Lessons and

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 546

This page intentionally left blank The Alaska Earthquake March 27, 1964: Lessons and Conclusions

By EDWIN B. ECKEL

A summary of what was learned from a great earthquake about the bearing of geologic and hydrologic conditions on its effects, and about the scientific investigations needed to prepare for future earthquakes

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 546 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

ROGERS C. B. MORTON, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

W. A. Radlinski, Acting Director

Library of Congress catalog-card No. 70-604792

First printing 1970 Second printing 1971

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON 1970

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 75 cents (paper cover) FOREWORD

Few of the effects of the Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964, on earth processes and on the works of man were new to science, but never had so many effects been accessible for study over so great an area. This earthquake has received more intensive study from all scientific disciplines and specialties than any single previous natural disaster. In a series of six Professional Papers, the U.S. Geological Survey has published the results of a comprehensive geologic study that began, as a reconnaissance survey, within 24 hours after the event and extended, as detailed investigations, through several field seasons. Professional Paper 541 de­ scribed early field investigations and reconstruction efforts; 542, in seven parts, the effects of the earthquake on Alaskan communities; 543, in 10 parts, the regional geologic effects; 544, in five parts, the worldwide effects on the earth's hydro­ logic regimen; 545, in four parts, the effects on Alaska's transportation, communications, and utilities. This volume, Professional Paper 546, "Lessons and Conclusions," is the last of the series; it contains a selected bibliography and an index for the 28 reports. The findings of the Geological Survey study apply not only to documentation of the Alaska earthquake itself, but, it is hoped, toward 'better understanding of earthquakes jn general; their nature, origin, and effects, and of how man may plan or build to avoid or minimize their consequences.

w. T. PECORA, Direat01'.

This page intentionally left blank CONTEN·Ts·.

Pare Effects, etc.-continued Beneficial effects-continued l'a&e Abstract------1 Oceanographic effects-con. Page Scientific benefits ______32 Introduction ______-_--- ____ -- 2 Seismio·sea waves ______25 New information------­ 32 Geological Survey reports on Miscellaneous effects ______26 New and improved investi- theearthquake______3 Audible and subaudible gative techniques ___ - ___ _ 34 Acknowledgments---______8 earthquake sounds ______26 Conclusions ______37 Tectonics_! ______------_-- 8 Magnetic effects------__ _ 26 Scientific preparation for The earthquake______8 Visible surface waves ______26 future earthquakes ______37 Deformation and vibration of Permafrost __ ------_ 27 Fundamental research_---­ 37 the land surface______9 Cable breaks ______--____ _ 27 Earthquake forecasting and Vertical deformation______11 Tunnels, mines, and deep evaluationhazards ______of earthquake _ Horisontal deformation______11 wells------·------27 37 Surface faults______12 Archeologic remains ______28 Geologic mapping of Mechanism of the earthquake_ 13 communities ___ - ______38 Earthquakedamage ______effects, geology and _ Effects on the physical environ- Instrumenta~ion and meas- 28 urements ______ment______14 Geologic control of vibration 40 Geologic effects______14 damage ______29 Investigationsquakes ______of actual earth- _ Downslope mass movements_ 14 Surface faults ______30 41 Need for advance planning_ 41 Ground fissures------19 Landslides ______--______30 Consolidation subsidence___ 21 Geologic, geophysical, and Shore processes-______21 Vertical tectonic displacements and seismic sea waves ______hydrologic investigations_ 41 Hydrologic effects______21 30 Availability of maps and Ground and surface water Glaciers______21 hydrology ______other basic data ______41 Ice breakage______22 31 Questionnaires ______41 Ground water______22 Beneficialquake ______effects of the earth- _ Scientific and Engineering Surface water______23 31 Task F.orce------­ 43 Oceanographic effects______23 Socioeconomic benefits ______31 Selected bibliography_------43 Local waves______24 Direct geologic benefits ______32 IndeX------49

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURES

Page 1. Map showing extent and nature of the effects of seismic vibrations related to the earthquake------4-5 2. Map of south-central Alaska, showing areas of tectonic land-level changes______10 "One of the greatest earthquakes of all time· struck in south-central Alaska in the late afternoon of March 27, 1964." THE ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MAR,CH 27, 1964: LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS

By Edwin B. Eckel

ABSTRACT

One of the greatest earthquakes of water, caused much damage in towns The geologic and hydrologic lessons all time struck south-central Alaska on and along transportation routes. Vibru- learned from studies of the Alaska March 27, 1964. Strong motion lasted tion also consolidated loose granular earthquake also lead direetly to longer than for most recorded earth- materials. In some coastal areas, local better definition of the research quakes, and more land surface was dis- subsidence was superimposed on re- needed to further our understanding located, vertically and horizontally, gional tectonic subsidence to heighten of earthquakes and of how to avoid than by any known previous temblor. the flooding damage. Ground and sur- or lessen the effects of future ones. Never before were so many effects on face waters were measurably affected Research is needed on the origins earth processes and on the works of by the earthquake, not only in Alaska and mechanisms of earthquakes, on man available for study by scientists but throughout the world. cnistal structure, and on the genera- and engineers over so great an area. Expectably, local geologic conditions tion of tsunamis and local waves. The seismic'vibrations, which directly largely controlled the extent of struc- Better earthquake-hazard maps, based or indirectly caused most of the damage, tural damage, whether caused directly on improved knowledge of negioml ge- were but surface manifestations of a by seismic vibrations or by secondary ology, fault behavior, and earthquake great geologic event-the dislocation of effects such as those just described. mechanisms, are needed for 'the entire a huge segment of the crust along a Intensity was greatest in areas under- country. Their preparation will require deeply buried fault whose nature and lain by thick saturated unconsolidated the close collaboration of engineers, even exact location are still subjects for deposits, least on indurated bedrock or seismologists, and geologists. Geologic speculation. Not only was the land sur- permanently frozen ground, and inter- maps of all inhabited places in earth- face tilted by the great tectonic event mediate on coarse well-drained gravel, quakeprone parts of the country are beneath it, with resultant seismic sea on morainal deposits, or on moderately also needed by city planners and others, waves that traversed the entire Pacific, indurated sedimentary rocks. because the direct relationship between but an enormous mass of land and sea Local and even regional geology also local geology and potential earthquake floor moved ,several tens of feet hori- controlled the distribution and extent damage ts now well understood. zontally toward the Gulf of Alaska. of the earthquake's effects on hydro- Improved and enlarged nets @f Downslope mass movements of rock, logic systems. In the conterminous earthquake-sensing instruments, sited earth, and snow were initiated. Sub- United States, for example, seiches in in relation to known geology, are aqueous slides along lake shores and wells and bodies of surface water were needed, as are many more geodetic seacoasts, near-horizontal movements of controlled by geologic structures of mobilized soil ("landspreading") , and regional dimension. and hydrographic measurements. giant translatory slides in sensitive Devastating as the earthquake was, Every large earthquake, wherever clay did the most damage and provided it had many long-term beneficial ef- located, should be regarded as a full- the most new knowledge as to the origin, fects. Many of these were socioeco- scale laboratory experiment whose mechanics, and possible means of con- nomic or engineering in nature; others study can give scientific and engineer- trol or avoidance of such movements. were of scientific value. Much new ing information unobtainable from any The slopes of most of the deltas that and corroborative basic geologic and other source. Plans must be made slid in 1964, and that produced de- hydrologic information was accumu- before the event to insure staffing, structive local waves, are still as steep lated in the course of the earthquake funding, and coordination of effort for or steeper than they were before the studies, and many new or improved the scientific and engineering study Of earthquake and hence would be unsta- investigative techniques were devel- future earthquakes. Advice of earth ble or metastable in the event of an- oped. Chief among these, perhaps, were scientists and engineers should be the recognition that lakes can be other great earthquake. Rockslide used in the decision-making processes used as giant tiltmeters, the refinement avalanches provided new evidence that of methods for measuring land-level involved in reconstruction after any of such masses may travel on cushions changes by observing displacements of future disastrous earthquake, as was compreseed air, but a widely held barnacles and other sessile organisms, done after the Alaska earthquake. theory that glaciers surge after an and the relating of hydrology to seis- The volume closes with a selected earthquake has not been substantiated. mology by worldwide study of hydro- bibliography and a comprehensive in- Innumerable ground fissures, many of seisms in surface-water bodies and in dex to the entire series d U.S. Geolog- them marked by copious emisslions of wells. ical Survey Professional Papers 541-546. 1 One of the grea st earth­ quakes of all time struck in south-central Alaska in the late afternoon of March 'l:1, 1964 (fig. 1) . Variously called the Good Friday earthquake, the Prince William Sound earth­ quake, and the 1964 Alaska earthquake, it devastated the most highly developed and pop­ ulous part of Alaska and took more than 180 lives there and along the coast of North Amer­ ica. Its effects could be seen or felt by people in most of Alaska arid adjacent parts of Canada, and were measured by instru­ ments throughout the world. Strong motion from this earthquake lasted longer than most recorded ones; it also re­ sulted in measurable vertical and horizontal dislocations of more land surface than any previous earthquake. Few of its effects on earth processes and on the works of man were new to science or engineering, but never before had so many effects become available for study over so great an area. A massive relief and reconstruc­ tion program began at once-- LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS

a program in which the Federal the studies of future earthquakes efforts," by W. R. Hansen and Government played a greater part and to better understanding of the others (1966) : This nontechni- than for any previous physioal dis- elarthquake process. cal introductory volume de- scribes the time, duration, and aster in the United States. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY The Alaska earthquake received extent of the earthquake, its REPORTS ON THE physiographic-geologic setting, more intensive study from scien- EARTHQUAKE tists and engineers of all disci- and its effects on the communi- plines and specialties than any The Survey's first report on the ties and transportation facilities major earthquake in history. Much earthquake, by Grantz, Plafker, of Alaska; it also contains a has been, and is still being, and Kachadoorian (1964), was brief description of the sea-wave learned from these investigations. published only a few weeks after damages at coastal communities The findings apply not only to the event. It described in a remark- in British Columbia, Washing- documentation of the Alaska ably accurate and thorough fash- ton, Oregon, and California. earthquake itself, but toward bet- ion the essential facts about the Biologic, atmospheric, and pos- ter understanding of the nature earthquake and its effects as they sible magnetic effects of the and origins of earthquakes in gen- were learned during the initid quake are outlined. Separate eral, of their effects, and of how reconnaissance investigations. This sections note the governmental man can plan or build to avoid or preliminary report has been fol- and private response to the dis- ameliorate those effeots. lowed by a series of six Profes- aster and the contribution of This report is primarily a sum- sional Papers, under the overall both sectors to the reconstruc- mary of geologic and hydrologic title 'LThe Alaska Earthquake, tion. The following subtitles findings of the U.S. Geological March 27, 1964," of which this is indicate the contents of the Survey with only incidental excur- the concluding volume. Together, sections : these reports constitute a compre- sions into the findings of other "A Summary Description of the hensive description of the earth- organizations and disciplines. For Alaska Earthquake-Its Set- quake's effects on geologic and this reason, the enormous amount ting and Effects," by W. R. hydrologic materials and proc- of new information amassed and Hansen and E. B. Eckel. esses, considerable emphasis being published by others is not stressed, "Investigations by the Geolog- placed on the bearing of those ef- though references to it appear in ical Survey," by W. R. fects on man and his works. They the selected bibliography, and all Hansen. are based primarily on the Geolog- of it was used by Survey authors "The Work of the Scientific and ical Survey's own investigations, as it became available in reaching Engineering Task Force- but several contributions from their conclusions. Earth Science Applied To other authors were sought out and The story of the earthquake is Policy Decisions in Early Re- included for more complete told in a general nontechnical way lief and Reconstruction," by coverage. by Hansen and others (1966). E. B. Eckel and W. E. Each report of the Professional More detailed descriptions of many Schaem. Paper series is liberally illustrated facets of the earthquake and its ef- "Activities of the Corps of En- and contains a bibliography. At fects, treated partly by topic and gineers-Cleanup and Early the end of this volume, the entire partly by locality, are contained in Reconstruction," by R. E. series is indexed and complete bib- other reports in this series; the Lyle and Warren George. bibliographies in each report, of liographic citations are given un- der the principal authors' names. "Reconstruction by the Corps course, contain references to many of Engineers-Methods and other descriptions. No attempt is Parts or all of the series are avail- able for purchase from the Super- Accomplishments," by War- made here to repeat all these details ren George and R. E. Lyle. or even to summarize them. In- intendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, "The Year of Decision and Ac- stead, the intent is to sort out that Washington, D.C. 20401. tion," by Genie Chance. which was significant or different The several Professional Papers Professional Paper 542 : "Effects about the Alaska earthquake as and the short titles of their parts on Communities," in seven compared with previous ones. Em- are listed here, with a brief state- chapters : phasis is given to the lessons ment of contents of each. A, "Anchorage," by W. R. learned from it, both technical and Professional Paper 541, "Field in- Hansen (1965). Seismic vibra- philosophic, that can be applied to vestigations and reconstruction tion damaged many multistory 359-625 0-7-2 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 2 7, 19 64

1.-Map showing extent and nalture of the : LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS

\ / "IJ6" I'142~ 13R~\ \ ' ' ' EXPLANATION

seismic vibrations related to the earthquake. ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1

buildings, caused extensive G, "Various Communities," (1966). Seismic sea waves ground fissures, and triggered by George Plafker, Reuben caused the greatest physical disastrous translatory landslides Kachadoorian, E. R. Eckel, and damage throughout the Ko- in some bluff areas underlain by L. B. Mayo (1969). Effects on diak Island area. Tectonic sensitive clays. Because of its several scores of miscellaneous subsidence adversely af- size, Anchorage had greater communities, where thew was fected much of the shore- total property damage than all loss of life or significant physi- line. Vibration, ground the rest of Alaska. cal damage, are described, as are fissures, and landslides af- B, "Whittier," by Reuben the extensive wave damage in fected unconsolidated ma- Kachadoorian (1965). Land coastal areas and evidene of vi- terials but not bedrock. subsidence, waves generated by bration throughout Alaska. E, "Copper River Basin submarine landslides, fire, and P~ofessionalPaper 543 :"Regional Area," by 0. J. Ferrians, Jr. seismic vibration wrecked much Effects," in 10 chapters: (1966). Extensive ground of the waterfront area in this fissures formed in flood A, "Slide-Induced Waves, small port-rail terminal. plains, deltas, and the toes Seiching, and Ground Fractur- of alluvial fans. Terrain un- C, "Valdez," by H. W. Coulbr ing at Kenai Lake," by D. S. and R. R. Migliaccio (1966). derlain by permafrost be- McCulloch (1966). The earth- Ground fissures, waves, and fire haved like bedrock and did quake dislodged subaqueous did much damage, and a gigan- not crack. Avalanches and slides from deltas in Kenai Lake tic submarine slide off the front rockslides were released in that generated destructive waves. of the delta town site carried the mountains. The lake basin was tilted and a the wabrfvont away and dic- E', "Ground Breakage in the seiche wave was excited in it. tated relocation of the town. Cook Inlet Area," by H. L. B, "Martin-Bering Rivers Poster and T. V. N. Karl- D, L'Homer,"by R. M. Waller Areas," by S. J. Tuthill and W. strom (1967). Ground fis- (1966). Submergence caused by M. Laird (1966). Widespread sures, many of which ejected tectonic subsidence and by con- geomorphic changes took place water or sediment, formed solidation of sediments exposed in a large uninhabited area east on the Kenai Lowland; much of Homer Spit, economic of the Copper River. Ground fis- most of them were on thick heart of the community, to sures--some with associated bodies of unconso1ida;ted the reach of high tides. A sepa- ejections of mud or water- materials. Zonal concentra- rate section by K. W. Stanley avalanches, and landslides were tion of ground fissures may describes the beach changes on among the more important have been concentrated Homer Spit that resulted from effects. along a buried fault. subsidence. C, "Gravity Survey and Re- E, "Seward," by R. W. Lemke gional Geology of the Epi- G, "Surface Faults on Mon- tague Island," by George (1967). Seismic sea waves, sub- central Region," by J. E. Plafker (1967). Two reac- marine slides, and fires destroyed Case, D. F. Barnes, George tivated steep reverse faults the town's waterfront and ne- Plafker, and S. L. Robbins (1966). Gravity stations in Prince William Sound cessitated relocation of the are the only known surface Alaska Railroad terminal. and reconnaissance geologic mapping in the Prince Wil- faults caused by the earth- Ground fissures damaged nu- quake. They are probably merous buildings, particularly liam Sound area provided background for other inves- part of a fault system that in suburban areas. tigations of the earthquake. extends discontinuously for F, "Kodiak Area," by Reuben A regional gravity gradient, more than 300 miles from Kachadoorian and Gwrge Plaf- caused by thickening of the Montague Island past the ker (1967). Seismic sea waves continental crust and local southeast coast of Kodiak flooded Kodiak, the nearby anomalies related to differ- Island. Naval Station, and several ences in lithology were H, "Shoreline Erosion and smaller communities in the Ko- measured. Deposition on Montague Is- diak island group. Regional D, "Kodiak and Nearby Is- land," by M. J. Kirkby and tectonic subsidence caused fur- lands," by George Plafker A. V. Kirkby (1969). Modi- ther damage in many places. and Reuben Kachadoorian fication of the shore by sub- LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS

aerial and marine processes ice breakage, seiching, fis- tralia recorded measurable began immediately after suring of streambeds, and seiches, or hydroseisms. tectonic uplift. The effeot temporary damming. Such recorders can thus and rate of each process on Ground water was also serve as useful adjuncts of various materials were drastically affected, mostly seismograph networks in measured. Evidence was in unconsolidated aquifers. earthquake studies. found of two relative sea- Many temporary and per- Professional Paper 545, "Effects level changes prior to 1964. manent changes occurred in on Transportation, Communica- I, "Tectonics of the Earth- water levels and artesian tions, and Utilities," in four quake," by George Plafker pressures. chapters : (1969). The earthquake B, L'AnchorageArea," by R. A, "Eklutna Power Project," was accompanied by crustal M. Waller (1966). Immedi- by M. H. Logan (1967). warping, horizontal distor- ate effects on the Anchorage Vibration-induced consoli- tion, and surface faulting hydrologic system included dation of sediments dam- over an area of more than increased stream discharge, aged the underwater intake 110,000 square miles. Focal seiches on lakes, and fluctu- structure, and permitted mechanism studies, com- ations in ground-water lev- sand, gravel, and cobbles to bined with the patterns of els; water supplies were enter the tunnel. Lesser deformation and seismicity, temporarily disrupted by damage was done by vibra- suggest that the earthquake damming of streams. tion and ground fractures. probably resulted from C, "Outside Alaska," by R. A separate section by L. R. movement along a complex C. Vorhis (1967). The Burton describes the use of thrust fault that dips at a earthquake caused measur- a portable television camera low angle beneath the con- able changes of water levels to locate breaks in under- tinental margin. Radiocar- in wells and surface waters ground communication sys- bon dating of pre-1964 dis- throughout nearly all of the tems. placed shorelines provides United States and in many B, "Air and Water Transport, data on long-term tectonic other countries. A separate Communications, and Utili- movements in the earth- section by E. E. Rexin and ties," by E. B. Eckel (1967). quake region and on the R. C. Vorhis describes hy- All forms of transportation, time interval since the last droseismograms from a well utilities, and communication major earthquake-related in Wisconsin and one by R. systems were wrecked or movements. W. Coble the effects on severely hampered by the J, "Shore Processes and Beach ground water in Iowa. earthquake. Numerous air- Morphology," by K. W. D, "Glaciers," by Austin Post ports and all seaports were Stanley (1968). All coastal (1967). Many rockslide av- affected by vibration, sub- features began to readjust alanches extended onto the aqueous slides, waves, fire to changed conditions im- glaciers ; some traveled long and tectonic uplift or sub- mediately after the earth- distances, possibly over sidence. Aboveground trans- quake. In the subsided layers of compressed air. mission lines were exten- areas, beaches flattened and No large snow and ice ava- sively broken, but buried receded ; in uplifted areas, lanches occurred on any of utility lines were virtually they were stranded. Emer- the hundreds of glaciers. undamaged except where gence and submergence Little evidence of earth- the ground fractured or posed problems of land use quake-induced surges of slid. and ownership and changed glaciers was found. C, "The Highway System," by wildlife habitats. E, "Seismic Seiches," by Ar- R e u b e n Kachadoorian Professional Paper 544, "Effects thur McGarr and R. C. (1968). Widespread damage on the Hydrologic Regimen," in Vorhis (1968). Hundreds of resulted chiefly from de- five chapters : water-level instruments on struction of bridges and A, bcSouth-CentralAlaska," by streams, lakes, and reser- roadways by seismic vibra- R. M. Waller (1966). Sur- voirs throughout the United tion and subsidence of face waters were affected by States, Clanada, and Aus- foundations. Snowslides, ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 19 64

landslides, and shoreline most important source of very helpful in correcting factual submergence also damaged trouble. and interpretative errors. Special or drowned some roadways. thanks are due Wallace R. Hansen, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS D, "The Alaska Railroad," by George Plafker, and David S. Mc- D. S. McCulloch and M. G. Sincere thanks go to all the au- Culloch, who went beyond the call Bonilla (1970). The rail thors whose work is summarized of duty in helping to improve this system was extensively here and to all my colleagues who presentation. Catherine Campbell, damaged ; bridges and played parts in publishing the U.S. who had primary responsibility Geological Survey's series of re- tracks were destroyed, and for processing all the reports in the p~+on the earthquake. Early series; land Elna Bishop and her port facilities were lost at dnafts of this report were reviewed associates, Who did the final edit- Seward and Whittier. by the authors of each paper in the ing and saw the reports through "Landspreading" (a term series and by many obher friends, the press, deserve the thanks of for sediments that were particularly the members of the all authors and readers. Robert A. mdbilized by vibration and Committee on the Alaska Earth- Reilly used imagination, skill, and moved toward topographic quake Committee, National Acad- patience in preparing the line depressions) was the single emy of Science. All of these were drawings for these pages.

TECTONICS

THE EARTHQUAKE or point of origin, was 12-30 miles most places the time was between The earthquake struck about (20-50 km) below the surface. 3 and 4 minutes. The majority of 5:36 p.m., Friday, March 27, References to a single epicenter or observers reported either continu- 1964, Alaska standard time, or, as depth of focus are misleading in ous strong shaking throughout the recorded by seismologists, at that they imply that the earth- earthquake or gradually dimin- 03 :36 :11.9 to 12.4, Saturday, quake had a point source. As inter- ishing motion. There is evidence, March 28, 1964, Greenwich mean preted by Wyss and Brune (1967), however, that in Anchorage and time. Its Richter magnitude, com- the earthquake rupture propa- possibly elsewhere there were sev- puted &y different observatories gated in la series of events, with eral pulses of strong shaking, sep- as from 8.3 to possibly as high as six widely distributed "epicenters" arated by periods of diminished 8.75 (that of the greatest known recorded during the first 72 sec- vibration. earthquake is 8.9), has generally onds. Thus, energy was released The earthquake vibrations mere come to be described as 8.68.6. Its by the earthquake itself over a felt by people throughout Alaska intensity on the Modified Mercalli broad area south and southwest and parts of British Columbia scale ranged between very wide of the epicenter; the thousands (fig. 1) ; they were recorded by limits, dependicg partly on dis- of aftershocks were dispersed seismographs throughout the tance from the epicenter but much throughout Ian area of about world. The vibrations themselves, more on local geologic and hydro- 100,000 squlare miles, mainly along or their immediate effects on bod- logic conditions and distribution the Continental Shelf between ies of water, were measured on of population ; hence isointensity the Aleutian Trench and the streams and lakes and in wells lines are difficult or impossible to mainland. throughout the United States and draw. The long duration of strong in many other countries. Earth- The epicenter was instrumen- ground motion intensified many of quake-caused atmospheric pres- tally determined to be close to the earthquake's effects and added sure waves and subaudible sound College Fiord at the head of greatly to its scientific signifi- waves were also recorded by in- Prince William Sound, on the cance. At the time, there were no struments at widely separated sta- south flank of the rugged Chugach instruments in Alaska capable of tions in the conterminous States. Mountains (fig. 2). Calculations of recording the duration of motion, There is general agreement the epicenter vary, but all place it but many observers timed or esti- among seismologists and geolo- within a 9-mile (15-km) radius mated the period of strong shak- gists that shallow earthquakes are of 61.1" N., 147.7" W. The focus, ing as from 1l/z to 7 minutes. In caused by sudden release of elastic LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS 9 strain energy that has accumu- earth, moon, and sun were in op- ground cracks, compaction of sedi- lated in the earth's crust and upper position at syzygies and ocean ments, landslides and subaqueous mantle. There is no unanimity of tides were at maximum spring slides, and local waves originated opinion, however, as to why the range. Wilson and Tgrurn inferred by such slides. But perceptible and strains are released when and that six other great earthquakes in disastrous as they were, these ef- where they are nor as to the details recent history occurred at or near fects were insignificant compared of the earthquake-generation proc- the lunar position of syzygy either to the great geologic event that ess or mechanism. The Alaska in opposition or conjunction; caused them, even though most earthquake of 1964 gave some ad- they concluded that the maximum other effects of that event were not ditional insight into these prob- earth and ocean tides that result even recognizable as such until lems but did not solve them all by from these conditions are perhaps long after shaking had subsided. my means. important triggering devices for Indeed, the nature and location of Much has been made by both releasing built-up strain in the the assumed fault along which the technical and popular writers of earth's crust. Whether or not their main event occurred are still sub- the fortunate circumstances that hypothesis is correct, the earth- jects for inference and speculation, brought the Alaska earthquake on quake could hardly have struck despite intensive studies by many the late afternoon of Good Friday, at a time more favorable to mini- able investigators. or Passover, at a time of low tides, mizing damage and loss of life. Some other effects were nearly and during the off-season for fish- or quite as destructive as were the ing, when there were few people DEFORMATION AND seismic vibrations. The uplift and on docks and boats and in near- VIBRATION OF THE subsidence that disrupted ports shore canneries. There is no ques- LAND SURFACE and navigation routes throughout tion that this combination of cir- An earthquake by definition is a the affected area had far-reaching, cumstances resulted in less loss of shaking of the ground surface and long-term effects (fig. 2). Massive life than would have occurred at the structures on it, but the shak- tilting of the man both un- almmt any other time. ing is really only symptomatic of doubtedly initiated the seismic sea Wilson and Tgrum (1968) make the great geotectonic events that waves or tsunamis that wrecked the interesting suggestion that the are affecting a part of the earth's Kodiak and other towns in Alaska timing of the release of strain was crust. This truism was well dem- and caused many of the deaths perhaps not fortuitous at all, but onstrated by the Alaska earth- there md as far down the coask was the product of astronomic quake. Vibrations from few, if as Crescent Cihy, Calif. The hori- forces. They base their suggestion any, earthquakes in history have zontal seaward movement of the on the fact that the earthquake oc- been felt by people over a wider landmass, though not measurable curred near the time of the vernal area, or have persisted for a longer as such without precise geodetic equinox-the date on which the time. Much of the damage was studies and interpretations, may it- religious seasons of Easter and caused by the vibrations them- self have initiated disastrous slides Passover are also based-when the selves or by their direct results- and waves along the shores of

"* * * the timing of the relase af strain was perhaps not fmtuitous at all, but was the product of astronomic fom." 10 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1'964

144°

~ ~chin brook Island Iter Bay ContrO Montague Island ' Kayak Island

I Bay I . I I .. s~~ /...... -- --- I . ~.~ / I ~v / I / I a~ / I I I I I I EXPLANATION I +:~:' I I I Subsidence-uplift boundary ,..,.uuzm>ae/ ....;·· I . I Highway .. I . I / Railroad / .. / / I I / I 0 25 50 75 100 MILES / / 56°15' ______,...... /

2.-Map of south-central Alaska, showing areas of tectonic land-level changes. LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Prince William Sound 'and else- Aleutian and Alaska ranges, was the relatively sparse geodetic, where. uplifted a maximum of 1% feet, hydrographic, and tide-gage con- Perhaps the most significant but less is known about this area. trol that was available. aspect 'of the Alaska earthquake Besides the tsunamis that was the great expanse of measur- spread across the entire Pacific HORIZONTAL DEFORMATION able land dislocation. Most of our Ocean, subsidence and uplift Large-scale horizontal deforma- knowledge of the crustal deforma- had other consequences, par- tion also accompanied the earth- tion that marks large earthquakes ticularly along the seacoasts. quake (Parkin, 1966, 1969; Plaf- comes from analysis of the elastic Nearly every report in this series ker, 1969). Horizontal movement waves that they generate; more di- describes these effects as observed of the land mass was not noted by rect observations are commonly in some part of the earthquake- observers and could not in any case limited by a lack of critical ground affected region. Some effects were have been distinguished by human oontrol. In Alaska these deforma- immediately apparent to ob- senses from the back-and-forth tions were measurable by geodetic servers; others were not even sensations caused by the seismic3 and other methods over much of recognized until hours or days waves. Its net results, however, the displacement field (Malloy, later, when anomalous waves had mere measured geodetically. 1964, 1965 ; Plafker, 1965 ; Parkin, subsided and new tide levels were Retriangulation by the U.S. 1966, 1969; Small and Parkin, affirmed. Only then did people Coast and Geodetic Survey over 1967; and Small and Wharton, begin to realize the magnitude of about 25,000 square miles of up- 1969). The vast quantity of avail- the tectonic changes. lifted and subsided ground in and able facts are interpreted in tec- Real measurements of the dis- around the Prince William Sound tonic terms by Plafker (1969), tribution and amount of land- region shows definitely that the from whose report most of the fol- level change required geodetic landmass moved relatively sea- lowing information is taken. resurveys of previously estab- ward, or southeastward. The lished land nets and hundreds of amount and distribution of the VERTICAL DEFORMATION measurements of vertically dis- displacement has been determined Over an area of more than placed intertidal sessile orga- relatively but not absolutely. Plaf- 100,000 square miles, the earth's nisms. The fact that certain ker's interpretation shows system- surface was measurably displaced marine plants and animals have atic horizontal shifts, in a south to by the earthquake (fig. 2). Dis- definite vertical growth limits southwestward direction, of as placements occurred in two ar- relative to tide levels has long much as 64 feat. Parkin, using the cuate zones parallel to the con- been known but, following the same data, found maximum dis- tinental margin, together about early lead of Tarr and Martin placements of about 70 feet and in 600 miles long and as much as (1912), its usefulness in determin- slightly different directions. What- 250 miles wide. West and north ing relative land-level changes ever the differences in detail and of a curving isobase line that resulting from earthquakes was interpretation, there is little doubt extends around the head of greatly expanded by Plafker that a large mass of land and sea Prince William Sound, thence (1969) and his colleagues. The floor moved several tens of feet southwestward past the southeast potential accuracy of the method toward the Gulf of Alaska. shores of the Kenai Peninsula is limited only by the number of The horizontal land movements and the most southeasterly observations that can be made produced no known direct effects fringes of Kodiak Island, the with available time, energy, and on man and his structures. Malloy land and sea-bottom surface sub- funds; by the accuracy of our (1965), Wilson and TIdrum (1968), sided an average of 2% feet and knowledge as to the growth Plafker (1969), Plafker and others a maximum of 7% feet. South- habits of these sessile organisms; (1969), all suggest, however, that east, or seaward of the isobase and by the accuracy of the ob- line, the surface was uplifted an the sudden seaward land motion average of 6 feet and a measured server's estimates of tide stages may well have caused waves in maximum of 38 feet, on Mon- at the time of observation. 111 certain confined and miconfined tague Island, where surface faults south-central Alaska it provided bodies of surface water. Too, po- developed along a zone of severe far more detailed and reliable rosity changes that caused tempo- deformation. There is some evi- information on the nature and rary water losses from surface dence that the land west of the size of land deformation than streams and lakes, and lowering of subsided zone, involving the could have been determined from water levels in some wells that tap ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964

