The Journal of the International Society for IJFM Frontier Missiology Int’l Journal of Frontier Missiology
The Globalization of the Frontiers
163 From the Editor’s Desk Brad Gill Reassessing “Peoples” in the Global Push-and-Pull.
165 Articles
GLOBALIZATION AND IDENTITY 165 Globalization, Christian Identity, and Frontier Missions Todd M. Johnson Are we “global citizens with tribal souls”? 170 ISFM 2010 Report: Contesting Ethnicity, Religion and Globalization Brad Gill Exploring hidden assumptions about hidden peoples. 171 “Glocal” Japanese Self-Identity: A Missiological Perspective on Paradigmatic Shifts in Urban Tokyo Gary Fujino Do the Japanese portray a new anthropology of globalization? 183 A New Mission Tool in Creative Access Nations: Christian Virtual Community in China Enoch J. Kim Can virtual community translate into church?
BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION 189 Diverse Voices: Hearing Scripture Speak in a Multicultural Movement Kevin Higgins Can our translation of scripture dare respect a traditional Quranic mindset? 197 Contextualizing Religious Form and Meaning: A Missiological Interpretation of Naaman’s Petitions (2 Kings 5:15-19) Daniel Shinjong Baeq How does Old Testament narrative confront syncretism?
208 Book Reviews & Notes 208 The Field Is the World: Proclaiming, Translating, and Serving by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1810-40 209 Introducing Cultural Anthropology: A Christian Perspective
211 In Others’ Words 2 October–December7:4 2010 www.ijfm.org New Books! from William Carey Library
Suff ering: Christian Global Member Care: Refl ections on the The Pearls and Perils Buddhist Dukkha of Good Practice What is dukkha? In Buddhism this Th is is a long-awaited new release word encompasses the concepts from Kelly O’Donnell. Th is of disease, unsteadiness, sorrow, begins a new series launching the and lack of inner calm. In English member-care fi eld further into the it is usually translated simply as international world of mission/aid. “suff ering”. However it is defi ned, Part One reviews member care dukkha is central to understanding Buddhism. history and includes future Th is is a collection of articles by global Christ followers for directions in light of global realities. Part Two examines the those who want to delve deeper into one important aspect crucial area of health/dysfunction with specifi c suggestions of Buddhist worldview. It is written for the practitioner for good relationships, management, and governance. Part privileged to live and serve in the Buddhist context, and Th ree explores core ethics and human rights principles that for the Buddhist seeking to understand the Christian are essential for good practice. perspective on existence in today’s world where suff ering is our ever-present reality.
ISBN 978-0-87808-0243 ISBN 978-0-87808-1134 Our Price: $14.39 Our Price: $13.59 Editor: Paul De Neui 3 or More: $9.89 Editor Kelly O’Donnell 3 or More: $9.34 Pages 234 | Paperback, 2011 Pages 287 | Paperback, 2011
From Seed to Fruit English Language Enlarged 2nd Edition Teaching in Th is continues to present the ENGLISH Theological Contexts ongoing collaborative research of LANGUAGE International students in North TEACHING people from many organizations in Theological American seminaries struggling desiring to bless Muslims. Seven Contexts with academic work in English … additional chapters survey major Regional seminaries in Asia, Africa, trends in global Islam today and and Europe educating people from explore themes that prove to many language backgrounds by off ering instruction in English … have considerable infl uence on Th e time has come to acknowledge English for Bible fruitfulness, including a new chapter on building Christlike and Th eology, along with specialized program design, relationships with Muslims. materials, and instruction. Th e Global Trends Research Group has continued to Th is explores various models for assisting seminary and update the demographic materials on Muslim people Bible college students in learning English while also groups, their access to Christian witness, and when and engaging in their theological coursework. Part One how Christian groups covenant to provide meaningful presents language teaching challenges and solutions in access. Th is is included in the updated CD-ROM that various places; Part Two focuses on specifi c resources to accompanies the new edition. inspire readers to develop their own materials.
ISBN 978-0-87808-0366 ISBN 978-0-87808-4647 Our Price: $16.79 Our Price: $11.19 Editor: J. Dudley Woodberry 3 or More: $11.54 Editor: Kitty Purgason 3 or More: $7.69 Pages 460 | Paperback, 2011 Pages 224 | Paperback, 2011
www.missionbooks.org • 1-800-MISSION From theEditor’s Desk IJFM Reassessing “Peoples” in the Global Push-and-Pull October–December 2010 Volume 27:4
lobalization is a much contested term, but there’s no debate that it’s Editor G transforming civilization as we know it. The Western unidirectional Brad Gill fl ow of modernity has suddenly turned multidirectional, and the inability to Editor-at-Large predict outcomes is evident in a torrent of competing scholarship. Amidst Rory Clark all this analysis, our journal wishes to focus on a single question: how does Consulting Editors globalization impact populations and peoples where a vital and authentic Rick Brown, Gavriel Gefen, Herbert Hoefer, movement of the gospel has yet to take place? Rebecca Lewis, H. L. Richard, Steve Saint Layout Our ISFM meetings last Fall launched our study of globalization, and the Anya Gandy addresses by Todd Johnson and Gary Fujino are included herein. While Secretary both include perceptive defi nitions of globalization, they each independently Karen Watney narrow their focus to the question of identity. Whether cultural, social or Publisher religious, the inner compass of identity will determine a person’s preferences Bradley Gill, representing the student-level and orientation when the gospel is received and believed. Johnson offers a meeting at Edinburgh 1980. broad perspective on Christian identity, while Fujino offers a street-level 2010 ISFM Executive Committee feel for the intersecting identities of Japanese in modern Tokyo. We added Greg Parsons, Brad Gill, Rory Clark, Darrell Dorr Enoch Kim’s study of the “YEU” of China (a social demographic of “Young, Educated, and Urban”) to bend the subject of identity towards the ques- Web Site tion of community (church) and how global technologies may be strategic in www.ijfm.org restricted areas of the world. We hope this is a good start on the subject. Editorial Correspondence We fi nd ourselves grateful for the academy and the Ph.D. process, for it 1605 E. Elizabeth Street forces frontier practitioners to get their thinking into print. Two biblical Pasadena, CA 91104 studies, one by Kevin Higgins and his translation team, and the other by (626) 398-2108, [email protected] Daniel Baeq, keep us alert to biblical interpretation when encountering dif- fi cult issues on the frontier. Subscriptions One year (four issues) $18.00 Finally, make sure to read Edwin Zehner’s review of a new cultural anthro- Two years (eight issues) $34.00 pology textbook by Howell and Paris. It carries a whole section on the Three years (twelve issues) $48.00 Single copies $4.00, multiple copies $3.00 anthropology of globalization, but uniquely fi ltered through the minds and Payment must be enclosed with orders. hearts of two authors who share a deep concern for Christian mission. Please supply us with current address and We need to apologize for the lateness of this issue. A perfect storm of domes- change of address when necessary. tic, editorial and production transitions kept this from going to press. We Send all subscription correspondence to: hope to make it up to you. IJFM 1605 E. Elizabeth Street Pasadena, CA 91104 Tel: (626) 398-2119 Fax: (626) 398-2101 Brad Gill Email: [email protected] Senior Editor IJFM (ISSN #0743-2529) was established in 1984 by the International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions. It is published quarterly. The views expressed in IJFM are those of the various authors and not necessarily those COPYRIGHT ©2010 International Student of the journal’s editors, the International Society for Frontier Missiology or the society’s Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions. executive committee. PRINTED in the USA 164 IJFM & Perspectives, Who We Are IJFM & Related Perspectives Lesson and Section
Whether you’re a Perspectives instructor, student, or coordinator, you can continue to explore issues raised in the course reader and study guide in greater depth in IJFM. For ease of reference, each IJFM article in the table below is tied thematically to one or more of the 15 Perspectives lessons, divided into four sections: Biblical (B), Historical (H), Cultural (C) and Strategic (S). Disclaimer: The table below shows where the content of a given article might fi t; it does not imply endorsement of a particular article by the editors of the Perspectives materials. For sake of space, the tablee onlyonly includesinclud lessons related to the articles in a given IJFM issue. To learnarn momorere about the Perspectives ccourse, visit www.perspectives.org.
Articles in IJFM 27: 4 The livingLesson God 1: Is a Missionary (B) God Lesson 9: The Task Remaining (H) Lesson 10: How Shall They Hear? (C) Lesson 11: Building Bridges of Love (C) Lesson Pioneer 14. Church Planting (S)
Globalization, Christian Identity, and Frontier Missions Todd M. Johnson XX (pp. 165–169)
“Glocal” Japanese Self-Identity: A Missiological Perspective on Paradigmatic Shifts in Urban Tokyo XXX Gary Fujino (pp. 171–182)
A New Mission Tool in Creative Access Nations: Christian Virtual Community in China Enoch J. Kim XX (pp. 183–188)
Diverse Voices: Hearing Scripture Speak in a Multicultural Movement Kevin Higgins (pp. 189–196) XX
Contextualizing Religious Form and Meaning: A Missiological Interpretation of Naaman’s Petitions XXX Daniel Shinjong Baeq (pp. 197–207)
The IJFM is published in the name of the International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions, a fellowship of younger leaders committed to the purposes of the twin consultations of Edinburgh 1980: The World Consultation on Frontier Missions and the International Student Consultation on Frontier Missions. As an expression of the ongoing concerns of Edinburgh 1980, the IJFM seeks to:
promote intergenerational dialogue between senior and junior mission leaders; cultivate an international fraternity of thought in the development of frontier missiology; highlight the need to maintain, renew, and create mission agencies as vehicles for frontier missions; encourage multidimensional and interdisciplinary studies; foster spiritual devotion as well as intellectual growth; and advocate “A Church for Every People.”
Mission frontiers, like other frontiers, represent boundaries or barriers beyond which we must go yet beyond which we may not be able to see clearly and boundaries which may even be disputed or denied. Their study involves the discovery and evaluation of the unknown or even the reevaluation of the known. But unlike other frontiers, mission frontiers is a subject specifi cally concerned to explore and exposit areas and ideas and insights related to the glorifi cation of God in all the nations (peoples) of the world, “to open their eyes, to turn them from darkness to light and from the power of Satan to God.” (Acts 26:18)
Subscribers and other readers of the IJFM (due to ongoing promotion) come from a wide variety of backgrounds. Mission professors, fi eld mis- sionaries, young adult mission mobilizers, college librarians, mission executives, and mission researchers all look to the IJFM for the latest thinking in frontier missiology. Who We Are International Journal of Frontier Missiology Globalization and Identity Globalization, Christian Identity, and Frontier Missions by Todd M. Johnson
n compiling the recently published Atlas of Global Christianity, 1910–2010, it became clear that there was much to be said regarding globalization and I Christian identity, and their impact on frontier missions. I noticed in ever- increasing detail two developments across the demography of Christianity and frontier missions: 1) Numerically, Christianity has shifted to the Global South. 2) Amidst all the global migrations and increasing proximity of once distant peoples, Christians have maintained limited contact with Muslims, Hindus and Buddhists. These and several other signifi cant trends have been mapped, graphed, and analyzed in the Atlas, with its special focus on religious tradi- tions, religious freedom, religious diversity, and religious affi liation both at the global and provincial level. Trend 1. Christianity Shifts to the Global South Demographically but Not Culturally. At fi rst glance there has been little change in the status of global Christianity over the past 100 years. For the entire 100-year period, Christians have made Todd M. Johnson is Research Fellow in the Study of Global Christianity and up approximately one-third of the world’s population. This, however, masks Director of the Center for the Study dramatic changes in the geography of global Christianity. While 66% of all of Global Christianity at Gordon- Christians lived in Europe in 1910, by 2010 only 26% lived there. By contrast, Conwell Theological Seminary. Johnson is visiting Research Fellow at Boston fewer than 2% of all Christians lived in Africa in 1910, skyrocketing to almost University’s Institute for Culture, 22% by 2010. The Global North (defi ned as Europe and Northern America) Religion and World Affairs leading a contained over 80% of all Christians in 1910, falling to under 40% by 2010. research project on international religious demography. He is co-editor of the Atlas Unfortunately, Christians of the Global South—to their dismay—have “discov- of Global Christianity (Edinburgh ered” that their forms of Christianity are largely Western. Moonjang Lee notes University Press) and co-author of the World Christian Encyclopedia with irony, (Oxford University Press, 2nd ed.) and it was through the modern missionary movement that Christianity became a worldwide World Christian Trends (William phenomenon, and in that process Christianity came to acquire the image of a Western Carey Library). He is editor of the religion. The subsequent globalisation of the image of Western Christianity poses a World Christian Database (Brill) problem for non-Western Christianity. Though we talk about a post-Christian West and and co-editor of the World Religion a post-Western Christianity, the prevailing forms of Christianity in most parts of the non- Database (Brill). Western world are still dominated by Western infl uences. (Johnson and Ross, 104).
