 2. Which of the following maintains that our social Questions unselﬁ sh concern for the welfare of others? behavior is an exchange process that minimizes costs? 1. c 2. d a. Assuming responsibility a. Social-responsibility norm b. Bystander intervention b. Bystander apathy c. Altruism c. Reciprocity norm d. Bystander effect d. Social exchange theory e. Diffusion of responsibility e. Biopsychosocial hypothesis

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3. What do we call a situation in which the confl icting 4. What do we call a belief that leads to its own fulfi llment? 3. a 4. e parties, by rationally pursuing their self-interest, become a. Superordinate goal caught in mutually destructive behavior? b. Mirror-image perception a. Social trap c. Enemy perception b. Confl ict d. Social trap c. Bystander intervention e. Self-fulfi lling prophecy d. Diffusion of responsibility e. Social-responsibility norm

Practice FRQs Answer to Practice FRQ 2 1. According to Darley and Latané, what three things must 2. The author identifi es two “enemy perceptions.” Name happen for a bystander to intervene? and describe both. 2 points: Mirror-image perceptions (4 points) are mutual views often held by con- Answer fl icting people, as when each side sees 1 point: The bystander must notice the event. itself as ethical and views the other 1 point: The bystander must interpret the incident as an emergency. side as evil. 1 point: The bystander must assume responsibility. 2 points: A self-fulfi lling prophecy is a belief that leads to its own fulfi llment.

Unit XIV Review

Key Terms and Concepts to Remember social psychology, p. 754 groupthink, p. 775 passionate love, p. 803 attribution theory, p. 754 culture, p. 776 companionate love, p. 803 fundamental attribution error, p. 754 norm, p. 777 equity, p. 804 attitude, p. 756 prejudice, p. 780 self - disclosure, p. 804 peripheral route persuasion, p. 756 stereotype, p. 780 altruism, p. 807 central route persuasion, p. 756 discrimination, p. 780 bystander effect, p. 808 foot - in - the - door phenomenon, p. 757 just - world phenomenon, p. 784 social exchange theory, p. 809 role, p. 758 ingroup, p. 784 reciprocity norm, p. 809 cognitive dissonance theory, p. 759 outgroup, p. 784 social-responsibility norm, p. 810 conformity, p. 763 ingroup bias, p. 784 confl ict, p. 810 normative social infl uence, p. 764 scapegoat theory, p. 785 social trap, p. 810 informational social infl uence, p. 764 other-race effect, p. 786 mirror-image perceptions, p. 812 social facilitation, p. 771 aggression, p. 789 self-fulfi lling prophecy, p. 812 social loafi ng, p. 773 frustration - aggression principle, p. 791 superordinate goals, p. 813 deindividuation, p. 773 social script, p. 792 GRIT, p. 815 group polarization, p. 774 mere exposure effect, p. 798

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Key Contributors to Remember Philip Zimbardo, p. 758 Solomon Asch, p. 763 Leon Festinger, p. 759 Stanley Milgram, p. 765