"The Alaska ealrthquake of 1964 produced only two knawn anrfstce faults, both on uninhabited Montague Island, in Prince William Sound." confined aquifers, may have peared in bedrock and in surficial fractures. The hypothetical causa- resulted from the horizontal land deposits along both traces. Both tive fault is viewed as a low-angle movements (Waller, 1966a, b) . strike northeast and dip steeply thrust beneath the continental northwest. Vertical displacements margin. SURFACE FAULTS are 20 to 23 feet on the Patton Bay Inwnclusive evidence suggests Surface fault displacements ac- fault and 16 feet on the shorter that ground fissures on the Kenai company many large earthquakes Hanning Bay fault. Both blocks Penhula may dect earthquake- and are much feared because of of each fault are uplifted relative induced movement along an undis- potential damage to buildings. to sea level, but the northwestern covered buried fault zone (Foster The Alaska earthquake of 1964 block of each is relatively higher and Karlstrom, 1967). The cracks produced only two surface faults, than the southeastern one. The may, however, have been caused by both on uninhabited Montague Is- Patton Bay fault is 22 miles long refraction of seismic vibrations off land, in Prince William Sound on land and extends seaward to subsurface bedrock irregularities. (Plafker, 1967). They are signifi- the southwest at least 17 miles; in- Similarly, his bathymetric surveys cant, however, because of their tec- direct evidence suggests that the indicate to G. A. Rusnak of the tonic implications, their large dis- fault system extends southwest- U.S. Geological Survey (oral placements, and their reverse hab- ward on the sea floor more than comrnun., 1968) that the earth- its. So far as is known, reverse 300 miles (Plafker, 1967). quake may have formed fault- faults rarely accompany earth- The faults on Montague Island bounded grabens on the floor of quakes. The two faults, called the and their postulated extensions Resurrection Bay, as well as some- Patton Bay fault and tbe Hanning southwestward are in the zone of what similar displacements in Bay fault, were reactivated along maximum tectonic uplift. Their Passage Canal. Evidence for these preexisting fault traces on the geologic setting and positions suggestions is tenuous, particu- wuthw&rn part of Montague relative to the zone of regional up- larly because no direct indications Island. These faults had been lift and aftershocks suggest to of the postulated earthquake- mapped by Condon and Cass Plafker (1969) that they are not caused structural features have (1958). New scarps, fisures, flex- the primary causative faults of the been found on land, despite dili- ures, and large landslides ap- earthquake but are subsidiary gent search. LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS

MECHANISM OF THE to agree that movement was ini- a low-angle thrust. These same EARTHQUAKE tiated on a new or a reactivated old writers, and Savage and Hastie The widespread vertical and major fault or fault zone beneath (1966), show that the observed horizontal displacements of the Prince William Sound. Seismolo- vertical displacements in the land surface, and the surface faults gists also agree that the fault is major zones of deformation are in on Montague Island and southwest elongate, extending several hun- reasonably close agreement with thereof, were manifestations of a dred miles southwestward from the theoretical displacements ob- great geologic eventthe sudden near the epicenter to or beyond tained by applying dislocation release of crustal strains that Kodiak Island and that it is 12 to theory to a low-angle or horizon- caused movement along a great 30 miles beneath the surf ace at the tal-thrust model. fault deep beneath the surface. epicenter of the main shock. Focal- The low-angle thrust model does Nearly all seismologists and geol- mechanism studies are inconclu- not fit all the data, however. For ogists agrea that such a fault sive as to whether the postulated example, Press and Jackson exists, but its exact position, fault dips steeply or at low angles. (1965) and Harding and Alger- orientation, and sense of displace- Either angle fits the available data. missen (1969) present alternative ment are obscure, and will prob- Plafker (1969), who considers interpretations of the seismologic ably remain so. the focal-mechanism studies by data that favor a steeply dipping The elastic rebound theory for seismologists in conjunction with fault, rather than a thrust. Savage the generation of earthquakes the regional geologic history and and Hastie (1966) have shown states that shallow-focus earth- with regional patterns of tectonic that the theoretical surface dis- quakes (at depths less than about deformation and seismicity, be- placements from such a model di- 40 km.), such as the Alaska one, lieves that the fault is most prob- verge considerably from the obser- are generated by sudden fractur- ably a low-angle thrust (reverse vations, and they point out that ing or faulting following slow ac- fault). According to his interpre- the surface-wave fault-plane data cumulation of deformation and tation, the earthquake originated cited by Press and Jackson in sup- strain. When the strength of the along a complex thrust fault that port of a steep fault would apply rocks is exceeded, failure occurs dips northwestward beneath the equally well to a low-angle fault and the elastic strain is suddenly Aleutian Trench. Subsidiary re- because rupture propagation was released in the form of heat, crush- verse faulting on Montague Island along the null axis. However, P- ing, and seismic-wave radiation. occurred in the upper plate. In his and S-wave solutions of the main Most investigators believe that this postulated model, the observed shock suggest to Harding and Al- sequence of events took place in and inferred tectonic displace- germissen movement on a steep Alaska. Most believe further that ments resulted primarily from (1) plane. Von Huene and others the 1964 earthquake was but one relative seaward displacement and (1967), too,present oceanographic pulse in a long history of regional uplift of the frontal end of the evidence from the Gulf of Alaska deformation; this history is sum- thrust block along the primary and the Aleutian Trench which marized by Plafker (1969). Geo- fault and subsidiary reverse faults, they interpret to preclude over- logic evidence, supported by num- such as those on Montague Island, thrusting of the continental erous new radiocarbon datings, and (2) simultaneous elastic hori- margin. indicates that most of the de- zontal extension, leading- to sub- There appears to be no unam- formed region has been undergo- sidence, behind the overthrust biguous explanation of the me- ing gradual tectonic submergence block. chanism of the Alaska earthquake. for the past 930 to 1,360 years; The concept of a primary low- All major arc-relaited earthquakes, Plafker tentatively inbrprets this angle thrust, with the landmass such as this one, are difficult 4x1 submergence as direct evidence moving relatively toward the Gulf study because much of the dis- that regional strain with a down- of Alaska, fits most of the known placement field is invariably sub- ward-directed component had been geologic, geodetic, and seismo- marine ; data on earthquakes with accumulating in the region for logic facts. Stauder and Bollinger offshore epicenters cannot be ob- abut that length of time. (1966) have shown that focal- tained as readily as for those cen- Intensive studies of the earth- mechanism solutions of the main tered on land. It can be hoped that quake, and of its foreshocks and shwk and numerous aftershocks batter seismograph records of aftershocks, have led seismologists based on both P and S waves favor long-period motions, {togetherwith 14 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH. 27, 1964 continuing precise geodetic meais- less ambiguous interpretations of subsea displacements and the hy- urements that would give evidence the causes of future Alaska earth- pocentral depiths and first motions of the strain accumulations and quakes. These data would require of offshore earthquakes in arc en- deformations on land, will permit new techniques for determining vironments.

EFFECTS ON THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

The shaking and land deforma- interacting with water or ice are of interest chiefly because they tions had profound and lasting (Varnes, 1958). It is not surpris- are related to the only known effects on the geologic, hydrologic, ing that a great earthquake in a earthquake-caused surface faults. and oceanographic environments rugged land like south-central Although their study added little of a large part of south-central Alaska should bring down thou- to general knowledge of landslide Alaska and, to a lesser extent, of sands of landslides and avalanches processes, Plafker (1967) h,as an enormously greater area (fig. in the mountains and many sub- noted that, by their very nature, 1). These effects in turn had im- aqueous slides in the deep Fakes mediate and drastic effects on man and fiords. and manmade structures. The var- Property damage from slides in ious categories of effects, which the mountains was generally lim- were responsible for all the deaths ited to roads and railroads. Rock- and destruction, are discussed in slides contributed to only one succeeding paragraphs. Many (0th- known death. At Cape Saint er effects, such as those on the Elias, a coastguardsman, seriously bird, animal, fish, and shellfish injured by a large rockfall, was populations and their habitats, are later drowned by waves (Plafker not described here, though they and others, 1969). were of outstanding importance Several writers have attributed to science and to the economy of the relatively small amount of Alaska. damage done by avalanches and slides to the sparse population in GEOLOGIC EFFECTS the mountains. That the rockslides were unprecedented in size and DOWNSLOPE MASS MOVEMENTS number in recent centuries is dem- Of the many downslope mass onstrated by the absence of similar movements during the earthquake, deposits of debris on most glaciers only four kinds provided much before the 1964 event. Large-scale new knowledge about their char- slides triggered by earthquakes acter and origins. These were (1) doubtless do present a serious haz- the enormous rockslide avalanches ard in the mountainous regions of on some glaciers, (2) the disas- Alaska where steep, unstable trous subaqueous slides from lake- slopes are present. shores and sea coasts, (3) the With a few outstanding excep- near-horizontal movement of vi- tions, most of the slides and ava- bration-mobilized soil, and (4) lanches were comparatively simple the giant translatory slides in well-known types and, because sensitive clay at Anchorage. they caused little physical dam- Earthquakes have long been age, they received little attention known to cause landslides and rock by investigators. "By far the greatest damage done by or snow avalanches, but they are The landslides along the Patton slides and avalanches was along the generally subordinate to other Bay and Hanning Bay faults on highway and rail net, south and east more usual causes such as gravity Montague Island (Plafker, 1967) of Anchorage." active thrust faults tend to con- ceal their traces automatically by initiating linear zones of land- slides. Debris slides and rotational slumps developed in many places in and near Anchorage (Hansen, 1965), but they did far less dam- age and were less important sci- entifically than the gigantic trans- latory slides discussed separately below. Slides and slumps on steep slopes near Whittier (Kachadoor- ian, 1965), Seward (Lemke, 1967), and Homer (Waller, 1966a) also did little damage .as com- pared to submarine slides, waves, and subsidence. Many landslides occurred on the Kodiak island group in a great variety of geologic settings (Plaf - ker and Kachadoorian, 1966), but aside from temporarily blocking a few roads, they did no significant damage. By far the greatest damage done . L by slides and avalanches was along "* * * the avalanches initially descended very steep slopes and attained high veloci- the highway and rail net, south ties. * * * These features * * help substantiate the hypothesis that some large and east of Anchorage. The rock avalanches travel on cushions of compressed air." plotted distribution of these fea- tures (Kachadoorian, 1968 ; Mc- and several others point out, none Glacier's terminus can be expected. Culloch and Bonilla, 1970) shows of these snow and ice avalanche5 how widespread and numerous Various investigations show they were along the roads and were large enough to materially that the Sherman and other ~ava- affect any glacier's regime. railroads. This distribution prob- lanches tend to have certain com- ably represents fairly well the dis- As compared with slides of mon characteristics : (a) the tribution of downslope mass snow and ice, rockslide avalianches areas were cliffs currently under- movements throughout the earth- were fewer but much larger. The going glacial erosion; (b) the un- quake-shaken area, with some al- most thoroughly studied of these stable rock available for move- lowance for the fact that man- is on Sherman Glacier in the Chu- ment was hundreds of thousands made cuts and fills tend to gach Mountains, 20 miles east of of cubic yards in volume; (c) the diminish slope stability, hence to Cordova. There, an enormous mass avalanches initially descended increase the number of slides. of rock and some snow and ice fell very steep slopes and attained high from two peaks, traveled at high velocities; (d) the rock debris ROCKSLIDE AVALANCHES speed, and spread out over half spread out over surficial features Glaciers and snowfielde cover of the glacier's ablation ,area of the glacier surfaces without more than 20 percent of the land (Shreve, 1966; Post, 1967; Plaf- greatly modifying them; and (e) area that was shlaken violently. Al- ker, 1968). The effects of such de- the gradients of the aval~ancheson most 2,000 avalanches and snow posits on glacier regimes have yet the glacier surface were very low, slides were seen on postearth- to be fully assessed, but reduction yet the material traveled very long quake aerial photographs exam- in ice [ablation sufficient to favor distances (Post, 1967). These ined by Hackman (1965). Most of positive annual mass balances has features together help substan- these he suspected were oaused by already been measured. A future tiate the hypothesis that some the earthquake but as Post (1967) modest advance of the Sherman large rock avalanches travel on ALASKA EARTHQUAICE, MARCH 2 7, 1964

cushions of compressed air Lemke, 1967). Water-laid satu- erally steeper and less stable than (Shreve, 1959, 1966b, 1968 ; Cran- rated sediments responded to the the old ones (Tuthill and Laird, dell and Flahnestock, 1965). earthquake's vibrations by mobil- 1966 ; Ferrians, 1966 ; Lemke, HORIZONTAL MOVEMENTS OF izing and moving laterally toward 1967). Except on Kenai Lake MOBILIZED SOIL free topographic faces that ranged (McCulloch, 1966), none of these The movements of mobilized in size from small drainage ditches slides did much damage, and they water-saturated soil toward top- to wide valleys. The spreading of were not studied intensively. The ographic depressions deserve spe- the mobilized sediments generated several slides along the shores of cial mention. These movements stress in their frozen surfaces and Kenai Lake yielded more informa- took place throughout the strongly caused ground cracking that tore tion on the mechanics of sliding shaken part of Alaska and were apart railroad tracks and high- and the distribution of resultant among the major causes of way pavements. In addition, debris than was available for the ground fractures along river streamward spreading of the mo- seacoast slides. McCulloch (1966) banks, deltas, and elsewhere. They bilized sediments compressed or found that sliding removed the were best seen and recorded along skewed numerous bridges by protruding parts of deltas--often the highway and railroad systems streamward movements of banks. the youngest and least consolidated and were major sources of damage Even deeply driven piles moved parts-and steepened the delta to both (Kachadoorian, 1968 ; Mc- toward stream centers, and there fronts. He suggests that protrud- Culloch and Bonilla, 1970). Else- was a tendency toward compres- ing portions should be the least where in thinly populated regions sion and uplift beneath some stable, for they contain the most like the Martin and Bering River bridges. mass bounded by the shortest pos- area (Tuthill and Laird, 1966), Many of the movements took sible failure surface. Fathograms lateral spreading did less damage place in areas where surfaces were show that large slides spread for but was nevertheless an important nearly flat. Some extended as much thousands of feet over the hori- geomorphic process. as a quarter of a mile back from zontal lake floor and that some of In detailed studies of earthquake the topographic depression and the debris moved so rapidly that it damage to the Alaska Railroad, offset rail lines or other linear fea- pushed water waves ahead of it McCulloch and Bonilla (1970) ob- tures. McCulloch and Bonilla con- and up on the opposite shores. served that ordinary rotational clude that the tendency toward Because of the presence of slumps were surprisingly rare and mobilization of sediments should coastal communities, submarine that the elastic response of uncon- be considered in design of struc- slides in the fiords of Prince Wil- solidated sediment was a less im- tures in earthquake-prone areas. liam Sound and along the south portant source of damage than They suggest that it might be mini- coast of the Kenai Peninsula were far more destructive than those on were near-horizontal displace- mized by eliminating strong sur- lakes. The most disastrous ones ments or "landspreading." This face irregularities and linear fea- were at Valdez (Coulter and Mig- phenomenon has been observed in tures insofar as possible; skewing liaccio, 1966), Seward (Lemke, studies of other great eanthquakes. of bridgm might be reduced by 1967), and Whittier (Kachadoo- McCulloch and Bonilla describe placing crossings at right angles to streambanks. rian, 1965), but there were also the distension that occurs within Cook the sediments and note that land- slides at Homer on Inlet SUBAQUEOUS SLIDES (Waller, 1966a) and at many other spreading takes place on flat or inhabited places. Some of these, nearly flat ground ; thus they dif- Subaqueous slides, and gigantic and their associated waves, did ferentiate from landsliding, which local waves that were closely re- connotes downslope movement. lated to them in time and origin, more damage in proportion to the Along the railroad, ground fis- caused high loss of life and prop- size of the communities affected sures, loss of bearing strength, and erty. A very few similar slides and than did the better known ones at other effects all took their toll ; but their associated waves have been Seward and Valdez (Plafker and in terms of dollars lost, dlamage known from other earthquakes, Mayo, 1965; Plafker and others, caused by landspreading was sec- but none had received much study. 1969). In addition to those known ond only to the loss of terminal Throughout the earthquake- to be related to submarine slides, facilitiss at Whittier and Seward shaken area, steep-fronted deltas there were numerous destructive aaused by submarine slides, waves, collapsed into many of the deeper waves of unknown origin through- and fire (Kachadoorian, 1965 ; lakes. The new fronts were gen- out much of Prince William LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS 17

Sound. Some of the unexplained Kenai Lake and at Valdez and ready weak layer of sensitive clay. waves may have been related to Whittier, may well have occurred The translatory slides at Anchor- unidentified submarine slides, but on other narrow lakes or fiords: age ranged from block glides, in some are believed to have been the wide and rapid spread of slide which the slide mass remained generated by permanent horizontal debris on the bottom. Some of the more or less intact, to those that shifts of the land relative to partly debris at Kenai Lake crossed the are best classed as failures by lat- or wholly confined bodies of water lake, pushed water ahead of it, and eral spreading (Varnss, 1958). (Plafker, 1969; Plafker and caused wave runups on the far Translatory slides, caused by others, 1969). How much of the shores (McCulloch, 1966). This earthquakes or other agencies, are sliding was caused by direct pro- feature means that, under some uncommon, but they have long longed vibration and how much by conditions at least, the shore op- been known, and studied to some the southeasterly shift of the land- posite a steep-faced delta may be extent, in Scandinavia, Chile, and mass during the earthquake is almost as poor a place for buildings the United States (Hansen, 1965). unknown. It seems probable, how- or anchorages as is the delta itself. The Anchorage slides of 1964, ever, that vibration was the pri- In summary, the 1964 earth- however, promise to become a clas- mary cause of most of it. quake showed that any deep-water sic reference point in the scientific All the subaqueous slides that delta, such as those in the fiords and engineering literature on near- were studied in any detail left new and many lakes of south-cen.tra1 horizontal mass movement of ma- slopes nearly or quite as steep as Alaska, may produce subaqueous terial. They had many novel as- the preearthquake ones, some even slides and associated destructive pects, and, because facts were steeper. This is the most significant waves if shaken by a severe earth- needed for far-reaching decisions and ominous finding from the in- quake. Such deltas commonly con- on the reoonstruction of important vestigations of these features, for tain much sand or finer grained parts of a thriving city, the An- chorage translatory slides pmb- it means that the delta fronts are material, are saturated with water, ably received more study by soils still only marginally stable and and have steep fronts; hence they engineers and geologists than any hence are subject to renewed slid- are apt to have very low stability comparable group of landslides in ing, triggered by future earth- under dynamic conditions. history. quakes. The lesson is clear-any TRANSLATORY LANDSLIDES Several million dollars was steep-faced delta of fine to moder- IN ANCHORAGE spent by the Corps of Engineers ately coarse materials in deep All the highly destructive land- in intensive soils studies of all water presents inherent dangers of slides in the built-up parts of An- the Anchorage slides: (1) to de- future offshore slides and destmc- chorage moved chiefly by transla- termine where reconstruction tive waves, whether or not it has tion rather than rotation--that is, should be permitted, (2) to build slid in the past. they moved laterally on nearly .a gigantic stabilizing buttress One somewhat unexpected result horizontal slip surfaces, following in the midst of downtown An- of the offshore slides, observed on drastic loss of strength in an al- chorage, and (3) to experiment

"All the highly destructive landslides in the buiht-up paxts of Anchorage moved chiefly by taanwlation rather than rotation-that is, they moved laterally on nearly horizontal surfaws, follolwing drastic loss of strength in an already weak layer d sensitive day." 18 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCB: 27, 1964 with explosive and electro- laterally on a nearly horizontal Corps concluded therefore that the osmotic methods of stabilizing surface toward a free face, or new slopes in the Turnagain area the great slide at Turnagain bluff. Tension fractures formed now form a natural buttress to the Heights. The slides at Anchor- at the head of the slide and al- undis%urbedbluff behind the slide age have also sparked other lowed collapse of a wedge-shaped that should withstand a future studies of the stability of slopes mass, or graben. Pressure ridges earthquake similar to that of 19Ci4, in sensitive clays, particularly were formed at the toe of the provided the buttress toe is pro- under dynamic conditions. slide block. In complex slides, tected against erosion. In 1969 All the Anchorage slides in- and with continued shaking, the there were no plans for such ero- volved a hitherto obscure but process was repeated so that slice sion protection. now famous geologic formation- after slice moved forward toward The greatest unanswered ques- the Bootlegger Cove Clay of or beyond the former bluff face. tion about the Anchorage transla- Pleistocene age (Miller and Seed and Wilson (1967) agree tory slides is whether they will Dobrovolny, 1959). This deposit in most respects with Hansen's rwur in the event of another great of glacial estuarine-marine origin view of the mechanics of the An- earthquake, and if so, what can be underlies much of Anchorage; it chorage slides. They are much done to prevent them. There is is overlain by outwash gravel. more inclined, however, to ascribe abundant evidence that repeated All the destructive slides oc- the initial translatory motion to similar slides, some in the same curred where the Bootlegger Cove liquefaction of layers or lenses of places, have been triggered by ear- Clay crops out along steep bluffs. sand in the clay than to weakening lier earthquakes or by other causes The formation is comprised of the clay itself. Seed has found (Miller and Dobrovolny, 1959 : largely of clay and silt, with a by experiment with modified tri- Hansen, 1965 ; McCulloch and Bo- few thin, discontinuous lenses of axial shear devices that laboratory- nilla, 1970). There is also every sand. The middle part of the reconstructed sand, similar to that reason to suppose that new slides formation contains zones char- in the Bootlegger Cove Clay, lique- will develop if and when another acterized by low shear strength, fies and loses all its shear strength severe earthquake occurs. With high water content, and high with far fewer vibratory pulses present knowledge, the most prac- sensitivity; these failed under the than are required to liquefy the tical means of avoiding or ameli- earthquake's vibrations. clay. He is doubtlessly correct as orating future translatory slides The most thorough report on to the initizting mechanism, but would seem to be to reduce the the geology of the Anchorage there is no question that drastic slopes on bluffs, to avoid loading slides, as distinct from the soils weakening of the clay contributed the upper parts of slopes or bluffs, engineering aspects, is that by to the lateral movements once they or to construct gigantic earth but- Hansen in which he recon- had begun. Even under static con- trwwlike that at the Fourth Ave- structed the highly complex Turn- ditionsprior to the earthquake, the nue slide. Other means of slide pre- again slide by maps and cross bluffline at Turnagain Heights vention may be developed in the sections (Hansen, 1965, pls. 1, was being undermined at its foot future. Meanwhile, the U.S. Geo- 2). Many other reports on the in a oontinuous zone of clay slumps logical Survey, in cooperation with mechanics of the Anchorage and liquefied-clay mudflows. Anchorage Borough authorities, slides or on theoretical and ex- Large-scale field tests were made is preparing detailed maps that perimental work engendered by at Turnagain Heights to determine will show, among other things, the the Anchorage experience have if remodeling by blasting or treat- outcrops of the Bootlegger Cove already appeared in the civil ment by electro-osmo6is might add Clay and the distribution of steep engineering literature (Shannon to the strength of the jumbled mass slopes (Dobrovolny and Schmoll, and Wilson, Inc., 1964; Long of clay that slid =award during 1968). Such maps should be useful and George, 1967a, b; Seed and the 1964 earthquake. Neither to borough and city officials in de- Wilson, 1967), and more will method produced very promising termining the general areas where appear in the future. results, but when the tests were slides are most likely to occur. As described by Hansen (1965) abandoned the Corps of Engineers Very detailed investigations will, earthquake vibrations reduced and its consultants had determined of course, be necessary at any spe- the shear strength of saturated that the landslide material along cific site in order to determine the sensitive zones in the clay. A Knik Arm had naturally regained soil conditions and to design cor- prismatic block of earth moved dl its preearthquake strength. The rective or preventive measures. LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS

GROUND FISSURES center, but they were noted as far other minor landforms that result- Ground fissures, also called as 450 miles away (fig. 1). ed from them. Several unusual cracks or fractures by various Flood plains, the tops and geologic-geomorphic f e a t u r e s , authors, are formed by nearly 'all fronts of deltas, toes of alluvial such as mud-vent deposits, foun- severe earthquakes and by some fans, low terraces with steep tain craters, subsidence craters, smaller ones. Possibly more re- fronts, and lake margins were and snow cones, are described by sulted from the 1964 earthquake among the geomorphic features Tuthill and Laird (1966) in the than from any previously recorded most affected. Fissures varied Martin-Bering Rivers area. Most earthquake. Certainly they were greatly in length but some indi- of these are related to the pumping more noticeable and more in- vidual ones could be traced for of water and sediments from tensely studied, especially by thousands of feet. Some open fis- ground fissures. Similar deposits means of aerial photographs. The sures were several feet wide; many were left by mud spouts or by ground surface was frozen in fissures opened and closed with the melting of snow avalanches in nearly all of the earthquake-af- passage of seismic waves. many parts of the earthqu&e- fected area; this condition not Most ground fissures were nec- affected area (Waller, 1966a, b; only resulted in more fissures essarily studied only at the sur- Lemke, 1967; McCulloch and Bo- but favored their preservation face. Soma fissures on the Kenai nilla, 1970). All these features are long enough to permit observa- Lowland, however, and on Kodiak of some scientific interest, but they tion, photographing, and map- Island and elsewhere are known are ephemeral and are not likely ping. to have extended at least 20 to 25 to be preserved in the geologic rec- General distribution of fissured feet beneath the surface, because ord unless they are soon buried by ground throughout the earth- coal, gravel, pumice, and other other deposits. quake-affected area is shown by materials that exist at those depths Widespread damage resulted Plafker and others (1969). Only were brought to the surface by from fissures, though on the whole a very few of the fissures that spouting water (Foster and Karl- it was minor as compared to that developed have been mapped, but strom, 1967; Plafker and Kacha- from other sources. Ground fis- good examples of their patterns, doorian, 1967). sures disrupted buried utility lines character, and geologic settings Great quantities of water, mixed and did other damage in Anchor- are shown in maps of the Kenai with varying amounts of sand and age (Hansen, 1965; Burton, in Lake area (McCulloch, 1966) ; silt, were ejected as fountains or Logan, 1967; McCulloch and Bon- along the railroad and highway sheets of water from ground fis- illa, 1970). At Seward, remaining nets (Kachadoorian, 1968 ; McCul- sures in many places (Waller, parts of the fan-delta whose front loch and Bonilla, 1970) ;at Valdez 1966b). Most ejections came from slid into Resurrection Bay were (Coulter and Migliaccio, 1966) ; linear fractures, but in flat-lying severely cracked and left unstable. at Anchorage (Hansen, 1965 ; homogeneous sediments some came Fissures also damaged many Engineering Geology Evaluation from point sources. Among the homes and roads in Forest Acres Group, 1964) ; at Seward (Lem- chief consequences of the ejections outside of Seward (Lemke, 1967). ke, 1967); and elsewhere. In were local subsidence of the land At Valdez, 40 percent of the homes surface and further cracking by addition, Ferrians (1966) and and most commercial buildings removal of water and material that were not wrecked by the giant Tuhhill and Laird (1966) made from below. submarine slide were seriously detailed studies of the fissures Geologically, most ground fis- damaged by earth fissures that de- and associated landforms in the sures were ephemeral features and, stroyed their structural integrity, Copper River Basin and Martin- of themselves, left little perma- broke pipes, and pumped immense Bearing Rivers areas. The very nent evidence of their presence. quantities of sand and silt into extensive ground breakage on the Cracked mats of peat, however, their lower parts (Coulter and Kenai Lowland mas mapped by were still preserved in 1967, and Migliaccio, 1966). At the Eklutna Foster and Karlstrom (1967). clastic dikes formed by sand or Lake powerplant, n u m e r o u s Ground fissures, many marked mud injections may last for many cracks, some of them damaging, by copious emissions of muddy or years. Evidence of local subsidence developed in both natural and ar- sandy water or by minor local caused by ejection of water and tificially compacted sediments collapse features, were widespread mud from fissures is somewhat (Logan, 1967). At the Cordova within about 100 miles of the epi- more permanent also, as are a few airport, the foundation of the 20 ALASKA EARTHQUARE, MARCH 27, 19 64 FAA office building was split by translatory slides at Anchorage a ground fissure, and underground (Hansen, 1965), the extensive fis- utility lines were broken in so sures on the Resurrection River many places that most had to be Delta near Seward (Lemke, 1967), replaced (EckeI, 1967). and the thousands of fissures along All fissures were directly related the rail and road systems (Kacha- to local geologic conditions. Many doorian, 1968 ; McCulloch and of them formed in thick coarse- Bonilla, 1970). Unconfined slopes grained unconsolidated deposits, were not essential to the formation where the water table was close to of fissures, however; many formed the surface and where the topmost on flat unbroken surfaces such as layers were frozen, hence brittle. that of the Copper River Delta. Many others, as on the mudflats of As a possible explanation for the the Copper River Delta, Con- origin of a certain type of ground troller Bay, and near Portage, de- fissure that formed in the Copper veloped in fine-grained deposits. River Basin in flat-lying areas Artificial fills were very suscep- where there were no free faces to- tible. Many cracks followed back- ward which the materials could filled utility trenches. Many high- move, Ferrians (1966) suggests way fills compacted and cracked that surface waves flexing the layer marginally. Few fissures formed of frozen surficial materials, which in well-drained surficial deposits, was in a state of tension, caused the and hardly any in bedrock or in initial cracking of the surface. The permafrost. passing surface waves subjected Only on the Kenai Lowland was the saturated sediments beneath there any suggestion of tectonic the seasonal frost to repeated com- control of the fracture patterns pression and dilation in the hori- (other, of course, than the regional zontal direction ; consequently, tectonic factors that controlled the large quantities of water and silt- general distribution of all the and sand-sized material were earthquake's effects). On the low- ejected from the cracks, and sedi- land, and to some extent in the ment particles were rearranged. Chugach Mountains north of it, The net result of them forces hter and Karlstmm (1967) was horizontal compaction, which noted an alinement of ground caused the formation of numerous fractures that suggested to them ground cracks that extended for that the fractures might reflect great distances and formed a sys- earthquake - caused movement tematic reticulate pattern in the "All fissures were directly related to along hypothetical faults in the flood plains of some of the larger local geologic conditions. Many of them formed in thick coarse-grained underlying bedrock. rivers. unconsdidated deposits, where the Seismic vibration was the ulti- Permanently frozen ground, be- water table was close to the surface mate cause of virtually all the fis- cause it behaves dynamically like and where the topmost Payers were sures. Some were formed directly bedrock, had few if any fissures; in frozen, hence brittle." by the shaking, others by differen- some places, however, where water- tial horizontal or vertical compac- bearing layers were perched be- quake. The conditions under which tion, others by local subsidence. tween the permafrost and the they develop are now well known, Many formed near slopes or sur- seasonal frost layer at the ground and it is possible to identify bodies f ace irregularities when underly- surface, there was extensive crack- of sediments that are susceptible ing materials liquefied or, mobi- ing (Ferrians, 1966). to fissuring during a large earth- lized by vibration, moved toward Except in a general way, the oc- quake of long duration (Mc- topographic depressions. The best currence and distribution of Clulloch and Bonilla, 1970). known examples perhaps are the ground fissures would be difficult Formation of individual fissures ground fractures back of the to predict for any given earth- or fissure systems is so dependent LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS on local geologic and ground- SHORE PROCESSE!3 locally scoured source areas for water conditions, however, that Thousands of miles of coastlines beach nourishment, and thus pro- highly detailed knowledge of local were modified by the earthquake, vided more materi'd to replenish surface, subsurface, and su;baerial partly by transitory but highly losses caused by subsidence. conditions would be required for destructive water waves and, Streams whose mouths were precise predictions. more generally and much more drowned began to aggrade their beds. CONSOLIDATION SUBSIDENCE permanently, by uplift or subsid- ence. All but a few reports in In the uplifted areas, on the Seismic vibration caused con- this series describe such damage, other hand, beaches were stranded solidation of loose granular particularly at inhabited places above tidewater and some surf -cut materials in many places. Rear- along the coast. There were, how- platforms became terraces or rangement of constituent particles, ever, comparatively few studies of benches. Wave erosion of bluffs aided by ejection of interstitial the coastal processes themselves. was stopped, and bluff recession water through waterspouts or mud The changes in beach-forming was slowed to the rate set by sub- spouts, caused compaction and processes at Homer Spit, because aerial processes. Uplift speeded local differential subsidence of the of their economic importance, streamflow, with consequent en- surface. Lateral spreading, too, mere investigated in detail by trenchment and increased sedi- caused lowering of surface levels Stanley (in Waller, 196th) and ment load. New beaches began .to in places. In coastal areas where by Gronewald and Duncan (1966). form below the abandoned ones. local subsidence was superimposed Similarly, but for scientific reasons Within the span of a few on regional tectonic subsidence, as only, stream mouths and beach minutes, the earthquake caused on Homer Spit (Grantz and changes caused by sudden uplift chlanges in coastal conditions and others, 1964; Waller, 1966a), on Montague Island mere studied processes that normally require Kodiak Island (Plafker and by Kirkby and Kirkby (1969), and centuries. In the subsided areas it Kachadoorian, 1966), and near the the shallow deltaic sediments off also wrought changes that are head of Turnagain Arm (Plafker the mouth of the Copper River usually associated only with rare and others, 1969), for example, the were investigated by Reimnitz and severe storms. likelihood of destructive flooding Marshall (1965). The Geological was heightened. Survey itself made few detailed HYDROLOGIC EFFECTS The intake and spillway at studies of shore processes (McCul- Eklutna Lake, which feeds the loch, 1966; Waller, 1966a, b) but, The hydrologic regimen other Bureau of Reclamation's Eklutna with support from the Committee than glaciers was studied by fewer hydroelectric plant, provided spe- on the Alaska Earthquake, Na- investigato~lsthan were most other cial instances of damage by con- tional Academy of Sciences, the phenomena. Nevertheless, these solidation subsidence. The concreits Survey persuaded K. W. Stanley studies produced much new knowl- intake structure was cracked when (1968) to prepare a general report edge. Hydrologic effects possibly the lake sediments beneath it com- on this subject based on his own were more extensive than any pre- pacted and subsided. As a direct observations and on summaries of viously observed on the North result, about 2,000 cubic yards of the sparse published work of American continent ; quite certain- sand and rock passed through the others, Periodic detailed observa- ly they were the greatest ever re- broken intake and into the main tions over many years would be corded, for fluctuations of surface tunnel. The concrete spillway gate needed to provide a more complete at Eklutna Dam was also severely and ground-water level were meas- understanding of the many geol- cracked, but not until long after ured not only throughout most of the earthquake. As described by ogic and biologic adjustments still North America but ir~many other Logan (1967), saturated alluvium in progress along the coasts. parts of the world. below the frozen surface layer All along the coasts, the shore- subsided as it was consolidated by line began immediately to conform GLACIERS the earthquake and left a void be- to new relative sea levels. Subsided Glaciers cover about 20 percent low the frozen layer. Later as beaches moved shoreward, build- of the land area that was violently thawing progressed, the frozen ing new berms and slopes. Rel- shaken by the earthquake. Numer- material collapsed into the void, atively higher tides attacked ous glaciologists and geomorphol- breaking the gate structure. receding blufflines. Faster erosion ogists, particularly those who 22 ALASKA EARTHQUARE, MARCH 2.7, 19 64 had continuing interests in the life bear no relation to earthquakes. GROUND WATER histories of specific glaciers, were Many such surges involve sudden The surging of water in wells eager to study the effects of the advances of ice from the upper to earthquake. But aside from the the lower parts of glaciers, with and the temporary or long-lasting changes in water levels as a result great rock avalanches, surprising- little or no advances of the termini. of earthquakes have possibly been ly few effects were observed within Knowledge that surges did not known ever since man has had the first several years. immediately result from this wells. Within Alaska these effects Studies added weight to the earthquake does not remove the from the 1964 earthquake were not theory that some rock aval~nches danger that sudden advances of descend on a cushion of com- glaciers from other causes may in- much different from those ob- served in the past, though their pressed air (Shreve, 1959, 1966b, crease flood hazards to places like 1968). It is also quite clear that Valdez (Coulter and Migliaccio, magnitudes and durations may the avalanche debris will drasti- 1966). have been greater. Over most of the violently shaken area in south- cally alter the regimens of the ICE BREAKAGE glaciers by insulating the ice sur- central Alaska, ejection of vast faces on which they came to rest. In Alaska and nearby Canada, quantities of sediment-laden water Aside from these facts, most of the ice was broken on lakes, streams, through ground fractures lead in glacial studies had indecisive re- and bays over an area of more than places to subsidence of the water- sults. There were several enormous 100,000 square miles (fig. I). The bearing sediments. As described rockslide avalanches, but no Iarge cracked ice afforded an easily ob- by Waller (1966a, b), the water in many shallow wells surged, snow or ice avalanches, and rela- served measure of the geographic tively few small ones occurred on spread of the earthquake's effects, with or without permanent glaciers, despite the fact that but otherwise it had .minimal sig- changes in level, pump systems avalanche hazard was already nificance (Waller, 1968a, b; Plaf- failed, and water became turbid. high tat the time of the earthquake ker and others, 1969). Breakage In some of the subsided areas, (Post, 1967). There were no signif- did little physical damage except coastal salt water encroached into icant changes in the calving of ice- to a few beaver houses; in fact, some wells. Most of these effects were temporary, but some were bergs from tidewater glaciers, al- the ice cover on many bodies of though some glacier fronb were water probably diminished the in- permanent or semipermanent. Many artesian wells were also shattered and glacial ice was tensity of destructive wave action. greatly affected. In several of these bhrown out onto ice-covered lakes Some of the cracking was wells, at Anchorage for example, thgt fronted them (Waller, caused directly by seismic vibra- artesian-pressure levels dropped as 1966b). Few changes occurred in tions, but much more resulted much as 15 feet, either perma- glacial streams or ice-dammed from long-continued seiches, as on nently or for several months. Per- lakes. There was no evidence of Portage Lake (Waller, 1966b) haps this change was caused by dynamic response to earthquake and on Kenai Lake (McCulloch, porosity-increasing grain rear- shaking or to avalanche loading. 1966). Horizontal tectonic move- The glaciers' response to tectonic ments of the landmass may have rangements in the aquifers, or by material displacements that per- uplift, subsidence, or lateral been a factor in causing ice break- movement was too small to detect, age in some places. Cracking of mitted freer discharge of water at at least during the few years that ice in lakes and fiords was doubt- submarine exposures of the aqui- fers. Significantly, all such wells have southeast Alaska and on the no&h- than 700 water wells in Europe, Seismic seiches caused by the ern Pacific shores from British Asia, Africa and Australia, and Alaska earthquake were recorded Columbia to California; they also in all but four of the 50 States. at more than 850 gaging stations took most of the lives that were Most records showed only brief on lakes, ponds, and streams lost. Had the coast been more fluctuation of the water level, but throughout North America and at heavily populated or had the earth- the fact that about a fourth of four stations in Australia. The quake struck at high tide, damage them showed either a lasting rise wiches are believed to be re- would have been even more exten- or decline in water level suggests lated to the amplitude distribu- sive than it was. that the earthquake caused a re- tion of short-period seismic sur- The terminology applied to distribution of strain throughout face waves, particularly those earthquake-generated water waves North America. Especially sensi- having periods that coincide with differs among various authorities, tive well stations recorded both similar-length oscillation periods but in this series a general distinc- the surface seismic waves that of certain bodies of water. They tion is made between seismic sea traveled the long way and those were concentrated in areas under- waves, or tsunamis, and local that traveled the short way around lain by thick soft sediments or waves. Local waves were gen- the globe. Some wells as far away where sediment thickness increases erated {alongthe coast or in lakes as Georgia were muddied. abruptly. Major tectonic features and affected areas of limited ex- exerted a strong control; the tent ;they characteristically struck SURFACE WATER Rocky Mountains, for example, during or immediately after the Research into the earthquake's provided a wave guide along earthquake. Seismic sea waves, or effects on surface waters yielded which seiches were more numerous tsunamis, on the other hand, com- even more significant information than to either side. prised a train of long-pesod waves than studies related to ground wa- Preliminary as they are, the that spread rapidly over the entire ter. Within Alaska the effects were findings of McGarr and Vorhis Pacific Ocean and struck the Alas- widespread, though they taught have far-reaching significance in kan coast, after shmaking had sub- little that was new (Waller, 1966 the understanding of the world- sided. Locally, seiches, caused by a, b). Seiches dewatered some wide amplitude distribution of the to-and-fro sloshing of water in lakes, fissures in streambeds and short-period seismic surface partly or wholly confined basins, lakeshores caused water losws, re- waves. Most importantly, McGarr complicated the overall wave pic- gional tilting may have reduced and Vorhis (1968) have shown ture. the flow of some rivers, and land- that records of seiches on surface- Within Alaska, there were few slides or avalanches blocked or water bodies, as measured by the instrumentally determined records diverted some streams. Recording network of water-level recorders of the waves, because all nearby gages on streams measured seiches that is necessarily much denser tide gages were destroyed or in- like those on lakes. Perhaps the than any seismograph network capacitated. The nature of both most interesting side effect of can be, are powerful potentid seismic sea waves and local waves, local surface-water reaction to the tools in future studies of seis- therefore, was deduced from the earthquake was the realization mic waves and of earthquake accounts of eyewitnesses, from di- that some large Alaskan lakes may intensities. rect observations of wave effects be useful as giant tiltmeters for Another lesson learned from the on shores, and from indirect un- future vertical strain measure- earthquake's effects on hydrology derwater investigations. ments (McCulloch, 1966 ; Hansen was that long-continued- records The wave histories at specific and others, 1966). from properly equipped aobserva- communities, and descriptions of 24 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 2 7, 1964

their effects, are discussed in re- LOCAL WAVES dicate removal of material from ports on Whittier (Kachadoorian, Knowledge of the origin and im- Upper parts of slopes and deposi- 19G5) ; Valdez (Coulter and Mig- portance of earthquake-induced tion of slide debris in deeper water. liaccio, 1966) ; Homer local waves, hitherto very ~ame, Many of the destructive local 1966a) ; Kodiak (Kachadwrian was greatly augmented by studies waves, however, cannot be dtrib- and Plafker, 1967) ; and Seward of the ~l~~k~earthquake. oneof uted with any assurance to sub- (Lemke, 1967). the most striking characteristics of aqueous slides. Some formed in Wave effects were also studied the ,, their localized shallow embayments or semi- along most of the shores of Prince and seemingly erratic distribution, enclosed basins, where slides are William Sound, along the south though actually it was the distri- unlikely to have occurred. It seems end of the Kenai Peninsula, and on bution of the causative slides that possible that the horizontal dis- the Kodiak island group (Plafker was erratic, rather the waves. placement of the landmass may and Kachadoorian, 1966; and Furthermore, the local waves have been either a primary or a Plafker and others, 1969). Con- struck during the arthquake, or contributing cause (Malloy, 1965 ; currently oceanographic studies of immediately after it, and had gen- Plafker, 1969, and Plafker and the effectsof slides and waves were erally subsided long befsre the ar- others, 1969). lother factors that being studied in much of Prince rival of the train of seismic sea may have played a part are re- William Sound, Resurrection waves, or tsunamis. gional tilt, submarine faulting, Bay, and Ailiak Bay (G.A. Rus- There is much evidence of the and seismic vibrations, but none of nak, unpublished data). genetic relationship of the local these should have caused waves as large as some of those observed. The and significance of waves to subaqueous slides. In the seismic sea waves, both near the Plafker (1969) has suggested that general, this evidence consists of origin and throughout the Pacific, the long-period high-amplitude wave-damage patterns that were investigated by Van Dorn seiche waves recorded at Kenai (1964), among others. Though nec- radiate from the vicinity of deltaic ~~k~ may have bean caused pri- essarily based in larga part on a or morainal deposits, (2) presence marily by horizontal shift of the synthesis of facts collected by of subaerial scapps or ove~t~p- lake basin rather than by regional others after the earth- ened near-shore slopes, and (3) tilt as originally suggested by Mc- quake, the exhaustive treatment of bathymetric measurements that in- Cull~ch(1966). all the kinds of waves and of their effectson coastal engineering struc- "* * * violent local waves * * * generated directly or tures by Wilson and T@rum(1968) indirectly by the earthquake at many places through- out the affected area * * * were more destructive is the most comprehensive that has than any similar waves ever recorded from previous appeared. earthquakes." LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS 25 The origin of many of the local the Aleutian Trench (Van Dorn, and into deeper water. Recon- waves must remain in doubt, but 1959). struction of the source volume it is known, (1) that violent local The seismic sea waves were gen- from available data on the area waves were generated directly or erated on the Continental Shelf and amount of uplift suggests that indirectly by the earthquake at within the Gulf of Alaska. This the potential energy of the seismic many places throughout the af- mas shown clearly by the arrival sea waves was of the order of fected area, (2) that, except for times of initial wlaves, the distri- 2 x ergs, or roughly 0.1 to 0.5 the giant waves of Lituya Bay bution of wave damage, and the percent of the seismic energy re- (Miller, 1960), they were more de- orientation of damaged shorelines. leased by the earthquake (Pkfker, structive than any similar waves Other evidence, such as tide-gage 1969). ever recorded from previous earth- records outside the area affected The source area of a train of quakes, and (3) that a basis for by the earthquake, demonstrates seismic sea waves and their orig- predicting the recurrence of some conclusively that the violent up- inating mechanisms were better of them exists. ward tilt of an enormous segment defined for the Alaska earthquake of the sea floor provided the force of 1964 than for most other earth- SEISMIC SEA WAVES that initiated the seismic sea quakes that have been studied. As The first of a train of seismic waves and oriented the wave train. Van Dorn says (1964), "Never be- sea waves (tsunamis) struck the The waves thus began along the fore has sufficient detailed knowl- shores of Kodiak Island, the Kenai linear belt of maximum tectonic edge been obtained on sea-floor Peninsula, and Prince William uplift that extends from Mon- motion, type of motion, and the Sound from 20 to 30 minutes after tague Island to near Sitkalidak deep-water spectrum offshore, to the earthquake. Succeeding waves, Island, southwest of Kodiak Is- permit a convincing reconstruc- with periods ranging roughly land (Van Dorn, 1964; Spaeth tion of the generating mecha- from 1 to 1%hours, followed dur- and Berkman, 1965; Pararas- nism." Furthermore, the seismic ing the night-the highest waves Carayannis, 1967; Plafker, 1969; sea waves generated by the Alaska of the series commonly striking Wilson and TZrum, 1968). Most earthquake largely confirmed em- around midnight near the time of of the shallow Continental Shelf pirical-statistical data used by high tide. These waves were gen- off the coast of south-central oceanopaphers to relate the size erally much lower in amplitude Alaska was involved in the up- of the source area and tsunami than the locally generated waves, ward tilting of the sea floor, which heights and periods to the energy and in some places resembled high forced a great quantity of water released by the initiating earth- fast-moving tides more than they to drain rapidly from the shelf quake (Wilson and TZrum, 1968). did breaking waves. They flooded large areas and wrecked many ves- "The first of a train of seismic sea waves (tmmmis) struck the shores of Kodiak sels and shore installations, par- Island, the Kenai Peninsula, and Prince William &und from 20 to 30 minutes ticularly where the land had after the mrthquake. * * * They flaoded large areas, and wrecked many ves~wh already subsided because of tec- and shore iwtallatims, particularly where the land had already subs~Medbecause tonic downdrop or wmpaction of af tedonic downdrop or compaction of sediments." sediments. Outside Alaska, the seismic sea waves were measured instrumen- tally at many stations around the Pacific, even as far away as Antarctica (Donn, 1964; Donn and Posmentier, 1964). The sec- ond measurement ever recorded of the passage of a seismic sea wave in the open ocean was made near Wake Island (Van Dorn, 1964). The first such measurement, also made on the gage near Wake Is- land, recorded the tsunami from the March 9, 1957, earthquake in ALASKA EARTHQUARE, MARCH 27, 1'964 MISCELLANEOUS 1966), on the Kenai Peninsula, in that displaced the ground created EFFECTS Prince William Sound, and at subaudible sound waves that trav- many other places also heard eled upward, with amplification, The earthquake had many other sounds during the quake (Chance, to the ionosphere. The wultant effects of great economic, soci- 1966%). oscillakion of the ionosphere was ologic, and biologic importance. That the Alaska earthquake pro- detected by mean6 of reflected ra- These are summarized briefly by duced sounds audible to alert ob- dio waves (Bolt, 1964; Davies and Hansen and others (1966) and are servers over a wide area seems a Baker, 1965 ; Leonard and Barnes, treated at length by many writers. well established fact, though the 1965; Smith, 1966; and Row, There remain a few effects, at least cause of the sounds has not been 1967). partly related to geology, that are determined. In all probability MAGNETIC EFFECTS worth noting here. there were many causes, operating at different places and at slightly A recording magnetometer in AUDIBLE AND SUBAUDIBLE the city of Kodiak recorded sev- EARTHQUAKE SOUNDS different times. Cracking or bend- ing of trees, breaking of ice on eral magnetic disturbanaes a little Audible sounds that accompany water bodies or in glaciers, and more than 1hour before the earth- or even precede the onset of an ground fractures in frozen near- quake struck. Moore (1964) thinks earthquake have been reported surface soils all probably made that the magnetic events so re- many times in history, but such audible sounds. How much, if any, corded may have resulted from sounds have never been instru- of the sound effects can be ascribed piezo-magnetic effects of rocks un- mentally recorded and seldom have to deeper sources, such as breaking dergoing a change in stress. He they been scientifically authenti- of rock along faults in depth or to also suggests that magnetic moni- cated. The Alaska earthquake of crunching of sands and gravels as toring may provide a means of 1964 followed the pattern-nu- they were consolidated by vibra- predicting major earthquakes in merous observers reported hearing tion or as they formed slides on time ix save lives and property. sounds, but, so far as is known, no land or under water, is unknown. instrumental records were made of It seems possible, however, that VISIBLE SURPACE WAVES these sounds. some of the sounds, particularly As with audible sound waves, On Kodiak Island, several wit- those that preceded recognizable the pasage of visible waves over nesses heard a low-pitched rum- ground vibrations, were caused by the surface of the ground during bling noise about 5 seconds before processes such as these. It also strong earthquakes has been re- the initial tremors were felt. Many seems possible that the earthquake ported by many observem. The Kodiak people also heard deep tremors, coupled to the overlying Alaska earthquake of 1964 was no rumbles just before some of the air envelope, caused audible vibra- exception to the general rule; aftershocks were felt (Plafker and tions. This explanation would many observers reported seeing Kachadoorian, 1966). At Homer, apply particularly to the fast- ground waves, biut their obser- too, and at Portage Lake near moving, lower amplitude P waves vations were not substantiated Turnagain Arm, some people that can often be heard but not instrumentally. heard rumbling sounds a few sec- felt. On the Kodiak island group, onds before feeling the initial Although audible sound waves surfam waves reportedly were seen shock. They also heard sounds are not known to have been re- at Ouzinkie and Afognak. These variously described as rumbling, corded, subaudible sound waves waves, perhaps propagated in cracking, and popping during the were recorded. Waves of very low, ground that had become semifluid period of violent earth motion subaudible frequencies were re- with vibration, were estimated at (Waller, 1966 a, b), as well as the corded by the National Bureau of about 30 feet in length and about windlike noise of rapidly swaying Standards at stations in Washing- 3 feet in height (Plafker and tree branches. Crackling sounds in ton, D.C., Boulder, Colo., and Bos- Kachadoorian, 1966). the ground were heard at South ton, mas^. These sound waves, gen- Many people reported seeing Naknek, 350 miles southwest of the erated by the earthquake itself and surface waves in various parts of epicenter (Plafker and others, by seismic waves as they passed the Copper River Basin. -4t a 1969). Observers at Valdez (Coul- through the earth, excited the at- point 100 miles from the epicenter, ter and Migliaccio, 1965), in the mosphere. In addition, Rayleigh the waves were said to be about Copper River Basin (Ferrians, waves (surface seismic waves) 10 feet apart and 3 feet high. At LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS

165 miles from the epicenter, they face, except beneath cleared areas only 2 minutes after the onset of were reported as longer and lower, where the top of the permafrost the earthquake and was evidently with lengths of 50 to 60 feet and is 10 to 20 feet deep. Coarse- caused by seismic vibrations. The heights of 18 to 20 inches (Fer- grained deposits along the major cables between Port Angeles, rians, 1966). streams and deposits close to large Washington, ,and Ketchikan and Perhaps the most reliable ob- deep lakes generally are free of between Ketchikan and Sitka were servation of surface-wave ampli- permafrost. unaffected (Comdr. H. G. Conerly, tudes was made by an experienced There were no ground cracks U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, geologist at Valdez. As quoted by and little or no vibration damage oral commun. to George Plafker, Coulter and Migliaccio (1966), of any kind where permafrost ap- May 1964). the geologist noticed a 6-foot proaches the surface. Thus ice-rich youth standing 410 feet away from perennially frozen ground appar - TUNNELS, MINES, AND him. As crests passed the youth, ently behaved much like bedrock DEEP WELLS he appeared in full sight, with one in transmitting and reacting to One aspect of the earthquake's trough between him and the ob- earthquake shocks. However, effects on manmade structures that server. Passage of troughs caused perched ground water between deserves further study is the fact him to sink partly out of sight. The permafrost and the seasonally that no significant damage has observations indicate wave heights frozen layer at' the surface caused been reported to underground of 3 to 4 feet and lengths of sev- some fissuring and other evidences openings in bedrock such as tun- eral hundred feet. of vibration. nels, mines, and deep wells, al- There is no qumtion that many CABLE BREAKS though some rocks and earth were people saw, or thought they saw, shaken loose in places. The Alaska waves on the ground surface in Several underwater cables were Railroad tunnel near Whittier many places. Whether all the broken by the earthquake vibra- (McCulloch and Bonilla, 1970) waves were real or imaginary, and tions or by subaqueous slides. The and the coal mines in the Matanus- if real, what caused them, must re- only one broken in the heavily dev- ka Valley (Plafker and others, main subjects for speculation. astated area was the Federal Avia- 1969) were undamaged. The tun- tion Agency cable under Beluga nel and penstocks at the Eklukna PERMAFROST Lake at Homer (Waller, 1966a). hydroelectric project were dam- Because it was one of the few This break was probably caused aged only by cobbles and boulders well-studied earthquakes that has by vibration, for the lake is shal- that were washed through the in- affected perenially frozen ground, low and there is no evidence of off - take structures (Logan, 1967). A the 1964 Alaska earthquake added shore-slides. small longitudinal crack in the much to our knowledge of the re- The Southeastern Alaska coaxial concrete floor of the Chugach Elec- action of frozen ground to seismic submarine cable was broken at a tric Association tunnel between shock. Permafrost, or perennially point 19% miles south of Skag- Cooper Lake and Kenai Lake is frozen ground, has long been a way, in Lynn Canal, near the believed to have been caused by the perplexing and exasperating engi- mouth of the Katzehin River; a earthquake (Fred 0. Jones, oral neering problem in arctic and sub- similar break occurred in this area commun., 1967). arctic regions. The perennially as a result of the 1958 earthquake. The collars of some drilled wells frozen unconsolidated deposits The 1964 break occurred early on were displaced by vibration or by affected by the 1964 quake behaved the morning of March 28 and was consolidation of adjacent soils, and like solid rock and were far less apparently caused by a submarine a few water wells and one aban- susceptible to seismic vibration slide in silt that was triggered by doned exploratory oil well near than were similar but unfrozen the seismic sea wave (Lt. Col. Yakataga were sheared off. There deposits. Alexander A 1v a r a d o , USAF, are, however, no reports of dam- The seismic response of perma- written commun. to George Plaf- age to any wells that were more frost was studied in detail in the ker, May 1, 1964). than a few hundred feet deep, such Copper River Basin (Ferrians, Near Port Alberni, British Co- as the many oil and gas wells in 1966). In the basin, most fine- lumbia, the Commonwealth Pa- and along Cook Inlet. In and near grained sediments are perennially cific Communication Service cable the landslide areas in Anchorage, frozen from depths as great as 200 from Port Alberni to Hawaii was most sewers and other under- feet to within 1to 5 feet of the sur- ruptured. This break occurred ground utility lines were exten- 28 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 19 64 sively fractured or displaced (Bur- lines that traversed unfissured bones of sea animals. The archeo- ton, in Logan, 1967 ; Hansel?, 1965 ; ground received little or no logic remains occur at two hori- Eckel, 1967 ; McCulloch and Bo- damage. zons, separated by dark soil. Ap- nilla, 1970). Ground fissures also parently they belong to the Aleut ARCHEOWGIC REMAINS broke many buried pipelines in or Koniag cultures, but some may Seward (Lemke, 1967) and else- Regional and local subsidence of be older (Chaffin, 1966). Else- where. In Valdez, Coulter and Kodiak Island, as elsewhere, re- where in the Kodiak group of is- Migliaccio (1966) were able to use sulted in increased erosion of some lands, many coastal archeological the horizontal separation of water sediments along the shore. In a few sites in subsided areas were lines to measure the amount of lat- places near Ouzinkie, erosion ex- made inaccessible or were sub- eral displacement back of the main posed rich accumulations of stone jected baccelerabd erosion (Plaf- submarine slide. Elsewhere, pipe- and bone artifacts mixed with ker and Kachadoorian, 1966).

EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS, GEOLOGY AND DAMAGE

The earthquake took 130 lives loss of life and the structural dam- ing and subsiding loose sediments. and caused more than $300 million age to the earthquake and its ef- The violent local waves that ac- in damage to manmade structures. fects, especially as these effects companied or followed most suh- Dets~ilsare not recounted here, but were modified by local geology and aqueous slides wero major indirect an attempt is made to relate the terrain. effects. Subaqueous slides and Aside from a number of casual- waves were together responsible ties that resulted from airplane for spreading the few major fires and other accidents during the re- that ha,d already started in petro- construction period, all casualties leum storage areas. These fim, to living creatures resulted either incidenbally, taught another im- directly from the earth tremors portant lesson. In earthquake- and tectonic displacements or in- prone regions, petroleum-storage directly from water waves gener- tanks are especially vulnerable to ated by them. Ground motion earthquake vibrations; to the ex- caused structural d,amage primar- tent possible, they should be ily by (1) direct shaking of some placed away from built-up areas structures, (2) triggering land- and should be protected by revet- slides and subaqueous slides, (3) ments to amid spreading of fires cracking underlying unconsoli- (Rinne, 1967). dated deposits, and (4) consolidat- Tectonic ground displacements, both up and down, caused long- term damage to coastal communi- "Subaqueous slides and waves were to- ties and facilities, either gether responsible for spreading the directly by changing the shore few major fires that had already started in storage areas.,3 relative to sea level or indirectly by the seismic sea waves generated. In addition, widespread hori- zontal tectonic movements may have generated some of the de- structive local waves. Local waves and seismic sea waves together took most of the human lives that were lost.

*.~~. - - --

F LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS 29 GEOLOGIC CONTROL OF did the local geology. Buildings on Locally, seismic vibrations VIBRATION DAMAGE bedrock that were only 12 to 25 caused minor structural damage to miles from the instrumental epi- communities situated on late Ter- The long-known fact that the center mere undamaged except for tiary sediments or on unconsoli- intensity and duration of earth- jostled contents (Plafker and dated materials with low water quake vibrations are enhanced others, 1969), and the ice on some table on the Kenai Peninsula, the in unconsolidated water-saturated small rock-enclosed lakes in this west shore of Cook Inlet, in the ground was evident in the dis- vicinity mas not even cracked Matanuska Valley, and elsewhere tribution of vibration damage in (Waller, 1966b). Buildings at (Waller, 1966b; Plafker and Alaska. The varied intensity and Anchorage, however, more than 75 others, 1969). effect of shaking were much more miles away from the epicenter but By far the most severe vibratory closely related to the local geology founded on unconsolidated ma- damage to buildings or to highway than to distance from the epicen- terials, were demolished by earth- and railroad roadbeds and bridges ter. In general, intensity was great- quake vibrations (Hansen, 1965). occurred in areas of relatively est in areas underlain by thick Some structural damage resulted thick, noncohesive unconsolidated saturated unconsolidated deposits, from shaking at even greater deposits, generally where the least on indurated bedrock, and distances. materials were hegrained and intermediate on coarse gravel with The lack of coincidence between where the water table was close to low water table, on morainal de- structural damage and distance the surface. Anchorage, the Alaska posits, or on moderately indurated from the epicenter is partly ex- transportation systems (Kacha- sedimentary rocks of late Tertiary plained by the fact that the gen- doorian, 1968; McCulloch and age. erally accepted instrumental epi- I3onilla, 1970), the FAA station Nowhere was there significant center marks only one of several on the Copper River Delta, and vibration damage to structures widely scattered points directly Girdwood and Portage on Turn- founded on indurated bedrock or beneath which strong motion was again Arm (Plafker and others, on bedrock that was only thinly centered at various moments dur- 1969) are examples of sites of such veneered by unconsolidated de- ing the history of the earthquake vibratory damage. At most of (Wyss and Brune, 1967). More- posits. Where direct comparisons these places, and many others, over, selective damage to larger could be made, as at Whittier more damage resulted from and taller buildings at Anchorage (Kachadoorian, 1965) and Cor- is attributed by Steinbrugge foundation failure than from di- dova (Plafker and others, 1969), (1964) to the fact that longer rect vibration of buildings. the difference in the behavior of period large-amplitude ground Ground cracks, differential com- buildings on bedrock and of those motions are dominant at some dis- paction, and liquefaction of satu- on loose material was striking. tance from earthquake epicentral rated materials accompanied by Distance from the epicenter, regions, in contrast to the short- landspreading toward topograph- too, had far less influence on the period motions that characterize ic depressions all were contribu- intensity of vibration damage than close-in localities. tory factors.