International Journal of Frontier Missiology 27:4 Winter 2010•165 166 Globalization, Christian Identity, and Frontier Missions Trend 2. Christians Have Little ecological) that resists being confi ned Characteristics of Globalization Signifi cant Contact with to any single thematic framework.” Steger further defi nes some tools for Muslims, Hindus and Buddhists. It is this complexity in globaliza- understanding global Christian iden- tion that has strong implications Recent research reported in the Atlas tity (or identities) by presenting four both for Christian identity and for reveals that as many as 86% of all distinct qualities or characteristics frontier missions. Muslims, Hindus, and Buddhists do of globalization: not personally know a Christian. This Steger suggests we use the term 1. Globalization involves the is surprising in light of the more than globality to signify a social condition creation of new and the 200 million people who are now on the of interconnectedness. Conversely, multiplication of existing move across national borders—putting the term globalization should be used social networks and activities diverse peoples in closer proxim- to refer to a set of social processes that that increasingly overcome traditional political, eco- ity. In fact, Muslims, Hindus, and are thought to transform our present nomic, cultural, and geo- Buddhists are increasingly found living social condition into one of globality. graphical boundaries. Steger further defi nes globalization in ‘Christian’ lands but, apparently, 2. Globalization involves the increasing access has not generated as “a multidimensional set of social expansion and stretching of closer relationships. This lack of con- social relations, activities, and tact has to be viewed negatively in light interdependencies. of the strong biblical theme of incarna- 3. Globalization involves the tion that is at the heart of Christian intensifi cation and accel- witness. Christians should know and eration of social exchanges love their neighbors! In the 21st century At its core globalization and activities. it is important to realize that the 4. Globalization involves the responsibility for reaching Muslims, is about shifting forms subjective plane of human consciousness. Thus, glo- Hindus, and Buddhists is too large for of human contact. balization refers to people the vocational missionary enterprise. becoming increasingly While missionaries will always be at conscious of growing mani- the forefront of innovative strategies, festations of social interde- the whole church needs to participate pendence and the enormous in inviting people of other faiths to acceleration of social interac- tions. In the last case, Steger consider Jesus Christ. processes that create, multiply, stretch, states, “Their awareness of Globalization and Christian and intensify worldwide social inter- the receding importance dependencies and exchanges while of geographical boundaries Identity at the same time fostering in people and distances fosters a keen I’d like to take a step and sug- a growing awareness of deepening sense of becoming part of a gest that these two trends can be connections between the local and global whole. Reinforced on examined from the perspective of the distant.” (8–13) At its core, then, a daily basis, these persistent globalization and Christian identity. globalization is about shifting forms experiences of global interde- Manfred B. Steger’s excellent little of human contact. pendence gradually change treatise Globalization: A Very Short people’s individual and col- Introduction (Oxford University Press, Defi ned this way, globalization lective identities, and thus dramatically impact the way 2004) is helpful in understanding impacts both of the trends I have they act in the world.” (12) these dynamics. Steger is concerned identifi ed earlier. First, increasing In global Christian relations we see that “narrow accounts often leave contact between Christians around each of these four characteristics at the general reader with a shallow the world sparks refl ection on identity. play. The global Christian community understanding of globalization as Christians see ways in which they has seen an increase of communions primarily an economic phenom- differ (ethnicity, language, denomina- and networks for relating both within enon.” This reductionist tendency can tion) as well as ways in which they and outside their traditions. Many of ignore or confuse our vital concern are the same (practice, core theol- these networks have expanded their for Christian identity amidst vast ogy, creeds). Second, lack of contact activities through deeper and broader demographic shifts. Steger is helpful between Christians and non-Chris- cooperation. At the same time, rela- in his insistence that “globalization is tians hinders the frontier mission tions have become more intense and best thought of as a multidimensional enterprise because crucial information confl icted, producing a staggering set of social processes (economic, on the latter’s lives and religions is not amount of ecumenical documents political, cultural, technological, and widely understood or discussed. in the past two decades. Finally, International Journal of Frontier Missiology Todd M. Johnson 167 Christians of all traditions have been he emphasis in the study of world Christianity challenged to think more broadly of their own identity as a follower to date has been almost exclusively on the of Christ. indigenizing principle, or “the particular.” In Christian –non-Christian rela- T tions we also see these dynamics at argue in favor of the former. They implications (such as eugenics). But work. People of different religious suggest, Steger says, that today it is appropriate for a modest backgrounds are forming new social we are not moving towards a cultural project of reconstruction—building networks to relate to each other. These rainbow that refl ects the diversity of taxonomies that recognize both dif- networks are taking on broader man- the world’s existing cultures. Rather, ferences and similarities. we are witnessing the rise of an dates in international relations. They Globalization and Global are also intensifying as peoples live in increasingly homogenized popular closer proximity in both the Global culture underwritten by a Western Christian Identity North and the Global South. Finally, ‘culture industry’ based in New York, This interesting assessment of glo- Hollywood, London, and Milan. (70) many religionists are sensing common- balization can naturally lead to the alities across the religious spectrum “Optimistic hyperglobalizers” agree question, “What is world Christianity based on universal human experiences that cultural globalization generates or global Christianity?” In describing and challenges. more sameness but they consider this the history of Christianity, Andrew outcome to be a good thing. (73) Walls utilizes the tension between Globalization Is Uneven an indigenizing principle and a pil- At the same time, some assessments There is always the human tendency grim principle. He acknowledges that link globalization to new forms of cul- to see the experience of globalization Christianity can and should go deep tural expression. Sociologist Roland through our own ethnocentric grid. within each culture of the world but at Robertson, for example, contends that Steger is quick to point out that the same time is never fully at home global cultural fl ows often reinvigorate Globalization is an uneven process, in any particular culture. It’s in this local cultural niches. “Glocalization” dynamic between the particular (indig- meaning that people living in vari- is a complex interaction of the global ous parts of the world are affected enous) and the universal (pilgrim) and local characterized by cultural very differently by this gigantic trans- that we can better understand global borrowing. The resulting expres- formation of social structures and Christian identity. Steger states, cultural zones. Large segments of sions of cultural “hybridity” cannot be reduced to clear-cut manifestations Indeed, the tensions between the the world’s population—particularly forces of particularism and those of “sameness” or “difference.” The in the Global South—do not enjoy of universalism have reached equal access to thickening global net- contemporary experience of living and unprecedented levels only because works and infrastructure. (16) acting across cultural borders means interdependencies that connect the both the loss of traditional mean- For global Christianity this means local to the global have been growing ings and the creation of new symbolic that many Christians (especially in faster than at any time in history. (6) expressions. Reconstructed feelings the Global South) lack an awareness of belonging coexist in uneasy ten- As stated earlier, globalization tends to of the broader body of Christ. This sion with a sense of “placelessness.” make one more aware of both the par- is especially noteworthy because so Cultural globalization has contributed ticular (by contrast) and the universal much of the growth in Christianity to a remarkable shift in people’s con- (by commonality). has been where networks are the thin- sciousness. (Steger, 75) The emphasis in the study of world nest (i.e., where contacts are few). In Christianity to date has been almost frontier mission situations, where con- Ethnicity and Language exclusively on the indigenizing tacts can be very signifi cant, there is Ethnicity and language are two of principle, or “the particular.” Thus, little potential for interaction between the most signifi cant features in both compendiums on world or global Christians and non-Christians. sameness and difference. While these Christianity contain case studies from Christians in thin networks are even characteristics often separate people, different cultures around the world, less likely to be interacting with their there is also potential to bring people emphasizing their differences from non-Christian neighbors. together (e.g., a separate language but Western Christianity. Of course, it is Same and Different a unifying lingua franca). Artifi cially vital to understand the trends that have airtight twentieth-century taxono- Does globalization make people left us with a “post-Christian West” mies of race and language have been around the world more alike or more and a “post-Western Christianity.” rightly deconstructed by the academy, different? Steger identifi es “pessimis- But some scholars go as far as defi ning revealing weaknesses and frightening tic hyperglobalizers” as those who “world Christianity” as “Christianity 27:4 Winter 2010 168 Globalization, Christian Identity, and Frontier Missions in the non-Western world.” There world music is, at the same time, clear similarity. This is true even in is also an increased use of the term both local and universal. For him, the the larger categories of “North” and “Christianities,” as in the recent History next iteration of classical music posits “South” that frame most discussions of Christianity volumes published by Western and non-Western styles, as on world Christianity. In the North, Cambridge University Press (2006– well as classical and vernacular tradi- French, American, and Russian 2009). In this context, it is critical to tions, on equal or near-equal footing. Christians are very different from emphasize also the pilgrim principle, It mixes popular and folk music with each other. In the South, Nigerian, or universal side, of world Christianity. Eastern and Western art-music struc- Chinese, and Papua New Guinean In one sense, I am arguing against an tures, tonal and atonal. This music Christians are profoundly dissimilar. overemphasis on “the particular” that appeals to younger audiences whose And yet, Christians from all cultures can lead to what in other disciplines iPods are loaded with an astonishing are part of a global unifi ed body of has been called atomism: any theory variety of sounds from past centuries believers. When these differing forms that holds that an understanding of the and from every spot on the planet. of Christianity meet (especially in con- parts is logically prior to an under- He further utilizes the ecological ferences and compendiums), an “edge standing of the whole. I am advocating concept of the “edge effect”: where effect” is apparent. Interaction between “the universal” that emphasizes holism: Christians adds an important dimen- the theory that whole entities, as fun- sion to world Christianity. damental components of reality, have Defi ning World Christianity an existence other than the mere sum With this parallel to world music in of their parts. mind, and borrowing language from Recent refl ections on world culture, World Christianity the literature on global citizenship, global culture, and globalization can it is possible to consider what world certainly help us to better understand is not a mosaic . . . Christianity is NOT: the unifying or universal aspects of • World Christianity is not world Christianity. But it’s vital to simply the sum of the understand that these unifying forces thousands of local expres- do not diminish cultural differences. sions of Christianity. Cultural globalization is a double • World Christianity is not cre- process. On the one hand, it differen- ated by stirring old ideas into tiates. On the other hand, differences two ecosystems meet one will fi nd the a melting pot; it represents play out within a common framework. least density but the greatest variety. something new over and above Guided by global ideas and norms, Ma has actively promoted this effect previously existing forms of Christianity. Christians become more similar in in music by inviting musical strangers (from different cultures) to meet each • World Christianity is not a the ways they identify themselves as mosaic, since that metaphor other and to compose music together. different (e.g., Africans and Asians conveys a picture of neatly identifying themselves as non- Ma writes, juxtaposed and unchanging Western). World Christianity helps As we open up to each other, we cultural forms of Christianity. us both to articulate and to bridge form a bridge into unfamiliar tradi- Instead, differences are fl uid these differences. tions, banishing the fear that often and relative when they are accompanies change and dislocation. caught up in ever-shifting A useful parallel can be found in In other words, when we broaden our global interactions. world music. In his World Music: lens on the world, we better under- • World Christianity is not A Very Short Introduction, Philip stand ourselves, our own lives and an alien global force sup- Bohlman examines the inherent culture. We share more in common pressing difference; as tension between what world music with the far reaches of our small long as global symbols are tells us about human diversity and planet than we realize. freely appropriated, they what it tells us about human simi- can be anyone’s authentic Steger also recognizes this process larities. Neither tells the whole story. Christian experience. of “hybridization”—the mixing of Bohlman tries to strike a balance • World Christianity is not the different cultural forms and styles opposite of diversity; rather, in his description of world music by facilitated by global economic and it harmonizes diversity. Far emphasizing difference as one feature cultural exchanges. from hovering abstractly and similarity as another. Cellist above the planet, world Yo-Yo Ma takes this a step further. I believe we fi nd similar dynamics Christianity provides ideas He also recognizes the way in which in world Christianity. There is enor- and symbols, concepts and mous difference at the same time as models that seep into daily International Journal of Frontier Missiology Todd M. Johnson 169 life and thereby add a layer to a Christian’s local experience. ur de facto lack of contact with Muslims, Uniqueness and diversity are not lost Hindus, and Buddhists limits the fullness of our in these metaphors. Piet Hein stated, own Christian experience. “We are global citizens with tribal O souls” (Dower, 11). The Christian Buddhists limits the fullness of our A.F. Walls parallel could be “we are global own Christian experience. 2002 The Cross-Cultural Process in Christians with unique cultural loca- Christian History: Studies in the tions.” With that in mind, world or For Christians these ideas are not Transmission and Appropriation recent inventions of our globalized of Faith, Maryknoll, NY, Orbis global Christianity might be defi ned Books. as the interaction and sharing between world context. Sixteen hundred years local Christianities. More fully, world ago, Augustine wrote in his City Christianity is a world-cultural fel- of God, lowship comprising norms and knowl- This heavenly city, then, while it edge shared across ethnic, linguistic, sojourns on earth, calls citizens out temporal, and political boundaries, of all nations, and gathers together a practiced and extended by churches society of pilgrims of all languages, not and parachurch organizations, enacted scrupling about diversities in the man- on particular occasions that generate ners, laws, and institutions whereby earthly peace is secured and main- global awareness, carried by the infra- tained, but recognizing that, however structure of world society, spurred by various these are, they all tend to one market forces, driven by tension and and the same end of earthy peace. contradiction, and expressed in the multiple ways particular Christian With the recent expansion of groups relate to universal ideals Christianity around the world and (adapted from Dower). the anticipated spread of the gospel into all peoples, we can hope to real- Globalization and ize the beauty of both the particular Frontier Missions and the universal in a truly global Let me fi nally address how these ten- Christianity. IJFM sions between the particular and the universal within world Christianity Bibliography are relevant to frontier missions. Augustine 1947 City of God, London, Dent. Contact between humans is the P. Bohlman foundation of mission. Therefore, 2004 World Music: A Very Short the lack of personal contact between Introduction, New York, Oxford Christians and non-Christians identi- University Press. fi ed at the beginning of this paper N. Dower 2003 An Introduction to Global should be of great concern to the mis- Citizenship, Edinburgh, sions community. Globalization often Edinburgh University Press. increases contact between humans, T. M. Johnson and K.R. Ross, eds. with a resulting tension between 2009 Atlas of Global Christianity, the local and the global. Frontier Edinburgh, Edinburgh missions exists to bridge the pos- University Press. Y. Y. Ma sibility of a fully indigenous form of 2008 “Paths of Globalization: From Christianity and one that is tied into the Berbers to Bach” in New the whole of Christianity around the Perspectives Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. world and throughout human history. 2, Spring. Somewhat obvious is the fact that L. Sanneh 2003 Whose Religion is Christianity? The lack of contact will not allow either. Gospel Beyond the West, Grand Each new form of Christianity then Rapids, MI, Eerdmans. contributes to our global understand- M. Steger ing of Christ, Christianity, and the 2004 Globalization: a very short intro- gospel. In this sense, our de facto lack duction, New York, Oxford University Press. of contact with Muslims, Hindus, and
27:4 Winter 2010 170 ISFM 2010 Report ISFM 2010 Report Contesting Ethnicity, Religion and Globalization by Brad Gill
he ISFM 2010 met in Charlotte, N.C., in September We also heard of the new religiosities and neo-fundamentalisms T 2010 to assess the impact of globalization on “people emerging in a globalized Muslim world.4 Len Bartlotti offered groups” across the frontiers of mission. Over 100 assembled an exacting study of Pashtun identity as it played out between for two days to examine the contested realities of ethnicity political, ethnic and religious pressure.5 From Buddhist to so central in defi ning the frontier mission mandate. Hindu to Muslim, it was clear that we must address the impact Todd Johnson and Gary Fujino, whose talks are presented in of globalization on religious identity and belonging. this issue of the journal, opened the conference by sifting mul- Robert Priest and Steve Hawthorne offered historical depth 1 tiple defi nitions of globalization. Johnson’s macro approach to the contested concept of ethnicity across mission circles.6 was complimented by Fujino’s “glocal” study of the Japanese Priest focused anthropologically on the manner in which 2 of Tokyo. The take away was clear: we must reexamine our we have traditionally categorized peoples, while Hawthorne missiological “givens” among unreached populations. unpacked the historic argument for the frontier mandate “A The subject of globalization and religion created some of the Church for Every People.” The insuffi ciency of our mission most stretching moments of the two days. Kan San Tan fi ltered terminology was clear from both sessions, and many critiques this subject through a Buddhist perspective, and challenged us to of “people group” thinking were endorsed. But rather than entertain “multi-religious belonging” as a new global reality.3 His retreat the entire conference encouraged participants to refi ne argument for “in-religionization” stretched us to consider how their missiological toolkit in light of globalization. IJFM radically incarnational God desires us to be in religious settings. Endnotes Due to a cancellation, the conference bypassed the subject 1 of “caste” and instead revisited this theme of religion in the “Globalization, Christian Identity and Frontier Missions,” p. 165. 2 “The ‘Glocal’ Dimension: The Case of Japanese Identity,” p. 171. Hindu setting. H. L. Richard challenged historic assump- 3 “The Religious Dimension: With Special Reference to tions concerning religious categories, that religion is an Christian-Buddhist Encounter” (upcoming article Fall 2011). imposed classifi cation which amalgamates huge hunks of 4 “Globalization, Sociology and Islam” (speaker’s name withheld). humanity in a reductionist fashion. Many found themselves 5 “The Case of Pashtun Identity.” aggravated or uneasy, but all were provoked to reexamine 6 ‘The Anthropological Dimension” (Priest) and ‘The the utility of our religious categorizations. Missiological Dimension” (Hawthorne).
The ;`fWd`Sf[a`S^EaU[WfkXad8da`f[Wd?[ee[a^aYk presents “Kingdom” and “Church” in Frontier Mission
The terms “Kingdom” and “Church” are contested among ministries today, but they are catalyzing exceptional and ?Sd]kagdUS^W`VSd promising models across the religious and cultural frontiers. The ISFM 2011 will explore this dynamic interface from various international perspectives. Come and join us as we engage in this strategic discussion. And as always, students and other young adults are especially welcome.
NOTE: This meeting immediately precedes the North American Mission Leaders Conference.
;E8? EXk`feXcD\\k`e^lJ\gk\dY\i).¹)0#)'(( G_f\e`o#8i`qfeX I\^`jkiXk`fe1,'Jkl[\ekj1), =fi[\kX`cjZXcc1.*+$.-,$'*-/fim`j`knnn%`a]d%fi^&`j]d&XeelXc%_kd International;E8? Journal of Frontier Missiology Globalization and Identity “Glocal” Japanese Self-Identity: A Missiological Perspective on Paradigmatic Shifts in Urban Tokyo by Gary Fujino
he question of identity is fast becoming a missiological issue of global proportions. Fundamental questions such as “Who are we?” and T “Who are they?” have become ever more complicated and intricate amidst the contemporary forces of globalization. A new “glocal” reality is impacting and shifting personal identities at the core, at the level of a person’s daily life, creating an intermingling of identities that could potentially affect our missional efforts to reach people in terms of who they are.
This complex mix of identities is quite apparent in the context of urban Tokyo dwellers where I live and minister. I’m convinced that if I fail to grasp the nature of identity amidst the modern mix of Tokyo, it will hinder my efforts to reach these urban Japanese. And I believe this is just as true for similar popula- tions across the globe. Identity and the sense of self—and how they interact with globalization—affect how we answer the key question of how the Japanese can be reached in terms of who they are.