AP® Exam Practice Questions Answers to Multiple-Choice Multiple-Choice Questions Questions 1. The enhancement of a group’s prevailing tendencies occurs 5. People frequently credit or blame either internal when people within a group discuss an idea that most of dispositions or external situations for others’ behavior. 1. a 4. a 7. e them either favor or oppose. What is this tendency called? What is this tendency called? 2. a 5. b 8. c a. Group polarization a. The foot-in-the-door phenomenon b. Deindividuation b. The fundamental attribution error 3. d 6. c 9. e c. The just-world phenomenon c. Attribution d. Discrimination d. Social psychology e. Categorization e. Social thinking 2. Which of the following statements about the foot-in- 6. Researchers have found that people tend to become the-door phenomenon is false? more hostile in situations when they are exposed to a. People who agree to a small action are less likely to aversive stimuli, such as heat or personal insults. What is agree to a larger one later. the term for this tendency? b. The Chinese army took advantage of this a. The proximity effect phenomenon in the thought control program they b. GRIT used on prisoners during the Korean War. c. The frustration-aggression principle c. To get people to agree to something big, start small d. Social scripting and build. e. Deindividuation d. Succumb to a temptation and you will fi nd the next 7. Galileo’s notion that the earth revolved around the sun temptation harder to resist. was in opposition to the widespread beliefs of his day. e. This phenomenon has been used to boost charitable What social psychological principle is this an example contributions, blood donations, and product sales. of? 3. According to research on the bystander effect, which of the a. Social thinking following people is most likely to stop and help a stranger? b. Group polarization a. Jacob is on his way to a doctor’s appointment with c. Conformity his young son. d. A stereotype b. Xavier lives in a crowded city. e. Minority infl uence c. Malika is in a terrible mood, having just learned that 8. Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy is she failed her midterm exam. called d. Ciera just saw a young girl offering her arm to help a. the mere exposure effect. an older woman cross the street. b. hindsight bias. e. Mahmood is lost in thought as he walks to work, c. aggression. thinking about his upcoming presentation. d. the just-world phenomenon. 4. Believing that your school is better than all the other e. the other-race effect. schools in town is an example of what psychological 9. What tension occurs when we become aware that our concept? attitudes and actions don’t coincide? a. Ingroup bias a. Role playing b. Conformity b. The fundamental attribution error c. Scapegoat theory c. Social pressure d. Discrimination d. Social infl uence e. Groupthink e. Cognitive dissonance

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10. Which of the following least describes prejudice? 14. Which of the following is the most complete defi nition 10. d 12. b 14. d a. An unjustifi able attitude toward a group of conformity? b. Schemas that infl uence how we notice and interpret a. Sharing a mood with others 11. c 13. e 15. e events b. Unconsciously mimicking the behaviors and c. Preconceived ideas that bias our impressions of reactions of others others’ behavior c. Changing thoughts about a situation in order to d. A physical behavior intended to hurt or destroy please an authority fi gure e. Automatic and unconscious thoughts and behaviors d. Adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some 11. Which social psychology principle infl uences people to group standard perform a task better in the presence of others? e. Bringing our attitudes in line with our actions 15. a. Compliance Sophia was not sure she would like the new driver of b. Group polarization her school bus, but during the year she realized she c. Social facilitation was looking forward to greeting him in the morning d. Conformity and hearing one of his corny jokes. Which concept best e. Social loafi ng explains her change in perception? 12. Becoming less self-conscious and less restrained when in a. Similarity a group situation is referred to as b. Ingroup bias c. Companionate attraction a. social loafi ng. d. Social trap b. deindividuation. e. Mere exposure effect c. social facilitation. d. obedience. e. cognitive dissonance. 13. If Juan believes Ngoc is annoyed with him, he may snub her, causing her to act in ways that justify his perception. What concept is this an example of? a. Superordinate goals b. Tension-reduction c. A social trap d. A mirror-image perception e. Self-fulfi lling prophecy