"Buildings at Anchomge, however, mow than 75 miles away from the epicenter but founded cm unconsolidated materials, were demolished by earthquake vibrations." ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 2,7, 1964

SURFACE FAULTS 196'7)) and elsewhere were all VERTICAL TECTONIC caused indirectly by seismic vibra- DISPLACEMENTS AND From the standpoint of public tions, though horizontal tectonic SEISMIC SEA WAVES safety, perhaps the most impor- displacement of the land may have Tectonic uplift and subsidence tant bit of knowledge that was re- been a factor in starting some of emphasized by the Alaska earth- them. All of these slides were in of the land relative to sea level quake is that faults, with breakage soft, saturated unconsolidated ma- wrought much long-term damage, and displacement of surface mate- terials in which the vibration either by inundating shore instal- lations or by raising them above rials, are relatively minor causes caused sufficient loss of strength of widespread earthquake damage. to make preearthquake slopes all but the highest tides. These ef- In Alaska, of course, there were unstable. Such materials were fects were independent of local ge- ologic conditions, except where the no fault displacements in popu- consolidated to some extent by vi- lated places. The only displace- bration, but it is doubtful that net amount of submergence or emergence was affected by vibra- ments on land were on uninhabited consolidation was sufficient to tion-caused surficial subsidence of Montague Island in Prince Wil- make any of the materials signifi- liam Sound, though there is good cantly less prone to failure in the unconsolidated sediments. Homer reason to believe that rocks on the event of future earthquakes. Spit (Waller, 1966a) and several oonlmunities on the Kodiak group sea floor were broken and dis- Many of the violent local waves of islands (Kachadoorian and placed for a long distance south- were generated by known subaque- Plafker, 1966) provided good ex- westward of the island (Malloy, ous slides, either as backfills of the amples of submergence resulting 1964; Plafker, 1967). Aside from space left by the downslid mate- from both tectonic and surficial the destruction and death dealt by rial or on opposite shores where the subsidence. SeIdovia (Eckel, sea waves, all of the damage was spreading slide material pushed 1967), Hope, Girdwood, Portage, done by seismic vibration or its water ahead of it (McCulloch, direct consequences. and several other towns (Plafker 1966). Subaqueous slides that oc- and others, 1969) all underwent The lesson is clear for all com- curred as a series of small slumps tectonic subsidence ; remedid rais- munities in earthquake-prone re- apparenhly did not generate ing or relocation of buildings. gions that the presence of an active waves. Many of the other local roadways, and wharves was necee fault, such as the San Andreas in waves that develomd around the California, constitutes only one of shores of Prince ~illiamSound Sary. the dangers from future earth- are suspected to have been caused In Prince William Sound, quakes. Delineations of such faults by subaqueous slides, though some where the land was technically and predictions as to where, how, that struck the shores of fiords and raised, dredging of harbors and and when they may move are semienclosed embayments must lengthening of piers were neces- essential, for they may very well have had other causes. sary to compensate for the lower localize areas of great destruction when an earthquake strikes. The lesson of the Alaska earthquake, however, is that no one can take comfort simply because he, his home, or his town is some distance removed from an active fault or from the possible epicenter of a future earthquake. The founda- tion on which he builds is far more significant. LANDSLIDES Translatory slides at Anchorage (Hansen, 1966) and subaqueous 'Iides at Whittier (Kachadoorian' "Translatory ~lid~at Anchorage and subaqueogs slides * * * elsewhple were all 1965))Valdez (Coulter and Migli- caused indirectly by seismic vibratioa, though horizontal tectonic displacement d accio, 1966), Seward (Lemke, the land myhave been a faotor in &arting some." LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS 31 relative water levels. Cordova, though local topography, both water was emitted from beneath Hinchinbrook Island, and Tatit- above and below water, was of the surf ace through mudspouts lek were the places most affected great importance in guiding and and waterspouts. In some places, (Eckel, 1967; Plafker and others, refracting the waves ,and con- ejected ground water flooded val- 1969). trolling their runups. One local ley floors (McCulloch and Bonilla, Of far greater importance than geologic complication of sea-wave 1970). Vibration caused rearrange- the tectonic uplift and subsidence, damage was in the Kodiak harbor; ment of particles in aquifers, with so far as damage was concerned, here strong currents generated by resultant surges in wells and tem- was an indirect effect-the genera- the tsunami scoured all unwnsoli- porary or permanent changes in tion of seismic sea waves (tsuna- dated material from the bedrock water levels. Regional or local sub- mis) by the sudden uplift of a floor, making pile driving difficult sidence led to intrusion of sea large expanse of the ocean floor. or impossible (Kachadoorian and water in some coastal aquifers. Plafker, 1966). Besides the damage they did to Regional geology, too, to a large Alaska, the tsunamis struck south- extent controlled the earthquake's ward as far as California. They GROUND AND SURFACE effects on hydrologic systems, as took 12 lives and wrecked the WATER HYDROLOGY waterfront at Crescent City, Local geology helped control shown in the conterminous United Calif., and did appreciable dani- the earthquake's effects on wate~r. States, where McGarr and Vorhis age to shore facilities as far away In areas underlain by unwnsoli- (1968) found that seiches in wells as Hawaii. dated deposits where ground fis- and bodies of surface water were Local geologic conditions had sures occurred, there was tempo- controlled by geologic structures little effect on the amount of dam- rary loss of water in the floors of of regional or continental dimen- age caused by seismic sea waves, some lakes and streams, or ground sions.

- BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF THE EARTHQUAKE

SOCIOECONOMIC most disastrous landslides in the Arctic winter. These and many BENEFITS business heart of Anchorage was other direct benefits from the permanently stabilized by a gigan- earthquake are summarized by Devastating as was the Alaska tic wrth buttress; new and better George and Lyle and by Chance earthquake of March 27, 1964, it port facilities were provided in all (in Hansen and others, 1966). had many long-term beneficial ef- the affected seacoast toms; the One of the more important fects. Most of these benefits were in fishing fleet acquired, under very social-political-economic develop- the fields of socioeconomics and favorable financial terms, new ments was use by the Federal Gov- engineering and are only men- boats and modern floating or land- ernment of a new device to channel tioned briefly here. based canneries. The pattern of and control reconstruction and re- Econmiclally, the Federal mon- rail-sea transport was drastically habilitation aid : The Federal Re- ies and other funds spent for re- changed, partly because of the construction and Development construction exceeded the total discovery that the port of Anchor- Commission for Alaska repre- damage cost of the earthquake, age could actually be used year- sented both the legislative and the largely because of decisions to round, despite the ice in Knik Arm executive arms of Government and upgrade or enlarge facilities that had hitherto closed it in win- included the heads of all Federal beyond their preearthquake con- ter. (This change of pattern, of agencies that had a part to play in dition. course, was hardly a benefit to Se- the reconstruction effort. One of Many improvements resulted ward and Valdez.) Forced by pres- the Commission's offspring, the from the aid poured into recon- sures of reconstruction, builders Scientific and Engineering Task struction. One whole town, Valdez, learned that plastic tents over their Force, brought soils and structural was razed and rebuilt on a more buildings permitted construction engineers, geologists and seismol- stable site; the area of one of the work to continue during the sub- ogists together in an effort to apply ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 19 64

"Many improvements resulted frrAn the aid poured into reconstruction. One whole town, Valdez, was razed and rebuilt on a more stable site." their combined skills to guide facilities were improved in a few both in Almka and in other earth- decisions as to land use (Eckel and places by tectonic uplift or subsid- quake-prone areas, and of how to Schaem, in Hansen and others, ence, and tidewater and beach apply earth-science knowledge to 1966). The many opportunities lands were improved or extended. reduce such hazards. that were provided by the recon- For example, the subsidence that struction effort for team work and led to tidal flooding of Homer Spit SCIENTIFIC BENEFITS mutual understanding between en- also exposed new deposits of ma- NEW AND CORROBORATIVE gineers and earth scientists were terial to erosion, with the result GEOLOGIC AND themselves among the more valu- that the spit began at once to heal HYDROLOGIC INFORMATION able byproduct benefits of the itself and to build new storm berms One of the richest rewards of earthquake. In addition, scientists (Stanley, in Waller, 1966; Stan- the earthquake study lay in the learned much that helps toward a ley, 1968). Landslide hazards were additions to geological and hydro- better understanding of earth- averted, at least for some years to logic knowledge and in corrobo- quake mechanisms and effects and cornr, by uplift of Hinchinbrook rations of existing theory. The how to investigate them. They also Island ; ellsewhereimminent land- myriad observations essential to learned many new basic facts slides and avalanches that might understanding the effects of the about the structural and historical well have harmed people or prop- Alaska earthquake threw much geology and the hydrology of a erty later were harmlessly trig- new light on earthquake processes large part of south-central Alaska. ge~edby the earthquake. Though and earthquake effects in general. Some of these scientific benefits the direct !physical benefits of the In addition, the investigations from the earthquake and its in- earthquake were few, the earth added greatly to our scientific vestigation are worthy of brief sciences benefitted greatly from knowledge of a large part of mention. the intensive investigations of it. Alaska. Some of the knowledge so The knowledge thus gained added produced might never have come DIRECT GEOLOGIC not only to the general fund of .to light under ordinary circum- BENEFITS human knowledge; more impor- stances. Other discoveries were ad- Truly beneficial direct geologic tantly, it creaked an awareness of vanced by many years under the effectsof the earthquake were few. many potential hazards, pre- earthquake-generated acceleration Navigation conditions and harbor viously unrewgnized or ignored, of basic investigations. LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS 33 The earthquake investigations consolidated deposits on which ies led to the beginning of an led to better understanding of the man does most of his building. explosion of new knowledge on regional tectonics of south-central Accurate and abundant geodetic the behavior of sensitive clays and ,4laska. The regional gravity field control, on stable ground, is essen- sands under dynamic conditions. was better defined than it had been tial for evaluating tectonic move- A minor byproduct of the An- before, and it was reevaluated in ments in the mobile belts of the chorage landslide studies was the terms of ibs relation to the under- \vorld; the earthquake of 1964 gave discovery of microfossils that shed lying geology and to changes impetus to establishment of such new light on the environmental caused by the earthquake. Data, control. For a significant part of conditions under which the Boot- hitherto unavailable, were pro- Alaska itself, better geodetic legger Cove Clay was laid down, vided on the seismicity of the re- control resulted from the earth- hitherto a puzzling point for ge- gion. Knowledge of the structure quake-caused need for accurate tri- ologists. Other byproducts of these and age of the rocks was greatly angulation and leveling and for studies were (1) production of de- expanded. Thanks b the need to establishment of tidal bench marks tailed topographic maps of highly understand the vertical tectonic and tide gages. These data will be complex landslide are= and (2) displacements caused by the earth- invaluable in any studies of future development of the "graben rule" quake, new knowledge was ob- tectonic dislocations of the land (Hansen, 1965) by which the tained on the history of submer- surface. depth to the sliding plane of a gence and emergence throughout Support for the hypothesis that translatory slide can be easily and Holocene time. Field evidence was some great landslides and ava- rather accurately estimated. augmented by many new radio- lanches travel on cushions of Too little study was made of carbon datings. Reconnaissance compressed air came from the the response of shore processes to marine geological and geophysical earthquake studies. Conversely, sudden changes in relative sea studies were undertaken over much evidence was brought to light that levels, but many bibs of useful in- of the Continental Shelf, slope, tends to discount a widely held formation were discovered never- and contiguous deep-sea floor. theory of glacial advance as a re- theless. These studies have materially in- sult of earthquakes (Tarr and The shape, character, and stabil- creased our understanding of the Martin, 1912). ity of fiord deltas built to deep submarine areas. One kind of landslide that has water is now better known than Detailed geologic maps became received little attention in the past before as a result of intensive ge- available for most of the affected from geologists and engineers- ologic, soils, hydrographic, and cities and towns. Strip geologic the translatory slide that was so hydrologic studies both on land maps along the ramifying rail and disastrous in Anchorage-is now and under water. Suoh studies were highway net provided a skeleton well understood, although extrap- essential to an understanding of control of geologic knowledge of a olation of the knowledge gained wide area, particularly as to the to future earthquakes mill still be distribution and nature of the un- extremely difficult. Extensive stud-

"* * * the translatory slide that was so stood, althougl~ extrapolation of the will still be extremely difficult!' 34 ALASKA EARTHQUARE, MARCH 27, 19 64 the destructive subaqueous slides tors assigned there. A secondary droseisms in wells and on sur- that had been almost unknown as result of the earthquake investiga- face waters on continent-wide or important effects of great earth- tions of no mean significance, even larger bases. Investigations quakes. therefore, was the development of showed that, among other results, Knowledge of the water re- a large cadre of experienced and a network of recording water-level sources of south-central Alaska technologically well-equipped sci- gages can act as a valuable adjunct was increased by earthquake- entists who will be available for to the worldwide seismograph net- prompted studies of ground and knowledgeable investigations of work. It was also shown that any surface waters ; much new infor- future great earthquakes. earthquake near a coast that is mation also came to light as to the Of utmost importance for the capable of causing as great fluctu- relations between earthquake- future is the fact that the knowl- ations as that recorded by the caused ground fissures and local edge gained from the Alaskan ex- Nunn-Bush well in Minnesota is water tables. The study of hydro- perience can be adapted by the also capable of generating a seis- seisms, or seiches and surges in scientific community to underline mic sea wave (Vorhis, 1967; Mc- surface-water bodies and wells, possible hazards in other earth- Garr and Vorhis, 1968). throughout the world produced quake-prone areas. Thus, it should TELEVISION FOR UNDBRGROUND greater understanding of the rela- be possible to relate ground con- OBSERVATIONS tion of hydrology to seismology. ditions to urban planning, zoning A novel application of television Seismic sea waves, or tsunamis, regulations, land building codes in to the mapping of cracks in buried have been studied intensively for suoh a manner to forestall utilities-and incidentally of frac- many years because of the dangers or minimize future earthquake tures or fault displacements in they hold for coastal communities. disasters. the surrounding soil-is described The Alaska earthquake of 1964, USES OF RECORDING GAGEB by Burton (in Logan, 1967). To however, presented an unparal- The records from continuously avoid costly excavation of buried leled opportunity to relate the utility systems, a small-diameter recording gages served purposes source, generation, and propaga- borehole television camera was not originally intended. A water- tion of a sea-wave train to measur- drawn through the ducts. Cracks level gage at the power station on able tectonic dislocations of the were clearly visible and easily crust. Kenai Lake, for example, enabled McCulloch (1966) to make a pre- measured; their location and the amount and direction of offset of NE3V AND IMPROVED cise study of seiche action in a INVESTIGATIVE TECHNIQUES closed basin and to draw conclu- the ducts added materially to the general knowledge gained from Virtually all investigative tech- sions of far-reaching importiance. other sources as to the character niques known to earth scientists Again, fluctuations in the record- of ground movements in the An- were applied in studies of the ing of an automatic outside-air Alaska earthquake. Some, such as temperature recorder at Whittier chorage landslide areas. scuba diving, bathymetric surveys, gave a rough measure of the LAKES AS TILTMETERS and use of helicopters and fixed- duration of earthquake vibra- Kenai Lake was the only long wing aircraft were, of course, not tions there (Kachadoorian, 1965). lake that happened to have bench new, but their widespread appli- Stream gages on Kodiak Island, marks at both ends; hence McCul- cation to specific earthquake-con- designed to measure the levels of loch (1966) was able to use it as nected problems was either new or flowing streams, suddenly became a unique giant tiltmeter. It gave little-used in the past. Many un- excellent recorders of wave runup a permanent record of landwarp- orthodox photogrammetric, engi- and even served as tide gages ing caused by the earthquake. Mc- neering, biological, and geodetic when the mouths of streams on Culloch's method of comparing techniques and data were applied which they were installed were the preearthquake height of the in the attempts to appraise pre- brought within the reach of tides lake surface with preearthquake earthquake conditions in areas of by local and regional subsidence bench marks at the two ends of the poor horizontal and vertical con- (Plafker and Kachadoorian, 1966; lake necessarily left some ambi- trol. Waller, 1966b). By far the most guity in the measurements because Some of these techniques, dis- significant extension of knowledge of difficulty in locating the pre- cussed briefly below, were new to of the usefulness of recording earthquake bench marks accurate- Alaska or to individual investiga- gages mefrom the study of hy- ly, but it left no doubt whatever LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS where the amount of vertical dis- placement was known from pre- and post-earthquake tide-gage readings. Departures of the post- earthquake barnacle line from its normal altitude above mean lower low water was taken as the amount of vertical displacement at any given place along the shore. By this method, absolute land-level changes could generally be meas- ured to an accuracy within 1foot; even under unfavorable circum- stances, the error is probably less than 2 feet. Other methods of determining land-level changes along the coasts and elsewhere were also employed. "Measurement of the displacement of intertidal sessile marine organisms emerged Changes in gravity, as determined as one of the most useful techniques for determining vertical tectonic movements before and after the earthquake along coasts." with the same instrument, were used by Barnes (1966) in comput- that the Kenai Lake basin was who studied the effects of the ing elevation changes. In subsided tilted westward about 3 feet. As Yakutat Bay earthquake of 1899. areas, it was noted that wells be- a direct outgrowth of the earth- With the aid of Dr. G Dallas came brackish, vegetation was quake investigations, and in order Hanna, a marine biologist of the killed by invasion of salt water, to monitor future crustal changes California Academy of Sciences, beach berms and stream deltas in south-central Alaska, a network however, the method was greatly were shifted landward and built of permanent bench marks has refined 'and was applied by Plaf- up to higher levels, and roads or now been established on the shores ker and his associates after the other installations along the of 17 large lakes within a 500-mile Alaska earthquake of March 27, shores were inundated by the tides. radius of Anchorage. Thwe bench 1964, to a far larger area than ever In tectonically uplifted areas, in- marks were referenced to the wa- before (Plafker, 1969). dications of uplift include new reefs and islands, raised sea cliffs, ter levels of the lakes so that the The deeply indented rocky and surf-cut platforms. Wherever direction and amount of any tilt- coast of the area affected by the foasib! the method used was the ing can be obtained from periodic 1964 earthquake was ideal for ap- , most accurate known--compari- monitoring (Hansen and Eckel, plication of the method. The com- son of pre- and postearthquake 1966). A systematic study of these mon acorn barnacle (BaZanus tide-gage readings at accurately lake levels was started by D. S. baZmwides (Linnaeus) ) , which is placed tidal bench marks of th~e McCulloch and Arthur Grantz in widely distributed and forms a Coast and Geodetic Survey. the summer of 1966 (written com- prominent band with a sharply U.S. Even mhere gages were destroyed, mun., 1968). defined upper limit relative to tide level, was used in hundreds of some bench marks were recover- MEASUREMENT OF LAND-LEVEL "barnacle-line" measurements ; in able and new series of readings CHANGBS its absence the common olive- could be made to determine land- Measurement of the displace- green rockweed (PUGUSdistichus) level changes. Unfortunately, ment of intertidal sessile marine was almost equally useful. The there were only a few permanent organisms emerged as one of the normal preearthquake upper automatic recording gages in most useful techniques for deter- growth limit of barnacles and south-central Alaska, and also mining vertical tectonic move- rockweed relative to mean lower many tidal bench marks were on ments along coasts. The technique low water was determined empiri- unconsolidated deposits where ties had been used elsewhere, by Tarr cally for the range of tidal condi- to bedrock were difficult or impos- and Martin (1912), for example, tions in the area at 17 localities sible to reestablish. 36 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 19 64 DISTINCTION BETWEEOI LOCAL AND end of Homer Spit, for example, tion of damage along shores, the REGIONAL SUBSIDENCE the top of a well casing that had directions in which limbs and Clear distinctions between local previously been a known height trunks of trees and brush were subsidence caused by compaction a.bove the ground stood several scarred, bent, and broken off, and of sediments and more widespread feet higher after the earthquake. the directions in which objects subsidence caused by tectonic Such protrusion could only have such as buoys, structures, and downdrop of the region are not been caused by compaction and shoreline deposits were displaced. always easy to make. One tech- subsidence of the unconsolidated To aid in comparative studies of nique used by Plafker and Kacha- materials around the casing, for wave-damaged shorelines along doorian (1966) on Kodiak and the regional subsidence would have the coast, Plafker and Mayo de- nearby islands was to note the dif- carried the casing down along vised a scale of relative magnitude ference in amount of inundation with the land surface (Grantz and of wave damage (Plafker and of unconsolidated shoreline fea- others, 1964, fig. 6). others, 1969)-a scale which was tures as compared with nearby also used by McCulloch and Mayo EVIDENCE OF WAVE ACTION rock outcrops. The lowering of the AND RUNW (McCulloch, 1966) in modified rock cliffS, as measured by barnacle form for plotting wave damage lines or other means, represents As part of their studies of wave- along the shore of Kenai Lake. tectonic subsidence, whereas the damaged shorelines, various in- The magnitude scale evolved is lowering of beaches and delta sur- vestigators made extensive use of summarized below in order of natural materials that indicated faces represents a combination of increasing damage. tectonic subsidence and local com- the relative intensity and move- paction. By using a similar tech- ment direction of waves (McCul- Wave-magnitude scale nique-measuring diff erences in loch, 1966; Plafker and others, [After Plafker and others, 1969, pl. 21 1969; Plafker and Kachadoorian, the heights of piles whose tops 1. Brush combed and scoured in di- were originally level-Plafker and 1966). Runup heights were deter- rection of wave travel. Small Kachadoorian were able to distin- mined from strandlines of wave- limbs broken and minor scarring guish between local compaction- deposited debris, abraded bark or of trees. Runup heights only a few subsidence of beach deposits md broken branches in vegetation feet above extreme high-water level. Some wooden structures tectonic downdrop. along the shore, and water stains floated from foundations. Casings of deep wells may also on snow or structures. Movement 2. Trees and limbs less than 2 inches be helpful in distinguishing local directions of the waves could be in diameter broken. Small trees inferred from the gross distribu- uprooted. Driftwood and Aner and regional subsidence. Near the beach deposits thrown up above extreme high-water level. Piling "As part of their studies of wave-damaged shorelines, * * * investiga- swept from beneath some struc- tors made * * * use of * * * materials that indicated (the * * * tures and wooden structures intensity and * * * direction of waves * * *" LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS

floated off their foundations. eter broken, uprooted, and over- to allow for the additional damage Runup reacbed about 25 feet on turned. Boulders 'thrown above caused by ice, McCulloch (1966) steep shores. extreme high-water line. Loose mapped the distribution of inten- 3. Trees and limbs as mucb as 8 inches rocks on cliffs moved. All struc- in diameter broken; some large rocks and equipment damaged or sity and maximum mnup of waves trees overturned. Rocks to cobble destroyed in inundated areas. on the shores of Kenai Lake. The size eroded from intertidal zones Maximum runup height 70 feet. highest runup measured there was and depasited above extreme 5. Extensive areas of total destruction 72 feet, where a wave struck a steep high-water level. Soil stripped of vegetation. Boulders deposited bank. By measuring the uppr from bedrock areas. All inundated 50 feet or more above normal ex- structures except those of rein- treme high-water level. Maximum limit of wave damage to trees in forced concrete destroyed or runup height 170 feet. the direction of wave travel, Mc- floated away. Heavy machinery Using a wave-magnitude num- Culloch also was able to show the moved about. Maximum runup height 55 feet. bering system modified from an history of the wave crests that 4. Trees larger than 8 Inches in diam- early version of Plafker and Mayo, overran several deltas.

CONCLUSIONS

SCIENTIFIC PREPARATION should be sought out and encour- place. Every forward step will be FOR FUTURE aged. In-depth studies by such directly applicable to the develop- EARTHQUAKES groups as the Federal Cduncil for ment of better and more detailed Science and Technology (1968) earthquake-hazard maps based on FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH have clearly defined the needs. The improved knowledge of regional Much more research is needed on rate of accomplishment of re- geology, fault behavior, and earth- the origins and mechanisms of search, however, is far less than it quake mechanisms. Hopefully, earthquakes, on crustal structure should be. It cannot be too strongly each step will also lead to better and makeup, and on generation recommended that funds be pro- guides for land-use planning, and prediction of tsunamis, local vided as soon as possible to support hence to closer control of new con- waves, and seiches. Better theoreti- these necessary research programs. struction in areas of potential cal and experimental means of de- earthquake hazards. EARTHQUAKE FORECASTING termining focal mechanisms are AND EVALUATION One step toward useful forecast- particularly needed, not only for OF EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS ing of future earthquakes that scientific reasons but to aid earth should be taken at once is the prep- scientists and structural engineers An ability to predict precisely aration of earthquake-hazard in relating focal mechanisms to the time, place, and magnitude of maps. Such maps should be based ground motion and in relating the future earthquakes would repre- in part on detailed knowledge of response of buildings to seismic sent an accomplishment of the active faults and their behavior shock. Study is needed too on all greatest importance and signX- during historic and geologic times, phases of rock and soil mechanics, cance to the scientific community. as well as 'on recent instrumental with emphasis on the causes and Because of the sociologic, political, observations of earthquakes and and economic consequences that nature of rock fracture in the fault movements. Although an would result from erroneous pre- earth's interior, on the response of earlier version was adopted by the different rocks to strong seismic dictions, and because useful results International Conference of motion, and on the behavior of soils seem to be more easily attainable, under dynamic loading. it is believed that more attention Building Officials, by military Well-conceived research in any should be directed, initially, to- construction agencies, and by some of these fields is certain to show ward forecasting in tems of the State and local governments, the results that apply to the overall probability of earthquakes of cer- official seismic risk map of the earthquake problem. Existing re- tain magnitude ranges within seis- United States (U.S. Coast and Ge- search projects should be sup- mic regions, rather than as to the odetic Survey, 1969) is too lack- ported, and new ones, designed to exact time when the next earth- ing in detail to be of value for fill the gaps in existing knowledge, quake may be expected at a specific other than very broad planning. ALASKA EARTHQUARE, MARCH 27, 19 64 Preparation of useful earth- quake-hazard maps, on whatever scale, will require close collabora- tion of earthquake engineers, seis- mologists, and geologists. These maps are essential to local and re- gional planning officials and to all others who are involved in formu- lation of plans for coping with earthquakes; their preparation should begin at once. They are, perhaps, especially needed by building-code officials and by de- signers of earthquake-resistant structures, for the response of foundation materials to seismic "* * * the hazards are enormously campounded if [port, dock, and cannery] facilities loads and the interactions between am built cm steepfaced deltas * * * that are stable under seismic con- foundation and structure are just ditiollg. * * * If [such sites] must be utilized, knowledge that they are vulnerable as important as antiseismic design to future earthquakes may stimulate planning to minimize the hazards." of the structure. Such maps should be revised periodically as more geologic and seismic data become earthquakes may stimulzute plan- As a direct result of the lessons available. ning to minimize the hazards. learned from lthe earthquake of The same reasoning applies to 1964, the U.S. Geological Survey GEOLOGIC MAPPING OF earthquake hazards inland. If all began engineering-geologic stud- COMMUNITIES towns, railroads, and highways ies of all of Alaska's coastal com- Within the area that was tec~o~l- could be builh on bedrock, they munities, whether or not they ically elevated or depressed by the would be in comparatively little received ealrthquake damage. Alaska earthquake, virtually all danger from any earthquake ef- Similarly, the geology of some inhabited places were damaged or fects except surface faults, floods, western cities and metropolitan devastated, though the kind, or avalanches. Tliere would be vi- complexes in the conterminous amount, and causes of damage bration damage, of course, but States is already known or is un- varied widely. Unfortunately, the much less 'of it than on materials der study. However, many other very features that make a site de- other than solid rock. Unfortu- town8 and cities that may well be sirable for building are often the nately, building sites on bedrock struck by earthquakes in the fu- ones that make it subject to earth- are scarce and tend to be ewnomi- ture are without adequate geologic maps. All such communities, as quake damage. cally infeasible, particularly in rugged terrain like Alaska's. Man well as places where communities Ports, docks, and canneries ob- mush therefore often build on less are likely to spread or develop in viously have to be built close to stable terrain, including water- the future, should be geologically the shore. But the Alaskan experi- saturated unconsolidated sedi- mapped by trained personnel as ence indicates that the hazards are ments, on potentially unstable rapidly as is feasible with avail- enormously compounded if such slopes, and on or near active faults. able funds. The need is increasing facilities are buillt on steep-faced Even though it is necessary to at a far faster rate than is the re- deltas or other deposits of uncon- build in earthquake-vulnerable quired geologic information. solidated materials that are mar- areas, builders and planners The minimum geologic map for ginally stable under seismic wn- should recognize the potential haz- each community would delineake ditions. At many places, such de- ard in advance and build accord- all acltive faults and landslidw and posits offer the only level surfaces ingly. would discriminate between areas near tidewater for easy or econom- A vigorous program of geologic underlain by bedrock and khose ical construction. If they must be mapping should therefore be car- underlain by unconsolidated ma- utilized, advance knowledge that ried out in all inhabited earth- terials. The next most needed re- they are vulnerable to future quake-prone parts of the country. finement would be .to distinguish LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS

areas of fine- and coarse-grained complex. Ideally, these maps was forcefully taught by the soils and to note whether the near- should contain all the geologic, Alaska experience of 1964. Modern surface layers are normally dry topographic, and hydrologic de- geologic maps of Anchorage were or saturated. The topographic base tail that could have any bearing available, and geologists had of the geologic map m-ould of on the relative reaction of parts of warned in print that one of the course also show unconfined slopes the community's foundations to map units, the Bootlegger Cove bordering topographic depres- earthquake stresses. They should Clay, would be unstable in the sions, even minor ones, where depict not only the makeup of the event of future earthquakes. The earth fissures or lakeral spreading land, but the character of contigu- 11-arningswent unheeded, however, of loose materials are to be antici- ous water bodies and their bottom because civic authorities, builders, pated. Such maps could be pre- materials. Knowledge of the and others either were unaware of pared quickly and at datively character, shape, and stability of the existence of the geologic in- low cost. They would be extremely off -shore deposits derived from formation or ignored its implica- valuable in guiding authorities to surface observations, brings, bath- tions. wise decisions on land use, in the ymetric surveys, and bottom Disastrous translatory land- location of seismic instruments sampling would go far toward slides initiated by the earthquake that would develop a maximum of warning coastal residents of their of 1964 amply proved the correct- useful information, and in the danger in the event of an earth- ness of the warnings. preparation or refinement of quake. Cooperative effort by soils earthquake-hazard maps. engineers, geologists, and ocean- Obviously, means must be sought Much more elaborate-and more ographers is needed for this work. to acquaint ciity planners, engi- costly-geologic maps can be pre- Provision of good geologic maps neers, builders and the populace pared, of course. Such maps are alone is not enough, of course, to with the existence of useful geo- needed for all larger communities insure that the facts they show will logic information and with its im- and for smaller ones where the be used effectively in reducing plications in terms of earthquake geologic and soils problems are earthquake hazards. This lesson hazards and land use.