I’d like to focus this article on how multiple identities emerge in the lives of these urban dwellers. I fi rst want to introduce a location in central Tokyo that affects identity beyond mere geography, then examine how multiple identities function within the Japanese context. Next we will consider globalization and glocalization in reference to urban Japanese self-identity, exploring missiological implications within each section.1
Gary Fujino (Ph.D., Trinity A Tokyo-Based Case Study of Urban Japanese Identities Evangelical Divinity School) is I live and work downtown. Twenty-three wards and twenty-seven towns make an IMB strategist for the Japanese up the city of Tokyo proper; our home is in one of the eight central wards. Diaspora. Gary has lived and worked in the Greater Tokyo area The greater Tokyo/Yokohama megalopolis has a population of 35.7 million, doing urban evangelism and church according to the United Nations.2 Tokyo is a part of the Kanto plain, the largest planting since 1995. He and his wife, fl at area in Japan, which accommodates around 44 million persons, more than Lynn, have four children, two in college and two at home. Gary can be one-third of the country’s population of 127 million souls. The cry of the Lord contacted at [email protected]. for that great Old Testament city, Nineveh, is mine as well for that great 21st-
International Journal of Frontier Missiology 27:4 Winter 2010•171 172 “Glocal” Japanese Self-Identity: A Missiological Perspective on Paradigmatic Shifts in Urban Tokyo century megalopolis, Tokyo. “Should from all over to see and meet exclusive shops. Talent scouts I not be concerned for that great city?” these normal citizens turned and pimps alike haunt these (Jonah 4:11, NIV) faux idols, photographing trendy streets looking for rising them or having their pictures stars, or victims. Buying or In Shibuya Ward, where I live, there taken with them. Here, living fi nding “another self,” as well is an amazing variety of cultures and “as another self” or having as consumerism and material- subcultures, each of which have a pro- “a second life,” as it is called ism best describe how this part found effect on urban Japanese identi- in Japan, is prominent. The of Harajuku infl uences the ties. For example, one of the stations desire to live “in disguise” or diversifi ed, urban identity of we frequent, Harajuku/Meiji-jingumae “anonymously” is very strong. Tok yo Japanese. (hereafter, “Harajuku station”) is where • Going east from Harajuku • Within the same 1.5 kilometer station, taking a different exit, radius of Harajuku station that two subway lines and a train line meet one comes onto Takeshita- enfolds Omotesando, Meiji and one can view in microcosm the dori. This short, narrow street Shrine, and Takeshita-dori is cultures and sub-cultures represent- extends only a few blocks Yoyogi Park to the west, and ing urban Japan, any of which can eastward, yet it is a mecca the former Olympic National mold urban Japanese identity, creating for Japanese youth culture. Gymnasium and its park multiple identities within the same person. area to the southwest. These Here’s a picture of one microcosm of places are a stone’s throw from globalization that creates this inter- the station and are visited by Tokyoites regularly for sport- mingling of identity: ing events, concerts, picnick- • Immediately west of the The desire to live ing and cultural festivals. The station is one of the larg- Canadian circus, Cirque du est Shinto shrines in Japan. “in disguise” or Soleil, has been a fi xture here Meiji Jingu, or “Meiji Grand for years. For many urban Shrine,” that was named after “anonymously” is dwellers Yoyogi Park means the Emperor Meiji, who ruled very strong. peace and open space, gardens, when Japan was re-opened old trees, and nature in a city to the West in 1853. During where everything else seems the most important holiday of too crowded, narrow and made the year, New Year’s, nearly of concrete. Life seems slower four million worshippers there and you will often see visit between December 31st Youth from all over Tokyo, people doing group exercises or and January 2nd to observe a and even other parts of Japan, sports.3 “Communal,” “natu- “two year pilgrimage” (ni- fl ock here to eat, shop, play, ral,” “cultural” and “event- nen maeri) or to buy charms congregate, and hang out. oriented” describe how these to ward off evil and give Even the parents of ‘tweens, locales around Harajuku affect good luck for the coming teenagers and college students Japanese urban identities. year. Meiji Shrine is visited like to be in this trendy place, Japanese coming to this area of Tokyo throughout the year but the where those under age thirty may choose to be involved in only one feel right at home. Some New Year holiday is what it of these locations, or all, or in parts is known for. “Religious” and mothers shop there with their of some. But their choices are inten- “spiritual” best describe the daughters to buy designer effect this part of Harajuku “twin clothing.” This part of tional, fl owing from who they are, has on a Japanese urbanite’s Harajuku addresses the need how they perceive themselves at that variegated identity. of urban Japanese to belong— time, and how they want to be per- • In front of the station, i.e., mothers trying to identify ceived by the group within each of these adjacent to the entry gate of with their daughters’ culture. contexts. These shifting identities are Meiji Shrine, is a large open • To the south and paralleling not dependent upon mere geography, area which is home to street Takeshita-dori is the larger but upon affi nities like those listed artisans, couples on dates and Omotesando road. It has above, as well as music, fi lm, business, become a brand name equiva- tourists. On weekends espe- language, entertainment, religion, cially this space is frequented lent to Park Avenue or Rodeo by fans of Gothic clothing Drive in the USA, and is friendship, etc. Add on the hierarchies and music, or by “CosPlay” associated with designers such of age, gender, social standing and the (“Costume Play”) advocates— as Louis Vuitton, Gucci, GAP, backgrounds of people with whom men and women who dress Coach, etc. As with Takeshita- they interact, and identities become as popular Japanese cartoon dori and Meiji Shrine, Japanese quite multifaceted. or comic characters. Fans come from all over to be seen descend on Harajuku station there or to buy from one of its
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Gary Fujino 173 For example, the mother who shops he idea of shifting and multiple identities is more along Takeshita-dori to identify with her teenage daughter may also go a than a concept to the Japanese; it is a way of life few blocks over to Omotesando and even at the unconscious level. buy herself a $2,000 Gucci purse. T Later in the week she may return that the Japanese “omote-ura (front- Globalization and Tokyo to catch a show at the circus or visit back) can be defi ned only in relative Urban Identity Yoyogi Park with her family for a terms; hence the border between The word “globalization” was coined picnic. At the end of the year she 9 the two remains fl exible” (Goffman by sociologist Roland Robertson in may go to Meiji Shrine to pick up a proposed a more fi xed front and his 1992 book of the same name. He charm or take part in a ritual. What back). What Ishida says is important defi nes it this way: is important for this paper is that missiologically because it shows that multiple and interdependent identities self-perception and identity can differ Globalization as a concept refers to exist in the same person, with much between cultures. Just a year earlier, both the compression of the world and intensifi cation of consciousness of the shift between identities being Smith had foreshadowed Ishida’s idea intentional and specifi c to context and of the world as a whole...both con- of “a fl exible border” between front crete global interdependence and relationships. Missiologically, we must and back when he stated, “There are consciousness of the global whole.12 engage such persons “where they are no fi xed points, either ‘self’ or ‘other’ at,” complicated as that might be (cf. 1 . . . there is no fi xed center from While “globalization” is a new term, Cor. 9: 19-23). which, in effect, the individual asserts Japan has been infl uenced by global a noncontingent existence.”10 Thus, forces almost since its beginnings. Multiple Japanese the Japanese self is depicted here as What is different today is “the speed, Self-Identities and Context constantly changing. the scale, the scope, and the complex- Sociologist Erving Goffman4 called ity of global connections.”13 this manifestation of identities “the Other Japanese researchers point out presentation of self in everyday life,” that the Japanese self is contextual Japan and “That Which Is From the manner in which people take on or situational, even acting differently Without”: Contextualization different social roles for various aspects toward different persons within the through Wakon-Yosai of their lives. This relates back to those same situation. Sociologist Eshun Japan has long imported, adapted, and 14 missiological questions of “Who are Hamaguchi calls this kanjinshugi, indigenized (or, “contextualized”!) our people?” and “How can we best literally, “the principle of what is what it receives—yet, always in a reach them?” But some Japanese social between persons” (in English, “con- discriminating manner. Robertson scientists have pushed these contextual textualism”). His neologism is crafted calls this “Japan’s high degree of care- understandings of self-presentation against the Western idea of individu- ful selectivity concerning what is to be 15 beyond Goffman. alism, or kojinshugi. The similarities accepted or rejected from without.” in spelling and phonetics between A traditional proverb offers further 5 Psychoanalyst Takeo Doi was one the words are intended. The word is insight. Wakon kansai means “Japanese of the fi rst to popularize honne and fabricated from kan, meaning “space” spirit, Chinese learning,” which shows tatemae, the idea that who Japanese or “between,” and jin, or “person.” a bent towards bringing in ideas, tech- really are on the inside (honne) is often So, one could literally interpret it as nology, and goods from outside Japan, at variance with what they present on “the space between persons which ties but then making it Japanese. The the surface (tatemae). This is important them together” (my translation). Both proverb shifted to wakon yosai, liter- when speaking of multiple self-identi- the wording and the concept is an ally, “Japanese spirit, Western learning,” ties because while the honne remains a assault on the idea of humans exist- after the opening of Japan to the West constant, the way in which the tatemae ing in isolation from other humans. in the late nineteenth century. This is made manifest can vary from person In Japanese self-theory, self is always proverb captures both Japan’s interac- to person, even within the same situa- seen in relation to others, never apart tions with global forces—with China, 6 tion. While this may be true for other from them. Thus, identity becomes then Europe, and later America—as cultures as well, the idea of shifting situational to a great extent and well as the ideas of honne-tatemae and and multiple identities is more than a Japanese “individuals” are in some omote-ura, where the surface or “front” concept to the Japanese; it is a way of respects “multi-cultural” within them- might change but not the core of one’s life even at the unconscious level. selves.11 Identity, then, is about where self. William Dyrness affi rms Pierce Later writers, such as Takeshi Ishida7, one is, i.e., the situation, and whom Beaver’s assertion that “in one sense… challenged Goffman’s “front region” one is with in that situation. none of the generalities of Asia apply and “back region” motif8 by saying to Japan. It is ancient, medieval, and
27:4 Winter 2010 174 “Glocal” Japanese Self-Identity: A Missiological Perspective on Paradigmatic Shifts in Urban Tokyo modern; it is Eastern and Western. In other words, the genkan serves phone line with our conversation And all these characteristics exist in as the transition point or boundary partner. In other words, within the dynamic interrelationship.” 16 Thus, between the world outside (soto) and confi nes of our home, the telephone the Japanese deal with global forces the world within (uchi). This entryway has become another (boundary) like by selectively taking what is foreign motif, both real and conceptual, links the genkan… thus, there is no more appropriate location for the telephone and indigenizing it so that its foreign to Japanese sensibilities of pollution to fulfi ll its role than to place it in the origins are eradicated, synthesized, and purity. It functions to keep what boundary area (genkan) where this forgotten, or overlooked. So complete is unclean outside the house in order to community called the family makes is this transformation that whatever keep one’s insides clean, both physi- contact with society.21 “it” is becomes a part of Japanese life cally and spiritually. In individualism- and is no longer considered foreign. A collectivism studies, these are known Like the genkan the home telephone clear example is that many Japanese as in-groups (uchi) and out-groups in Japan served as a boundary marker think the McDonald’s restaurant chain (soto). This uchi-soto combination between the outside world and the originated in Japan. The wakon yosai relates directly to honne-tatemae and inside of the home and, by extension, spirit allows for global interaction, omote-ura, but uchi-soto is more vitally of the Japanese self. So, the eventual yet, at the same time, protects the sui movement, literally, of the telephone generis mystique of Japanese ethnicity from the genkan to the inner parts of and national identity. the house refl ected not only a physical shift of the telephone but a mental shift The Advent of the Home Telephone: The Japanese deal in how the Japanese self interacted Keeping the Boundaries with global forces with the outside world. The telephone is an example of a At fi rst “telephone space” was halfway foreign technology that transformed by selectively taking between the public and private realms, not only communications but also in the border territory of the entryway infl uenced Japanese self-identity. what is foreign and (genkan), but with the emergence of According to social commentator indigenizing it. cordless phones, extension phones, and Toru Takeda, home telephones only cell phones, telephone space became became commonplace in Japan after increasingly personalized.22 The shift World War II, and were in just 3.6 from the genkan to anywhere in the million homes by 1960, when the house created a malleable boundary connected to interaction of the self country’s population was at 93 mil- between inside and outside worlds, with others.19 Uchi is more like “self- lion. That number swelled to 30 mil- similar to what Ishida argued against identity toward others,” and relates lion by 1975, with 54 percent of the Goffman above. And the change from to a locality, a group—in this case, population using home telephones, the cord telephone to cordless, and 17 one’s “inner circle.” Uchi can include and to 70 percent in the 1980s. then to wireless, made the telephone friends, fellow workers, and other In its early days, the telephone was portable, which caused a revolution in close relationships. Conceptually generally placed in the genkan, the how Japanese related to others. Now, uchi-soto can help us understand how entryway of the traditional Japanese not only was the self movable, but a call Japanese relate to others in a group house. Thus, in order to answer the home—to one’s uchi (one’s in-group)— setting, and especially with social phone people would have to come from could fi t into a pocket or purse and be networking, as we will see below.20 inside the house to the front door, near taken anywhere. the genkan, to talk. British anthropolo- The Telephone as Genkan and In the genkan, all phone conversations gist David C. Lewis talks about the Shifting Boundaries of the Self: were public. One’s voice could be clearly genkan as being Toward a Portable Uchi heard. But when moved inside the where one leaves behind one’s The signifi cance of the telephone was house, to one’s own room, for example, shoes and the outside dirt carried that it carried people outside of their inquisitive family members could on them…. In modern houses, these houses, i.e., outside of themselves, even be kept out of hearing range, which former “peripheral” areas have been though one could be at home while allowed for truly private conversations brought within the confi nes of the conversing. A University of Tokyo and a further inward (uchi) withdrawal house itself but the social boundaries researcher describes it this way: of the self. This correlates with Naoko are kept distinct. Spatial and footwear boundaries automatically keep the [W]hen we are using the telephone, Odaka’s observation that genkan, toilet, bath and tokonoma even though physically we are in the earlier generations of Japanese have rooms distinct.18 home, in our consciousness we have been very conscious of the eyes of left the house and have to share a others, while the post-bubble genera-