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Rubric for Free-Response Free-Response Questions Question 2 1. Abi moved from her small rural hometown to a large 2. Peter and Manuela met in their high school senior year city to pursue her singing career. She was hired for psychology class. They sat near each other and were 1 point: Reward theory of attraction: an important and popular choral performance. She is often partnered during class discussions and group work. nervous but excited about this new opportunity. Explain They were both on the swim team and often volunteered We are likely to be attracted to those how the following social psychology factors might affect at the same homelessness prevention shelter. By the whose behavior is rewarding to us, and her experiences in the “big city.” end of the year, they became good friends. Later, we will continue relationships that off er • Self-fulfi lling prophecy Manuela and Peter attended the same college, and after graduation they became engaged. When they attended • Frustration-aggression model more rewards than costs. p. 802 their fi ve-year high school reunion it was obvious to • Social facilitation their friends from high school that they were a very 1 point: Proximity is geographic • Reciprocity norm happy couple. nearness, which is friendship’s most Explain the reward theory of attraction and give an Rubric for Free Response Question 1 powerful predictor. Manuela and example to show how each of the following factors 1 point: Self-fulfi lling prophecy: Abi may think that she may have infl uenced Manuela and Peter’s developing Peter were together every day in high is not talented enough to compete with all of the relationship from high school through college. school, played on the same team, other singers in the performance. Because of her low • Proximity and volunteered at the same shelter. expectations of herself, she may not perform to the best • Equity of her ability. Page 812 • Self-disclosure They attended the same college after 1 point: Frustration-aggression model: If Abi does not • Companionate love graduation. pp. 798–800 progress to her satisfaction, and experiences frustration (5 points) as her career stagnates, she may lash out at her colleagues either physically or verbally or even try to 1 point: Equity is a condition in which 3. Dutch is in his fi rst year as a student at a large university. railroad others’ careers to further her own. Page 791 people receive from a relationship At the urging of some friends, he attended a “pep rally” 1 point: Social facilitation: Abi has been singing for a in proportion to what they give to it. on the night prior to the football game. At the rally, number of years. Because this is a well-practiced activity, the marching band played the university’s fi ght song Manuela and Peter worked on projects Abi’s performance should be enhanced by the presence and Dutch began singing along as they did. The head together and benefi ted from the work of others. Because she will have larger crowds in the “big football coach then gave a rousing speech and Dutch city,” Abi’s performance should improve in front of larger joined with the hundreds of other students to cheer him. they did. They may have shared a similar crowds. Page 771 Although Dutch had not paid attention to the football work ethic, and this may have become 1 point: Reciprocity norm: If Abi receives gifts (such as team prior to the rally, he enthusiastically participated obvious when they volunteered at the fl owers) from the audience, she may be motivated to in the rally, even going so far as to have an image of the give an extra effort in her performances. If the audience team’s mascot painted on his face. The following day, he homeless shelter. p. 804 perceives that Abi is throwing herself completely into attended the game and since has become an avid fan of her performance and exhausting herself trying to the football team. 1 point: Self-disclosure is revealing entertain them, they each will be more likely to applaud Analyze Dutch’s behavior at the rally and intimate aspects of oneself to others. and cheer because the reciprocity norm indicates we will afterwards, using each of the following principles of often return the efforts or feelings of others. Page 809 Participating in class and sharing social psychology: • Peripheral route persuasion ideas and opinions may have led to • Central route persuasion discussions of a more personal nature • Automatic mimicry outside of class. p. 804 • Social facilitation 1 point: Companionate love is the • Deindividuation (5 points) deep aff ectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are

intertwined. From high school through Multiple-choice self-tests and more may be found at college, Manuela and Peter shared www.worthpublishers.com/MyersAP2e experiences as a result of their similar interests and goals. Time, similar values, and interests deepened their aff ection and love for each other. p. 803 1MyersAP_SE_2e_Mod80_B.indd point: Central route 820 persuasion: The head facilitated Dutch’s behavior, particularly his 1/21/14 10:31 AM Rubric for Free-Response coach’s speech and the team’s performance at newfound support for the football team. We Question 3 the game both contributed to Dutch’s support tend to perform simple tasks (like cheering at a for the team. The speech and the team’s per- pep rally) more energetically when in the pres- 1 point: Peripheral route persua- formance were “evidence” of the team’s value, ence of others. pp. 771–772 sion: The band playing the fi ght song encouraging Dutch to make a rational decision 1 point: Deindividuation: Being part of a and the appearance of the head coach about his support of the team. p. 756 at the rally contributed to Dutch’s crowd at both the rally and the football game support for the football team without 1 point: Automatic mimicry: Dutch’s behavior contributed to Dutch cheering for the football directly making a reference to the was infl uenced by the hundreds of other students team despite the fact that he previously did team. The song and the coach’s appear- at the rally, and he began to act in the same way not do so. At the pep rally and the game, ance encouraged snap judgments they did. Humans tend to “mimic” the emotions of Dutch may have experienced the loss of and appealed emotionally instead of those around them. pp. 762–763 self-awareness and restraint that exemplifi es deindividuation. p. 773 encouraging systematic thinking about 1 point: Social facilitation: The presence the football team. p. 756 of hundreds of other students at the rally

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