"JIoderu geologic maps were available and geologists had warned in print that * * * the Bootlegger Cove Clay would be unstable in the event of future earthquakes. * * * Disaskmus transhtory landslides initiated by the earthquake of 1% amply proved the correotnws of the warnings." ALASKA EARTHQUARE, MARCH 2 7, 19 64

INSTRUMENTATION AND sited on the basis of detailed be so builk as to withstand earth- MEASUREMENTS knowledge of the local geology. quake vibration, inundation by Suitable networks of recording The instruments discussed above giant waves, and local land move- seismographs should be installed in are now available and can be in- ments. Bench marks should also be all areas where earthquakes are stalled immediately. A new gen- established at the ends of long considered likely to occur. Where eration of instruments is also lakes throughout earthquake- feasible, signals from the seismom- needed-laser strain meters, ab- prone regions, and their altitudes eters should be telemetered by tele- solute-stress measuring devices, should be resurveyed periodically. phone lines or by radio to a central and devices for monitoring With a suitable net of tidal bench recording and data-prcucessing minute variations with changing marks and level lines and a suit- Faoility. The seismograph net- stress of acoustic velocities in rock. able number of lake tiltmeters, works should be supplemented by These instruments oan be devel- both long-term and sudden warp- other earthquake-sensing instru- oped, and should be developed ing of the earth's surface oan be ments, suoh as strain meters, tilt- without delay. determined accurately and cheap- meters, magnetometers, and gra- The arrays of standard and ly. Such data are required to test vimeters. In some areas, existing strong-motion seismographs in all the hypothesis that premonitory networks maintained by univer- earthquake-prone areas might well vertical displacements sometimes sity and Federal agencies can be be supplemented by a nationwide precede major earthquakes; if used as bases for improved modern system of test wells in confined they do, these displacements could telemetry networks. In other areas, aquifers, equipped to record long- be an important prediction tool. entirely new networks must be period seismic waves and to damp More information on the normal installed. out subsequent water fluctuations. height of barnacles and other In selecting the sites fir such in- Studies of well records after the sessile organisms relative to tide struments, it is essential that the Alaska earthquake demonstrated levels along all the shores of the local and regional geology be that hydroseisms oan be used ef- Pacific would permit students of known in some detail and that the fectively to predict and explain future earthquakes to make quick instruments be placed so as to ob- certain hydrologic phenomena and and reasonably accurate measure- tain the maximum amount of in- can also serve as supplemental ments of tectonic changes. Effec- formation on the behavior of active seismic recorders. In addition to a tive use of this information faults and the effects of the various system ,of water-level recorders in would also require improved tide kinds of rock and soils on seismic wells, improved stream gages are tables based on tide-gage measure- response. It is particularly impor- needed, built to withstand earth- ments at many localities. tant that the seismograph net- quake shocks and to remain oper- Detailed geomorphic studies works be of such geometric form ational in winter. Such gages pro- supplemented by many more that earthquakes can be located ac- vide needed information on the radiocarbon dates along emergent curately and immediately by reaction of streams and surface- and submergent shores are needed means of digital computers and water supplies to earthquake-in- to clarify the Holocene history of related to known or suspected duced land movements, and there vertical land movements. These active faults. is also abundant evidence that the studies would provide an under- In addition to the networks of measurements of seic~hesin streams standing of the distribution and standard seismographs and other and lakes can contribute greatly to the study of sites of high seismic recurrence interval of earthquake- earthquake-sensing instruments, induced changes in land levels the existing netwo'rks of strong- activity. Many more bench marks, tri- within the time range of radiocar- motion seismogrmphs should be bon-dating methods. Such studies strengthened and extended to all angulation stations, tide gages, might lead to the development earthquake zones. Strong-motion and tidal bench marks are needed seismograph recordings are partic- in earthquake-prone regions to of useful earthquake-forecasting ularly useful in testing the inter- permit accurate measurements of techniques in some seismically ac- actions between buildings and dif- lateral or vertical crustal strains tive coastal regions because they ferent materials on which they rest between, as well as during, major they can roughly define broad when subjectad to seismic shock, earthquakes. To the extent possi- areas of susceptibility to future and it is, therefore, important that ble, all such stations should be es- major earthquake-related tectonic strong-motion seismographs be tablished on bedrock and should displacements at specific localities. LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS INVESTIGATIONS OF not only in relief and reconstruc- and (4) to provide means for ACTUAL EARTHQUAKES tion after, but also in technical immediate funding and fielding investigation of, any future earth- of investigators when disaster Every large earthquake should quake disaster that is at all com- strikes, including military logistic be regarded as a full-scale labora- parable to the Alaska earthquake and photographic support. tory experiment whose study can of 1964. For this reason, it seems It is emphasized that this pro- give ecientific and engineering in- imperative that the Federal Gov- posal applies only to preplanning formation unobtainable from any ernment should take the lead in for disaster. Once disaster has other source. For this reason it is contingency planning for future struck, actual investigations must essential that every earthquake disastrous earthquakes. This is not be left to individual groups with strong enough to damage man- to say that the Federal Govern- the requisite skills, responsibilities made structures or to have meas- ment should act alone in planning and funds. But the better the over- urable effects on the natural for disaster or in activating the all preplanning effort, the better environment should 'be studied plans made. State and local gov- integrated and funded will be the thoroughly by scientists and ernments, universities, and other actual investigations and the bet- engineers. groups all have major responsibil- ter their chances of complete ities and skills that must be coverage. NEED FOR ADVANCE PLANNING brought to bear on the problems. In total, the scientific and en- Largely as a result of the Alaskan GEOLOGIC, GEIWHYSICAL, AND HYDROLOGIC INVESTIGATIONS gineering investigations of the experience, numerous well-inte- Alaska earthquake were remark- grated local and State groups ifi Once a decision has been made ably successful. They resulted in several earthquake-prone regions to investigate a reported earth- accumulation and interpretation are already (1969) active in mak- quake, a small reconnaissance par- of far more knowledge, in more ing plans for the investigation of ty should be dispatched at once, disciplines, than has ever been future earthquakes. A great earth- as was done successfully by the amassed before for any single quake, however, brings with it an U.S. Geological Survey for the earthquake. These results were ob- immediate need for massive appli- Alaska earthquake. Preferably it tained through the efforts of many cation of resources, both human should be composed of one or more individuals, sponsored by many and material, from outside the mature geologists and geophysi- governmental and private groups. stricken locality or region. More- cists who have a thorough knowl- There was no overall organiza- over, and as the Alaskan experi- edge of the local and regionla1 tional plan for the investigations, ence made so plain, strong and geology of the disaster area and and except for the work of the immediate logistic and other sup- who have had experience with Committee on the Alaska Earth- port from the military is abso- earthquakes or other similar nat- ural disasters. The sounder the quake, National Academy of lutely essential in dealing with a decisions at this stage the better Sciences, and for voluntary per- great earthquake disaster, either will be the results. The dutie~of sonal interactions of individuals for technical investigations or for the reconnaissance party would be and groups, no dekermined relief and reconstruction. partly to observe 'and record as attempt was made to coordinate The chief objectives of a plan- many ephemeral features as possi- and integrate all the studies. This ning effort in preparation for fu- ble but would be primarily to as- approach, even though ultimately ture great earthquakes would be sess the situation and to formulate successful, left some gaps in the (1) to define the kind and scope advice as to the size and character record and produced some waste of investigations needed for scien- of the problem and of the task and duplication of effort when tific purposes and for protection force needed to attack it. Many time and available skills were of life and property; (2) to pro- investigations would end with the critical. Such shortcomings in vide guidelines to assume that the reconnaissance phase; a few would future disaster investigations primary responsibilities of various be found worth full-scale study. could be avoided by advance plan- organizations or individuals, gov- If further studies are recom- ning and at least a skeletal perma- ernmental or private, are brought mended, a field team of investiga- nent organization. to boar on all necessary investiga- tors should be formed and a leader Presumably the Federal Gov- tions; (3) to provide for coordina- appointed. Team size and makeup ernment will be deeply involved tion between investigative groups; depend on the character of the 42 AWLSKA EARTHQUAICE, MARCH 21.7, 1964 problem and on the skills and tion of all information that can horizontal and vertical tectonic aptitudes required, but every ef- lead to better scientific undershd- displacements. ing of earthquake processes and 13. In close aooperation with soils and fort should be made to provide structural engineers, examine the coverage of all earth-science as- effects. effects of shaking and of ground pects of the disaster. Some team More specifically, the following movements on structures, paying members, especially in the early steps should be taken in the geo- particular attention to the rela- phases of the investigations, logic investigation, with initial tionship between underlying geol- should know the local and re- ogy and structural damage. emphasis on ephemeral effects that 14. Produce good map and photographic gional geology. However, both 10- may disappear or be modified coverage of the earthquake's ef- cal knowledge and experience in within a few hours or days: fects for the permanent record. disaster studies help in making fast, accurate observations of 1. Initiate immediate aerial surveys to AVAILABILITY OF MAPS AND provide complete stereo-photo cov- OTHER BASIC DATA ephemeral geologic processes and epage, at scales of 1: 20,000 or effects. larger, of all areas in which any One of the most important les- Once the field team is formed, earthquake effects are photo- sons learned from the Alaskan its members should continue to be graphically recordable. The mini- earthquake was the value of pre- mum coverage required might be responsible only to the team leader specified by the reconnaissance earthquake information in study- until all field work and reports party, to be expanded later as fol- ing the effects of the quake. are completed. Decisions should be lowup investigations progress. All Topographic base maps, geologic, made early as to the general wpe of the studies listed below can be soils, and glaciologic maps, aerial and character of preliminary and made or expedited with suitable photographs, tidal and other bench airphoto coverage. final reports on the earthquake. 2. Study relations between the earth- marks, triangulation stations, rec- Tliese determinations, however, quake effects and the local and ords of building foundations-all should be flexible enough as to per- regional geology. these were invaluable to investi- mit pursuit of significant research 3. In cooperation with soils engineers, gators. problems as they unfold. investigate any new faults or re- activations of preexisting faults. Current base maps-topograph- Every effort must be made to co- 4. Map ground fissures, sand spouts, ic maps and hydrographic charts-- ordinate the geologists' and geo- and pressure ridges, especially are essential tools for scientific and physicists' work with that of all where they affect the works of engineering investigators ; so are other investigative groups in order man. pertinent reports and maps on 5. Measure subsidence or uplift of the to assure free interchange of in- ground surface and distinguish local geology and soils. Detailed formation, to avoid confusion and between tectonic displacement city plans, preferably those that duplicakion of effort, and to iden- and that caused by consolidation show utility systems as well as tify gaps in the investigative of sediments. streets and buildings, are needed effort. 6. Investigate mass movements of ma- not only by technical investigators terials, such as avalanches, land- The work required of the field slides, and underwater sltdes. but by relief and rehabilitation team will vary between wide 7. Observe changes in stream courses workers and by the general public. limits, depending, among other and regimens. ,All such basic materials will be things, on the size and gmlogic '. 'lap local and paying needed in quantity immediately special attention to ground-water character of the affected region, on conditions, wherever damaging after an earthquake. The avail- the nature and effects of the earth- movements have occurred. ability of such materials should, of auake itself. and on the kind, 9. Ascertain the effects of tsunamis course. be made known to citv dffi- amount, and distribution of dam- and local waves and the in shorelines initiated by waves or cials ahd other potential users. age done. In general, however, all tectonic movements. work done should be aimed at two 10. S t u d y a n y earthquake-caused QUESTIONNAIRES principal objectives : (1) collection chlanges in volcanic activity. Questionnaires, widely diskrib- 11. Initiate studies, by means of port- of all geologic and geophysid able seismographs, of aftershocks uted by mail to postmasters and information that has any bearing especialls for the -uuruose - d locat- others or published in local news- ing them and relating them to on reconstruction efforts or that --papens, , are an effective means for can be used in preventing or alle- active faults. determining the extent, distribu- 12. Initiate geodetic and aerial surveys, viating the damaging effects of fu- both for use in studying earth- tion, and ~h~~~terof an earth- ture earthquakes, md (2) cdlec- quake effects and in determining quake's effects, as well as for identi- LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS 43 fying alert and interested SCIENTIFIC AND and soils, was translated into Com- eyewitnesses who should be inter- ENGINEERING mission decisions as to availability viewed by investigators for more TASK FORCE of Federal funds for specific areas and purposes. detailed facts than can be recorded Immediately after the Alaska on the returned questionnaire. The The approach of the Scientific earthquake, the Scientific and En- and Engineering Task Force was questionnaire method, supple- gineering Task Force of the Fed- mented by innumerable interviews, highly successful during the re- eral Reconstruction and Develop- construction period after the Alas- mas widely and effectively used in ment Planning Commission for studies of the Alaska earthquake ka earthquake. Its potential Alaska (Eckel and Schaem, in longer term benefits to the general by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Hansen and others, 1966) was set public were somewhat lessened, Survey, which routinely gathers up to advise the Commission, and however, because there were no suoh ,data on all earthquakes, by through it, the Federal fund-sup- provisions for continuing observ- the U.S. Geological Survey, and plying agencies, as to where it was ance of its recommendations after by several other groups. The ques- safe to permit new construction or the Federal Commission mas dis- tionnaire used by the Geological rebuilding of earthquake-damaged solved and because there was no Survey in Alaska is reproduced in structures. The Task Force's ad- control over actions of local gov- the report by Plafker and others vice, based on technical studies of ernments or use of non-Federal (1969). the earthquake's effects on geology funds.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The selected bibliography below Federal Reconstruction and Devel- Bredehoeft, J. D., Cooper, H. H., Jr., includes primarily what the writer opment Planning Commission for Papadopoulos, I. S., and Bennett, considers to be the more significant Alaska : 98 p. R. R., 1965, Seismic fluctuations in Alaska Department of Health and Wel- an open artesian water well, ifi papers that had appeared on earth- fare, 1964, Preliminary report of Geological Survey research, 1965 : science aspects of the Alaska earth- earthquake damage to environ- U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper quake when this paper went to mental health facilities and services 5254, p. C51-C57. press. The few other papers in- in Alaska : Juneau, Alaska Dept. Bull, Colin, and Rlarangunic, Cedomir, cluded that do not deal directly Health and Welfare, Environmental 1967, The earthquake-induced slide Health Br., 46 p. on the Sherman Glacier, south- with the efarthquake of 1964 but Algermissen, S. T., 1964, Seismological central Alaska, and its glaciological which are referenced in this vol- investigation of the Prince William effects, in Physics of snow and ice: ume are marked with asterisks. Sound earthquake and aftershocks Internat. Conf. Low Temperature Many important papers on engi- labs.] : Am. Geophys. Union Trans., Sci., Sapporo, Japan, 1966, Proc., neering, biology, social science, and v. 45, no. 4, p. 633. V. 1, pt. 1, p. 395-408. Barnes, D. F., 1966, Gravity changes Burton, L. R., 1967, Television examina- other disciplines that touch lightly, during the Alaska earthquake : tion of earthquake damage to un- if at all, on geology, seismology, Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 71, no. derground communication and elec- and hydrology are not listed. Ref- 2, p. 451A56. trical systems in Anchorage, in erences to such papers can be found Berg, G. V., and Stratta, J. L., 1984, Logan, M. H., Effect of the earth- in specialized bibliographies. Vir- Anchorage and the Alaska earth- quake of March 27, 1964, on the quake of March 27, 1964: New Eklutna Hydroelectric Project, An- tually every paper on the Alaska York, Am. Iron and Steel Inst., chorage, Alaska : U.S. Geol. Survey earthquake, of course, contains 63 P. Prof. Paper 545-A, p. A25-A30. references to other items in the Rlum, P. A., Gaulow, R., Jobert, G., Case, J. E., Barnes, D. F., Plafker, literature that provide useful back- and Jobert, N., 1966, On ultra-long George, and Robbins, S. L., 1966, ground information in under- period seismometers operating un- Gravity survey and regional geol- sta.nding facets of the Alaska der vacuum: Royal Soc. [London] ogy of the Prince William Sound Proc., ser. A, v. 290, no. 1422, p. epicentral region, Alaska : U.S. earthquake. 318322. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 5434, Alaskan Cons~tructionConsultant Com- Bolt, B. A,, 1964, Seismic air waves p. C1-C12. mittee [19641, Reconstruction and from the great 1964 Alaska earth- Chaffin, Yule, 1966, The earthquake development survey of earthquake quake: Nature, v. 202, no. 4937, created a hobby: Alaska Sports- damages in Alaska, prepared for p. 1095-1096. man, Aug. 1966, p. 39-40. 44 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 2'7, 1964

Chance, Genie, 1966a, Chronology of Donn, W. L., 1964, Alaskan earthquake ciated effects in the Cook Inlet physical events of the Alaskan of 27 March 1964-remote sdche area, Alaska, resulting from the earthquake : Prepared under a Na- stimulation : Science, v. 145, no. March 27, 1964, earthquake: U.S. tional Science Foundation Grant to 3629, p. 261-262. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 543-F, the University of Alaeka. Copyright Dmn, W. L., and Pmmentier, E. S., p. F1-R28. by Genie Chance, 1966. 173 p. 1964, Ground-coupled air waves Furumoto, A. S., 1967, A study of the 1966b, The year of decision and from the great Alaska earthquake : source mechanism of the Alaska action, in Hansen, W. R., and Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 69, no. earthquake and tsunami of others, The Alaska earthquake 24, p. 5357-5361. March 27, 1964-pt. 2, Analysis of March 27, 1964-Field investiga- Eckel, E. B., 1967, Effects of the earth- Rayleigh wave: Pacific Sci., v. 21, tions and reconstruction effort : quake of March 27,1964, on air and no. 3, p. 311316. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 541, water transport, communications, George, Warren, and Lyle, R. E., 1966. p. 90-105. and utilities systems in south- Reconstruction by the Corps of Chouhan, R. K. S., 1966, Aftershock central Alaska : U.S. Geol. Survey Engineers-methods and accom- sequence of Alaskan earthquake of Prof. Paper 545-B, p. B1-B27. plishments, in. Hansen, W. R., and 28th March 1964 : Pure and Applied Eckel, E. B., and Schaem, W. E., 1966, others, The Alaska earthquake Geophysics [Italy], v. 64, p. 43-48. The work of the Scientific and Engi- March 27, 1964--Field investiga- Christensen, M. N., and Bolt, B. A., neering Task Force-Earth science tions and reconstruction effort: 1964, Earth movements-Alaskan applied to policy decisions in early U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 541, earthquake, 1964: Sclence, v. 145, relief and reconstruction, in Han- p. 81-89. no. 3637, p. 1207-1216. sen, W. R., and others, The Alaska *Grant, U. S., and Higgins, D. F., 1910, Coble, R. W., 1967, Alaska earthquake earthquake March 27, 1964-Field Reconnaissance of the geology and effects on ground water in Iowa, in investigations and reconstruction mineral resources of Prince Wil- Vorhis, R. C., Hydrologic effects of effort: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. liam Sound, Alaska: U.S. Geol. the earthquake of March 27, 1964 Paper 541, p. 46-69. Survey Bull. 443, 89 p. outside Alaska : U.S. Geol. Survey Engineering Geology Evaluation Group, *- 1913, Coastal glaciers of Prince Prof. Paper 544-C, p. C23-C27. 1964, Geologic report-27 March William Sound and Kenai Penin- *Condon, W. H., and Cass, J. T., 1958, 1964 earthquake in Greater An- sula, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Map of a part of the Prince William chorage area : Prepared for Alaska Bull. 526, 75 p. Housing Authority and the City of Sound area, Alaska, showing linear Grantz, Arthur, Plafker, George, and Anchorage ; Anchorage, Alaska, geologic features as shown on aerial Kachadoorian, Reuben, 1964, Alas- photographs : U.S. Geol. Survey 34 P. ka's Good Friday earthquake, Federal Council for Science and Tech- Misc. Geol. Inv. Map 1-273, scale March 27, 1964--a preliminary nology, 1968, Proposal for a ten- 1:125,000. geologic evaluation : U.S. Geol. year national earthquake hazards Cooper, H. H., Jr., Bredeheeft, J. D., Survey Circ. 491, 35 p. program : Ad hoe Interagency Papadopoulos, I. S., and Bennett, Gronewald, G. J., and Duncan, W. W., R. R., 1965, The response of well- Working Group for Earthquake Research, prepared for the Office of 1966, Study of erosion along Homer aquifer systems to seismic waves : Spit and vicinity, Kachemak Bay, Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 70, no. Science and Technology and the Federal Council for Science and Alaska, in Coastal engineering ; 16, p. 39153926. Santa Barbara Specialty Confer- Coulter, H. W., and Migliaccio, R. R., Technology, Washington, D.C., 81 p. Federal Reconstruction and Develop- ence, 1965: New Tork, Am. Soc. 1966, Effects of the earthquake of Civil Engineers, p. 673-682. March 27, 1964, at Valdez, Alaska : ment Planning Commission for Hackman, R. J., 1965, Photointerpreta- U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper Alaska, 1964, Response to disaster, tion of post-earthquake photog- 542-C, p. C1-C36. Alaskan earthquake, March 27, raphy, Alaska : Photogrammetric *Crandell, D. R., and E'ahnestock, R. K., 1964 : Washington, U.S. Govt. Eng., v. 31, no. 4, p. 604-610. 1965, Rockfalls and avalanches Printing Office, 84 p. G D., 1964, Biological effects from Little Tahoma Peak on Mount Ferrians, 0. J., Jr., 1966, Effects of the Hanna, Rainier, Washington: U.S. Geol. earthquake of March 27, 1964, in of an earthquake : Pacific Discov- Survey Bull. 1221-A, p. A1-A30. the Copper River Basin am, ery, v. 17, no. 6, p. 24-26. Davies, Kenneth, and Baker, D. M., Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 1967, The great Alaska earth- 1965, Ionospheric effects observed Paper 543-E, p. El-E28. quake of 1%: Pacific Discovery, around the time of the Alaskan Fisher, W. E., and Merkle, D. H., 1965, v. 20, no. 3, p. 25-30. earthquake of March 28,1964 : Jour. The great Alaska earthquake: Air Hansen, W. R., 1965, Effects of the Geophys. Research, v. 70, no. 9, p. Force Weapons Lab., Kirtland Air earthquake of March 27, 1964, at 2251-2253. Force Base, N. Mex., Tech. Rept. Anchorage, Alaska : U.S. Geol. Sur- Dobrovolny, Ernest, and Schmoll, H. R., AFWL-TR-85-92, 2 v., 412 p., in- vey Prof. Paper 542-A, p. A1-A68. 1968, Geology as applied to urban cluding 296 illus. -1966, Investigations by the Geo- planning-an example from the Foley, R. E., 1964, Crescent City-tidal logical Survey, in Hansen, W. R, Greater Anchorage Area Borough, waves: Shore and Beach (Jour. and others, The Alaska earthquake Alaska, in Elngineering geology in Shore and Beach Preservation March 27, 196+Field investiga- country planning : Internat. Geol. Aesoc.) v. 32, p. 28 (April 1964). tions and reconstruction effort: Cong., 23d, Prague 1968, Proc., see. Foster H. L., and Karlstrom, T. N. V., U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 541, 12, p. 39-56. 1967, Ground breakage and asso- p. 38-45. LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Hansen, W. R., and Eckel, E. B., 1966, -1969b, Research studies and in- U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 544- A summary description of the terpretative results-geodesy and E, p. El-E43. Alaska earthquake-its setting and photogrammetry, v. 3 of The Prince Malloy, R. J. 1964, Crustal uplift south- effects, in Hansen, W. R., and William Sound, Alaska earthquake west of Montague Island, Alaska : others, The Alaska earthquake of 1964 and aftershocks: U.S. Coast Science, v. 146, no. 3647, p. 1048- March 27, 1964-Field investiga- and Geod. Survey Pub. 103,161 p. 1049. tions and reconstruction effort : Lemke, R. W., 1967, Effects of the earth- 1965, Gulf of Alaska-seafloor U.S. Cfeol. Survey Prof. Paper 541, quake of March 27,1964, at Seward, upheaval : Geo-Marine Technology, p. 1-37. Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. v. 1, no. 5, p. 22-26. Hansen, W. R., and others, 1966, The Paper 542-E, p. El-E43. Mikumo, Takeshi, 1968, Atmospheric Alaska earthquake March 27,1964-- Leonard, R. S. and Barnes, R. A., Jr., pressure waves and tectonic defor- Field investigations and recon- 1965, Observation of ionospheric mation associated with the Alaskan struction effort: U.S. Geol. Survey disturbances following the Alaska earthquake of March 28, 1964: Prof. Paper 541, 111 p. earthquake : Jour. Geophys. Re Jour. Geophys. Refiearch, v. 73, no. Harding, S. T., and Algermissen, S. T., search, v. 70, no. 5, p. 1250-1253. 6, p. 2009-2025. 1969, The focal mechanism of the Logan, M. H., 1967, Effect of the earth- *Miller, D. J., 1960, Giant waves in Prince William Sound earthquake quake of Narch 27, ;964, on the Lituya Bay, Alaska: U.S. Geol. of March 28, 1964, and related Eklutna Hydrolelectric Project, Survey Prof. Paper 345.43, p. 51-86. earthquakes, in Leipold, 1969a, p. Anchonage, Alaska, with a section *Miller, R. D., and Dobrovolny, Ernest, 185-221. on Television examination of earth- 1959, Surlicial geology of Anchor- Huene, Roland von, Malloy, R. J., and quake damage to underground com- age and vicinity, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Shor, G. G., Jr., 1967, Geologic munication and electrical systems Survey Bull. 1093,128 p. structures in the aftershock region in Anchorage, by Lynn R. Burton: Moore, G. W., 1964, Magnetic disturb- of the 1964 Alaska earthquake: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper ances preceding the Alaska 1964 Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 72, no. 545-A, p. A1-830. earthquake: Nature, v. 203, no. 14, P. 3649-3660. Long, Erwin, and George, Warren, 4944, p. 508-509. Huene, Roland von, Shor, G. G., Jr., and 1967a, Buttress design earthquake- National Board of Fire Underwriters Reimnitz, Erk, 1967, Geological in- induced slides: Am. Soc. Civil En- and Pacific Fire Rating Bureau, terpretation of seismic profiles in gineers Proc., v. 93, paper 5332, 1964, The Ala~ska earthquake, Prince William Sound, Alaska : Jour. Soil Mechanics and Found. March 27, 1964: San Francisco, Geol. Soc. America, Bull., v. 78, Div., no. 5514, p. 595-4339. Calif., distributed by Am. Insur- no. 2, p. 259-268. 1967b, Turnagain slide stabili- ance Assoc., 35 p. *International Conference of Building zation, Anchorage, Alaska : Am. Nickerson, R. B., 1969, Fish and the big Officials, 1964, Uniform building Soc. Civil Engineers Proc, v. 93, shake: Alaska Sportsman, v. 35, code : Los Angeles, Calif ., 1964 ed., paper 5333, Jour. Soil Mechanics no. 3, p. 6-9,51-52. v. 1, 503 p. and Found. Div., no. SM4, p. 611- Nielsen, L. E., 1965, Earthquake-in- Kachadoorian, Reuben, 1965, Effects of 627. duced changes in Alaskan glaciers : the earthquake of March 27, 1964, Lyle, R. E., and George, Warren, 1966, Jour. Glaciology, v. 5, no. 42, p. at Whittier, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Activities of the Corps of Engi- 865-867. Survey Prof. Paper 542-B, p. B1- neers-cleanup and early recon- Northrop, John, 1965, T phases from 80 B21. struction, in Hansen, W. R., and Alaskan earthquakes, March 28-31, 1968, Effects of the earthquake others, The Alaska earthquake 1964: Seismol. Soc. America Bull., of March 27, 1964 on the Alaska March 27, 196PE'ield investiga- v. 55, no. 1, p. 59-63. highway system : U.S. Geol. Survey tions and reconstruction effort : Page, Robert, 1968, Aftershocks and Prof. Paper 545-C, p. C1-C66. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 541, microaftershocks of the great Kachadoorian, Reuben, and Plafker, p. 70-80. Alaska earthquake of 1964: Seis- George, 1967, Effects of the earth- McCulloch, D. S., 1966, Slide-induced mol. Soc. America Bull., v. 58, no. 3, quake of March 27, 1964, on the waves, seiching, and ground frac- P. 1131-1168. communities of Kodiak and near- turing caused by the earthqu'ake Pararas-Carayannis, George, 1967, A by islands: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. of March 27, 1964, at Kenai Lake study of the source mechanism of Paper 542-F, p. F1-F41. Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. the Alaska earthquake and tsunami Kirkby, M. J., and Kirkby, A. V., 1969, Paper 543-A, p. A1-A41. of March 27, 1964-pt. 1, Water Erosion and deposition on a beach McCulloch, D. S., and Bonilla, M. G., waves: Pacific Sci., v. 21, no. 3, p. raised by the 1964 earthquake, Mon- 1970, Effects of the Alaska earth- 301-310. tague Island, Alaska: U.S. Geol. qulake, March 27,1964, on The Alas- Parkin, E. J., 1966, Horizontal displace- Survey Prof. Paper 543-H, p. H1- ka Railroad. U.S. Geol. Survey ments, pt. 2 of Alaskan surveys to H41. Prof. Papez 545-D. determine crustal movement : Am. Leipold, L. E., editor-in-chid, 196$a, McGarr, Arthur, 1965, Excitation of Congress Surveying and Mapping Research studies : seismology and seiches in channels by seismic Proc., v. 27, no. 3, p. 423-430; also marine geology, v. 2, pts. B, C of waves : Jour. Geophys. Research, v. U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey, 11 p. The Prince William Sound, Alaska, 70, no. 4, p. 847-854. 1969, Horizontal crustal move earthquake of 1964 and after- McGarr, Arthur, and Vorhis, R. C., mente determined from surveys shocks : U. S. Coast and Geod. Sur- 1968, Seismic seiches from the after the Alaskan earthquage vey Pub. 103,350p. March 1964 Alaska earthquake : of 1964, in Leipold, IgSDb, p. 35-98. ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 19614