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Gary Fujino 175 tion sets its own personal space and is unconcerned with those outside hen sharing the gospel, one must take into that space. They open the channel of account that a Japanese person is not simply communication with those they want to talk to or with those they judge to an individual self. share their own way of thinking but W coolly close off communication with virtual but not limited to that—creates place. One example is the challenge those who don’t get it.23 different selves within the same American behemoth Facebook is person24, all combining to make up a facing in the Japanese social network- Odaka references new cell phone- single individual. An additional problem ing market. based, virtual communities, an intensi- is that not all of these selves are healthy. fi ed focus on an individual’s phonemate In Takeda’s words, these virtual connec- Social Networking, Facebook community, to personal choice, and tions between persons can and Anonymity to how increased individualism all Compared to 60 percent of US form a community (kyodotai), but not contribute to the increased variegation Internet users, only 2 percent of Japan’s of Japanese urban self-identity. This a public society (kokyoteki na shakai). By shutting out any diverse opinion online population logs on to Facebook. returns us to the Harajuku case study and contact with those outside their Japanese prefer native-born internet 27 above, where identity is selected and closed group, they are hindered in service providers. The three major displayed in multiple ways, but only to developing a healthy sense of self Japanese-created social network- those who “get it.” Japan’s post-bubble and interpersonal social skills through ing sites have more than 21 million generation (born after 1970) tends interaction with outsiders.25 members each. Facebook Japan, which to exclude or include others based arrived in mid-2008, is dwarfed in The infl uence of technology upon on personal choice and displays an comparison, hovering at a paltry 2 mil- human existence, particularly self- even more severe in-group (uchi) and lion members.28 Why the difference? out-group (soto) distinction than their identity, cannot be underestimated. One reason is that Japanese social parents’ generation. Marshall McLuhan’s pithy dictum still holds: “The message is the medium.” networking sites permit anonym- The transformation of this uchi-soto Use of the telephone and the internet, ity. A person does not have to share reality raises important missiological too, creates non-neutral contexts which name, gender, or anything personal, questions. Does the church function literally change identity. And as one of to become a member. Anonymity as the primary uchi or in-group for the McLuhan’s interpreters notes, “[e]very relates to our discussion above about individual? In most cases, the response medium is an extension of our human- “disguise,” “another self” and “a second would be negative, but metaphors of the ity… All forms of media (i.e., any life,” as well as to multiple identities. Body (1 Cor. 12), or of Israel and God human invention or technology) extend Marketing research has borne out being the centerpiece of the nations or amplify some part of ourselves.”26 this Japanese penchant for privacy. (Ps. 67), might offer a different answer. So, for us as persons created in the “In a survey of 2,130 Japanese mobile Or how might this Japanese sense of image and likeness of God, the way in web users by Tokyo-based MMD self implicate how we share the gospel? which the self (or selves) permits itself Laboratory, 89 percent of respondents While the urban Japanese self is increas- to become extended by technology is said they were reluctant to disclose ingly portable and private, it is never the missiological crux. their real names on the Web.”29 One alone, so, when sharing the gospel, one woman was adamant, “‘I don’t want to must take into account that a Japanese Self-Contextualizing through give it my real name… what if strang- person is not simply an individual self. the Internet in Japan ers fi nd out who you are? Or someone Each person represents a larger, unseen If the telephone caused a national from your company?”30 community, instantly available by identity shift, then cell phones and the In contrast, the appeal of Facebook technology, and consolidated into that Internet initiated a sea change as Japan is its openness and the way it allows person’s identity, made manifest for that embraced online communities. There people to share with people they know moment. Distinct personas, i.e., mul- were more than 94 million Internet and like. Whether it be fi nding old tiple identities, form in the same person users in Japan at the end of 2009, with grade school acquaintances or chat- because of that individual’s interactions 78 percent of Japan’s population of 127 ting about the latest, Facebook thrives with numerous and often contiguous million accessing the Internet regularly. on people sharing who they are via communities, virtual and otherwise. As in other countries, the Internet their true identities. “She friended me” Individuals become their own bosses by allowed the creation of virtual com- or “I un-friended him” have become their lifestyle choices and the networks munities where people interact without common phrases for the English- in which they become involved. I call meeting face to face, but the difference speaking online population. We are this “matrixed identity,” where interac- in Japan is how these interactions take able to “friend” or “unfriend” because tion with various groups—particularly 27:4 Winter 2010 176 “Glocal” Japanese Self-Identity: A Missiological Perspective on Paradigmatic Shifts in Urban Tokyo we know, at least to some degree, who whether to use Zuckerberg’s map, or of personhood found in many Asian is knocking at our cybernetic door, another map. In Japan, should “trust societies, especially in India, China which allows us to decide whether relationships” be the criterion for and Japan.”35 Clammer compares this that person becomes our newest mapping, or anonymity? “globalist, inclusive and democratic” “friend.” Facebook co-founder Mark image—which he sees as coming Zuckerberg shared his thoughts on a Epistemological Maps and Japanese directly from Christianity—to a “map” for networking people: Understandings of the Self mainstream self-identity in Japan that Paul Hiebert gives us some direc- “We’re trying to map out what exists is “shifting, other-directed, depen- tion at this juncture. Hiebert likened in the world,” he says. “In the world, dent, multiple and based ultimately there’s trust. I think as humans we human perceptions of reality to on a dynamist epistemology in which fundamentally parse the world viewing a map or a blueprint. Unlike the being is the expression or embodi- through the people and relation- a photograph, with its literal cor- ment of universal energy or ki.”36 At ships we have around us. So, at its respondence to reality, a map or its base, then, the Christian sense of core, what we’re trying to do is map blueprint gives an accurate outline, selfhood is “in radical contrast to the out all of those trust relationships, such as that of a house, yet not exact. Japanese conception of the self.”37 which you can call, colloquially, most What this means for Facebook, and of the time, ‘friendships.’ He calls this Christianity, is that epistemological map the social graph, and it’s a net- maps must be taken into account and work of an entirely new kind.”31 acknowledged as being different for a A natural outcome of Zuckerberg’s starting point, otherwise, friction and map of friendship and being able The Christian sense misunderstanding are sure to result. to “friend” or “unfriend” is that of self is “in radical The assumption that one idea or Facebook Japan insists that people use application or product or worldview their real names to join. How “friend- contrast to the Japanese applies to all peoples is one reason for ship” is defi ned comes into question conception of the self.” the slow growth of both Facebook and here, but, for our purposes, it is safe to Christianity in Japan. But in respond- say that Mr. Zuckerberg’s logic does ing to the missiological questions of not necessarily follow when taken Who are we? and Who are they? we outside of the United States. A 2010 need to return to the topic of differ- Microsoft survey asking about Asia- 34 ing self-identities. Do we view urban Pacifi c social networking sites found It is “‘true’, but in a certain way.” Tokyo Japanese as being the same as that of 3,000 people in 11 countries, Thus, maps or blueprints of reality will differ from person to person us? Do they view us as being the same only about one-quarter of their and culture to culture. This chal- as them? Should the starting point be, friends on social networking sites lenges Zuckerberg’s assumption We are all the same? How we answer were close friends. In Japan more that humans “fundamentally parse this question will affect how we than half of all respondents said that engage those we are trying to reach Not one of their acquaintances on the world through the people and with the gospel. It will also inform social networks was a close friend.32 relationships we have around us.” It raises the question: fundamental for how they respond to that message. Further, whom? Does Zuckerberg’s sense of We can conclude, therefore, that specialists say that while Facebook “human” include the Japanese? This Japanese urban dwellers should not users in the United States tend to last question might seem strange, be dealt with as if they were mere recreate real-life social relationships yet his map of trust relationships is individuals, at least as Americans online, many Japanese use Web ano- in confl ict with the Japanese map of understand individuals. We must nymity to express themselves, free multiple identities. try to see the communities that exist from the pressure to fi t into a con- behind and within them, and which formist workplace.33 These differing maps of reality also come into play when discussing vary depending upon the situation What is at work is that intuitive, Christianity in Japan, particularly as it and who is else involved. We must contextualizing forces within Japan relates to self-identity. John Clammer allow for differences yet recognize are selectively resisting non-Japanese notes the diffi culty for Japanese in that many urban Japanese are looking globalizing forces, such as Facebook, incorporating a religious identity that for better communities to which they which require Japanese users to do links individuality, autonomy and “the can belong. it their way. The point of conten- possession of an essence (a permanent In our case, this would be a com- tion is whether a person’s identity is core of being) into a seamless whole munity of faith, the church, which conveyed openly or anonymously, i.e., in a way very distinct from the images might serve the needs of these com- International Journal of Frontier Missiology Gary Fujino 177 plex individuals in ways that non- religious groups cannot. Too often, hese urban Japanese can sense a defi ciency though, we “clothe” our evangelism, when they fail to discover real belonging and disciple making and “doing church” in Western patterns. These urban identifi cation in fellowship with the body of Christ.
Japanese can sense a defi ciency when T 49 Where global and the local touch, a multiplicity of self-identities.” they fail to discover real belonging they become “glocal,” and at that point “Border-crossing,” “on the move,” and identifi cation in fellowship with they affect culture and identity, which “multivocality,” where “a single the body of Christ. Healthy, cultur- in turn is infl uenced by ethnicity. symbol may stand for many things,” 50 ally appropriate community can be are ideas refl ective of glocalization, as important as spiritual conver- Ethnicity and Its Relationship which was birthed in part from sion. 38 We can provide this only by to Glocalization in Tokyo Barth’s pioneering thought. respecting the way they map their I have not spoken of ethnicity until multiple identities. now, and have purposely subsumed So, is it possible to have a glocal iden- it under glocalization because, in tity? If so, what are the missiological Glocalization and Tokyo Tokyo, it is diffi cult to separate the implications? In answer to the fi rst Urban Identity two. Ethnicity and race are clas- question, Schreiter, Hiebert and Catholic missiologist Robert Schreiter sifi cations that can be diffi cult to the Japanese themselves would give was one of the fi rst to discuss “glo- categorize,43 yet are what we deal a resounding “yes.” Interestingly, calization” in a Christian context, with every day. Here I follow the Hiebert applied the concept of a though he credits Roland Robertson defi nition of Romanucci-Ross, who glocal identity to missionaries, calling for coming up with the term in describes ethnicity as being more a them “inbetweeners,” “transcultural 39 1995. Schreiter describes glocaliza- “self-perceived group” than having a persons” and “glocal mediators” tion in this way: “common lineage.” Thus, ethnicity is because “the heart of missions has always been—and remains—the task Even as globalizing processes homog- always made and remade, especially enize the world, they create at the by politicians.44 “Being Japanese” 45 of bridging the gulf between the 51 same time a heightened sense of is so ingrained that it has even gospel and the world.” the particular. This attention to the been called a religion, Nihonkyo, or Schreiter speaks more generally of particular and to the local takes on a the “religion of being Japanese.” 46 what has happened with identity in considerable variety of forms which Harumi Befu compares how Japanese the world as context has changed. can range from accommodations of view their identity to buying ready- He names three distinct shifts: First, the global to an assertive resistance made clothing off the rack. Each “context as a concept has become to it.40 person buys something that fi ts his increasingly deterritorialized”; second, Schreiter’s sense of local accom- or her personality, tastes, etc., but “contexts are becoming hyperdif- modation and resistance to global they are all off the same rack.47 As ferentiated”; and third, “contexts are forces is indicative of urban Tokyo with buying clothing, Japanese make more clearly hybridized.” 52 Essentially, identity, but he is quick to assert that choices in revealing their inward he’s saying that the nature of context “neither global, homogenizing forces selves. As the clothes suit the person, itself needs to be assessed. As Lamin nor the local forms of accommoda- so the identity suits the context—for Sanneh underlines, tion and resistance can of themselves that day or even that moment. context is not passive but comes provide an adequate explanation of In his seminal work on ethnic bound- preloaded with its own biases, the phenomenon.”41 We can see this aries, Fredrik Barth uses the idea of ready to contest whatever claims it in our case study—the urban Tokyo “border-crossing,” 48 a corollary to our encounters. Contexts, after all, are identity is globally infl uenced yet, in discussion of global and local. Barth’s constructed strategies. As such, a its essence, Japanese. For example, the context sensitive approach should be approach changed how anthropology trendsetting Omotesando area— responsive without being naïve.53 viewed ethnic groups. The focus went where “$1.2 million in handbags, from bounded, static communities watches, luggage and other accesso- Missiological Implications to groups on the move. He studied ries” were sold on the fi rst day Louis of Glocal Identities those who crossed over rather than Vuitton opened there in 200242—is In this fi nal part of our discussion on the group that was left behind. It was less than half a kilometer from the glocalization I would like to address “the ethnic boundary that defi nes the respected and austere Meiji Shrine. four issues on this matter of context: group, not the cultural stuff that it Global and local can meld seam- fi rst, the effects of changes in con- encloses” (emphasis his). “Barth also lessly in central Tokyo, yet, as with text and contextualization; second, allow(ed) for multivocality of mean- Facebook, often do so only selectively. the non-neutrality of context; third, ing within an ethnic group through 27:4 Winter 2010 178 “Glocal” Japanese Self-Identity: A Missiological Perspective on Paradigmatic Shifts in Urban Tokyo the effects of the urban context on one hybrid culture mixing to pass in Japan, in its deterritorialized identity; and, fi nally—to answer the with another.”59 form. However, its realization was not second question above—What are the We have discussed hyperdifferentia- through social networking sites like missiological implications of a glocal tion and hybridization in the Japanese Facebook or Mixi, but through por- identity among urban Tokyoites, both context, though we used the terms table cell phones (perhaps because the non-Christian and Christian? “matrixed identity,” tatemae-honne, overwhelming majority of the heaviest omote-ura, and uchi-soto; the idea of First, let’s begin with the effects of users, teenagers, access the Internet multiple belonging was depicted in 62 globalization on context outlined in only from their mobile phone). the Harajuku case study. But what Schreiter’s The New Catholicity: The second issue, the non-neutrality about deterritorialization? How does of context, means that from the 1. Deterritorialization: Fueled that relate to Japanese self-identity? by immigration, diasporic outset, an agenda must be assumed. movements and the Internet, The Zuckerberg Facebook article also Beginning with Sanneh’s analysis, deterritorialization has included this utopian scene: identity comes “preloaded with its “ensur(ed) that our cultural You’ll be working and living inside a own biases, ready to contest whatever experiences, identities, and network of people, and you’ll never claims it encounters.” Identity is shift- practices are becoming ing and variegated, but is neither neu- separated from the places we tral nor passive, since one’s identity (or inhabit.” 54 Schreiter attributes deterritorialization to the identities) always exist in context. In compression of global space, More than half other words, Japanese make conscious and believes it as focused of Japanese survey choices based on how they want their around boundaries of differ- identity to be manifested in a particu- ence, not territory. “Because respondents said that lar context. the space along boundaries is often a space of great semiotic not one of their social Jonathan Ingleby argues in this way, activity, this has importance By defi nition, contextualization has for understanding how cul- network acquaintances to pay close attention to the context. tures are being reshaped and The question is, are all contexts equal what consequences this holds was a close friend. or are some more equal than others? 55 for theology.” When we enter a context with the 2. Hyperdifferentiation: This gospel and attempt to identify with is Schreiter’s term for glo- have to be alone again. The Internet, it, are we not usually confronted by a balization and glocalization, and the whole world, will feel more variety of cultures? What seems at a which, he says, has humans like a family, or a college dorm, or distance to be homogeneous is, the “participating in different an offi ce where your co-workers are more we understand it, various and realities at the same time— also your best friends.60 uneven… more confusingly, there there is multiple belonging. may be more than one culture exist- This has to be taken into Again, more than one half of Japanese ing and indeed intermingling in the account in any attempt to survey respondents said that not one same locality. Furthermore, discov- express identity where mul- of their social network acquaintances ery leads to the need for decision. If tiple cultures interact at the was a close friend. So, the virtual inti- we fi nd we are dealing with a multi- same time… occupying the plicity of cultures within one locality, same space.” 56 macy predicted by Facebook doesn’t some sort of choice will have to be 3. Hybridization: On main- work, at least, on Japanese social made among them. And how do we taining cultural purity, “in a network sites. But there is a contex- make this choice? Should the choice globalized word it becomes tual manifestation of deterritorialized itself be based on some external cri- increasingly untenable as a relationships, known as “tele-cocoon- concept.” 57 Kapchan says of ing.” This is practiced using mobile teria, and if so, what are they? What will be the reaction to the gospel be ethnic identities, “hybridity phones and is “the production of is effected whenever two or for those who belong to the culture social identities through small, insular or cultures that are not, at least for more historically separate 61 social groups.” Research in Japan 63 realms come together in the time being, the chosen ones? has found that while the average user any degree that challenges The missiological implication is their socially constructed may have one or two hundred contacts that we should assume nothing, and autonomy” 58 and Lewellen in their phone, they exchange a vast asserts that “all cultures majority of their information with while engaging the context—and the are already hybrid, so what only 2-5 of those persons. On this people in that context—one “should we are witnessing today is level, Zuckerberg’s vision of “living be responsive without being naïve,” inside a network of people” has come as Sanneh suggests. In this way,
