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Carbon Farming and Its Alternatives for Tairāwhiti Māori Landowners By

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Carbon Farming and Its Alternatives for Tairāwhiti Māori Landowners By Beyond the dollar: Carbon farming and its alternatives for Tairāwhiti Māori landowners By Leo William Lauchland Mercer A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Victoria University of Wellington 2021 School of Geography Environment and Earth Sciences Environmental Studies Programme Abstract This research explores landowner preferences for various land use options suitable for Māori land in Te Tairāwhiti, on the East Coast of the North Island of Aotearoa-New Zealand (henceforth Aotearoa). A particular emphasis is placed on the applicability and feasibility of native forest carbon farming within the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme (NZ ETS) and opportunities, barriers and risks associated with this land use. Alongside this focus, is a wider investigation into the socio-cultural, environmental and economic co-benefits Māori landowners associate with traditional and emerging land uses in Te Tairāwhiti. This study uses a transformative research approach that is rooted in the spirit of kaupapa Māori research. Some 90 percent of Māori land in Te Tairāwhiti has severe limitations which restrict land use options to plantation forestry or pastoral farming for most landowners. A response to these limitations, and a land development option favoured by government agencies, and the academy, is for ‘unproductive’ Māori land to be retired into permanent native forest carbon sinks – a solution frequently proffered as a positive means to address national climate change commitments and local environmental and socioeconomic issues. Whilst these objectives, and the land use preferences of Māori seemingly converge, the wider history of land loss and alienation influences perceptions of fairness and equity for Māori landowners who may feel pressured by the lack of attractive land use options to establish permanent carbon sinks, which can effectively constrain land use options for future generations. Through case study analysis of a Māori sheep and beef farming incorporation participating in the NZ ETS, this study suggests an economic case for carbon farming in Te Tairāwhiti. However, institutional and socio-cultural barriers hinder the participation of Māori landowners in the NZ ETS. The second focus of this thesis has been an investigation into how native forest carbon farming is viewed i when compared to other novel and existing land uses suitable for Māori land in the Waiapu catchment (a highly erodible catchment in Te Tairāwhiti). Interviews with key informants were employed to curate a set of land use options for Māori landowners to appraise, using multi-criteria analysis, at two wānanga. Four land use models were created for appraisal by 16 Māori landowner participants. The strength of association between a co-benefit and a land use was collectively deliberated upon in each of these models, and ratings were assigned to reflect this association. These ratings have aided in assessing the wider value of land uses for Māori in the region. The results from this research indicate an overwhelming preference for native forests when compared to other suitable land uses. Native forests are most closely associated with environmental co-benefits (erosion control, water quality, biodiversity and withstanding and limiting climate change) and social and cultural co-benefits (skills development, employment, reconnecting with the land, and self-determination/autonomy). The strong performance of native forestry stands in stark contrast with other land uses under consideration such as exotic forestry (Pinus radiata within the study scenario) and sheep and beef farming which occupy the majority of ‘productive’ land in Te Tairāwhiti. Exotic forestry and sheep and beef farming are associated with few benefits beyond employment and skills development. There is also a clear perception in the quantitative and qualitative data that these uses disconnect Māori landowners from their land and reduce the ability of communities to be self-reliant. Interestingly, other novel land uses under consideration such as perennial horticulture (including blueberries, macadamia nuts and apples), medicinal cannabis and hemp, and hunting and tourism were also valued more than exotic forestry and sheep and beef farming. These results indicate that existing land uses, sometimes implemented without express input from local communities, are now the least preferred land uses. In addition, novel and untested land uses such ii as medicinal cannabis and hemp, which do not exist at any scale in the region, are preferred over existing uses - even when there is scant evidence of success at any scale. These results push back at the prevailing Pākehā dominated orthodoxy, which has existed from the early days of colonisation