Plafker, George, 1965, Tectonic defor- quake and tsunami on recent del- California Inst. Technology, Pasa- mation associated with the 1964 taic sediments : Jour. Geophys. Re- dena, Ph. P. th-is, 79 p Alalska earthquake : Science, v. 148, search, v. 70, no. 10, p. 2363-2376. *- 1966a, Air-layer lubrication of no. 3678, p. 1675-1687. Rexin, E. E., and Vorhis, R. C., 1967, large avalanches [abs.] : Geol. Soc. 1967, Surface faults on Mon- Hydroseisms from the Nunn-Bulsh America Spec. Paper 87, p. 154. tague Island associated with the Shoe Co. well, Wisconsin, in Vorhis, 1966b, Sherman landslide, Alas- 1964 Alaska earthquake : U.S. Geol. R. C., Hydrologic effects of the ka: Science, v. 154, no. 3757, p. Survey Prof. Paper 543-G, p. G1- earthquake of March 27, 1964, out- 1639-1643. 642. side Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey *- 1968, The Blackhawk land- 1968, Source areas of the Prof. Paper 5444, p. C10-C13. slide: Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Paper Shattered Peak and Pyramid Peak Rinne, J. E., 1967, Oil storage tanks, in 108, 47 p. landslides at Sherman Glacier : in Wood, F. J., ed.-in-chief, Research Small, J. B., and Parkin, E. J., 1967, The Great Alaska Earthquake of studies : seismology and marine Alaskan surveys to determine 1964, Hydrology: Natl. Acad. Sci. geology, pt. A, Engineering seismol- crustal movement-pt. 1, Vertical Pub. 1603, p. 374382. ogy, v. 2 of The Prince William bench mark displacement : Survey- 1969, Tectonics of the March 27, Sound, Alaska, earthquake of 1964 ing and Mapping, v. 27, no. 3, p. 1964, Alaska earthquake U.S. Geol. and aftershochs: U.S. Coast and 41-22. Survey, Prof. Paper 543-1, p. 11- Geod. Survey Pub. 10-3, p. 245- Small, J. B., and Wharton, L. C., 1969, 174. 252. vertical displacements determined Plafker, George, and Kachadoorian, Row, R. V., 1987, Acoustic-gravity by surveys after the Alaskan earth- Reuben, 1966, Geologic effects of waves in the upper atmosphere due quake of March 1964, in Leipold, to a nuclear detonation and an the March 1964 earthquake and as- 1969b, p. 21-33. sociated seismic sea waves on Ko- earthquake : Jour. Geophys. Re- Smith, C. P., 1965, Alaska bridges ex- diak and nearby itslands, Alaska : search, v. 72, no. 5, p. 1594-1610. perience an earthquake, pt. 1 of U.S. Geol. Survey Prof Paper 543- Saverenskii, Ye. F., Starovoit, 0. Ye., Highway destruction in Alaska : D, p. D1-D46. and Federov, S. A., 1964, Long-pe- American Highways, v. 43, no. 4, Plafker, George, Kachadoorian, Reu- riod Rayleigh waves of the Alaskan p. 23-27. ben, Eckel, E. B., and Mayo, L. P., earthquake on March 28, 1964: Smith, S. W., 1966, Free oscillations ex- 1969, Effects of the earthquake of Akad. Nauk SSSR Izv. Ser. Geofiz. cited by the Alaskan earthquake : March 27, 1964, at various com- no. 12, p. 1103-1106 [translation by munities: U.S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Am. Geophys. Union]. Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 71, no. 4, p. 1183-1193. Paper 542-G, p. G1-G50. Savage, J. C., and Hastie, L. M., 1966, Plafker, George, and Mayo, L. R., 1965, Surface deformation associated Spaeth, M. G., and Berkmran, S. C., I%%, Tectonic deformation, subaqueous with dip slip faulting: Jour. Geo- The tsunami of March 28, 1964, as slides, and destructive waves asso- phys. Research, v. 71, no. 20, p. recorded at tide stations: U.S. ciated with the Alaskan March 27, 4897-4904. Coast and Geod. Survey, 59 p. 1964 earthquake--an interim geo- Scientific and Engineering Task Force 1967, The tsunami of March 28, logic evaluation : U.S. Geol. Survey No. Nine, 1964 [Alaska earthquake 1964, as recorded at tide stations: open-file report, 21 p. of March 27, 19641-30-day report, Coast and Geodetic Survey Tech. Post, A. S., 1965, Alaskan glaciers-re- prepared for Federal Reconstruc- Bull. 33, Washington, U.S. Govt. cent observations in respect to the tion and Development Planning Printing Office, 86 p. earthquake-advance theory : Sci- Commi~ssion [for Alaska], Honor- Stacey, F. D., and Westcott, P., 1965, ence, v. 148, no. 3668, p. 366-368. able Clinton P. Anderson, chm., 83 The record of a vector proton mag- 1967, Effects of the March 1964 P. netometer after the March 1!%4 Alaska earthquake on glaciens : Seed, H. B., and Wilson, S. D., 1967, The Alaska earthquake : Jour. Geophys. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 544- Turnagain Heights landslide, An- Research, v. 70, no. 14, p. 3321- D, p. D1-D42. chorage, Alaska: Am. Soc. Civil 3323. Press, Frank, 1965, Displacements, Engineers Proc. v. 93, paper 5320, Stanley, K. W., 1966, Beach changes On strains and tilts at teleseismic dis- Jour. Soil Mechanics and Founda- Homer Spit, Alaskma, in Waller, R. tances : Jour. Geophys. Research, tion Div., no. SM4, p. 325-353. M., 1966, Effects of the earthquake v. 70, no. 10, p. 2395-2412. Shannon and Wilson, Inc., 1964, Report of March 27, 1964, in the Homer Press, Frank, and Jackson, David, 1965, on Anchorage area soil studies, area, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Alaskan earthquake, 27 March Alaska, to U.S. Army Engineer Prof. Paper 542-D, p. D20-D27. 19SVertical extent of faulting District, Anchorage, Alaska : Seat- -1968, Effects of the Alaska earth- and elastic strain energy reIease: tle, Wash., 109 p., app. A-K. quake of March 27, 1964 on shore Science, v. 147, no. 3660, p. 867-868. Sherburne, R. W., Algermissen, S. T., processes and beach morphology : Ragle, R. H., Sater, J. E., and Field, and Harding, S. T., 1969, The hypo- U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 543- W. O., 1965, Effects of the 1964 center, origin time and magnitude J, p. 51521. Alaskan earthquake on glaciers of the Prince William Sound earth- Stauder, William, and Bollinger, G. A., and related features : Arctic Inst. quake of March 28,1964, in Mpold. 1966, The focal mechanism of the North America, Research Paper 32, 1969a, p. 44-69. Alaskan earthquake of March 28, 44 P. *Shreve, R. L., 1959, Geology and me- 1964, and its aftershock sequence : Reimnitz, Erk, and Marshall, N. F., chanics of the Blackhawk land- Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 71, no. 1965, Effects of the Alaska earth- slide, Lucerne Valley, California: 22, p. 5283-5296. LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Steinbrugge, K. V., 1964, Engineering U.S. Army Chief of Engineers, Director- -1966c, Effects of the earthquake seismology aspects, in Prince Wil- ate of Military Contruction, En- of March 27,1964, on the hydrology liam Sound, Alaskan earthquakes, gineering Division, 1964, Report on of the Anchorage area, Alaska: March-April 1964: U.S. hast and analysis of earthquake damage to U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 544- Geod. Survey Seismology Div., military construction in Alaska, 27 B, p. B1-B18. prelim. rept., p. 58-72. March 1964: Washington, D.C., 16 Waller, R. M., Thomas, H. E., and Vor- 1967, Introduction to the earth- p., app. 1-6. his, R.C., 1965, Effects of the Good quake engineering of the Prince U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1964, Friday earthquake on water sup William Sound, Alaska, earth- Prince William Sound, Alaskan plies: Am. Water Works Assoc. quake : in Wood, F. J., ed.-in-chief, earthquakes, March-April 1964 : Jour., v. 57, no. 2, p. 123-131. Research studies : seismology and U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey Seis- Whitten, C. A., 1968, Earthquake dan- marine geology, pt. A, Engineering mology Div., prelim. rept., 83 p. age, Mrrntague Island, AIaska, in seismology, v. 2 of The Prince Wil- U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1969, Manual of color aerial phdog- liam Sound, Alaska, earthquake of Seismic risk map of the United raphy : Falls Church, Va., Am. Soc. 1964 and aftershocks: U.S. Coast States: U.S. Coast and Geod. Sur- Photogrammetry, p. 39CL391. and Geod. Survey Pub. 10-3, p. 1-6. vey, Environmental Sci. Services Wigen, S. O., and White, W. R. H., lw, Steinbrugge, K. V., Manning, J. H., Adm., Washington, D.C. Tsunami of March 27-29,1964, west Degenkolb, H. J., and others, 1967, *Van Dorn, W. G., 1959, Local effects coast of Canada Cabs.] : Am. Building damage in Anchorage, in of impulsively generated waves : Gsophys. Union Trans., v. 45 no. 4, Wood, F. J., ed.-in-chief, Research Scripps Inst. Oceanography Rept. p. 634. studies : seismology and marine 11, 80 p., Univ. Calif., La Jolla, Wilson, B. W., and T@rum, Alf, 1968, geology, pt. A, Engineering seismol- Calif. The Tsunami of the Alaskan earth- ogy, v. 2 of The Prince William Van Dorn, W. G., 1964, Source mecha- quake, 1964-engineering evalua- Sound, Alaska, earthquake of 1964 nism of the tsunami of March 28, tion : US. Army Oops of Engineers, and aftershocks: U.S. Coast and 1964, in Alaska :Coastal Eng. Conf., Coastal Eng. Research Center, Geod. Survey Pub. 10-3, p. 7-217. 9th, Lisbon, 1964, Proc., p. 166-190. Tech. Mem. 25, 448 p., 232 ills., 5 Stephenson, J. M., 1964, Earthquake *Varnes, D. J., 1958, Landslide types amen. damage to Anchorage area utili- and processes, in Eckel, E. B., ed., Wilson, S. D., 1967, Landslides in the ties-March 1964 : Port Hueneme, Landslides and engineering prac- city of Anchorage, in Wood, F. J., Calif., U.S. Naval Civil Eng. Lab., tice: Natl. Research Council, High- ed.-in-chief, Research studies : seis- Tech. Note N-607,17 p. way Research Board Spec. Rept. 29 mology and marine geology, pt. A, *Tam, R. S., and Martin, Lawrence, (NAS-NRC Pub. W), p. 20-47. Engineering seismology, v. 2 of !rhe 1912, The earthquakes at Yakutat Vorhis, R. C., 1964, Earthquake-induced Prince William Sound, Alaska, Bay, Alaska, in September, 1899: water level fluctuations from a well earthquake of 1% and dter- U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 69, in Dawson County, Ga. : Seismol. shocks: U.S. Coast and Geod. Sur- 135 p. Soc. Am. Bull., v. 54, no. 4, p. 1023- vey Pub. 10-3, p. 253-297. Tobin, D. G., and Sykes, L. R., 1966, Re- 1033. Wood, F. J., ed.-in-chief, 1966, Opepa- lationship of hypocenters of earth- 1967. Hydrologic effects of the tional phases of the Coast and earthquake of March 27, 1964, out- quakes to the geology of Al~aska: Geodetic Survey program in Alaska side Alaska, with sections on Hy- Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 71, no. for the period Ma~ch27 to Decem- 6, p. 1659-1667. droseismograms from the Nunn- Bush Shoe Co. well, Wisconsin, by ber 31, 1964, v. 1of The Prince Wil- Tudor, W. J., 1964, Tsunami damage at liam Sound, Alaska, earthquake of Kodiak, Alaska, and Crescent City, E. E. Rexin and R. C. Vorhis, and 1964 and aftershocks: U.S. Ooast California, from Alaska earthquake Alaska earthquake effects on and Geod. Survey, Pub. 103, 262 of 27 March, 1964: Port Hueneme, ground water in Iowa, by R. W. Calif., U.S. Naval Civil Eng. Lab. Coble: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. P. Tech. Note N-622, 128 p. Paper 5444, p. C1-054. 1967, Research studies : seis- Tuthill, S. J., 1966, Earthquake origin Waller, R. M., 1966a, Effects of the mology and marine geology, gt. A, earthquake of March 27, 1964, in of superglacial drift on the glaciers Engineering seismology, v. 2 of The of the Martin River area, south- the Homer area, Alaska with a sec- Prince William Sound, Ailaska tion on Beach changes on Homer central Alaska : Jour. Glaciology. earthquake of 1964 and after- Spit, by E. W. Stanley: U.S. v. 6, no. 43, p. 83-88. shocks: U.S. Coast and Geod. Sur- Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 542-D, Tuthill, S. J., and Laird, W. M., 1966, p. Dl-D28. vey Pub. IN,392 p. Geomorphic effects of the earth- -1966b, Effects of the earthquake Wyss, Max, and Brune, J. N., 1967, The quake of March 27, 1964, in the of March 27,1964, on the hydrology Alaska earthquake of 28 Ma?ch Martin-Bering Rivers area, Alaska : of southcentral Alaska: U.S. Geol. 1964 : A complex multiple rupture : U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 543- Survey Prof. Paper 544-A, p. Al- Seismol. Soc. America, Bull. v. 57, B, p. B1-B29. A28. no. 5, p. 1017-1023.

INDEX

Professional Papers 542-545: The number before the dash indicates the labt digit of the prof. paper. and the letter and number after the dash indicate the chapter and p:ge of reference; thus. 2-A3 is page A3 in Prof . Paper 542-A . Professional Papers 541 and 546: The number before the desh indicates the last digit of the prof . paper. and the number after the dash indicates the page of reference; thus. 1-19 is page 19 in Prof. Paper 541. Italic numbers indicate major references.

A Page Page Avalanches-Continued Page Afognak. general ...... l.l9,1.96, 2.F.28 Anchorage ...... Prof . Paper 642-A rotational and debris slides ...... 2-A30 ground and surface water ...... 3-D23 air transport ...... 5-B3 Seward ...... 2.E14, 2-E33 ground waves ...... bD12 cleanup and restoration ...... 1-73 Avulsion, legal implications ...... 3420 population ...... ID6 communications and utilities ...... bB23 property losses ...... ID3 gravity values ...... 3-C6 B seismic sea waves ...... S-DSS, 3-D44 harbor ...... 5-B8 Back Bay Creeks ...... 3-D27 subsidence ...... 2-F29 hydrologic effects ...... Prof . Paper 644-B Backfill waves ...... 3-A3,3-A7, %A15 3-A22 Afognak Island, landslides...... ID18 landslides ...... 6.076, 6-17 Bagley Icefield ...... 4-Dl rockslides ...... IDm power system...... bB19 Bainbridge Island ...... 344 size ...... 8-FS principal causes of damage...... 1-72 Balanus balanoides ...... 3-112; M5 subsidence...... S-DI restoration of schools...... 1-83 glandula ...... 3-112 Afognak River ...... bD27 structural damage ...... 1.100, bD143 Barnacles, indication of land-level changes .... 3-112 Afognak Strait ...... SF28 Task Force recommendations ...... 1-57 Barren Islands ...... 3-D6 Africa, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- water system ...... 4-A16, bB23 Barrow ...... 1.3, 2-A2 quake-...... PC15 Anchorage area, subsidence ...... PB15 Barry Glacier ...... 4-D26 Aftershocks, Copper River Basin ...... 3-E6 Anchorage Engineering Geology Evaluation Bathymetry, Kenai Lake ...... 3-A3 distribution ...... 1.6, bI5 Group ...... 1.66, 1.81 Lakeview delta ...... 3-A4 Kodiak Island area ...... %Dl2 Anchorage Lowland ...... 1.9, 2.A2, !2-A8, %A22 Lawing delta ...... 3-A12 Air transport, effects of earthquake ...... 1.29, 6.B2 Anderson Bay ...... 2.C30, 2-GI3 Rocky Creek delta ...... 3-A4 Akhiok ...... 2.F3, SF39 Andreanof-Fox Island region ...... 3-149 Bay Mouth Bar ...... 3-H29, 3-H30 Alabama, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Animal populations, effects of earthquake .... 1-34 Beaches, Homer Spit ...... 2-D20 quake...... 4-Cl6, 4439 3-R2R Kodiak Island area ...... 3-Dl3 Alaska-Aleutian province ...... 1-8 Antarctica, secondary damage ...... 1-36 Montague Island ...... Prof . Paper 6@-H Alaska Communication System building, Anton Larson highway, damage...... SD42 Beaches . See also Shore processes; Shorelines . Whittier ...... 2-B 13 Archeologic remains, Uzinki ...... 6-28 Beach morphology ...... Prof . Paper 643-5 Alaska District, Corps of Engineers . 1.70,1.80, 1.81 Appalachian basin, seiches...... PE14 Bear Creek ...... , 2.D1.5, 3.F16 Alaska Field Committee ...... 148 Archimandritof Shoals...... 2-Dl5 %D20 Bear Mountain...... 2-El7 Alaska Highway ...... 1.90, IE3 Arctic Slope of Alaska ...... 2-A2 Bedrock, Copper River Basin ...... 3-E3 Alaska Housing Authority...... 1-81 Arizona, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Seward ...... 2-El7 Alaska Omnibus Bill ...... 149 quake ...... 4417, PC39 Whittier ...... 2-B3 Alaska Peninsula ...... 1.3, $4344 Arkansas, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Belgium, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Alaska Psychiatric Institute, Anchorage, dam- quake ...... PC18, PC39 quake...... PC15 age ...... %A23 Arkoma basin, seiches...... 4-El4 Belle Fourche, S.D., fluctuation of well ...... 1-37 Alanka Range, location ...... 1.7,1.8, SE2,3-39 Army dock, Seward ...... %El3 Beluga Lake ...... 2-D5,2-D15, SF23 uplift...... 3-123 Artesian wells, Anchorage ...... 4-AIS, 622 Bench marks, height relative to sea level ...... 3-119 Alaska Range geosyncline, location ...... IE3 south-central Alaska ...... PA18 Beneficial effects of the earthquake ...... 6-31 Alaska Sales and Service Building, Anchor- zone of subsidence ...... 3-140 Bering Glacier ...... 1.14, 4-Dl3 age ...... 2-A23 Artificial fill, Kodiak Island area ...... 3-Dl5 Bering Lake, ice fracture...... 3-B24 Alaskan Construction Consultants Commit- ear...... 2-E22 landslides ...... 3-B19 tee ...... 148 Whittier ...... 2-B5 Bering Lake area, uplift ...... 3-B26 Alaskan Continental Shelf, gravity values .... 3-C8 Asia, hydrologic effects of Alaska earthquake PC14 Bering River area ...... Prof . Paper 643-B Alaskan earthquakes, previous ...... l-i Assam, India, earthquake ...... 2.C20,4.C7, PC5 Bernice Lake powerplant ...... -4-A22 Alaskan seismic zone ...... 1-7 Atmospheric waves...... 1-33, 3-139 Berm development, Homer ...... 2-D23 Alberni, B . C ...... 1-37 Atrevida Glacier ...... PD39 Bihar-Nepal earthquake of 1934...... 2-C20, 3-E8 Aleutian Islands, geology ...... 1.7, b145 Atterberg limits, Bootlegger Cove Clay ...... %A15 Billings Creek ...... 2-B3, 2-B18 Aleutian Islands, tectonic setting...... 3-144 Seward ...... 2-E2i Biologic effects...... 134, 3-B26,3.136, 3-J17 Aleutian Range, description...... 1-8 AtIsland ...... 1-8 Black Lake, turbidity changes ...... 3-B21 Aleutian Trench, tectonic setting .3-D28,3-112.3-144 Augustine Island, Cook Inlet area 2.D18, SF24 Black Rapids Glacier ...... PD38 Aleutian Volcanic Arc ...... 1.7 . Aucella ...... 3-C4 Bluff Point ...... 2.D6, 2.D17 3D48,3-F25,3-12,3.144, 3-151 Augustine Island volcano ...... 1.8, 2.D19 Bluff Road, Anchorage, rotational slides ..... 2-A36 Alexander Archipelago...... 1-12 Australia, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Bolivina pseudopunctata ...... 2-A21 Alitak ...... 1-94 quake...... 4-C14 Bootlegger Cove Clay, Anchorage, description Allen Glacier ...... 1.29, 4.D8l Avalanches, Anchor River ...... 3-F17 and effects...... 1-82, bA12, 2-A33 Allison Creek delta ...... 2-C16 Copper River Basin ...... 3-E24 ground water ...... kA19, 4.BlS Alluvial deposits, Kodiak Island area ...... 3-Dl5 before the 1964 earthquake ...... 4-D26 measurements of pore pressures ...... kB1 Alluvial fans, Seward ...... 2-El8 on glaciers ...... 4-D3, PD36 Bore holes, Seward ...... 2-E27 Alnus ...... bC4 ...... highways 6C27 Valdez ...... 2-C15 Alsek River valley...... 4-D31 Kodiak Island ...... 3-Dl8 Anchor Block, Eklutna project ...... &A13 Martin-Bering Rivers area ...... 3-B14 Bouguer anomaly, Prince William Sound region ...... 3.03, 3-C9 Anchor Point, ground water...... PA23 Ragged Mountains ...... 3-B19 Anchor River valley, landslides ...... SD7, SF17 rockslide ...... 3~B17,4-06 Boulder Creek . See Rocky Creek delta . 49 INDEX

Page Page Page Box Creek canyon ...... 2.E4, 2.E15 Chilean earthquake. 1822...... 3-143 Copper River. glacial melt ...... 4-Dl Bradley Lake. Cook Inlet area ...... 3.F24. 4-A7 1960 ...... 2.A38, 3.142 ice fracture- ...... 3.E10, 4-AS Braided Creek ...... 3-G21 China Poot Bay ...... 3-F24 location- ...... 3-~3 Breving Lagoon, barrier beach ...... 3-J8 Chiniak ...... 2-F3 reduction of discharge ...... 4-~33 Bridges, highway ...... 3.D39,3.E25, 6-Ct9 Chiniak Bay ...... 2-F18 tilting of river drainage ...... 3-135 railroad ...... Prof . Paper 646-0 Chiniak highway, damage ...... 3-D39 Copper River Basin- ...... Prof . Paper 643-E Bristol Bay...... 4-All Chinitna Bay, height of tides ...... 3-123 Copper River Basin, hydrology ...... 4-A19 British Columbia, hydrologic effects of Alaska Chirikof Island, uplift ...... 3-121 seismic respoilse of permafrost ...... 6-27 earthquake ...... 137, 4-1215 Chistochina ...... 3-E3 subsidence- ...... 3-E8 Brooks Range, oscillations on lakes ...... PA4 Chistochina Glacier ...... 4-D26 Copper River Delta, Cordova airport ...... 5-B4 Bruin Bay fault ...... 3-153 Chistochina Lodge, Glenn highway, damage . 3-E25 location ...... 3-B2, 4-A7 Buccellapigida ...... 2-A21 Chistochina River, location ...... 3-E3 mudvents ...... 3-B9 inusitata ...... 2-A21 Chitin...... 3-E3 subsidence craters ...... 3-B13 Buckner Building, Whittier ...... 2.B13, 2-B20 Chitina River, location ...... 3-E3 uplifted areas ...... 3-J5, 3-512 Buliminella curta ...... 2-A21 Chitina River flood plain, ground cracks .... 3-El7 Copper River flood plain, ground cracks .... 3-El7 Bureau of Indian Affairs...... 1-94 Cbitina Valley...... 1-97 Copper River Highway ...... 1.29, 5-C4 Buskin Lake, subsidence ...... 3-Dl5 Chugach MountAins, avalanches ...... 3.B14, Copper River Lowland...... 1.9, 1.10 3.B18, 4.B2 Copper River valley ...... 1-8, 1.92 C Cook Inlet area ...... 3-Fl Copper Valley Electric Co., damage ...... 3-E25 Cachar earthquake ...... 24320 crustal thickness...... 349 Cordova, airport ...... 5-B4 Cairn Point, slides ...... 2-A33 deformation ...... 3-153 communications and utilities...... 5-B24 California, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Eklutna Project ...... 5-A4 crustal thickness ...... 3-C9 quake ...... 137,4.C18, 4-C40 geographic relation to earthquake area.. .. 1.1, general damage ...... 1.97, 2-GI8 California earthquake of 1906...... 24220, 3-E8 1.3, 1-9, 2.A2, 2.B5 2.C1, 3-B2, 345, ground fractures...... 2-GI8 Camp avalanche ...... 3.B14, 3.B17 3.E2, 5-A4 ground water ...... 4-A20 Campbell Creek, Cook Inlet area ...... 2.A30, glaciation ...... 3-B19, 4.D36 reconstruction ...... 1.80, 1.88 3.F23, 4.A9 gravity values ...... 348 shipping- ...... 5-B10 Campbell Lake ...... 4.A7, 4-B4 icefields...... 4-Dl uplift ...... 2.G18, 4-D34 Canada, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- lake levels...... 4-D33 Cordova Building, Anchorage- ...... 2-A24 quake ...... I 4-1215 slides ...... 3-E24 Cordova Post Office, gravity values ...... 3-03 Cannon Beach, Oreg ...... 1-37 subsidence...... 3.C5,3.D28, 3.E8 Cove Creek ...... 2.B18, 5-B26 Cape Chiniak, seismic sea waves ..... 3.D30, 3-D35 uplift ...... 3-C5 Crab population, effects of earthquake ...... 1-36 Cape Cleare Station, horizontal control sta- Valdez Group ...... 3-C4 Craters . See Earthquake-fountain craters; tion ...... 3-G40 Chugach Mountains geosyncline ...... 2.E16, 3.E6 subsidence craters . Cape Hinchinbrook Light Station...... bB7 Chngach National Forest ...... 3-B1 Crescent City, Calif ...... 1.1.1.37 Cape Lisburne ...... 1.3, 2.A2 Chugach Range . See Chugach Mountains . Cretaceous rocks, Kodiak Island ...... 3-D7 Cape Saint Elias ...... 2-G33 Chugiak, ground water ...... 4-A19 Prince William Sound region ...... 3-C4 Cape Suckling, major zone of uplift...... 3-158 Clam Creek ...... 3-F18 Cretaceous to Jurassic deformatio~~...... 3-153 Capps Glacier ...... 3-F23 Clam habitat, damage...... 1-36 Cretaceous to Tertiary deformation ...... 3-152 Caribou Hills ...... 3-F2 Clark, Charles H., eyewitness report ...... 2-C9 Crosswind Lake- ...... 3-E3 Casement Glacier ...... 4-D26 Clear Creek ...... 2-E23 Crustal changes, Cook Inlet region ...... 3-F25 Caasidulina islandica ...... 2-A21 Clearview ...... 1-63 Crustal deformation, general ...... 3.18, 3-142 Casualties, Anchorage- ...... 2-A4 Cliff mine...... 2.C14, 2-C30 Crustal structure, local, relationto seismic Sur- Califorllia ...... 1-3i Climate, Copper River Basin ...... 3-E3 face waves...... 4-El8 Cape Saint Elias ...... 2-G33 Whittier ...... 2-B2 Chenega ...... 2-GI5 Coastlines . See Shorelines . 1) Kaguyak ...... 2-F2, 3.F375 Coastal Trough province ...... 1.8, 1.9 Damage. dollar value ...... 1-18 Kodiak area ...... 2.F2, 3-D45 College Fiord, crustal thickness ...... 3-C9 sumlllary . 1-19 from accidents and natural disasters ...... 1-5 gravity values ...... 3-C8 Danger Bay Creeks ...... 3-D27 from earthquakes during last 1,100 years . 1-4 icebergs ...... 4-D36 Deceptio~~Creek, Moiltague Island ...... 3-G13 Oregon ...... 1-37 Colony Glacier ...... 4-A4 Delaware, hydrologic effectsof Alaska earth- Point Nowell ...... 2-G24 Colorado, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- quake ...... 4-C19, 4-C40 Port Nellie Juan ...... 2-G25 quake ...... 44C18, 4440 Delta materials, Keilai Lake ...... 3-A12 Sawmill Bay...... 5-Bll Columbia Glacier ...... 4-A5,4.D4, 4.D33 Lawing delta ...... 3-A12 Seward ...... 2-El3 Communications, damage ...... 5-B18 Rocky Creek ...... 3-A22 south-central Alaska ...... 1-4 Compression, bridges ...... bD90 Ship Creek ...... 3-A18 Valdez ...... 2-Clo Connecticut, hydrologic effects of Alaska spreading ...... 3-A31 Whittier ...... 2-B6 earthquake ...... 4.C19, 44C40 Deltas and fans, railroad embankments ...... 5-D66 Cattle ranches, Kodiak Island area ...... 3-D43 Connors Lake ...... 4-B4 Delta River ...... 1-10 Cenozoic deformation, Prince William Sound Co~~solidatiol~subsidence ...... 6-21 Denali fault system ...... -. ... 3-154 region ...... 3-~5 Construction, areas of potential land- Denali Highway ...... 141 cenozoic tectonic movements ...... 3-144 spreading...... 5-D94 Denmark, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Chakatchama Lake ...... 3-F23 Continental shelf and slope, tectonic deform- quake ...... 4-C15 Chakok River, Cook Inlet area ...... 3-F17 ation ...... 3.D2 R,B.G4 Densities, rocks from Prince William Sound... 3-C5 Charleston earthquake ...... 2420, 3-E8 Controller Bay area, deformation...... 3-150 Dentalina sp...... 2-A21 Charlotte Lake...... 3-B19 Cook, I . P., eyewitness account of Alaska De Poe Bay, Oreg...... 1-37 ...... -... . Chemical quality of well water, A~lchorage earthquake...... 5-D3 Depth soundings, comparisons - 3-120 ...... Diamond Creek 2-Dl area BE Cook Illlet area . earthquake.^. prof. Paper 6.43-F Disenchantment Bay ...... 4-D38 Chena, vessel at Valdez dock ...... 2.~10 Cook Inlet, littoral drift ...... ED20 Dislocatio~ltheory, representatio~l...--.. - . 3-167 Chenega Glacier ...... 4-D34 ...... zone of subsidence 3.D28,3.E8, 3.F27 Drainage, glacially fed rivers ...... 4-D33 ...... Cheuega Island 1-36 Cook Inlet-Susitna Lowlal~d...... 1-9 Martin-Beriling Rivers area ...... 3-B26 Chenega village...... 1-17,1.94,1.016, 5-Bll Cook Inlet trough ...... 3-F2 Valdez ...... 2-C6 3-F23 Chester Creek, discharge ...... 2.A9, 4.A10, 4-02 Cooper Landing, general damage ...... 2-G36 Drift River, Cook Inlet area ...... 2-E38 mud fountains...... 2-A29 seiches...... 3-A28 Drill holes F.A. 1 and F.A. 2 ...... slide area ...... 1-57 side...... 3-A24 Drilling, onshore, Seward...... 2-E31 Chickaloon Bay...... 3.F3, 3.F25 Coos Bay, Oreg- ...... 1-36 Drilling and soil testing, Anchorage area ..... 2-All ...... Chigmit Mountains ...... 5-~4 Copalis River...... 1-37 Seward area 2-E26 Childs Glacier...... 4-~21 Copper Center ...... 3-E3 Dust coat, Chugach Mountains...... 3-B19 INDEX

E Page Page Page Eagle Harbor Creek ...... 3-D27 Fathometer profiles. Ship Creek delta ...... 3-A18 Geodetic measurements. horizontal displace- Eagle River ...... 2.A2, 2-A12 Fault Cove. Montague Island ...... 3-G27 ments ...... 3-040 Eagle River valley ...... 3-F23 Faults. amount of damage...... 6-30 Geographic setting, Afognak ...... 2-F28 Earthtlows, Homer ...... 2-D7 Kodiak Island area-...... 3-D27 Copper River Basin ...... 3-E2 Kodiak group of islands ...... 3-D21 major ...... 3-153 Homer ...... 2-Dl south-central Alaska ...... 4-A9 Martin-Bering Rivers area ...... 3-B26 Homer Spit ...... 2-D20 Earthquake-fountain craters, Martin-Bering Montague Island ...... 3-D28, Kaguyak ...... 2-F37 Rlversarea ...... 3-Bll Prof . Paper 649-G, 3-125, 6-12, 6-30 Kodiak ...... 2.F3, 2-F17 Economic pattern, effect...... 5-B7 Port Valdez ...... 2-Cl6 Kodiak Island area ...... 2-F3, 3-DS Economic planning, long range ...... 1-50 Prince William Sound Region ...... 3.C5, Montague Island ...... 3.G4, 3.H2 Edgerton Highway, damage...... 3-E27 349, 6-12, 6-30 Old Harbor ...... 2-F34 location...... 3-E3 relation to vertical displacements ...... 3-130 Geographic setting, Uzinki ...... 2-F33 Eiby, G . A., on ground waves.----.-...---... 3-E7 Fauna of Alaska, drainage ...... 1-34, 2-B6 Whittier ...... 2-B2 Eklutna Dam, earthquake effects...... 6-A6.6-21 See a2ao Seafood industry . Geologic setting, Afognak ...... 2-F28 Eklutna Glacier ...... &A1 Federal aid to Alaska, summary ...... 1-103 Aleutian Islands ...... 3-145 Eklutna Hydroelectric Project .. .Prof . Paper 646.A, Federal Aviation Agency facilities...... 5-B4 Anchorage ...... 2-All 6-21 Federal Disaster Act ...... 2-D9 Cook Inlet area ...... SF2 Eklutna Lake ...... 3.F20,4-A5, &A1 Federal Field Committee ...... 1-51 Copper River Basin ...... 3-E3 Eklutna River ...... 5-A4 Federal financial assistance...... 1-50 Eklutna Hydroelectric Project ...... 5-A4 Eklutna tunnel ...... 5-A8 Federal Reconstruction and Development highway system ...... 5-C2 Eklutna valley ...... SF19 Planning Commission for Alaska .. 146, Kaguyak ...... 2-F37 Elastic rebound theory ...... 6-13 1-103 Kodiak ...... 2-F17 Ellamar cannery ...... 5-Bll Fickett Glacier ...... 4-D21 Kodiak Island area ...... 3-D6 Ellamar Peninsula, gravity values ...... 3-Cll Fifth Avenue Chrysler Center, Anchorage.- 2-A24 Montagne Island ...... 3-04, 3.H4 Elmendorf Air Force Base ...... 1-73,2.A2, %AS&, Fill failures ...... &D60 Old Harbor ...... 2-F34 4-B4, b-B4 Finger Lakes ...... 3-F12, PA8 Prince William Sound area ...... 3-C5 Elmendorf Moraine ...... 2-Al2,2.A33, 5-B3 Fire, Seward ...... 1.23, 1-73, 2-E4, 2-E5 relation to damage...... 5-D95 Elphidiella groenlandica ...... 2-A21 Valdez ...... 1.23, 2-C33 Seward ...... 2-El6 Elphidium bartletti ...... 2-A21 Whittier ...... 1.23, 2.B6, ZB20 translatory slides ...... 2-A38 Elphidium clauatum ...... 2-A21 Fire Islmd ...... 4-Al9, A-Bl2 Uzinki ...... 2-F33 frigidurn ...... 2-A21 First Avenue slide area, Anchorage .. 1.57,1.59, 1.82 Valdez ...... '2-C3 ince~tum...... 2-A21 First Federal Savings and Loan Building, Whittier ...... 2-B3 subarcticum ...... 2-A21 Anchorange ...... 2-A24 Geometry and mode of failure of slides, Anchor- Elrington Island, gravity values ...... 3-Cll Fish Creek ...... 2.A29, 2.A61, 4-B6 age ...... 2-A40 Emergence . See Uplift . Fishing industry . See Seafood industry . Geometry of deformation ...... 3-124 Emmons Glacier, rockfall avalanche ...... 4-D26 Fissures . See Ground fractures . Geomorphic effects, Martin-Bering Rivers Engineering factors influencing damage inten- Fisaurina sp...... ?-A21 area ...... 3-B3 sity ...... 5-1247 Flood plains, active...... 6D93 Georgia, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Engineering Geology Evaluation Group ...... 1.57, inactive ...... 6D92 quake ...... 4.C19, 4-C4'2 2-A2,2-A10.2-A25,2-A43 railroad embankments ...... 5-D63 Gibbons, Frank, eyewitness account of, English Bay ...... 1.96, 4.036 Flooding, Valdez ...... 2-C6 seiching ...... 3-A17 Eocene to Oligocene deformation ...... 3-151 Flora of Alaska ...... 1-34 Girdwood ...... 154,1.100, 2-036 Epicenter ...... 1-1,2.A2, 2-E4,3.A2, Florence, Oreg ...... 1-37 Glacial deposits, Copper River Basin ...... 3-E6 3-D7,3.F1,3-J1,4-E16, F-D6, 6-8 Florida, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Kodiak group of Islands ...... 3-D7 Epicentral region, Prince William Sound ...... 3-C1 quake ...... 4-C19, 4440 Seward...... 2-El8 Erosion, coastal ...... 2.D24, 3-Jit Fluvial sediments, Copper River Basin ...... 3-E6 Glacial outwash terraces, relation to rail dam- Lakeview slide ...... 3-A7 Focal mechnism studies of earthquake .. 3-17, 6-13 age ...... 5-D92 Lawing slide ...... 3-A12 Forb.grass, food of the Canda goose ...... SJ18 Glacial till, earthflows ...... 3-D21 Montague Island ...... Prof . Paper 643-H Forest Acres, Seward ...... 1.63, 2-E34 Glaciation, Martin-Bering Rivers area ...... 3-B19 Ship Creek ...... 3-A22 Fort Randell ...... 2-A2 Glaciers ...... Pr4f . Paper 644.0, 6-21 Europe, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Fort Richardson ...... 2.A2, %B3 Glacier Island, gravity values ...... 3-Cll quake ...... 4-cis Fossils, Bootlegger Cove Clay ...... 2-A21 Glenn Highway ...... 1-29, Evans Island ...... 1.17,1.36,3-C4, 5.Bll Valdez Group...... 3-C4 SE3,3-E46,5A-l, 5-C4 Ewan Lake ...... 3-E3 Four Sewns Apartment Building, Anchor- Glennallen, damage ...... 3-E25 Eyak Lake ...... 4-A20 age ...... 2-A24 effects on wells ...... 3.E8, PA20 Eyak River ...... kc29 Fourth Avenue slide area, Anchorage ...... 1-57, ground motion ...... 3-E7 Eyewitness account, coastal area ...... 3-131 1.59, 1.73, 1.82, 2-A4, 2-A13, population ...... 3-E3 Homer ...... 2-D3 2.A27, 2.A38, 2-A41 Glennallen Road Camp, damage ...... '3-E25 Kenai Lake ...... 3.A17, 3-A88 Globigerina bulloides ...... 2-A21 Fourth of July fandelta ...... 2-E21 Kentucky ...... 4-CZ pachyderms ...... 2-A21 Fourth of July Point ...... 2.E13, 2-El6 Kodiak ...... 2-Fa Goat Mountain ...... &A1 Martin-Bering Rivers area ...... 3-B27 Fox Island-Andreanof region ...... 3-149 Qodwin Glacier ...... 2-E18, 2.E21 New Mexico...... PC30 Fox River, Cook Inlet area ...... SF17 Gold Coast, Oreg ...... 1-37 The Alaska Railroad ...... 5-D3 Fractures. See Ground fractures . Gold Creek delta ...... 2-C16 Valdez ...... 2-c9 Fritz Creek ...... 2.D1, 2-D7 Government Hill slide, Anchorage ...... 1-57, Whittier ...... 2-B5 Frost, relation to ground cracks .3-E6, 3.E13, 3-E24 1.59,1.73,1-82,2.A2,2.A27, 2-A63 2-A40 Fowa...... 1-34 Graben, use of term in Anchorage...... Graben rule ...... 2-A2, 8-A41 Fowa dialichua ...... 3-112, 6-35 Grain size of sediments, damage to highways . 6-C@ Fukni, Japan, earthquake ...... 2.A8, 2.C20 Fairbanks ...... 1.7, 2-B1, 2.122, 2-046 Granitic rocks, Prince William Sound region .. tC4 Fairbanks Committee for Alaska Earthquake Fur-bearing animals, Martin-Bering Rivers Gravel-coated snow cones...... 3-BZ2 Recovery ...... 2-123 area ...... SB27 Graveyard Point ...... 2-F28 Fairweather fault ...... 3453 Furrow, defined ...... 3-Ell Fairweather Glacier...... 4-D26 Gravity, changes caused by vertical displace- Fairweather Range, deformation ...... 3-153 G ments ...... 3-142 physiography ...... 1.8, 1-14, 3-J3 Gages. recording. uses ...... 6-34 Gravity survey ...... -...... Prof .paper 643-C Fan deltas, railroad damage ...... 5-D93 Gaging stations. instruments and records ..... 4-El0 Gravity waves...... 2-C20 Seward ...... 2-El8 Gakona ...... 3-E3 Grays Harbor County, Wash...... 1-37 Farshore waves...... 3-A8,3-All, &A22 Gallano Glacier ...... 4-D38 Great Cutch earthquake, India ...... 3-143 INDEX