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Gary Fujino 179 when the global and local converge, hen a Japanese believer is “crucifi ed with the cross-cultural worker will not be tempted to say, “it’s just the way the Christ,” and the “I” no longer lives, many Japanese do it,” or the Japanese to sincere Japanese believers struggle. say, “this is from America, it must be W good.” Rather, “that which is from The city also provides opportunity social construct of multiple selves. without” must be evaluated at the for Japanese. The scale, anonymity, Tadataka Maruyama, inaugural presi- point of convergence and be received and depersonalization of urban living dent of Tokyo Christian University, or put aside.64 allows, paradoxically, free and open explains that the battle within a A third issue for glocalization and interactions which would not be pos- Japanese believer is whether to go by contextualization in urban Tokyo is sible in the countryside, where family the designation “Christian Japanese” the city itself. Tokyo is one of three and societal networks are tight. or “Japanese Christian.” The ordering “global cities,” 65 according to urban- Finally, what are the missiological of the two is the point. ologist Saskia Sassen, who catego- implications for this urban context? [T]he term Christian Japanese rizes it with London and New York. Hiebert agrees with Sanneh, suggest- assumes a prior allegiance to the uni- This means that Tokyo is different ing, “there is no such thing as passive versal religion of Christianity before not just from other cities in Japan but response to globalization.” 67 As noted any particular association with the nation of one’s birth. As Scripture also from almost every other city in earlier, the Japanese, especially urban says, “For he [God] chose us in him the world. This makes it diffi cult to dwellers, are constantly changing [Christ] before the creation of the generalize from Tokyo to the rest of their identities, not all of which are world” (Eph 1:4), so the one who was Japan. As Manuel Castells observes, healthy. Thus, a key response is to act chosen to be a Christian was born while cosmopolitans—or what I call proactively rather than be repeatedly as a Japanese and now practices glocal urban Japanese—do exist, they surprised by these changes. his or her faith as a Christian who are in the minority. He documents A second implication is that mis- happens to be Japanese. Although that “barely 13 percent of people this concept may be biblical and cor- sionaries must show respect and surveyed worldwide” consider them- rect, for the Japanese–even among help Japanese believers “navigate” selves to be “citizens of the world.” 66 Christians–it is unnatural and diffi - themselves. Clammer declares that Tokyoites are among these barely cult to comprehend.69 modernity has left the Japanese 13 percent. as “privatized and atomistic This struggle is common among Life in the city is obviously differ- individual(s).” 68 This does not bode Christians in Japan and is best ent from life in the countryside, but well for people who have been brought exemplifi ed by well-known Catholic what is not obvious is that standard up in an interdependent context. novelist, Shusaku Endo, who grieved techniques of evangelism, church What this means missiologically is that his conversion to Christianity planting and discipleship are often that ministry, whether sharing the meant for him that he would become used with no attention to the realities gospel with not-yet-Christians or less Japanese. When a Japanese of urban living. For example, the tra- discipling believers, should be done in believer is “crucifi ed with Christ,” and ditional pattern of mission in Japan a group setting, with as little one-on- the “I” no longer lives, many sincere has been to situate headquarters and one as possible. Japanese believers do struggle. So, the churches in suburban Tokyo. This missiological imperative is to make For followers of Jesus a third implica- is cost-effective because downtown sure that the gospel is properly con- tion is that the foundation of identity is exorbitantly expensive, but it also veyed, with faithfulness to its content, must rest in Christ—yet this is no means that most missionaries cannot while at the same time ensuring that mean feat. How does a Christian comprehend the city because they are those who hear it do not sense an Tokyoite consider all these infl uences not there. So, one of the most strate- unnecessary contradiction with who on his/her self-identity and affi rm gic changes that a number of mis- they are in their identity.70 with Paul that “I have been crucifi ed sion organizations have initiated in with Christ; it is no longer I who live, the last decade is to gradually move Conclusion but Christ lives in me” (Gal. 2:20a)? personnel into the city, purchasing I have led you down a long road of What part of the Japanese self is rep- or renting apartments, establishing negotiated identities, globalized con- resented in that verse? Who is the “I”? storefront churches, and meeting in texts and missiological considerations. This is not a glib question. It ties into downtown residences. This change is Harajuku in the heart of Tokyo the Japanese Christian’s identifi cation simple but profound because context, served as our contextual backdrop for with his or her faith and to believers especially urban context, infl uences variegated selves and multiple belong- being “in Christ,” yet is linked to the identity and practice. ings. We pondered the intricacies of
27:4 Winter 2010 180 “Glocal” Japanese Self-Identity: A Missiological Perspective on Paradigmatic Shifts in Urban Tokyo
Japanese multiple self-identities and Economic and Social Affairs, Population an Era of World Christianity, eds. Craig Ott their sensibilities on how the presen- Division, http://www.un.org/esa/popula- and Harold A. Netland, (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006), 61. tation of self differs from those in the tion/publications/wup2007/2007_urban_ agglomerations_chart.pdf 14 My assumption here and through- West. We examined wakon-yosai, 3 Thanks to Jan Hansen for this apt out this article is that contextualization and how it lets Japan contextualize description of the Yoyogi Park area. has already taken place and that it foreign things, such as the telephone, 4 Erving Goffman, The Presentation occurred at the initiative of the Japanese, the cellphone, and social networking, of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, NY : making what is foreign “Japanese.” How especially as they relate to the fl exible Doubleday Anchor, 1959). to contextualize from a Christian perspec- boundaries of the matrixed self. We 5 Doi Takeo, The Anatomy of Depen- tive is a separate topic. 15 Robertson, 90. considered epistemological differences dence. Translated by John Bester (Tokyo: 16 William A. Dyrness, Learning in mapping and how they engage in Kodansha, 1973). 6 See Yamazaki Masakazu, Indi- about Theology from the Third World (Grand border-crossing. Finally, we touched vidualism and the Japanese: An Alternative Rapids: Academie Books/Zondervan, on glocalization and the effects of Approach to Cultural Comparison. Trans- 1990), 141. glocal identity on ethnicity in contexts lated by Barbara Sugihara (Tokyo: Japan 17 Toru Takeda, Wakamono wa naze that are inherently non-neutral. Echo, 1994). “tsunagari” tagaru no ka [Why do young people want to be “connected”?], (Tokyo: Many will agree that human iden- PHP Interface, 2002), 15. tity is humanly created, that it exists 18 David C. Lewis, The Unseen Face of as a social construct but, from both Japan (Tunbridge Wells: Monarch, 1993), a biblical and theological point of 130. Identities are not 19 view, this is not enough. We must In terms of identity, Bachnik sees this “as the locus of the ‘self,’ uchi, [and] go beyond identity to the imago dei, common or universal; is thus linked to the organization of self, which is not a social construct, nor only the imago which is defi ned within a collectivity.” Jane of human derivation. It is the image M. Bachnik, “Uchi/soto: Challenging Our and likeness of God imparted to all dei relates to all Conceptualizations of Self, Social Order, humans and is the essential part of and Language,” in Situated Meaning: our being, superseding any form of humankind. Inside and Outside in Japanese Self, Society, identity. All persons are created in the and Language, ed. Jane M. Bachnik and image of God (Gen. 1:26-27), marred Charles J. Quinn, Jr., (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 28, her emphasis. though it may be by the Fall. To say it 20 Conrad Phillip Kottak shows how 7 another way, the imago dei is the true Ishida Takeshi, “Confl ict and Its uchi and soto work on a macro level: “The foundation, identity is the conveyance. Accommodation: Omote-ura and Uchi-soto (majority) Japanese defi ne themselves by Personal identities can shift and be Relations,” in Confl ict in Japan, eds. Ellis opposition to others, whether minority perceived as multiple or singular, and S. Krauss, Thomas P. Rohlen, and Patricia groups in their own nation or outsiders— G. Steinhoff, (Honolulu: University of can impact how we proceed mis- anyone who is ‘not us.’ The ‘not us’ should Hawaii Press, 1984), 16-38. stay that way; assimilation is generally siologically. But the imago dei, while 8 This is similar to Doi’s honne- discouraged” (Mirror for Humanity. 2d ed. diffi cult to defi ne, is that mirror to tatemae above. (New York: McGraw-Hill College 1999), 9 God containing aspects of the divine Ishida, 20-21 44-45). Such xenophobia, though not 10 that are common to every person on Robert J. Smith, Japanese Society: unique to Japan, creates an “us-them” (or, the planet. Identities are not common Tradition, Self and the Social Order (Cam- “inside/outside”) dynamic; see Charles J. or universal; only the imago dei relates bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983) Quinn, “The Terms Uchi and Soto as Win- in Wetzel, Patricia J. “A Movable Self: to all humankind. And it is here in dows on a World,” in Situated Meaning: The Linguistic Indexing of Uchi and Soto,” the imago dei that we fi nd our funda- Inside and Outside in Japanese Self, Society, in Situated Meaning: Inside and Outside and Language, eds. Jane M. Bachnik and mental departure for all missiological in Japanese Self, Society, and Language, ed. Charles J. Quinn, Jr., (Princeton: Princ- studies of identity. IJFM Jane M. Bachnik and Charles J. Quinn, eton University Press, 1994), 38–72; and Jr., (Princeton: Princeton University Press, Paul G. Hiebert, “Are We Our Others’ Endnotes 1994), 75. Keepers?” (vol. 22, no. 5, 1995), 325-337). 11 1 My thanks to Jan B. Hansen, Jerry My thanks to Jerry Vuncannon Nihonkyo, or Nihonjinron, as this ideol- Vuncannon, How Chuang Chua and John for this innovative thought and turn of ogy is more commonly called, is rooted in Mehn for their input on an early draft of a phrase. nationalism, informing the larger Japanese 12 this paper. Whatever was helpful from Roland Robertson, Globalization: uchi identity. them has been incorporated into this text Social Theory and Global Culture (Thousand 21 Jun Yoshimi of the Societal Infor- and is to their credit. For any errors or Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1992). mation Research Institute at the University 13 problems with what is written above, the Darrell Whiteman, “Anthropo- of Tokyo in Takeda, 16, my translation. responsibility is all mine. logical Refl ections on Contextualizing 22 Janet Ashby, “When in Doubt, 2 2007 statistics from Urban Agglom- Theology in a Globalizing World,” in Just Say ‘wakarimasen’” (Japan Times, erations 2007 chart, UN Department of Globalizing Theology: Belief and Practice in 5/12/2002) International Journal of Frontier Missiology Gary Fujino 181 23 Ashby, “When in Doubt”, quot- ational identity binds [Japan] into a ing Naoko Odaka of the Dentsu Research Institute. cohesive whole; religion functions only on 24 Manuel Castells describes 3 major forms of identity: legitimizing, resistance, the periphery. and project, relating them to the growth of N the internet and globalization. “Resistance when Louis Vuitton fi rst opened its doors the presuppositions of identity generated identity” is the closest to what is being to Japan in 2002 at Omotesando, four by Nihonkyo, that is, of being a citizen described above because its focus is on “the thousand consumers—some of whom had of Japan. 46 formation of communes, or communities,” in lined up for days—partook of a “frenetic See Peter Lundell, “Behind Japan’s The Power of Identity, 2nd ed. (West Sussex, seven-hour sales orgy” which broke “all of Resistant Web: Understanding the Prob- U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2004), 8ff. its own retail records.” See Shutting Out the lem of Nihonkyo,” (Missiology: An Inter- 25 Janet Ashby, “When in Doubt”. Sun: How Japan Created Its Own Lost Gen- national Review, Vol. XXV, No. 2, April 26 Shane Hipps, The Hidden Power of eration (New York: Doubleday, 2006), 158. 1997), 183). 43 47 Electronic Culture: How Media Shapes Faith, See the masterful and exhaustive Befu, Harumi. Hegemony of the Gospel, and Church (Grand Rapids: survey of the literature on ethnicity and Homogeneity: An Anthropological Analysis Zondervan, 2005), 34. national identity from a missiological of Nihonjinron, (Melbourne: Trans Pacifi c 27 Mixi, founded in 2004 and now at perspective, “A Review of the Literature on Press, 2001), 64. 48 21.6 million members, is Japan’s original Ethnicity, National Identity and Related “[B]oundaries persist despite a and formerly largest social network site. Missiological Studies,” in Global Missiology: fl ow of personnel across them,” said Barth Mixi was dethroned in early 2011 by A Review of the Literature on Ethnicity, (1969, 9). Also, because “stable, persisting, upstart Gree, currently with 22.5 million National Identity and Related Missiological and often vitally important social relations members. Rival Mobage-town completes Studies, by Enoch Wan and Mark Vander- are maintained across such boundaries… the triumvirate with 21.7 million members. werf http://www.globalmissiology.org/ frequently based precisely on the dichoto- 28 The data for this paragraph is taken portugues/docs_pdf/featured/wan_litera- mized ethnic statuses” (1969,10) in Fujino, from an article in The New York Times, ture_ethnicity_april_2009.pdf; see also, http://www.commongroundjournal.org/ “Slow Growth in Japanese Facebook” the American Association of Anthropol- volnum/v01n02.pdf. 49 (1/10/2011). ogy’s Statement on Race, http://www. Fujino, http://www.common- 29 The New York Times, “Slow Growth aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm. groundjournal.org/volnum/v01n02.pdf. 44 50 in Japanese Facebook” (1/10/2011) Gary Fujino, “Continuing the Victor Turner, The Forest of Symbols: 30 Ibid. Conversation: Starting Points—Craft- Aspects of Ndembu Ritual (Ithaca: Cornell 31 TIME, 12/27/2010, pp. 57-58. ing Reconciliation through Identity” University Press, 1967), 50. 51 32 “Slow Growth in Japanese Face- (Common Ground Journal vol 1, no. 2, Paul G. Hiebert, The Gospel in book,” emphases added. 2004). http://www.commonground- Human Contexts: Anthropological Explora- 33 Ibid. journal.org/volnum/v01n02.pdf. The tions for Contemporary Missions (Grand 34 Paul G. Hiebert, Missiological Impli- danger of “identity politics” should also be Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009),120, cations of Epistemological Shifts (Harrisburg, underlined here, where identity is used to 198, 179. 52 PA: Trinity Press International, 1999), 76. pit one group against another. Schreiter, 26-27, emphases his. 45 53 35 John Clammer, Japan and Its Others Nothing is more central to a Lamin Sanneh, Whose Religion Is (Melbourne: Trans Pacifi c Press, 2001), 169. Japanese person than “being Japanese.” Christianity? The Gospel beyond the West 36 Clammer, 169-170. Naturally, such patriotism could be said to (Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans Pub- 37 Clammer, 171. He thus infers here be as true for those other nations, but in lishing Co., 2003), 5. 54 that it is diffi cult for a Japanese to be a Japan, belonging is everything (cf. Fukuda Paul Hopper, Understanding Christian and Japanese at the same time, Mitsuo. Developing a Contextualized Cultural Globalization (Cambridge: Polity but the missiological imperative is to fi nd a Church as a Bridge to Christianity in Japan. Press, 2007), 48. 55 way through that. (D.Miss. diss., Fuller Theological Semi- Schreiter, 26. 56 38 Clammer speaks of the Japanese nary, 1992), 103; Lebra Takie Sugiyama, ibid. 57 need for shutaisei, the “independence of Japanese Patterns of Behavior (Honolulu: ibid. 58 spirit and the ability to defi ne and manage University of Hawaii Press, 1976), 24ff). Deborah A. Kapchan and Pauline the individual self autonomously,” and National identity binds the country into Turner Strong, “Theorizing the Hybrid” of the confl ict which often occurs inside a cohesive whole; religion functions only (Journal of American Folklore 112 no. 445 Japanese Christians as they try to create on the periphery. Geertz says religion is Sum 1999), 242. 59 a psychic bridge between this Western important because of “its capacity to serve, Ted C. Lewellen, The Anthropology of image of self “and cultural views inculcated for an individual or group, as a source of Globalization: Cultural Anthropology Enters st through socialization.” Clammer, 169, 171. general, yet distinctive conceptions of the 21 Century, (Westport, CT; Bergin and 39 Robert J. Schreiter, The New the world, self, and the relations between Garvey, 2002),102, emphasis his. 60 Catholicity: Theology between the Global and them” (see Clifford Geertz, “Religion as TIME, 12/27/2010, 60. 61 the Local (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, a Cultural System,” in Language, Truth Mizuko Ito, Daisuke Okabe, and 1997), 12. and Religious Belief: Studies in Twentieth- Misa Matsuda, eds. Personal, Portable, 40 Schreiter, 21. Century Theory and Method in Religion, Pedestrian: Mobile Phones in Japanese Life 41 Schreiter, 12. eds. Nancy K. Frankenberry and Hans H. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005), 8. 62 42 Michael Zielenziger writes that Penner, (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999), “Teens in Japan almost exclusively 212), but this description better describes access and download Internet content 27:4 Winter 2010 182 “Glocal” Japanese Self-Identity: A Missiological Perspective on Paradigmatic Shifts in Urban Tokyo
through their handsets.” http://www. dynamiclogic.com/na/research/whitepa- pers/docs/MB_POV_Advertiser_Forget_ Pick_Phone.pdf 63 Jonathan Ingleby, “Is Contextualization Neutral?” Missiology: New Books! An International Review, Vol. XXV, No. 2, from William Carey Library April 1997, 183. 64 There is some harkening back to Hiebert’s “Critical Contextualization” here, but my focus is more on the glocal, whereas Hiebert’s is more on the local. Robert Reese Roots and Remedies of the 65 Saskia Sassen, The Global City: New ROOTS & Dependency Syndrome in World York, London, Tokyo, 2nd ed. (Princeton; Missions Princeton University Press, 1991). REMEDIES 66 of the Dependency Syndrome Th e Christian movement is entering a new Manuel Castells, The Power of Iden- in World Missions post-colonial era with centers of the faith on all tity, 2nd ed. (West Sussex, U.K.: Wiley- continents. American Christians have often felt Blackwell, 2004), xxiii. uniquely qualifi ed to lead this growing movement 67 Paul G. Hiebert, Transforming because of a long history of sending missionaries Worldviews: An Anthropological Understand- and funding mission projects. Yet something is ing of How People Change, (Grand Rapids: hampering the relationship between Western and Baker Academic, 2008), 248. non-Western churches, preventing the dynamic 68 Clammer, p. 169 synergism that Christians might expect. 69 Tadataka Maruyama, “The Cross Robert Reese identifi es this hindrance as the and the Cherry Blossom: The Gospel and Dependency Syndrome, a relic of colonial mission Japanese Culture at a Crossroads” (Trinity ISBN 978-0-87808-0137 methods. With three decades of experience in Journal, vol. 21NS, no. 1), 59. Author: Robert Reese Zimbabwe, Reese explains the roots of dependency and 70 how this continues to cloud the vision of many well- See Priest, Robert J. “Mission- Pages 240 | Paperback, 2010 ary elenctics: Conscience and culture,” meaning Western Christians. He documents the tragic Our Price: $14.39 results of relying too much on foreign ideas, institutions, Missiology 22, no. 3 (1994): 291-315. 3 or More: $9.89 personnel, and funding that sideline non-Western churches from fulfi lling the Great Commission.