and holds that monoculture land uses, for profit above all else, are best suited to the land and the people. It is clear, from this study, that Māori landowners wish to move back to a vibrant multi-faceted land use regime – exemplified by diversity over homogeneity – that characterised the pre-colonisation Māori economy. This research accordingly introduces and explores a value articulating process that increases understanding of the aspirations and values of Māori landowners, and can assist Māori in progressing their land use futures. iii Acknowledgements This thesis can by no means be solely attributed to me. It is the product of many people, who over the years, have helped to shape my thinking and steer me in the right direction. I never intended to do a PhD, and it is with some surprise that I find myself ‘here’ at the tail end of seven years of tertiary study. I will now attempt to thank some of the people and institutions who helped me along the way. I must of course begin by sincerely thanking all of my research participants. Volunteering your time and energy in participating in this research is something I am very thankful for. I would also like to acknowledge the financial support of the NZIF Foundation, Motu Economic and Public Policy Research and the Whakatane District Historical Society. I feel immensely privileged to have attended Whakatane High School, and my experiences at this school have equipped me with the tools to attempt to tackle a topic of this magnitude. I would like to acknowledge Brett Donaldson, Sue Rapley and Lauren Crowe for nurturing my natural curiosity and providing so much encouragement during my teen years. I would also like to acknowledge my ‘Wellington mums’ – Sheena, Kathy, Trish and Rochelle at Fire and Emergency New Zealand (also John and David) who employed me and looked out for me when I was finding my feet in Wellington. It is much appreciated. I am proud to have attended Victoria University of Wellington. I have been fortunate to have some amazing experiences and meet some inspiring people along the way. The support and collegiality within our School of Geography of Environment and Earth Sciences whānau is second to none. I have had support to attend the American Association of Geographers and New Zealand Geographical Society conferences which were both incredible opportunities to share my research and connect with others. Opportunities to tutor and lecture have also been a great part of the ride. My involvement with the Postgraduate Students iv Association has also been a challenging and fulfilling component of my PhD experience. I must of course thank the amazing postgraduate friends I have met along the way. The folks of CO102a – Ria, Chantal, Rachel and Nicola – you guys made the long days and nights that much more bearable. The 3pm quiz was often the highlight of my day and I have missed our weekly baking and average daily chat since you all rudely left. Special thanks goes to Nicola for putting up with me talking at her all year. Thanks also to the latter denizens of CO102a - Jerry, Katy, Elaine, Sylvie and Aaron – thank you for continuing with the quiz and accepting me into your masters whānau! I must also thank Amber and Ed who have been excellent office mates in CO104. Thanks also to Issie who was hugely supportive during my studies. Big thanks to Joey for showing me what not to do in the final stages of a thesis, but also for being a great mate over the years. Special thanks must also go to Pascarn who has been a huge support over my PhD, and one of the main reasons why I have got to the end in such good spirits. I am immensely grateful for the support I received from Manu Caddie who was instrumental in setting me down this path of study and providing so much assistance along the way. Thanks also to Pia Pohatu who has been so patient and kind and also helped me to explore my genealogy in Te Tairāwhiti. To Nikki Searancke, you are so much more than a participant in this research. It was your kindness and openness that has allowed me to tell this story. I am so grateful for that opportunity. Thanks also to David Hall and Stephen Flood for the feedback on my research proposal, and Vicky Mabin for the patience in teaching me the basics of multi-criteria analysis. I am so grateful to my supervisors, Becky Kiddle and Ralph Chapman. Becky, thank you for the kindness you have shown me over the course of these studies. I am so indebted to you for all the support you have given me over the last few years. It was your suggestion that I convert my masters into a PhD. It has sure been one v hell of a ride, and I am so fortunate to have had you helping me out along the way. Ralph, you are an entirely unflappable character and have provided constant reassurance and a calming presence throughout this journey. I have learnt so much from your musings and chats over coffee. Thanks a bunch. I am lucky to have an incredibly supportive family.
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