Page Page Paw Great Indian Earthquake of 1897. See Assam. Harriman Glacier ...... PD36 Ice fractures. Bering L8ke ...... 3-B24 India. earthquake . Harvard Glacier...... PD4 Copper River ...... 3-E10, 4.A9 Greenstone. description- ...... 3-C4 Hawaii, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- general ...... 6-22 Greenstone belt, Prince William Sound ...... 3-C9 quake ...... 4423, PC43 Nelchina River ...... 3-El0 Grewingk Glacier ...... 2-D5 secondary damage ...... 1-36 Sanford River ...... 3-El0 Ground cracks . See Ground fractures . Hebgen Lake, Mont., earthquake- ...... PC1, PC5 Ice ridges ...... 4-A5 Ground fissures . See Ground fractures . seiching ...... %A29 Icebergs, College Fiord ...... PD36 Ground fractures, Anchorage...... 2-A27 Heiden Canyon ...... 1-17,2-C1, 2-C18 Icy Point, Alaska ...... 1-14 caused by landspreading and embank- Hidden Glacier ...... 4D38 Idaho, hydrologic effects of Alaksa earth- ments- ...... -5-D90 High-risk areas, Anchorage...... 1-56 quake ...... 4.C23, 4.C43 Chitina River flood plain ...... %El7 Seward...... 1.63, '2-E25, 2-E32 Iliamna Bay, height of tides ...... 3-123 Cook Inlet ...... Prof . Paper 634-F Valdez ...... 1-79 Illinois, hydrologic effects of Alaksa earth- Copper River Basin ...... %Ell Highways, Copper River Basin area...... 3-E25 quake ...... 4.C23, PC44 defined ...... %Ell Kodiak Island ...... 3-D39 Indian Creek, Cook Inlet area ...... 3-F16 deltas ...... PA15 overall damage...... 1.27, Prof . Paper 646-C Indiana, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Girdwood ...... >a36 See also names of highways . quake ...... 4423, 4.C44 highways ...... -5411 Hill Building, Anchorage...... 2-A25 Ingram, John, eyewitness account, seiching- 3-A28 Homer ...... 2-D7, SF12 Hillside Apartments, Anchorage...... >A25 Inoceramus ...... 3-C4 Jap Creek fan ...... 2-E34,PA114,5-D55, 6-098 Hinchinbrook Island, basaltic lavas ...... 344 Instrumentation and measurements ...... 6-40 Kmhemak Bay ...... 3-F3, SF24 submarine scarps...... 3-G26 Iowa, Alaska earthquake effects on ground Kenai Lake deltas ...... -&A33 Hinchinbrook Light Station ...... 2-021 water ...... 4-C23.4445 Kodiak ...... 2-F7 Hodge Building, Whittier ...... 2-B6, 2-B20 Iron Monntaln...... 2.E17, 2-E23 Kodiak group of islands- ...... *Dl3 Holocene deposits, Montagne Island...... 3-026 Isr-1, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Martin-Bering River area...... 3-B3 Holocene faults...... 3-153 quake ...... 4-C14 Matanuska flats ...... 2-B21 Holocene vertical shoreline movements ...... 3-155 Mineral Creek fiood plain ...... 5-D99 Homer ...... Prof . Pape~642-0 origin...... 3-E23 airport ...... 5-B5 Jackson Point ...... 2-C30 Portage...... 2-B21, SF19 cleanup and restoration ...... 140,l-88, 1-90 Jap Creek ...... 2.E15, 2.E17, 5-B25 relation to frost. 3-E6,3-E13, SE24 ...... ground fractures ...... SF12 $Tpp Creek canyon ...... 2-E4, 2.E14,2-E20, 2-E33 Robe River flats...... 2-B21 ground water...... PA21 Jap Creek fan, grand fractures...... 2-E34, Rocky Creek delta...... 3-A33,3-A37, bD76 risk classifications...... 1-63 PA114, lrD55, 6.D98 Seward...... %E4, 2-ESS shipping ...... 1-32,1.90, bB12 landslides ...... 2-El5 south-central Alaska. ... 3-B3,4-AS, lrD53, 619 subsidence...... 1.32 . lithology...... 2-E20 Tazlina Glacier...... 3-E24 1-90, 2-D4, 2-D13,2-D22, 3413 Japan, secondary damage ...... 1-36 theory of formation ...... 2-C20 Task Force recommendations...... 1-61 Japanese earthquakes...... 3.E8, 3-143 Tustumena Lake area ...... 3-F16 Homer area, landslides...... SF17 Jeanie Creek, Patton Bay fault ...... 3-018 ...... Valdez 2-C1,2-C18,2-C20, 2-C30 Homer Spit ...... -.----...... Prof . Paper 642-0 Juneau ...... 1-90 Victory Creek ...... %A37 beach changes ...... 3-J1 Jurassic rocks, Kodiak Island ...... 3-D6 Whittier ...... 2-B15 damage...... 1.63, SF14 Prince William Sound region ...... 3-C4 with compaction ...... 2-A27 gravel...... 5-B5 Jurassic to Cretaceous deformation...... 3-153 Womens Bay- ...... 2-F7 Hood Creek ...... 2-A61 Ground motion, Copper River Basin...... 3-E7 Hood Lake, landing strip...... 2-A9 general ...... 2-C20, 6-B mud fountains ...... PB4 Homer ...... 2-D3 Hope, general damage ...... 2-036 Kachemak Bay. beach erosion ...... 3-J4 Kodiak ...... 2-F19 runway ...... 5-B5 ground fractures ...... 3.F3. SF24 Kodiak Island area ...... 3-D7, %Dl2 subsidence...... 2-G37 location ...... 2-Dl Kodiak Naval Station...... 2-F6 Horgan, Lake Zurich, Switzerland, turbidity seiches...... 2-Dl4 Seward ...... 2-E4 current ...... %All subsidence...... 5-B12 Valdez ...... 2-c30 Horizontal bridge accelerations...... 5D91 Kadiak Fisheries cannery damage ...... 3-D43 Ground Water, affected by earthquake ...... 6-27 Horizontal compaction ...... 3-E23 drainage...... 3-Dl1 Afognak...... 3-D23 Horizontal displacements...... 3.126, &11 subsidence...... 3-D13, >Dl8 Anchor Point ...... PA23 Horizontal movements of mobilized soil ...... 6-16 Kaguyak, damage ...... 1-19,1.94, 2.F87 Anchorage area...... 4B4 Hot Springs Cove, B.C ...... 1-37 population ...... 3-D6 Bootlegger Cove Clay ...... PB13 Howe Sound- ...... 2-C17 property losses ...... 3-D3 Chugiak ...... P~l9 Hunter Flats, alluvial fan ...... &Dl15 subsidence...... 2-F38 Copper River Basin ...... 3-E8, PA19 flood plain ...... 5-Dl11 ...... Cordova...... 4-A~O Hurricane, Alaska ...... 1-26 Kaguyak Bay 2-F38 Kalgin Island, Cook Inlet area ...... 3-F24 fluctuation...... 3-E8 Hydrodynamic factors, selches ...... PE12 Homer ...... 2-D16.4A21 Kalsin Bay, damage to bridges ...... 3-D39 Hydrodynamic waves ...... 3-Dl2 ...... Kodiak Island area ...... 3-D23 seismic sea waves FC27 Hydrologic effects ...... Prof . Paper series 644 Kalsin River, damage to bridges ...... 3-D39 Seward...... 2-En, PA24 See also Ground water; individual feature or south-central Alaska- ...... PA13 Kansas, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- locality . quake ...... PC27, PC45 Ground-Water table, relation to ground Hydrology, definition of terms ...... 4-E2 Karluk, damage...... 2.F3, 2-F4O cracks ...... &El3 Hydroseism. definition ...... PC2 population ...... 3-D6 Growth limit, sessile intertidal organisms .... 3-112 from aftershocks...... PC34 Kasilof ~iver...... 3.F3,3-135, PA10 Gulf of Alaska...... 1-1, largest recorded outside Alaska ...... PC32 Kasitsna Bay ...... 2-D4 1-7,1-14,2-E2,2-E41,2-F3,2-F18, 3-E3 surface-water bodies ...... PC5 Katalla, Alaska ...... 1-41 Gulf of Mexico ...... 1-37 wells ...... 4.C4, PC6 Katmai Volcano, deposits ...... 3-D7 Gulkana ...... 3-E3 worldwide occurrence- ...... 6-23 Kayak Island, uplift...... 3-117 Gulkana Airfield, damage ...... 3-E25 See also Seiches. Kenai area, general damage...... 3437 Gulkana River ...... IE3 Hydroseismogram, definition...... 4-C2 ground water ...... 4-A21 Gulkana Upland ...... 1-10 ...... Nunn-Bush Shoe Co . well, Wisconsin. .. PC10 Kenai-Chugach Mountains 1.18, 3-D6 Kenai Formation ...... 2-D6 Hypocenter ...... 3-D7,3-E6, 3-14 H Kenai Lake...... Prof. Paper 6@-A Halibut Cove ...... 2-D4 fan delta ...... 5-Dl05 Hanning Bay fault ... 3.G6,S-G27,3-I25,3-144, 612 1 horizontal displacement ...... 1-40,3-134, &34 Harbors and ports...... 1.30, 5-BE Ice avalanching ...... 4-D6, 4.D36 Kenai lineament ...... 3-126 Harding Icefield ...... 2-B2, 2-E17, 4-Dl Ice cover, effects on lakes...... 4-A4 Kenai Lowland, Cook Inlet area..... 1.9.144, S-FS Harriman Fiord, gravity values ...... 3-C8 effects on streams- ...... 4-A9 ground water ...... PA21 INDEX

page Page Page Kenai Mountains. Eklutna Project ...... 5-A4 Land area affected by earthquake ...... 3-51 Lituya Bay. 1958 earthquake...... 1-14 geography and geology ...... 1.9, Land ownership, legalities...... 3-518 rockslide avalanche ...... 4-D26 2-All, 2.B2, >Dl, 2-E16, 3-C5. 3-D6. Land snails, effects of earthquake ...... 3-B27 Logging industry, Kodiak Island area ...... bD44 3-F1 . Landslides, Anchorage area .. 2-A9, 2-A21, I-ASO, Lone Island ...... 3-C4 glaciers...... 4-D36 6 0-76, 6-17 Long Island ...... SF18 icefields...... 4-Dl See a180 Turnagain Heights . Longshore material movement ...... 3415 lake levels...... PD33 Anchor River valley...... 2-D7 Louisiana, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- regional subsidence...... 3-D28, 3-160 Bering Lake ...... 3-Bl9 quake...... 4-C27, 4-C45 Kenai peninsula, airstrips...... 5-B5 Cape Saint Elias ...... 2-G33 Love wav e...... bD27 communities ...... 2435 causes...... 3-D22 Low-angle thrust theory ...... 6-13 location ...... 3-A2 Copper River basin ...... %Ell Low-water features...... 346 oil and gas...... 1-1W damage to highways ...... bC26 Lowe River ...... 2-C2,2.C7, 2-C14 power system...... 6B19 damage to railroad ...... &D72 Lowe River valley ...... 2-C1 rate of bluff recession ...... 3-519 effects on lakes ...... 4-A7 Lowell Creek at Seward ...... 2-E16, &A24 subsidence ...... 3-168 Homer ...... 2-D3,2.D6,2.D10 Lowell Creek canyon..... 2-E4,Z-E14,2-E18, 2-E33 waves ...... 3-123 Jap Creek fan ...... %El5 Lowell Creek fan...... 4-A15 Kentucky, hydrologic effects of Alaska Kenai Lake ...... %A3 Lowell Point ...... 1-63, 2-E13, %El6 earthquake...... 4427, 4445 Klutina Lake...... 3-E13, SE21 Lowell Point fan delta ...... 2-E21 Kiana Creek ...... 3-E21 Kodiak Island area...... 9-D18 Lower Tonsina Hill ...... 6427 Kiana Creek delta, subsidence...... 3-E21 Lake Charlotte ...... 3-B19 Lower Tonsina River bridge, damage...... 3-E27 Kiliuda Bay, subsidence ...... %Dl3 Little Martin Lake ...... 3-B19 Lucia Glacier...... 4-D39 Kiliuda Creeks ...... 3-D27 Meadow Creek delta ...... %A24 King Sahnon, community...... 2-044 ptior to the March 27 earthquake ...... 2-A66 Kiniklik, gravity values ...... 3-C8 Prince William Sound...... 6-16 Klondike ...... 1-98 Quartz Creek delta ...... %A24 Maclaren River,location ...... 3-E3 Kluane Glacier...... PD39 Richardson Highway ...... sE24 MacLeod Harbor, effects on raised beach. .... 9-HI Klutina Lake ...... 3-E3.3-E10,3-E13, 3-E21 Rocky Creek delta .. 3-A3, 3-A12,3.A22, bD76 Hanning Bay fault ...... 3-G27 Klutina River, diversion...... 3-E13, 4-A9 Seward ...... 2-En, 2-E14, 2-E28 Magnetic effects of earthquake ...... 1-33 location...... 3-E3 Ship Creek ...... 3-A12, 3-A18, 6B3 3.D7, 6.26 Knight Island, geology...... 344, 3-C6 south-central Alaska ...... 4.A7, 530 Main Sand Bay ...... 3-H27,3.H29, 3-H30 gravity values ...... 3-C8.3-C10,3-Cll Tokun Creek delta ...... 3-B19 Maine, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- shear zones ...... 3-C6 Tonsina Lake ...... SE21 quake...... 4.C28, 4.C46 Knik and Matanuska River flood plains ..... &Dl63 translatory ...... 2-AS8, 6-30 Malaspina piedmont glacier...... 1-14 Knik Arm, aquifers...... PA18 Turnagain ~rm...... 1A.30, bD73 Manitoba, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- as geographic boundary...... 1-18, Turnagain aeights .1.18, 1-57, 1-59, 1.73, 1-82 quake ...... 4-CIS 1-73,l-102,2-A2,2.A28,2-A30, 3-E3 2-A2, 2-A13, 2-A28, 2-A38,2-.459, 5-B4, Marathon Creek ...... &B25 discharge zones...... 4-B12 518 Marathon Mountain ...... 2-El7 Eklutna Project- ...... &A4 ...... Victory Creek 3-A3 Margerie Glacier ...... 4-D26 slides on west side 2-A34 ...... Valdez .. 2.C1, 2.C7, 2-C10, I.Cl.4, 2-C30, 2435 Marka Creek ...... 3-D27 Knik Arms Apartment Building, Anchorage. . %A26 Whittier ...... 2-B15, 2-B21 Mapsand other basic data, availability ..... 6.3, M2 Kodiak ...... Prof Paper 649-F Landsliding and lurching ...... 6D56 . Marmot Bay ...... 2-F28 city airstrip...... 5-B5 Landspreading, bridge damage ...... 3-A31, kD89 Marmot Island, landslides ...... 3-Dl8 communications and utilities ...... 6B24 construction in potential areas...... 5-D94 subsidence ...... 3-D25 Kodiak and nearby islands...... Prof . Paper 649-0 general...... 6-16 Martin-Bering Rivers area .... Prof . Paper 649-B Kodiak Island, coastal lakes...... PA8 new term proposed ...... 5-D57 Martin Lake, landslides...... 3-B19 Kodiak Island area, subsidence...... 3-D13, bB8 Lakeview delta, ground fracture...... >A33 snow corner ...... 3-B22 Kodiak Naval Station, damage .. 2-B6,3-D3, 5-B15 lateral spreading ...... 3-A4, 3.All Martin River Glacier, rockslid6avalanches ... 4-Dl3 subsidence...... 2-F10 slide...... S.AS, %A12 turbidity changes in lakes...... S-BI1 Laramide orogeny...... 3-152 Martin River valley...... 3.B2, 3-B19 Larsen Bay, damage...... 2-F3, 2-3'40 Maryland, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- ...... erosion by storm waves 3-115 quake ...... 4.C28, 4-C46 population ...... 3-D6 L Street Apartment Building. Anchorage.. .. 2-A26 Mass movements- ...... 6-14 Latouche Island, earthquake effects ...... 2-022 L Street slide, Anchorage...... 2-A43 Massachusetts, hydrologic effects of Alaska L-K Street slide area, Anchorage ...... 1-57. gravity values ...... bCll earthquake ...... 4.C28, 4.C46 Lawing aimtrip ...... 5-B5 1.59,1.82, 1.100; 2.A4,2.A22. 2-A27 Matanuska, railroaddamage ...... 5-Dl56 Lawing delta, batbymetry ...... %A12 La Coste and Romberggeodeticmeter G.17 .... 3-03 Matanuska flats, ground fracturing ...... 2.B21 seiching ...... >A28 Lacustrine deposits, Copper River Basin ...... 3-E6 Matanuska geosyncline...... 3-E3 slides...... 2-Al2, &A24 Kodiak Island area ...... >Dl5 Matanuska Glacier ...... 3-E25 subsidence...... %A29 LaGrange's equation...... 3-D37 Matanuska River, location...... 3.E3, 4-Dl Lake basins, tilting...... $194, SF26 waves ...... %A12 Matanusk&Valley,generaldamage...... 2-G45 Lake Charlotte, landslides...... 3-B19 Leamard Glacier...... 2-B3 geologic and hydrologic environment ..... 4-A23 Lake Clark-Castle Mountains fault ..... 3-F2, 3-F23 Lee's Guide Service, Glenn Highway, power system ...... 5-B19 Lake George ...... 3-F2 damage ...... 3-E25 Mayflower Creek, damage to bridges ...... 3-D39 Lake-ice fracture, Copper River Basin...... >El0 Legal problems. littoral rights ...... MI9 ...... Martin-Bering Rivers area ...... 3-B24 Legislation. special Federal...... 1-49 Meadow Creek delta, slide 3-A24 Lake Louise, location...... 3-E3 Leveling, comparison of preearthquake and Meares Glacier ...... 4-D4 Lake Louise Plateau ...... 10 postearthquake ...... 3420 Mercalli intensity, grouhd shaking ...... %Dl2 Lake Otis...... 4-B4 flrst order, at SeuTard...... 2-El6 Homer ...... 2.D3, 2.D18 Lake Rose Tead, bridge ...... 3-D42 Libya, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Karluk ...... 2-F40 subsidence ...... %Dl5 quake ...... 4414 Kodiak group of islands- ...... 2.F29, %Dl2 Lake Spenard ...... PB4 Limogram, seiching ...... %A25 Old Harbor ...... 2-F35 Lakes, Anchorage area- ...... CB4 Liquid limit, soils ...... %A15 Merian formula ...... 3-A25 as tiltmeters ...... 6-34, 3-F26 Liquidity index ...... 2-A16 Merrill Field ...... 5-B3 effects ...... 4-A4 Lisbon earthquake, seiches...... %A29 Mesozoic rocks, Prince William Sound region .. 3-C5 fluctuations in level...... 3.D24, 3-141. 4-A7 Little Martin Lake, landslides...... 3-B19 Michigan, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- icefractures ...... 3-B24, bD24, bE10, 4.A4 Little Susitna River ...... 4-All quake...... 4.C28, 4.C46 Lakeview delta, hathymetry ...... 3-A4 Little Tonsina River bridge, damage ...... 3-E26 ...... landslides ...... SA3, &Dl% Little Tonsina River landslide, Copper River Michigan basin, seiches- 4-El4 waves...... %A7 Basin ...... bE13 Middle Bay, damage to bridges...... 3-D39 INDEX

Page Pam Pam Middleton Island. crustal thickness ...... 349 Navigation aids ...... 5-B7 Palmer Peninsula ...... 1-36 general damage ...... 2-G34 Near Island...... 2-F18 Passage Canal...... 2.B2, 2.~5, 346, 5-~6 horizontal displacement ...... 3-130 Nebraska, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Pateoris hauerinoidea ...... %A21 uplift ...... 3-D28, 3-121, 3-160 quake ...... 4.C29, 4.C48 Patton Bay...... 3-~7 MUes Glacier- ...... 4-A4 Necanicum River- ...... 1-37 Patton Bay fault...... 3-G7,3.125,3-131,M44, 6-12 Millers Landing area, wave erosion ...... 341'2 Neck Point ...... 3-G7 Patton River ...... 3-G7, 3-GI6 Million Dollar Bridge...... 1-29, LC35 Nelchina Glacier ...... 3-E24 Patton River Valley, Patton Bay fault ...... 3-021 Mineral Creek ...... 2-C35 Nelchina River, ice fracture ...... %El0 Paxson ...... 3-~3 Mineral Creek bridge ...... bD40 Nelchina River delta, ground cracks ...... >El7 Paxson Lakes ...... 3-E3 Mineral Creek delta ...... 2-C16 Nellie Juan River ...... 4-D34 Penetrometer data ...... 5-D92 Mineral Creek fan...... 2-C1,2-C3, 2-C34 Nellie Martin River ...... 3-G20 Penny's Department Store Building, An- Mineral Creek flood plain, ground cracks ....-5-D99 Netland Glacier ...... 4-D3i chorage...... 2-A26 Mineralogy, Bootlegger Cove Clay...... 2-A19 Nevada, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Penstock, Eklutna project ...... bA13 Miners Lake...... 4-A7 quake...... 4-C29, 4-C49 Pennsylvania, hydrologic effects of Alaska Mines, effects of earthquake ...... 6-27 New, Lester, eyewitness account ...... 3-B27 earthquake...... 4431, 4-C51 Minnesota, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- New Hampshire, hydrologic effects of Alaska Per1 Island ...... 2-~4 quake ...... 4-C28, 4-C47 earthquake...... 4-C29, 4449 Permafrost, Copper River Basin ...... 3-E6, Mission Lake ...... SF18 New Jersey, hydrologiceffects of Alaska earth- 3-E13,4-A19.6-27 Mississippi, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- quake...... 4-C29, 4-C49 Perry Island ...... %a23 quake ...... 4-C28, 4-C47 New Madrid, Mo., earthquakes of 1811. 2-A38; 2-CZO Petroleum and natural gas facilities...... bB21 Mississippi delta...... 1-33 New Mexico, hydrologiceflects of Alaska earth- PhUippines, Republic of, hydrologic effects Missouri, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- quake ...... 4-C29, 4-C49 of Alaska earthquake ...... PC14 quake ...... 4-C28, 4-C48 New York, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Physical environment, effects...... 6-14 Modified Mercalli scale ...... 2-D3, 2-D18, 3-Dl2 quake ...... 4.C30, kc50 Physiographic divisions ...... 1-7 See also Mercalli intensity . New Zealand earthquakes ...... 3-143 Physiography, Copper River Basin- ...... 3-E2 Mollusk fragments...... 2-A21 News coverage, Task Force decisions ...... 1-65 Fairweather Range ...... 1-8,1.14, 3-53 Montague Island, beach erosion and deposition Niigata, Japan earthquakes...... 3-143 Kenai Lake ...... %A2 Prof . Paper 643-H Ninilchik ...... 4-A23 Martin-Bering Rivers area ...... 3-B2 faults...... Prof . Paper 64.9-ff, 3-C6,3-125, 6-12 Ninilchik runway...... 5-B5 relation to damage...... 6-D95 gravity values...... 3-C8 North American Standardization Pendulum south-central Alaska ...... 1.7.3.134 horizontal displacements- ...... 3-130 station ...... 3-C6 Piezometric levels ...... 4.B8, 4.B13 subsidence ...... 3-160 North Carolina, hydrologic effects of Alaska Pinnacle Rock ...... 2433 Uplift ...... 3-D28, earthquake ...... 4.C30.4-C50 Placer River flood plain ...... 5-Dl18 Prof . Papers 64.9-G,H, 3-I18,3-143, 3-112 North Dakota, hydrologic effects of Alaska Placer River Valley ...... 4-A15 Montague Strait, gravity values ...... 3-C9 earthquake ...... 4-C30, 4-CM) Plasticity index, soils...... 2-A15 Montana, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- North Sandy Bay ...... 3-H29,3.H33, 3.H38 Pleasant Valley, Nev., earthquake of 1915.... 3-E8 quake ...... 4-C29, 4-C48 Northwest Territories, Canada, hydroldgic Pleistocene deposits, Anchorage area ... 2.Al1, 2-A12 Moorcroft, J . W., eyewitness account of sliding-3-A28 effects of Alaskaearthquake ...... 4-C16 Copper River Basin ...... 3-E6 Moose Creek, Cook Inlet area ...... 3-F16 Nunn-Bush Shoe Co . well, Wisconsin, hydro- Point Campbell...... 2-A30 Moose Pass...... 1-40, 3-A28 seismograms ...... kc10 Point Hope ...... 1-3, 2.A2 Mount Blackburn ...... 1-11 Nyman Peninsula...... 2-F6, 2-F12 Point Nowell ...... 2-a24 Mount Fairweather ...... 1-8 Point Woronzof, Bootlegger Cone Clay ...... 2-A12 Mount Foraker ...... 1-9 0 landsliding ...... 2-A33 Mount Gerdine ...... 1-8 ...... Oceanographic effects...... 6-23 Polymorphina sp 2-A21 Mount Hayes ...... 1-9 Office of Emergency Planning...... 1.46, 1.94 Pony Point, Oreg ...... 1-37 Mount Hubbard ...... 1-14 Ohio. hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Porcupine Creek, delta ...... 3-A24 Mount Iliamna ...... 1-8 quake ...... 4.C30.4.C50 Porcupine Island...... 3.A3,2.A25.3.A30 Mount Logan ...... 1-14 Oklahoma, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Port Alberni, B.C ...... 1-37 Mount McKinley ...... 1-8, 2-All quake ...... 4430, PC51 Port Bailey, fluctuations in streamflow ...... 3-D24 Mount McKinley Building, Anchorage ...... 2-A26 Old Harbor, fluctuations in well levels ...... 3-D23 Port Bailey cannery, fluctuations in well Mount Marathon ...... 1-90 population ...... 3-D6, 2-F3 levels ...... 3-D23 Mount Pelee eruption ...... 1-5 property losses...... 1D3, SF24 Port Graham ...... 2-G37 Mount Saint Elias ...... 1-8 ...... 3.C8, 3.C9 seismic sea waves ..... 1.19, 1.94, %F36, 3-D32, Port Gravina, gravity values Mount Sanford...... 1-11 SD3.3, 3-D35, &All Port Gravina pluton, density...... 3-C10 Momt SpUIT ...... 3-145 subsidence...... 3-D16, SF34 Port Lions ...... 1-962-F28 Mount Susitna...... 3-F23 Olds River, erosion of bottom ...... 3-D37 See also Afoguak . Mount Vancouver- ...... 1-14 subsidence...... 3-D27 Port Nellie Juan ...... bBll, 8.Gd4 Mount Wrangell...... 1-11 Olympic Mountains ...... 1-8 Port Oceanic ...... -- ..... bBll, $.Gab Mud fountains- ...... 2-A29, 4-~4 Ontario, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Port of Anchorage area...... 2.A9, 8-A87 Mud volcanoes . See Mudvents. quake...... kc16 Port Royal, Jamica, 1692 slide ...... 3-A3 Mudcones ...... 3-B 13 Orca Group ...... 3-(24.3-C6,3-a4 Port Valdez ...... 1.36, Mudvents, Copper River delta ...... 3-B9 a let...... 1-32 8.C1, 2.C10,2.C14, PA26, bB15 Martin-Bering Rivers area...... 3-B8 Oregon, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Port Valdez valley ...... 2-C18 Muldrow Glacier- ...... 4-D38 quake ...... 1.37,4.C31, PC51 Port Valdez fjord ...... 1.17,1.40,2-C3 Munson Point- ...... 2-~3 Orogenies, south-central Alaska ...... 3-150 port Wells...... 1-36 Myrtle Creek, seismic seawavve...... 3-D34, 3-D35 Oshetna River, location ...... 3-E3 Portage, general damage...... 2-G40 Ostracodes ...... %A21 ground fractures...... 2.B21, 3.F19 N Ouzinkie . See Uzinki . railroad damage ...... 5-Dl39 Nankaido earthquake...... 3-143 P regional subsidence...... - . 5-D80 Narrow Cape. fluctuations in well levels ..... 3-D23 Portage Creek flood plain ...... 5- Dl18 ...... landslide 3-D2i P phases on seismograms ...... 5-D8 portage Glacier ...... 2-B2, PA4 seismic seawaves ...... 3-D30.3-D35 Pacific Border Ranges province...... 1.12, 3.D6 Portage Lake ...... 2.B2, PA5 Uplift ...... 3-D25 Pacific Coastal forest, Prince William Sound portage Pass...... 242 Narrow Cape spur road, damage ...... 3-D42 area ...... 3-B2 Ports and harbors ...... 1.30, 6.BB Narrow Strait ...... 2-F33 Pacific Mountain System ...... 1-8 Potatopatch Lake ...... 2.F19, 4.A8 Native Hospital slide, Anchorage .... 2-A41, 8-A49, Pacific Ocean basin ...... 1-7 potter...... 1.25, 2.M 2-A66 Palmer, damage ...... 3-F20,2.G45, 4.A23 Potter Hill landslidiug, Anchorage .... 2.A31, 5.D72 Native villages- ...... 144 electric power ...... &A1 power Creek ...... &A10 See a180 particular village . Palmer Creek tidal area ...... %D6 Power spectral density function, defined ..... INDEX