Serving Jesus with Integrity: Ethics and Accountability in Mission Evangelical missionaries and mission agencies are concerned about personal morality—and rightly so. But as the chapters in this volume attest, evangelical mission’s ethical engagement extends far beyond simply avoiding compromising sexual situations and not absconding with the fi nances. How should we talk about others’ beliefs and practices to ourselves? To them? How should we represent ourselves to others? What role does tolerance for ambiguity play in missionaries’ mental preparation? How should accountability be structured in intercultural partnerships? Are there ways to enable organizational justice to fl ourish in mission institutions? ISBN 978-0-87808-0236 Dwight Baker and Limited and fallible and marred by the fall, we need both Doug Hayward, editors guidance and admonition—and deep refl ection on the conduct of evangelical mission such as is provided in this Pages 438 | Paperback, 2010 volume—so that we may serve Jesus with true integrity. Our Price: $11.99 3 or More: $8.24
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International Journal of Frontier Missiology Globalization and Identity A New Mission Tool in Creative Access Nations: Christian Virtual Community in China by Enoch J. Kim
he house church movement of China is in desperate need of an infra- structure for communication. Over my fi fteen years in China, I have T seen many Chinese house churches and their leaders suffer because of the lack of freedom. Naturally, because many of their house church programs and activities function under a veil of secrecy, they have diffi culty communi- cating with the outside world, and even networking among themselves. I have struggled to determine just how churches within a creative access nation might engage in alternative forms of communication.
This article is my response to this challenge.1 It is based on research regarding our ability to harness global communications technology to build a virtual com- munity model for missions. Because of its two-way communication function and freedom from geographical limitations, a virtual community model seems to have a huge potential as an effective alternative to other communication tools in the creative access nations.2 I want to suggest several new ways to enhance current Christian websites and promote effective virtual communities. I’ll also suggest a new master plan for real world church planting using a virtual space communica- tion network. Ways to effectively harness the talents of scholars, missionaries, and churches to bolster the strength of online evangelism plan are included here. However, the crucial factor in this plan is still the local church’s initiative.
In creative access nations, where there are limitations to open evangelism and discipleship, building virtual communities seems to be an appropriate supple- mentary tool to help local churches with this need. Of course, there is interven- tion and checking from a higher realm in the Internet world. Christian Internet Enoch J. Kim (Ph.D., Missiology) has been living and working in China, activity could also easily become suppressed or strictly regulated. However, reaching Muslims for the past 15 years. from my surveys, I was astonished to discover that many healthy Christian With his wife Sarah H. Ko, Enoch online networks are actively running today in China. is involved with HOPE Mission in Global Missionary Fellowship This article specifi cally focuses its research on the YEU-Chinese and other and Frontiers Mission. He serves as director of the Cross-Cultural Training YEU–classes in Chinese minority groups. YEU is an acromym for the young, Center in China. educated, and urbanized Chinese. As such, the hypothesis posed here is that
International Journal of Frontier Missiology 27:4 Winter 2010•183 184 A New Mission Tool in Creative Access Nations: Christian Virtual Community in China the YEU class as an emerging group Research Design more likely to provide an emic view with modern leadership skills and and Sampling Plan from these case studies. as early adopters of new informa- Actual fi eld research was done on the tion are well placed to infl uence their Data Report to China’s Current virtual community situation in China. own larger people group in the future Internet User Situation The key problem we faced in this in highly signifi cant ways. Whether survey was the lack of understanding of In 2008 China became the country Muslims or majority Chinese, the Christian virtual community and the with the largest number of Internet YEU class consistently demonstrates a lack of effectiveness of current Internet users in the world—235.1 mil- preference for personal, mobile, digital, 5 mission strategies for China. lion users. In January of 2007, the multimedia tools that are quickly demographic report of The China accessible and customizable.3 There are four research questions in Internet Network Information Center addressing this problem: Given the YEU’s media preferences, this (CNNIC) defi ned the typical Internet 1. What is the current Internet user as one aged 6 and above who is article delves further into research about 6 the YEU and implications of the group’s users’ situation in China? online at least one hour over a week. media preferences in terms of new evan- An analysis of this report distin- gelism methods directed at them. At the guishes several clear characteristics center of these YEU media preferences of Chinese Internet users: they are are the current tools of computers and the YEU we spoke of earlier. First, the Internet. Nevertheless, traditional the Chinese Internet users are young. mission approaches with the older In 2008 China More than half of them were younger and more familiar technology of radio became the country with than twenty-four years old, and more or printed media, approaches which than 70 percent were younger than the largest number of thirty years old, and 57.8 percent were struggle in creative access nations where 7 there is lack of religious freedom, can be Internet users unmarried. Second, Chinese Internet revolutionized by the full-broadcasting users are educated. More than 83 capability of the Internet. in the world. percent of users have more than a high school diploma. Moreover, a large One by-product of current Internet number of these Internet users appear technology is a social networking amenable to pursuing higher levels of which creates virtual communities education in the near future.8 Third, across virtual space. I anticipate that 2. What are the Internet mis- the Chinese Internet users are urban- sions to China doing? Christian activities initially forming ites. According to mobile phone and 3. How do Internet missions and as virtual communities can provide Internet users’ locations, about 83 per- virtual community mission alternative communication tools for 9 strategy work in China? cent of users live in an urban setting. churches in creative access nations. 4. What is an effective strategy Therefore, a large portion of China’s Consequently, no matter the specifi c for planting actual ‘offl ine’ Internet users are of the YEU group. external circumstances, a relative free- churches through virtual dom to share ideas and get information community? Two Groups: Tendencies will ensue, freeing collective imagina- In order to gather the necessary infor- toward Forming Community tion and creativity, allowing the church mation, I used ten questionnaires to The fi rst step of analyzing the sample to operate effectively within its specifi c gather standardized observations from involved categorizing them into two socio-political setting. Therefore, the 60 recommended websites.4 Rather than groups, high tendency and low tendency, development of virtual space commu- asking participants direct questions, according to how actively they tried to nities should provide a more effective as is traditionally done with question- form both online and offl ine commu- approach for evangelizing unreached naires, the websites were evaluated nities (see Table 1 on page 186). The people groups around the world where using a questionnaire. Therefore, the question asked of the sites was whether the Internet is accessible. method relied on both a questionnaire they had a plan for building a virtual To determine the probability of using and observation. To guarantee reliability community. Naturally, those that seem a virtual community model success- and reduce the potential subjectivity of to have plans for a virtual community fully in creative access nations, this an external observation, our researchers identifi ed themselves by checking article summarizes both theoretical and native speaking coworkers joined more answers and were categorized in approaches and fi eld research results as Internet community members, and the high tendency group. Those with regarding the virtual community observed the members’ behavioral pat- few answers, or those seeming to have movement in China. terns. That is, because the researcher a plan but with few answers, were joined the community, the process was categorized as low tendency. Based on International Journal of Frontier Missiology Enoch J. Kim 185 this, twelve sample sites were catego- eventy percent of the sites could link to other sites, rized into the low group, and thirteen into the high group. but most of them were linked to other Christian However, further questions needed to sites, not secular ones. discover just what these sites were tar- S geting, so we introduced two questions automatically screen proper members. a two-way communication system that to sort out their goals and their primary But, as Table 4 (p. 186) indicates, web- enables users to have conversation, such receptor groups (Table 2 on page 186). sites generally did not have a cultural as you fi nd in counseling. One interest- Since the high and low tendency sample screening system for their users, except ing fact is that none of the websites in the numbers were not the same (thirteen that consideration of social situation low tendency group had counseling or and twelve), the numbers are expressed and ethnic issues in high tendency debate functions, but fi fty-four percent of as percentages for equal comparison. groups was slightly higher than in the high tendency group did. You’ll note that among the high group low groups. While most of sites offered the man- samples, 46 percent seemed to seek Most of the high tendency groups and ager’s email address, phone number, and to build a virtual community, and 15 more than half of the low tendency postal address, most sites were unfortu- percent seemed to have a plan for offl ine groups used direct methods for evan- nately not ready to encourage or channel community from the beginning. On the gelism. Approximately 38 percent of users into an offl ine community. In other hand, lower group samples were the high tendency group tried to meet fact, as you can see in Table 8 (p. 186), very passive in forming offl ine commu- members’ felt needs as they introduced only one case proved ready to introduce nity. Only 25 percent of the low group the gospel. Since most of sites seem to be people in person; however, even in this had virtual community planning, and designed for Christian believers, the sites case, the strategy only offered a small none of them had offl ine community were more likely to be information net- amount of group management, rather plans. Therefore, developing online and works for Christians themselves rather than any systematic church planting. offl ine communities seems to require than primarily for introducing the gospel. Amidst all this data, there were several planning before designing a website The high tendency group are slightly cases of spontaneous networking, where toward that end. more user friendly, and they have a website members tried to organize In Table 3 (p. 186), when we asked higher percentage of multiple functions: themselves into offl ine communities about primary recipients, websites did web searching tools, weather forecast- from the online community. On one not seem to target specifi c recipients. ing, opportunities to locate old friends, website, the Christian Student Web, there Especially for our purposes, note that cafés, blogs, and virtual communities were links to local virtual communities. only 31 and 17 percent of websites in (Table 6 on p. 186). You’ll note that On one occasion, a Christian looking each group seems to be designed for one of the crucial functions is linking for a campus Christian community YEU Chinese. Web designers need with other sites, especially in advertis- received six replies on the site. Another to have more strategic approaches ing the site to new visitors. Seventy private Christian website in China’s because most of Chinese web users percent of the sites could link to other Shenzhen City, Light of Spiritual Love, are YEU groups.10 sites, but most of them were linked to had online community groups and We also wanted to check what kinds of other Christian sites, not secular ones. offered an offl ine community meet- 11 cultural and social themes the websites This means it may not be easy for both ing. This was a good example of how use for screening out general users seekers and non-Christians to fi nd these the community develops from online to from their primary receptor group. A sites. Though some of the websites offl ine by including the time and place shocking result is that no matter how introduced the gospel indirectly through of regular meetings and a contact per- high or low the group tendency, about secular professional interests, these were son’s phone, email, and MSN address. half of all sites do not seem to have very few. Most of the free download- Then there is the Chinese Christian’s Blog any screening systems for users, like able content consisted of Christian website which has facilitated the forma- having a membership system or focus- materials—gospel songs, apologetics tion of a virtual community among 12 ing on special themes to attract specifi c articles, the Bible—which would be of Chinese Christians by using a blog. groups of web users. People from any little interest to non-Christians. They fall into geographic districts in background can join these current sites The primary condition for forming a which members choose their common if they just agree to the policy. This virtual community is maximizing the concerns and topics. And then there’s kind of membership system cannot Internet’s two-way communication func- the Christian lawyer from WenZhou screen users. If the site deals with tionality (Table 7 on p. 186). This would who provided online law consulting for special themes, tools, or programs and indicate their readiness for an offl ine free or at a low price. In the middle of intends only a specifi c group of users such web consulting, the lawyer intro- community. Yet, none of the sites offered 13 to join, these systems and themes can duced the gospel. 27:4 Winter 2010 186 A New Mission Tool in Creative Access Nations: Christian Virtual Community in China Table 1: High and Low Tendencies for Forming Virtual Communities. Table 5: Evangelism Methods. Low Tendency High Tendency Methods High Tendency (%) Low Tendency(%) Group Group Directly introduce 92 58 Number of answers between 0-3 between 4-7 Total Touching felt needs 38 25 checked Doesn’t seem to have plan Cultural themes, common ground 8 sites 0 sites 8 sites for virtual community (fi lial piety, life issues, etc.) 8 0 Seems to have plan for Others 8 25 4 sites 13 sites 17 sites virtual community Totals 12 sites 13 sites 25 sites Table 6: Attraction of Newcomers. Table 2: Website Goals. Choices High Tendency (%) Low Tendency (%) Goals High Tendency (%) Low Tendency (%) Provide a variety of tools 62 25 Minister to missionaries 0 0 Linked to other sites 77 75 Introduce the gospel 100 58 Offer rewards 8 0 Provide Christian information 62 83 Free downloads 92 42 Build Chinese virtual community 46 25 Online counseling/debates 54 0 Build offl ine community 15 0 Christian yellow pages 31 8 Provide agents for offl ine community 0 0 Updating secular/Christian news, events 31 42 Other 0 8 Provide more secular and Table 3: Primary Recipients. professional materials (e.g., medical news and experts) 31 17 Recepients High Tendency (%) Low Tendency (%) Others 0 17 Foreign missionaries 0 0 Chinese all over the world 23 8 Young, educated, and urban Table 7: Two-Way Communication Functions. Chinese 31 17 Functions High Tendency (%) Low Tendency (%) No functions 0 8 General Chinese Muslim 0 0 Email, message 92 75 Young, educated, and urban Chinese Muslims 0 0 Dialogue board 85 50 General Chinese in mainland 85 83 Chatting 31 8 Audio/video communication 0 0 Table 4: User Screening. Provide contact information 85 58 Focus of Screening High Tendency (%) Low Tendency (%) No screening system 46 58 Table 8: Readiness for Offl ine Community. Appropriate themes 46 33 Readiness Functions High Tendency (%) Low Tendency (%) Appropriate education level 15 17 Do not provide services 92 100 Cultural context 31 33 Persons are ready to contact 8 0 Social situation (job, locality, Organization is ready to 0 0 preference) 15 8 contact Ethnic group issues 0 0 Local churches are ready to Touching felt needs 31 31 contact 0 0 Using special language 0 0 Others 0 0 Discussing their religion 0 0 Provide contact information 0 0
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Enoch J. Kim 187 An Interpretation he key to the whole process of offl ine church The good news is that techniques for developing a virtual community in planting is the activity and involvement of local China were far more developed than church members. expected. In contrast to the fact that T many Western and Korean church 4. Many of the websites’ dis- the later stage, the online presence websites employ a one-way commu- cipleship programs need to be becomes a supplementary one, with nication method—static pages, video more active in order to hold offl ine interaction assuming a promi- sermon, and announcements—many users’ attention. Similar to nent role in the community. department store sites, they Chinese Christian sites were equipped passively wait for visitors with hyperlinks connecting to a vari- Step 1: Website Design to choose them. With this and Virtual Approach ety of functions. In addition to static approach, the site may not pages, they offered forums, blogs, easily attract visitors to enter When web design teams plan the fi rst photo galleries, calendars, events, and stay. stages of their websites, it is important and many communication systems. 5. Both the local church-initi- to keep the fi nal picture in mind—an These abundant two-way communica- ated web management and offl ine church. In this initial stage, the tion systems offered a fertile ground offl ine community-building issue is how to make the site easy to for forming online communities in were poor. Many domestic access and attractive to their primary China. In order to build an offl ine sites seemed to get help from target users. For this, those websites foreign missions though they community among Chinese, there are need to provide three elements: links gave their domestic address with appropriate sites, the opportunity several areas that need to be developed in the sites. The key to the for an Internet strategy. whole process of offl ine to touch felt needs, and the coopera- tion of interpersonal networks. 1. Many of the websites’ goals church planting, however, is need to have a clearer focus. the activity and involvement Local churches in China need to Many of their primary recep- of local church members. The participate in this process from the lack of experts for the local tor groups were the general outset. Along with the local church, Chinese population, and many situation also seemed to be a serious problem. international teamwork is important sites did not have a screening for a virtual community project. Even system for their members. 6. More systematic plans for before the website is designed, web 2. There is a need of improving building offl ine communities the strategies for evangelism are important. So far, it seems designers, supporters, foreign churches, to non-Christians. Only a few that very few churches and communication experts, ethnographers, sites seem to meet the needs individuals have successfully and sociologists need to share ideas and of seekers and non-believers. developed offl ine communi- plan the whole process together with the Of these sites, two-thirds of ties from online communities. local church. The emphasis on the local their methods were direct It is necessary to educate and church does not mean that expatriate encourage local churches to evangelism, and most of their roles would be diminished, but rather take initiative in virtual com- data and documents were for changed. Expatriates can provide foreign the discipleship of believers. munity projects. networks, resources, and experts to assist Redesigning the site with A Master Plan for Online specifi c cultural themes will the local person who needs the website. allow the sites to have highly to Offl ine Church Planting It is important to advertise and provide concentrated target users only. Based upon fi eld research in China and links at non-Christian sites frequently 3. The sites need to offer a vari- my assessment of the current social visited by the intended target audience. ety of service to attract users. environment, I suggest that an inte- Since many of the YEU Chinese are The content and functions grated ministry plan of church planting familiar with Internet bars, access- were too simple to be attrac- through virtual community become tive. Additionally, most of ing the Internet is very convenient in a model applied to creative access China. As they develop a positive atti- their hyperlinks were linked nations. There are three steps in weav- with other Christian sites, tude toward the gospel, an offl ine team not with secular sites. This ing a virtual community model into a can develop personal relationships. disconnects the network from ministry plan: (1) Website design and the secular world and reduces virtual approach, (2) Offl ine meeting But for this to happen, sites should the chance of contact with for evangelism, and (3) Discipleship connect with the target receptor users’ non-Christians. As a result, and formation of an offl ine church. needs, not just purely introduce the the community can become a The earlier stages depend on online gospel. Again, to accomplish this, web Christian ghetto. tools, but as seekers participate in designers, communication experts, ethnographers, social anthropologists, 27:4 Winter 2010 188 A New Mission Tool in Creative Access Nations: Christian Virtual Community in China and local church leaders need to coop- Step 3: Online and Offl ine Discipleship Endnotes erate. Some will address appropriate At this stage, the online community 1 This article is based upon a fi eld cultural themes, while other expertise and its system becomes a supple- survey of my Ph.D. dissertation and its is mobilized to discern how to touch mentary tool, as the offl ine commu- context is China. 2 those needs. nity becomes the major network for Patrick Johnstone and Jason Mandryk defi ned a creative access nation In designing for receptors’ needs, discipleship. This new contextualized as “a country which limits or forbids the having hypermedia in the website offl ine church helps defi ne the new entry of Christian missionaries and for moves beyond just static pages and identity of believers, has a culturally which alternative legal means of entry is recommended for building any appropriate worship style, prayer, and are required to enable Christians to live potential community. Hypermedia praise style, and instructs believers for Christ” in Johnstone and Mandryk, Operation World: 21st Century Edition. can include blogs, discussion tables, on strategies to study the Bible. The fi nal goal of this whole process is to let (Waynesboro, GA: Paternoster Publishing, and forums, offering many kinds of 2001), p. 755. This article is based on this seekers in creative access nations direct opportunities for communication. defi nition of Creative Access Nation. Additionally, hypermedia websites can their own indigenous churches by 3 Kim, J. Enoch, “Receptor-Oriented facilitate the creation of many small using online and offl ine communities. Communication for Hui Muslims in China: With Special Reference to Church communities, so that they can indepen- Conclusion dently meet any social group’s unique Planting.” Ph.D. dissertation, Fuller Theo- As one who works in the country with logical Seminary, Pp. 207-211. needs. Such small groups are also rela- the largest number of Internet users in 4 From the sixty recommended tively safe when persecution comes. the world, where the majority of users websites, I screened appropriate samples Following this fi rst step, the local are the YEU Chinese, I feel compelled through specifi c criterion, primarily church’s role will become crucial. This to approach this layer of society through whether that the each site had a mission means that by the local church’s lead- the strategic use of the Internet. In to mainland China. I used SPSS (v 13.0) ing, they need to prepare both an online creative access nations like China, and Microsoft Excel for analyzing and team and an offl ine team. The initial building a virtual community is a new calculating the data. Since, all the websites design of the website must ensure a alternative and supplementary tool to were public sites, this article determined high probability of success in develop- help local churches. The Internet is that sensitivity to any security issues was ing online activities into offl ine meet- free from geographical limitations, and the responsibility of the websites owners. 5 ings. One example is the way Christian the opportunities for multiple forms See, “Worldwide Internet Users Top medical websites facilitate the relation- 1.5 Billion in 2008: China Tops 235M of communication enable the forma- Internet Users.” In eTForecasts, Juliussen, ship between their offl ine agents and tion of virtual communities. I believe Egil, www.etforecasts.com/products/ local clients. The agent may physically Internet mission is a proper alternative ES_intusersv2.htm#1.3, updated 2007, visit patients offl ine, comfort the fami- in a country where there is a certain accessed August 30, 2010. lies, and work between virtual contacts amount of persecution and oppression, 6 The title of report is “CNNIC and the web medical experts. This is a where there are not enough offl ine Released the 19th Statistical Survey Report model I’d like to push towards. churches, and where there is a lack of on Internet Development in China,” www. cnnic.cn/html/Dir/2007/02/05/4432.htm, Christian resources. Step 2: Offl ine Meeting updated January 2007, accessed July 13, 2007. But to be effective in this strategic 7 Ibid., p.11. The local church should lead offl ine 8 opportunity, Internet missions need Ibid. activity that grows out of online 9 to be culturally sensitive, strategic, Ibid., p.63. activity. The offl ine team members 10 and networkable with local churches, Even though these few sites were spe- should have already participated cifi cally targeting YEU groups, it should be foreign missions, and other resources. in virtual activities as community considered that, according to the analysis of Local churches and expatriates need members, so some who had been the CNNIC report, since Chinese Internet to cooperate in website development seekers in virtual community are users are mainly YEU, the users are auto- and use the sites to plant future offl ine already familiar with each other as matically screened as part of the YEU group. they enter an offl ine setting. As the churches. To be successful, Internet 11 This is a Chinese version website, relationship between the offl ine team missions need to integrate with the 灵爱之光, www.godislove.cn/forum_view. and the seekers matures, they should local church’s active evangelism and asp?forum_id=11andview_id=1867, proceed to evangelize. In some cases, discipleship strategies. At the same updated 2007, accessed June 12, 2007. 12 they may need to connect with a time, foreign resources should not be This is a Chinese version website, and its address is www.ccblog.net, accessed totally different website for assistance excluded, but should serve the local churches’ new online and offl ine com- June 17, 2007. in evangelism, a site the content of 13 This is a Chinese version website, which includes an introduction to the munities with their resources from 基督徒法律, www.jdfl w.com/, updated gospel and spiritual encouragement. within and outside of China. IJFM 2005, accessed June 15, 2007.
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Biblical Interpretation Diverse Voices: Hearing Scripture Speak in a Multicultural Movement by Kevin Higgins
his paper will explore the unique potential of “relevance theory” in illuminating some of the hermeneutical dynamics encountered as a T multi-lingual community of Muslim followers of Isa wrestle with the text of Luke, chapters 1–3. Following a brief introduction to relevance theory as it applies to translation, the paper will present notes taken during a one week inductive study of Luke involving 16 men from six language groups. Translation and Relevance Theory (RT) Translation is a complex discipline that has evolved to incorporate multiple approaches and theoretical assumptions drawn from fi elds as diverse as linguis- tics, anthropology, hermeneutics, discourse analysis, theology, and communica- tions theory. King describes many of the facets of that complexity, especially in seeking to describe how meaning is processed. Meaning arises out of a dynamic interactive relation-ship between the actual mes- sage transmitted, the signal systems used, the environment in which the message is transmitted, the people who receive it, the relationship between the people, and the manner of transmitting the message. In the end, however, it is the receptors who make the fi nal decision on what the message means to them within their own context and cognitive environment.1 This article was fi rst published in the Bulletin of the Asia Society for Fron- King aptly outlines the role that the receptors play, and in particular the way tier Mission, No. 5, Oct-Dec 2010, that context, and what she calls cognitive environment, factors into the process- where the author participated in the ing of meaning. However, this is not merely a modern concern or sensitivity. proceedings of their annual conference. In the 2nd century B.C.E. the translator of Ecclesiasticus into Greek sum- marized in a remarkably lucid way the struggle translators have always faced. Kevin Higgins, involved with Global Teams as a missionary since 1990, After explaining the purpose with which the original author, Jesus Ben Sirach, developed a work in a majority Muslim undertook his work, the translator goes on to say the following. country that has resulted in creative You are invited therefore to read it with goodwill and attention, and to be indul- evangelism among eight languages, gent in cases where, despite our diligent labor in translating, we may seem to have four of which have emerging people rendered some phrases imperfectly. For what was originally expressed in Hebrew movements. Kevin now serves as does not have exactly the same sense when translated into another language. Not executive director of Global Teams, only this book, but even the Law itself, the Prophecies, and the rest of the books recruiting missionaries, training, and differ not a little when read in the original. (Ecclesiasticus, Prologue, New Revised coaching pioneer missionaries. Standard Version, emphasis mine)
International Journal of Frontier Missiology 27:4 Winter 2010•189 190 Diverse Voices: Hearing Scripture Speak in a Multicultural Movement Though the translator here does not Cicero. If space allowed we could trace the “grammar” of a culture, Chomsky make reference to how his reader might evidence of this concern in Jerome and 1954),6 and the application of semiot- be affected by their context, he does on through all the standard works on ics in structural anthropology (Levi- acknowledge that the result of even the Bible translation theory and approach.4 Strauss). They also give extended most careful and diligent translation In the interest of space I am going to attention to an earlier inferential model work can result in a text which does 7 jump over many of the various histori- developed by Grice (1989). As such, not have “exactly the same sense” as cal approaches to translation and focus RT is developed within the broader the original once it has been re-created on just a few of the particularly sug- movement of interest in human cogni- in a new language. This implies that gestive insights that might be gleaned tion evident in a variety of disciplines the context of the new language plays a from RT. including psychology, anthropology, role in how the text is received and its linguistics, and philosophy. meaning is processed. RT could be summarized this way: Communication takes place as recipi- “Cognitive environment” has already Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.), roughly a ents make inferences about a commu- been referred to several times as a key contemporary of the above citation and nicator’s intentions based on what they term in RT. As Sperber and Wilson regarded by many as the founder of state it, “A cognitive environment is Western translation theory, developed merely a set of assumptions which his thought regarding translation pri- the individual is capable of mentally marily in the context of training orators representing and accepting as true” to translate from Greek into Latin. In (1995: 46). Thus cognitive environ- one of his major works on the subject, ment includes a person’s current and The Best Kind of Orator, Cicero describes Cicero is directly potential matrix of ideas, memories, his own approach to translation. referencing his concern experiences, and perceptions. I did not translate…as an interpreter, New assumptions and thoughts that but as an orator, keeping the same for the receptor. occur in the communication process ideas and the forms, or as one might might reinforce existing assumptions, say, the “fi gures” of thought, but in lan- or could lead to changes in the recep- guage which conforms to our usage.2 tor’s cognitive environment. Since it Cicero foreshadows an approach that is only partially possible to predict the would in later generations be referred new thoughts and assumptions that to as a meaning based or even dynamic deem to be relevant as determined by will result in the receptor as a result equivalent approach to translation. He their cognitive environment. The spe- of this altered cognitive environment refers to translating ideas, not words. cifi c elements of RT are covered in the (1995:58), the success of communica- And in referring to “our usage” Cicero literature which I will cite below and in tion cannot be measured by an exact is directly referencing his concern for my references. In this paper I will focus transfer of thoughts from communica- the receptor in his work. Cicero pro- on the last element, that of cognitive tor to receptor, a standard assumption vides more detail about his approach. environment, and its potential insights in code models of communication. As I did not hold it necessary to render for translation upon which I will focus Sperber and Wilson put it, “We see word-for-word, but I preserved the in this paper. communication as a matter of enlarg- general style and force of language. ing mutual cognitive environments, For I did not think I ought to count Cognitive Environment not of duplicating thoughts” (Sperber them out to the reader like coins, but The seminal work for RT is the book and Wilson 1995: 193). to pay them by weight, as it were.3 by Sperber and Wilson, Relevance: Communication and Cognition (1986). So, in RT, accuracy in communication As we shall see, one of RT’s distin- In a subsequent revision the authors is described as an increasingly shared guishing characteristics is its relatively responded to critiques and further cognitive environment. Note that one of greater emphasis on the receptor, and clarifi ed their thinking (2nd Edition, the implications here is that in com- the receptor’s context. However, I 1995).5 In the course of developing munication both communicator and have cited these three references as their theory, Sperber and Wilson receptor will have their cognitive envi- a means of making the simple point interact with the code model of ronments changed, and the goal implies that although RT may emphasize the communication (e.g., Shannon and a process of increasing under-standing. role of the receptor more than other Weaver), its subsequent application and Ernst August Gutt (1989, 1992, and theories of communication have done, modifi cation in semiotics/semiology 2000) was the fi rst to apply RT to Bible we should not assume that sensitiv- (eg., Saussure), the linguistic approach translation.8 Following his discussion ity to receptor context is something to semiotics (eg., seeing meaning as of other theories of translation, Gutt new. We see it in Ecclesiasticus and in International Journal of Frontier Missiology Kevin Higgins 191 develops a line of argument that leads he fi ve day gathering included 16 men from him to conclude that RT is suffi cient in and of itself as a theoretical framework two countries and six mother-languages for translation of the Bible (2000: vii (not including this author). and 22). Gutt goes to great length to T demonstrate that every principle found 3. The reality that translation 2. The text was translated for in current theories of translation can is itself an iterative, inter- Muslim readers. In keeping be explained by reference to RT (2000: pretive process. with MBS, there were no verse 198). As such he accepts the defi nition With this summary of RT, albeit numbers, though we did add and description of cognitive environ- extremely brief, and with these three chapter numbers. ment discussed above. points serving as lenses for what fol- 3. Each new section began with the Bismillah, “In the Name of lows, I turn to my record of the process However, because Gutt approaches RT God the Compassionate and the as a Bible translator, he is attuned to questions, and insights gleaned from Merciful I begin…” Again, this the even greater complexity involved in the week-long study of Luke 1–3. is in keeping with Islamic style. this particular type of communication. Following that discussion, I will return 4. As reference material for this Translation theories and approaches to summarize a few conclusions. new translation the main team of share an awareness that in translation translators referred to two other projects within the country. the communication event involves not Study of Luke, July 19–23, 2009 The fi ve day gathering included Both can be said to belong to only a communicator (which would the meaning-based or dynamic be the original author) and a recipient 16 men from two countries and six equivalent school of translation. (the original audience), but also a new mother-languages (not including this One of the two works used as recipient (the translator‘s audience) and author). The studies were conducted reference has been published a new communicator (the translator).9 in the lingua franca of the country, with an explanatory translation and each man in this group was on one page and an inter-linear One of the key arguments in RT is that literate though the levels of literacy version on the facing page that the cognitive environment of a recipi- ranged widely. incorporated Greek and the ent of any given communication is what receptor language in a word for determines how the recipient processes These men were leaders in an insider word version. The version used the meaning of the communication they movement: followers of Jesus, remain- in this study, however, was far receive. This does not mean that the ing Muslim. As leaders, they meet more Islamic in its style and ter- intention of the communicator is not a several times in a year for sharing each minology than either of the two versions used in reference. factor, and Sperber and Wilson address other’s stories and problems, encourag- this. However, for the receptor, the ing each other, and studying together. The format of our studies needs some cognitive environment rules the day. Studies have included topics (such as description. Each day, for fi ve days, we Quranic verses regarding Jesus), and met together from about 9:30 a.m. until My purpose in the remainder of this books of the Bible, studied for the most about 3:30 p.m., with breaks for tea. paper is to describe in concrete ways part in an inductive way. However discussions frequently contin- how the preceding discussion of cogni- ued avidly through the tea breaks. tive environment and communication Of the 16 men, two have received con- sheds light on understanding what siderably more training than the others. Before commencing, prayer was takes place when a group of Muslims They have studied the Bible regularly, offered, fi rst in a very Islamic style by from different language groups engage are familiar with Christian terminol- one leader, in Arabic, standing and scripture in a group discussion. ogy and teachings such as the Trinity, holding a stick. Then followed more and have been introduced to basic spontaneous prayers by the group. In particular, I will highlight: interpretation methods and concepts The fi rst two days I suggested a set of 1. How people process the mean- as well as a one week introduction to simple questions to serve as starting ing of the Biblical text from “manuscript Bible study” (MBS) using points. Before beginning the study within their own cognitive the Gospel of Mark.10 environment, highlighting how I told them to be looking for and cognitive environment shapes The text of the Bible studied together listening for: Who did what? Where? meaning and frames questions was characterized by the following When? How? Why? After that, the that are brought to the text. major elements: format had become pretty internal- 2. Ways in which the interpretation ized and there was little need for me to 1. The language was the lingua of scripture involves a process franca, the trade language repeat the key questions or process. that results in readers increas- or national language of ingly sharing the cognitive envi- Then one person read aloud an entire the country. ronment of the original text. chapter. The others followed along.