Page Page Page Power systems...... Prof. Paper 646-A, 5-B19 Rock densities. Prince William Sound ...... 3-C5 Sediment thickness. relation to seiches...... 4-El3 Powerplant, Eklutna project ...... 5-A15 Rockslides, Copper River Basin ...... 3-E24 Seiches...... Prof . Papers 644.c, E Precipitation, Copper River Basin ...... 3-E3 Kodiak group of islands ...... 3-D20 Anchorage area ...... 4-B4 Martin-Bering Rivers area...... 3-B2 Martin-Bering Rivers area ...... 3-B17 Cooper Landing ...... 3-A28 President's Disaster Relief Fund...... 147 on glaciers...... 4-DO, 4-D26, 615 definition ...... 2.F2,4.C2, PE2 Prince William Sound, biologic effects...... 1-34 Rocky Bay 2-G42 Homer ...... 2.D3, 2.D14 communities...... a-Gl1, 5-Bll Rocky Creek delta, bathymetry...... 3-A4 Kaehemak Bay...... 2-Dl4 gravity data...... 3-C10 ground fracture ...... $-ASS, 3-A37, 5-D76 Kenai Lake...... 3-A25, PA7 number of earthquakes ...... -4-D41 landslides ...... 3-A3,3-A12,3-A22, 5-D76 Kodiak Naval Station ...... 2-F17 structure of rocks...... 3-C5 railroad-bridge damage...... 3-A31 Lakes in south-central Alaskh ...... 4-A5 uplift...... 3-D28, 5-B8 Rocky Mountains, atmospheric effects...... 1-33 Passage Canal ...... 2-B18 Valdez Group ...... 3-C4 seiches...... 4E14 Seward...... 2-E41 water depths ...... 3-C9 Rogue River ...... 136 Snow River delta ...... 3-A28 waves ...... 3-A1 Romig Hill slide area, Anchorage.... 1-57,140, 1-82 Valdez ...... 2435 Property values, affected by earthquake ...... 3-J19 Rosdina sp ...... 2-A21 worldwide occurrence...... 6-23 Protelphidium orbiculare ...... 2-A21 Russian Jack Springs...... 4-B2 Seismic air waves...... 3-D38 Ptarmigan Creek ...... &A12 Seismic data, Copper River Basin ...... 3-E6 Puerto Rico, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- S Seismic effects, direct, Afognak- ...... 2-F28 quake...... 4-C31, 4C52 S waves ...... 5-D27 Anchorage ...... 2-A21 Puget Bay ...... 2-E41.2-G41 ...... Saddlebag Glacier...... 4-D2i Kaguyak 2-F38 Purple Bluff ...... 3-07, 3-022 Saint Eh-Chugach fault ...... 3.B2, 3.B19 Old Harbor ...... 2-F34 Saint Elias Mountains, deformation...... 3-153 Uzinki ...... 2-F33 Q physiography ...... 1.8,l-14, 343 Whittier ...... 2-Bll ...... Quartz Creek ...... 3-A30 Saint Paul Harbor, Kodiak ...... 2-F18 Seismic history, Homer 2-Dl8 Quartz Creek delta, landslide ...... 3-A24 Salmon Creek...... 2-E22 Valdez ...... 2-C7 Quaternary deposits, Kodiak Island ...... 3-Dl1 Salmon fishing . See Seafood industry; Biologi- Seismic sea waves, Afognak ...... 3-D33, 3.D44 Questionnaires, determining earthquakes' ef- cal effects. Cape Chiniak ...... 3-D30, 3-D35 fects...... 6-42 Salmon River flood plain, distribution of dam- Cape Saint Elias ...... 2-033 Quingueloeu2inaaeminula ...... 2-A21 age ...... 5-D98 Chenega ...... 1.94, 2415 Saltery Cove Creek...... 3-D27 Cordova ...... 2-018 Saltery Cove spur road, damage ...... 3-D42 crest heights ...... 3-D33 damage to bridges ...... 5432 Rabbit Creek ...... ?-A32 Saltery Lake, subsidence ...... 3-Dl5 damage to port facilities- ...... LD89 Radioactive contamination, Kodiak Naval San Andreas fault ...... 6-30 effects on stream mouths...... 3-Jll Station ...... 2-F17 San Diego, Calif ...... 1-37 San Francisco Bay, Calif ...... 137 generation ...... 3-138 Radiocarbon dating- ...... 3-159 Homer ...... 2-D4, 2-Dl8 Ragged Mountain fault ...... 3-153 San Francisco earthquake ...... 2.A8, 5-D23 San Juan dock, Seward ...... 2.E13,2.E23, 2.E28 Kadiak Fisheries cannery ...... 3-D43 Ragged Mountains, avalanches ...... 3-B19 Kaguyak ...... 2-F37 location- ...... 3-B2 Sen Rafael, Calif ...... 1-37 ...... Sand blows ...... 3-B8 Kalsin Bay LC27 Railbelt Reporter, damage from earthquake Kodlak ...... 2-F19 described...... 5-D3 Sand boils, Anchorage...... ?-A29 Kodiak and nearby islands ...... 4-All, 3-D30 Railroads See The Alaska Railroad Seward ...... 2-E38 . . Kodiak Naval Station ...... 3-11P, 5-B15 Raspberry Island...... 2-F3 Sand ejects blankets...... 5427 magnitude scale...... 6-36 Raspberry Straits, effects of tectonic deforma- Sand flows, effects on ground water ...... 4-A14 Montague Island ...... 3-026 ti...... 3-D44 Sand ridges...... 3-B8 Myrtle Creek ...... 3.D24, 3.D25 Rat Island earthquake ...... 3-149 Sand spouts ...... 2-E40 Narrow Cape ...... 3-D30, 3.D35 Rayleigh waves ...... 1-33, 5-D25 Sand vents, Cook Inlet area ...... 2-F4 Old Harbor ...... 1.19, Recent sediments...... 3-E6 Kodiak group of islands ...... 3-Dl5 1-94, ?.F36,3-D23,3-D33,3.D35, 4-All Recent tectonic history ...... 3-150 theory of formation ...... 2-C20 relation to vertical displacements ... 3.G48, 6.30 Reconstruction ...... Prof . Paper 541 Sanford River, ice fracture ...... 3-El0 Seward ...... 1-73,1.9l,?-E4,2.E13, 2-E41 Recording gages, uses 634 location ...... 3-E3 ...... Sitkalidek Island ...... 3-D35 Redoubt Bay, Cook Inlet area ...... Santa Cmz, Calit ...... 1-37 3-F23 south-central Alaska ...... 6-25 Reid mechanism of earthquake generation ..... 3-164 Sargent Icefield...... 2.82,4.D1, 4-D34 Saskatchewan, hydrologic effects of Alaska Terror River ...... 3-D34 Research, origins of earthquakes ...... 6-37 Three Saints Bay ...... 3-D30 Resurrection Bay ...... 1-73,2-E17, 5-B6, 5-D4 earthquake ...... 4-C16 Uganik River ...... 3-D34 Resurrection River...... 2-E15.2-Em Sawmill Bay ...... 1.17,2.C14,5-Bll, d.Gf8 Uzinki ...... 3-D33 Resurrection River flood plain, distribution of Sawmill Creek delta ...... 2-C16 whit tier^ ...... 1-99 damage ...... bDgs Schwan Glacier...... 4-Dl3 Womet~sBay ...... 2.F2, 3-D33 Resurrection River valley ...... 2-E17,2-E37, 4-A24 Scientific and Engineering Task Force and its Resurrection River-Mineral Creek bridges .... 5-D35 Field Team .... 1-16,1L51,?.E26,2.E41, Seismic Sea Wave Warning System ...... 3-D45 Rhode Island, hydrologic effects...... 4431, 4-C52 0-9 Seismic seiches. See Seiches . Richardson Highway, damage ...... 3-E26, 5-C4 Scientific benefits of earthquake ...... 6-32 Seismic shaking. Anchorage...... 2-A22 local subsidence ...... 5-C20 Scielltificpreparation for future earthquakes... 6-37 damage to bridge approaches ...... 5432 location...... 3-E3 Scott Glacier...... 4D31 Kodiak ...... 2-F6 landslides ...... 3-Ex SeabastoZobus...... 2-B8 Seward ...... 2-E4 subsidence ...... 5C20 Seafood industry, economic pattern ...... 5-B7 Seismicsurface waves, amplitude distribution . 6-23 uplift...... 2-Cl8, 3-123 effects of tectonism ...... 3-133 effect on lake ice ...... 4-A4 Richter magnitude, earthquake ...... 2-A2, Kodiak Island area ...... 3-D42 relation to seiches...... 1-33, 4-El5 2-E4,2-F2, 3-D7, 3-E6 Martin-Bering Rivers area ...... 3-B26 Seismicity ...... 3-14, 3-145 south-central Alaska ...... 1.25.3.Jl7.5-B6 first P pulse- ...... 5-~8 Seismographs, suitable networks ...... 6-40 River drainages, tilting...... 3-135 Seaside, Oreg...... 1-37 ...... Seismology, definition of terms 4-E2 River ice, Copper River Basin 3-EIO Seabastodes...... 2-B8 Roads . See Highways . Seldovia, airstrip ...... 5-B5 Sediment, relation to highway damage ..... 5-C43 cleanup and restoration ...... 1-80 Robe River ...... 242, 2-c21 Sediment compactio~l,Kodiak ...... 2-F18 geanticline ...... 3-E3, 3-153 Robe River flats, ground fractures ...... 2-~21 Kodiak Naval Station ...... 2-F7 general damage ...... 2-042 Roberts, Mrs . Hadley, eyewitness account of Seward...... 2-E40 shipping ...... 5-B13 Seiching...... 3-~17,3-~28 Whittier...... 2-~15 subsidence...... 2-Dl3 Rock avalanches, defined...... 3-B13 Sediment displacements, models...... 5-D90 Serpentine Glacier...... 4-D36 See a280 Rockslides . Sediment load, effects on streams...... PA13 Sessile intertidal organisms, growth limit. .... 3-112 INDEX

Page Page Subsidence-Continued Page Seward...... Prof . Paper 548-E Snow River ...... Talkeetua Mountains ...... 3-E8 air transport ...... 5-B6 Snow River bridge ...... 6D44 Tazlina Lake ...... 3-~21 cleanup and restoration ...... 1-73, 1-85, 141 Snow River Crossing, severe damage to road- Terror Lake ...... 3-Dl5 communications and utilities ...... 5-B25 ways ...... 5-CIO Turnagain Am-...... 5-029, sD80 damage to city wells ...... &A16 Snow River delta, seiches...... %A28 U.S. Coast Guard Loran Facility ...... 3-Dl5 port destruction ...... 1-17,l-31, kB7, 5-B12 Snow River valley ...... 2-E40 Valdez ...... 2-c18 railroad ...... bD96 Socioeconomic benefits of earthquake ...... 6-31 Whittier ...... 2-B9, 2B-15 shipping ...... 6B12 Soils, mobilized- ...... g-16 Subsidence craters ...... 3-B11 subsidence...... 2-El6 plastic limit ...... 2-A15 Subsidence zone ...... 3-120 Task Force recommendations...... 1-63 Seward...... 2-~27 Surface-water changes, Copper River Basin .. 3-E8 Seward Peninsula, strong oscillations on Valdez ...... 2-ci5 general- ...... 6-23, 6-31 lakes ...... &A4 Soldatna, ground water- ...... PA= Kodiak Island area ...... sD23 Shahafka Cove ...... 2-F18 runway ...... 5-~5 Surfacewaves amplitude...... 3-14 Shakespeare Glacier...... 2-B3 Soldatns-Sterling area...... &A22 Kodiak Island area ...... %Dl2 Shearwater Bay ...... 1-32,3-D13, 5-B15 Sound waves ...... 3-D13, 3-E7, 6-26 visible...... 6-26 Shearwater cannery- ...... 5-B15 South Africa, Republic of, hydrologic effects of Surprise Glacier...... 4-D26, 4-D36 Sheep Creek ...... SF18 Alaska earthquake...... 4-C14 Surveyor, gravity measurements . 3-C6,3-C9, 3.C10 Sheep Mountain, Copper River Basin...... 3-E25 South Carolina, hydrologic effects of Alaska Susitna Glacier...... 4-D38 Sheep Mountain Inn, Glenn Highway, dam- earthquake...... 4432, 4452 Susitna Lowland ...... 2.Al1, 3-E3 age ...... 3-E25 South Dakota, hydrologic effects of Alaska Susitna River, location ...... 3-E3 Shelby-tube samplea ...... 2-E27 earthquake ...... 4432, PC52 Sutton ...... 2446 Shelikof Strait ...... 2-F3, 3-D6,3-D33, 3-D35, 3-J2 South Fork Campbell Creek ...... kB2 Sutton branch line drainage...... &Dl57 SheMsh ...... 1-36,3433, 3-137, 3417 South-West Africa, hydrologic effects of Alaska landslide ...... 5-D79 Sherman glacier...... 1-14,4-06, 4-D31 earthquake ...... 4-1214 Swanson River oil field, Cook Inlet area.... 3-F12, Ship Creek, geographic relation to Anchorage. 1-100, Speciflc gravity, Bootlegger Cove Clay ..... 2-A18 3-F24, 3-140 1-102, 2-A9,2-A30,2-A36, PA9 Spruce Creek ...... %El7 T landslide ...... 3-A12,3-A18, 5-B3 Spruce Creek canyon ...... 2-E21 snowslide...... 4-B2 Spruce Island...... 2-F3, 2 -F33 Tailrace. Eklutna project ...... &A20 waves ...... %A22 Squarehead Cove, Cook Inlet area ...... 3-F24 Talkeetna geanticline...... 3-E3, 3-153 Ship Creek Bridge ...... 5-D45 Stair Station, horizontalcontrol station...... 3440 Talkeetna Mountains, description ...... 14, Shipping...... Prof Paper 545-B . Standard Oil dock at Seward. . 2-E13,2-E23, 2-328 1-IO,3-F2, &A4 Shore processes...... Prof Paper 648-J . Stariski Creek...... SF17 deformation ...... 3-153 Shorelines, Cook Inlet area ...... 3-F12, SF25 Steller Glacier...... CD13 location...... 3-E2 Homer ...... 2-D25 Sterling, groundwater ...... &A22 subsidence...... bE8 Kodiak Island area...... 3-D27 Sterling Highway ...... 3-F12, 5-C4 Tanana River- ...... &All Shoup Bay ...... 2-C1 Stewart, M.D., master of Chena, report ...... 2-C10 Tanya Lake, Cook Inlet area ...... SF16 Shoup Glacier stream delta...... 2-C16 Storm beaches, dmerences in heights...... 3-117 Tatitlek ...... 1-17, 1-94, 5-B11, 2-090 Shoup Spit ...... 2-C30 Stratigraphy, Copper River Basin ...... 3-E3 Tazlina Glacier, ground cracks ...... 1E24 Shuyak Island, lake levels...... 3-D24 Prince William Sound ...... 3-C1 Tazlina Glacier Lodge, damage ...... 3-E25 rockslides...... %DM Tazlina Lake, fluctuation...... %El0 subsidence...... 3-D25 Stream crossings, failures of embankments.. bD62 Streams, Anchorage area ...... 4-B2 location ...... 3-E3 Silt volcanoes ...... 3-B8 subsidence...... 3-E21 Silver Lake, gravity values...... 3-Cll Homer area...... 2-Dl5 south-central Alaska...... 4-A9 Tazlina River, location...... 3-E3 Sinkholes, filling of ice.walled...... 3-B21 Tectonics...... Prof . Paper 645-1 . Stream erosion. Montague Island...... 3-H7 Sioux Glacier. See Slide Glacier . see a280 Subsidence; Uplift . Sitka port, damage ...... bB7 Stream-mouth changes ...... 3410 Television, examination of earthquake dam- Stredow, changes...... 3-D24, 4.AfO. 3.141 Sitkalidak Island, cattle ranches ...... 3-D44 age ...... 6-A%, 6-34 landslides ...... 3-D20 Strike Creek, Montague Island ...... 3-Q14 Tennessee, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- seismic sea waves...... 3-D35 Submarine cable, Valdez to Sitka...... 2-C16 quake ...... 4-C32.4-C52 Subsidence, Afognak ...... 2-F29 subsidence...... 3-Dl5 Terraces, surf-cut Holocene...... 3-162 axis Uplift ...... bD25, 3-D28 of Kodiak-Kenai-Chugach Mountains- 3-120 Terror Lake, subsidence...... %Dl5 Sitkalidak Passage...... 2-F34 beaches and shorelines...... Prof . Terror River, seismic sea waves...... 3-D34 Sitkalidzk Strait, geography...... SF34 Paper 64.9-J, 3-141, 345.5 Terror River delta, subsidence ...... %Dl5 Buskin Lake ...... %Dl5 tectonic deformation- ...... bD44 Terror River gage, seismic sea waves- ...... 3-D35 ...... SitKinak Island, landslides ...... 3-D20 by consolidation 6-21 Tertiary aquifer, southcentral Alaska ...... &A19 Chugach Mountains ...... 3-E8 uplift ...... 3-D25, 3-121 Tertiary foothills, avalanches...... 3-Bl9 Skilak Glacier...... SF17 Cook Inlet region ...... 3-E8, SF27 Martin-Bering Riven area...... 3-B2 Skilak Lake ...... 3-A2, 3-F2, 3-F14, 8-Fly, CA7 distinction between local and regional- ... 6-36 Tertiary rocks, Kodiak Islands...... 3-D7 Skilak River Valley ...... 4-A15 effects on marine organisms...... 3-136 predominance of landslides ...... 3-022 Girdwood...... 2-Q36 Slana, ground waves ...... 3-E7 Prince William mund region ...... 3-C4 highways ...... 5429 Slide Creek, Montague Island- ...... 3-013 Tertiary to Cretaceous deformation ...... 3-152 Holocene ...... 3455 Texas, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Slide Glacier, avalanches .... 3-B14, 3-B17, &Dl3 Homer. .. 1-32, 1-90, 2-D4, SD13, &D28, 3413 quake ...... 4432, PC63 (N.B. Since publication of the earlier vol- investigative techniques ...... 6-36 The Alaska Railroad ...... 1.25, Prof Paper 646-0 umes of this series, the feature formerly Kachemak Bay ...... bB12 Anchorage...... 2-A8, %At3 referred to as "Sioux Glacier" has been Kadiak Fisheries cannery ...... 3-D13, %Dl8 Lakeview delta ...... 3-A31 officially named "Slide Glacier.") Kenai Mountains...... 3-D28, 3-160 land-level changes...... 3-123 Slides See Landslides, Rockslides, Snow Kenai Peninsula...... 3-158 . Seward...... 2.E13, 2430 avalanches Kiana Creek delta ...... 3-E21 . Whlttler ...... 2-B6 Kiliuda Bay ...... %Dl3 Small Business Administration's £02 program- 1-99 Theis, C .V., quoted ...... 4429 Snails, Martin-Bering Rivers area ...... 3-B27 Kodiak ...... 2-F19 Marmot Island ...... 3-D25 Thompson Pass. south-central Alaska ...... PA9 Snow avalanches, defined ...... 3-B13 Montague Island...... 3-160 Thrall, Mr., eyewitness account of seiching. . 3-4128 Kodiak Island ...... %Dl8 Old Harbor...... 2-F35 Three Saints Bay, seismic sea waves- ...... 3-D30 Martin-Bering Rivers area ...... 3-B14 Olds River ...... 3-D27 Thrust faults. model...... 3-164 on glaciers ...... 3-E24,4.M, 4-D36 Portage ...... bD8O relation to seiches...... &El3 Seward ...... ~~14,~~33 regional- ...... 3-E8,3-18, 6-D80 Tiekel River ...... 3-E10, 3-E27, k4A9 Seldovia...... %Dl3 Thumb Cove...... 2-El7 Louisiana River...... 3~-10 short term ...... 3-160 Thurston Canyon ...... -...... ---... 2-D7 Snowcones, gravelcoated ...... 3-B22 Sbugak Island ...... 3-D25 Tidalbench marks, height relative to sea level . 3-119 INDEX

Page Page Page Tidal glaciers. dlrect effects of the 1964 earth- United Kingdom. hydrologic effects of Alaska Victory Creek. diversion...... %A33 quake ...... PD36 earthquake...... 4-C 15 ground fracture ...... %A37 Tidal inlets, Homer- ...... 2-D27 United States. hydrologic effects of Alaska Victory Creek delta, landslide ...... 3-A3 Tidal waves . See Seismic sea waves. earthquake ...... PC16 Viekoda Bay ...... 3-Dl5 Tidegage readings, pre- and postearthquake .. 3-110 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, reconstruction- 1-70 Virgin Islands, hydrologic effects of Alaska Tides, Kodiak ...... 2-F18 1-81, 2-E24 earthquake...... 4433, CC63 Kodiak group of islands- ...... 3-D6 U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, releveling. . 3-E8 Virginia, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Tiekel River, snow avalanche ... 3.E10,3-E27, PA9 revision of nautical charts...... 5-B8 quake...... 4433, CC53 Tikke Qlader ...... PD39 U.S. Coast Quard Loran facility, subsidence 3-D15, Volcanic ash, earthflows...... 3-D21 Tilley, Jerry, eyewitness report...... 2.F22, 3-D30 Uplift, beaches and shorelines.... Prof . Paper 643-J Volcanic eruption, Homer- ...... 2-Dl8 Tilting, lake basins...... 3-A29,3-134, 6-34 Chugach Mountains ...... 3-C5 Volcanic rocks, Kodiak group of islands...... 3-D7 Tilting, river drainages...... 3-135 Copper River Basin ...... 3-E8 Orca Group ...... 3-C4 Time of earthquake...... 1.1, Cordova ...... 2-Q18, PD34 Z.A2,2-BS,2-C1,2-D3,2-E4,2-F2,3-14,3-J1,6-2 distribution ...... 6-11 W Tok Junction- ...... 3-E3 effects on biota ...... 3-136 Wakefield cannery ...... -. - 3419 Tokun Creek delta, landslide ...... 3-B19 Ellamar cannery...... 6Bll Washington. damage from sea waves...... 1-37 Tokun Lake ...... 3-B2, 3.B19 Holocene ...... 3-165 hydrologic effects of Alaska earthquake Tonsina Lake, effects of earthquake ...... %El0 Kayak Island ...... 3-117 PC33,4-C.54 landslides...... 3-E21 major zone ...... 3-121 Wasilla...... PA23 location...... 3-E3 Martin-Bering Rivers area...... 3-B26 Water levels, causes of residual changes...... kB10 Tonsiua Lodge, damage...... 3-E25 Middleton Island ...... 3-D28,3-121, 3-160 expanded-scalerecords...... PC10 Tonsina River, ice jam ...... >En, PA11 Montague Island ...... 3-D28, recorders and charts...... PC5 location...... 3-E3 Prof . Papers 6@-0, H, 3-118, 3-143, SJ12 wells at Homer ...... 2-Dl7 snow avalanche- ...... 3-El0 Narrow Cape ...... 3-D25 Water quality, Homer ...... 2-D15, *Dl8 Topographic strike, relation to fractures...... 3-B5 Prince William Sound...... bD28, 5-B8 Water storage, changes...... 4-A8 upper Martin River valley ...... 3-B5 relation to seismic sea waves...... 6-3 Water-system structures, damage...... PA9 Tortuous Creek, Montague Island ...... 3-013 Sitkalidak Island ...... 3-D25, 3-D28 Water table, depth ...... kc44 Patton Bay fault...... 3-016 Sitkinak Island ...... 3-D25, 3-121 response...... PB6 Tourism i...... 1-103 Valdez...... 2-C18 Water transport, affected by earthquake- ..... 5-B6 Tradihg Bay, Cook Inlet area...... 3-F23 Upper Trail Lake ...... &Dl11 Waves, backfill- ...... 3-A7,3-A12, %A22 Trail Lake ...... PA7 Utah, hydrologic effects of Alaska earthquake ground . See Ground motion . Trail River...... %A12 4433, PC63 local ...... 2-B6, 2-B18, 2-C14, 2-C30, 2-024, Trail River valley, lower ...... &Dl08 Utilities ...... 2-A4, 5-B18 3-A7, 3-A12, 6-24 Translatory landslides, Anchorage...... 6.17, 2-A38 See also Eklutna Hydroelectric Project . sound ...... 3-D13, 3-E7, 6-86 Transmission lines, Eklutna project...... &A23 Uyak Bay ...... 2-F40 types ...... -...... 2-E41 Transportation...... 1.25, Prof . Paper 646-B Uzinki, archeologic remains ...... 6-28 source mechanism...... 3-138 Trenches TP-1 and TP.2...... 2-E38 damage...... 2-F2.2-F33 See also Seiches; seismic sea waves . Triassic rocks, Kodiak Island- ...... 3-D6 ground waves ...... &Dl2 Waxell Ridge ...... 4-Dl3 Trinity Islands...... 1-5 population ...... 3-D6 Wells, Anchorage area ...... 4-B6,4-A13.6-22 Troublesome Creek delta ...... 3-F20 property losses...... 3-D3 damage...... PA16 Tdna Lodge, Richardson Highway damage .. 3-E25 seismic sea waves ...... 3-D33 fluctuationsinlevel- .. 3-D23,PC39,4-A13, 6-27 Tsunami, definition ...... 2-F2 subsidence...... 2-F34 Qlennallen...... 3-E8, 4420 See also Seismic Sea Waves . Uzinki cannery, damage ...... 3-D43 Homer ...... 2-Dl7 ...... Tugidak Island ...... - ..... 2.F3, 3.D6 Seward %El6 Tunnels, effects of earthquake...... 6-27 Well-aquifer systems ...... 4-B6 Turbidity changes, lakes on Martin River West Anchorage High School...... --...... 2-A27 glacier...... 3-B21 West Virginia, hydrologic effects of Alaska Vaiont Dam. over.topping ...... %All earthquake...... 4433, PC54 Turbidity current, Horgan, Lake Zurich, Valdez ...... Prof Paper 6484 . Whidbey Bay ...... 2-E41, .%Up Switzerland...... 3-All cleanup and restoration 1-40,1.79,1-85, 1.98 ..... Whittier ...... Prof . Paper 642-B Turnagain Arm, biologic effects ...... 1-34 communications and utilities ...... 5-B25 air transport ...... 5-B6 fractures in roadway ...... 5-C14 gravity values ...... 3-C6 cleanup and restoration ...... 1.17,l-99, 1.80 geographic boundary feature ...... 1.100, ground fracturing...... 2-B21 communications and utilities- ...... kB26 2.A2,2-B2,2-E16,3-F3, PA18, 4-B 12 port and harbor ...... 1-31.5-B7 railroad facilities...... 5-D2,5-D4, 5-DS8 landslides- ...... 8.A30, 5-D73 recommendations of Task Force...... 1-66 Whittier to Portage rail line ...... &Dl38 shipping ...... 5-B15 subsidence...... 5429, 5D8O Wildfowl...... 3-J17 Turnagain Heights, landslide...... 1-18, water wells...... 4-A17.4.A.26 Williston basin, seiches ...... 4-El4 1-57,l-59,l-73.1-822-A2,2-A13,2-A28, Valdez Arm ...... 1-98,344, 3-C6 Windy Point, Cook Inlet area ...... 3-F16 2-A38.b-A69.5-B4,6-18 Valdez Development Corp...... 1-99 Wisconsin, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Tustumena Lake, Cook Inlet area...... 3.F2, Valdez Glacier...... 2.C2.2-C6,2-C14, 2-C33 quake ...... 4.C33, 4.C54 3.F14, PA6, PA16 Valdez Qlacier valley ...... 2-C1 Wolcot Mountain alluvial fan...... 5-Dl03 tilting of basin ...... ~1% Valdez Qroup, description ...... 2-C3, 3-C4 Womens Bay, damage to bridges...... 3-D39 Valdez Narrows ...... 2-C1,2-Cl0,2.C30 Tuxedni Bay, height of tides- ...... 3-123 ground fractures...... 2-F7 Valdez outwash delta ...... 2416, 2C35 Tuxedni Channel, Cook Inlet area...... 3-F23 seaplaneramps ...... 5-B4 Valley alluvium, Seward...... 2-E21 Twentymile River bridge ...... 6~45 seismic sea waves ...... 2-F3, 3-D33 Variegated Qlacier ...... 4-D39 Twentymile River flood plain ...... 5-~118 Woods Canyon ...... 1-10.4-A9 Vegetation, indication of subsidence ...... 3-D27 Twin Creek, damage to bridges...... 3-1339 Woody Island ...... 2418 Vermont, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Tyonek ...... 3-F2, $444 Worldwide geodetic meter ...... 3-C6 quake...... 4433, PC53 Worthington Glacier...... 3-E26 Venuearia ...... 3-112 ...... U Wrangell Mountains. 1-8,l-10,3-E2, 3-145 Vibration damage, Anchorage...... 2-A22 Wyoming, hydrologic effects of Alaska earth- Ugak Bay...... %Dl5 Cordova airport...... 2-Q18 quake ...... 4-C33, 4454 Uganik Island...... 2-F3 Cape Saint Elias ...... 2-Q33 Uganik River, seismic sea waves...... 3-D34 geologic control...... 8-046, G28 umiat...... 14,2.~2 surface...... 6-9 Unakwik Inlet, epicenter ...... 2-E4, 3-E6, 3-J1 Vibration tests, Bootlegger Cove Clay ...... 2-A17 Yakutat. earthquake of 1899...... 1.12.2.C6. 4.D37 Uniform Building Code for Seismic Zone 3 ... 1-63 Vicory Creek ...... 3-A3 general damage...... 2-Q35 Unimak Island...... 1-3 See Victory Creek . Yakataga- ...... 2-Q34, 3-J1 United Arab Republic, hydrologic effects of Victor Creek ...... 3-A3 Yale Glacier...... PD4 Alaska earthquake...... *-. PC14 See Vlctory Creek . Yanert Qlacier ...... 4-D38

U.S. GOYERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1970 0 359-625

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