27:4 Winter 2010 192 Diverse Voices: Hearing Scripture Speak in a Multicultural Movement Then we gave them one smaller sec- to my editing than the lists of their • He wrote to make sure future tion from the chapter to discuss in questions as those emerged. I preserved generations would know about detail, using the questions as a guide. their questions very much intact and I these things. We divided into two groups, with the repeated them back to the group before • He wrote to encourage other two leaders who had received more they began discussing them so that people to also share these things with other people. training serving as facilitators for each they could state whether I had captured group. They did not direct the groups. the question well or not. This last point is not something explicit in the text at all. My theory is I listened carefully, sitting to one side In the notes which follow, since my and not joining or visiting the groups. that these men see this point in the text purpose in this article is to highlight because of their background. Many of Sometimes the two leaders did the same the concept of cognitive environment, so as to avoid overly guiding the process. them are from an Islamic movement, I will take space from time to time to Tableeq-i-Jamaat, that sees spreading 11 We gave no time limits, the groups make references to this along the way. the message of Islam as a sixth pillar of simply discussed and re-read and dis- Luke 1:1-4 their faith. This is part of their context, cussed until they felt “satisfi ed.” Then their cognitive environment, and as The basic question intended to help each group presented their insights, as such has shaped how they read the text. well as a list of new questions which had emerged as they read. As will be It is worth noting that exegetically, the clear in what follows, these questions spread of the Gospel is in fact a major normally had nothing at all to do with The spread of the theme in Luke though I had never seen the original suggested questions. After that theme in his prologue. The insight both groups shared feedback, which gospel is a major theme of my Muslim brothers, based on their was delivered with frequent interrup- cognitive environment, may well be tions and clarifi cations from men in in Luke though I had illuminating something my cognitive both groups, and after both had been never seen it in environment had not prepared me to able to share all their questions, we re- see in these verses. As such this is a divided and they were told to search for his prologue. case of RT’s concept of communica- answers to these new questions in the tion as an increasingly shared cognitive text. If nothing was found they were environment. In this case, mine was told to simply place their questions on enlarged by this process. the “side” as it were, and consider them lead them into the inductive process Questions not yet answered. Only rarely did we was, “Why did the writer write this? There were no real questions after this allow answers to such questions to be Why is this text here? What is the pur- section, however, at the break, one of brought in from other Biblical books or pose of the writer?” the two group leaders came to me and other reference material.12 Here is a summary of the types said something like this, “When we Then the men presented the answers of responses given after the used the traditional _____Bible or they had found, or not found. This too, group discussions: other Bible society Bibles in other lan- frequently led to considerable debate guages, it would take us forever to get • He wrote to people who were and discussion. As the notes will the people studying the scripture with not present for these events reveal, I as the resident “expert” did not so that they could know what us to actually discuss the meaning like escape being questioned. In at least one really happened. this. Instead, when we read those ver- case, documented in my notes, my sug- • He wrote in order to guard sions, everyone was arguing or asking gested answer was vigorously disputed these things. The phrase used about why we were reading a Christian and overturned by the group. to refer to this was, literally, book, and why the Prophets were not “keep them safe.” This is a written about with respect, and why The following descriptions of the term related to a Hafi z-ul- there was such strange terminology, discussions and insights and ques- Quran, a person who guards etc. But today, we just got right into tions have been distilled. These notes the Quran by memorizing it. talking passionately about what the are not technically attempting to be a So this respondent was seeing words mean and the message.”13 verbatim. As such, I fully appreciate the writing of Luke in a simi- that my own selectivity will shape how lar way: to make sure it was Luke 1 and 2 not lost. This is an example this material is presented, what was We actually took this section in a included, what was passed over. of how cognitive environment shapes what we see and how number of smaller divisions but I have Having said that, the material relat- we describe it. condensed the feedback into one. ing their insights is far more subject
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Kevin Higgins 193 In this case, the groups went almost his seems as an example of where the Quranic immediately into asking questions. They were getting the main fl ow of cognitive environment overlaps more with the the narrative and who did what, and Biblical cognitive environment. where, etc. But the narrative prompted T many questions. I am fascinated by There was also curiosity about Jibril’s Answers 2 and 3 are wonderful exam- how many of these are questions I message concerning Elizabeth. ples of how our cognitive environment never would have thought to ask. On shapes even the things we think are refl ection I saw how this process also 3. Why did Elizabeth stay in her home for fi ve months? As the respondent went on conceivable answers, let alone what we prompted me to ask the text new ques- settle on. tions as well, and to see things I would to say, “No woman would do that. It never have considered being part of seems very strange.” In the end they left this as an open Luke’s purpose. I did not see Luke’s Of all the questions that I might question. If we had voted I think environment as clearly as some of these have foreseen or guessed would arise #3 would have beat out #1 as the questions illuminated if for me. (so-called theological questions, etc.), favored answer. It might have been it was this last question about why a close vote, but #3 would have won Questions Elizabeth remained in her house for the debate. Again, in a culture where 1. Why was Zacharia afraid when fi ve months that prompted the most men elect to go on various lengths of he saw the angel? Some comments passionate, heated, intense, and lengthy tableeq trips in order to fulfi ll vows or included these: discussion. Clearly this was something compensate for a sin, or gain favor, or draw near to Allah, and where Sufi s He was a holy man, an Imam. He important, though I have never found travel from one place to another as a should have known better. This ties to any other group in my studies in the part of various rituals and initiations, Islamic ideas of holy men as perfect or USA who thought so! the idea of someone deciding to remain nearly perfect. That is, this question As the groups went round and round fi ve months at home for a religious arose because of the cognitive envi- three possible answers emerged as the reason would be a natural contender ronment. However the Quran clearly main contenders: for understanding Elizabeth’s actions. shows even Muhammad having ques- 1. Perhaps this was their culture? tions and doubts about things [Surah Luke 3 10:94]. This raised some questions for This took a long time to come to, until one man related how he The summaries of main points more me: Is this a place where the Quran can had become aware that women and more tended to turn into mere help us in Bible translation? Would it be in peoples within his country repetitions, verbatim, of things that a reference in a footnote? Is it too sensitive other than his own cultural happened in the passage. One man a subject to handle that way? But at the group did have different cus- even simply started to read the whole least this seems an example of where toms after the birth of a child. passage again when asked to summa- the Quranic cognitive environment 2. I suggested that perhaps since rize it. I want to ask more about that in overlaps more with the Biblical cogni- Elizabeth was elderly, she was worried that too much the future. The important and unique tive environment than it does with the insights came in the questions: common Muslim cognitive environ- exertion would endanger the baby (it seemed so natural a ment in this country. Why did Yahya live in the desert and how possibility to me, given my old was he? The participants found the cognitive environment). Which prayer was answered when answer when they went back to the 3. She remained fi ve months as Jibril (Gabriel) said to Zacharia, “Your text: God had told him to live there, prayers have been answered”? Was an offering of special thanks and praise to Allah for this and it was spoken earlier by another Zacharia praying for a child right then? prophet that he would do this. They Or was it before this? special child. Suggestion number two was vigorously could not fi gure out his age. In part 2. Why did Mary go to see Elizabeth and debated and in the end rejected with this was a translation issue: the text not her own family? The answer to this great fervor, drawing on the argument they had made it sound like John ended up being discovered when the that Elizabeth could not possibly be began to live there in his childhood. groups went back to the text: Elizabeth afraid for the welfare of the child. The When the group pressed me to say IS family, etc. So, it was a normal reasoning proceeded like this: if I knew anything, I began to reply, thing. The process of circling back to “This is a translation issue…” One of the text over and over and of the way Jibril had already told Elizabeth the leaders gently and subtly tapped what Allah was going to do in in which interpretation can happen as a my arm and it was clear I should not this child‘s future, so that meant process is highlighted in this example. that this future would happen. go down that road. I don’t recall what There was no risk. exactly I said to change gears. 27:4 Winter 2010 194 Diverse Voices: Hearing Scripture Speak in a Multicultural Movement
Later the leader and I processed this More Questions Why the 8th day for circumcision? “We interchange. There were two concerns What did he eat out there? I realized do it on the 6th day, according to behind why he stopped me: how I, as a Christian, immediately Shariah. Why the 8th back then?” Again, 1. He did not want the men in supplied an answer in my head: for Muslims, all the biblical prophets the room to know that others locusts and wild honey. But it is were Muslims. So they would assume in the room were doing this nowhere in Luke, not even in chapter these good people in Luke, such as translation work, especially 3. I automatically supplied it from Yahya and Isa, are Muslims. Muslims since he was heading up the other Gospels. Luke apparently does circumcise on the 6th day. Thus the translation team. This was a not care, or assumes his readers know. question comes, why the 8th day? security matter in a place where Most Western readers would either although we were meeting with The translation of Luke 2:21 we were assume the answer based on prior believers, we have had people using says they circumcised on day 8 turn against the work later and knowledge (their cognitive environ- “according to their custom.” This refer- it is wise if not everyone knows ment would include biblical informa- ence to custom was added to explain what everyone else is doing. tion perhaps), or even more likely, just the ceremony. But as we observed 2. In a Muslim context, talk- would not be interested in that ques- the discussion, the main translator ing about this as a translation suggested to me in a side conversa- problem and implying that we tion that he realized we would need could change it would raise major questions. This is an to strengthen the translation to show extremely touchy issue in Islam. that the “custom” was not just cultural, Already the Bible is seen as My point is that these but was a part of the Shariah of Musa changed, corrupted, and unlike (Moses). Verse 22 makes it clear that the original. This leader was men were seeing that the family followed the Law of Moses worried that my explanation already, before getting relative to the offering for purifi cation. was going to inadvertently raise We realized we need to make it clear questions about the authentic- for circumcision as well in our context. ity of the Bible in front of the to Acts. whole group. He is fully aware This is a good example of the living that the original Greek text and ongoing, iterative translation is the one that matters, and it process. Even in studying the scrip- would seem that in Islam with ture new insights come for improving its high value on the original tion. It would not occur to them to how it communicates. Indeed there Arabic Quran this would be wonder about it. But these men, many easy to explain.14 But it is not. are even deeper insights into what it of whom had spent lots of time in the means. So, the next edition will say The discussion proceeded. Although is desert, were keenly interested in what “8th day according to the Shariah of a possible, though unlikely reading of Yahya would have eaten. Cognitive Musa.” It is perfectly acceptable that Luke’s Greek that Yahya lived in the environment arises again. there could be changes in the Shariah desert from his childhood, later some- given to Muhammad, compared to one did put it together that if Isa started How did the news spread so fast about an earlier Shariah given to, say Musa. at about 30 (stated later in Luke), and Yahya? The easy answer would be that This again points to the importance he and Yahya were about 6 month we just don’t know. But I noted that of cognitive environment in the inter- apart, then maybe Yahya was older they had picked up again on a major pretive process. than a child when he went to live in the theme in Luke: the rapid and ongo- desert. This became a great example ing spread of the message. He even Who was the fi rst person Yahya actually of how scripture builds its own context seems to construct Acts around that spoke to? We held that to see if we and also of the way in which translation theme to some degree by referencing at would fi nd out later, but there was no needs to focus on translating ideas and various points the numerical growth in clear answer in the text. meaning not just words. the number of believers. But my point here is that these men were seeing that Why does the verse say “Lord of Israel?” This further highlights a point about already, before getting to Acts, as a key And why does it mention only help cognitive environments we made thing. I have already suggested that for His chosen people, and not above. The goal of communication this is due to their own context as men for all people? Isn‘t He Lord of all is an increasingly shared cognitive involved in the Tableeq movement. things? Answers came as we read on environment. In this case, the cogni- and people saw Luke’s references to tive environment of our readers was Where was this happening? They found the universal concern of Allah: all changing, growing, and increasingly the answers in the text. nations, all people, etc. Again, it was sharing that of the text. worthy of note that scripture was pro-
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Kevin Higgins 195 viding the answers directly, though in a process that took time. he cognitive environment of the recipient of How did Zacharia tell Elizabeth what to communication determines what the recipient will name Yahya? This is not in the text, but assume to be the meaning of the text. clearly she already knows when it comes T time. They applied logic and decided Luke illuminated the task and process the words) out to the reader like coins, that in the same way he wrote it for the of translation when viewed through but to pay them by weight, as it were.” crowd that was there, he might have those lenses. Rather than repeat those May our work as translators contrib- written it for her too. Others thought insights here, I will instead attempt ute not just to the completion of New maybe the angel told her too. a few concluding and encompassing Testaments and Bibles and portions in Did Yahya have disciples/companions? summary statements: various languages, as important as that If so, who? This is left unanswered Translation Is a Process. goal is, but also to the living and ongo- in Luke, though the issue resur- Translation as a process includes many ing process whereby men and women faces later, as in Paul’s discovery of of the same elements as are common are captured by the “weight” of the disciples in Acts who knew only the to communication theory. Biblical message and fi nd their cogni- baptism of John/Yahya. We did not tive environments, indeed their very, go to John’s Gospel. Translation is also an interpretive or entire lives, utterly transformed. IJFM hermeneutical process. Was Yahya married? General assump- Endnotes tion was “of course.” So far, nothing I have said would be 1 new at all, much less controversial, Roberta King in Van Engen, Was Yahya only preparing a way in the Charles Edward, Whiteman, Darrell L., for translators. However, what RT Woodberry, John Dudley. 2008. Paradigm desert? Nowhere else? At fi rst this was suggests, and what is borne out in my seen very literally, as a real road, a Shifts in Christian Witness: Insights from survey here to at least some degree, is Anthropology, Communication, and Spiritual path. Only after ongoing discussion that the cognitive environment of the Power: Essays in Honor of Charles H. Kraft. did someone suggest, and others agree, recipient of communication (in this Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, p. 74. 2 that it was a religious, spiritual thing. case, a translation of the Bible) in fact Cited in Manuel Jinbachian‘s article, determines what the recipient will “Introduction: The Septuagint to the Summary Vernaculars,” in Noss, Philip A., Editor, A assume to be the meaning of the text. I began by introducing the reader History of Bible Translation; Rome, Edzioni As the translator of Ecclesiasticus put very briefl y to RT. In particular I Di Storia E Letturatura, p. 31. it centuries ago, “what was originally 3 highlighted RT’s notion of cognitive Ibid. expressed in Hebrew does not have 4 I refer the reader to works such as environment. I suggested that I would exactly the same sense when trans- Beekman & Callow. 1974. Translating the focus on three aspects of how RT sees lated into another language.” As that Word of God. Dallas: I.A.B.; Nida, E. A. cognitive environment’s implications same translator also said, no amount Taber. Charles, R.; 1969. The Theory and for communication. I used those three Practice of Translation. Leiden, E.J. Brill; of diligence in translation effort will aspects as lenses for my record of the and Shaw, R. D. 1988; Transculturation: make this to be less true. study of Luke I have just outlined. the Cultural Factor in Translation and Other Those three lenses were: At best the translator aims at a pro- Communication Tasks. Pasadena, Calif., cess whereby his or her own cogni- William Carey Library. 1. How people process the mean- 5 Sperber, Dan, and Deirdre Wilson, ing of the Biblical text from tive environment, and the cognitive 1995. Relevance: Communication and Cogni- within their own cognitive environment of the recipient, might tion, 2nd Edition. Oxford, Blackwell. environment, highlighting how over time increasingly share the 6 Chomsky’s model has been seriously cognitive environment shapes cognitive environment of the original criticized by Daniel Everett, particularly meaning and frames questions text, however imperfectly that may Chomsky’s claim that recursion formed that are brought to the text. be true at any given point in the cycle a universal grammar of cognition (in a 2. Ways in which the interpretation of interpretation and subsequent 200 page chapter found in Desmond C. Derbyshire and Geoffrey K. Pullum, eds., of scripture involves a process repeated editing of the translation. that results in readers increas- Handbook of Amazonian Languages, Volume ingly sharing the cognitive Returning to another author ref- 1, Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, 1986). 7 environment of the original text. erenced near the beginning of this Sperber and Wilson briefl y address 3. The reality that transla- article, perhaps Cicero’s metaphor has each of these models and authors in their introduction (1995:3-8). However they tion is itself an iterative, much to commend it. He described interpretive process. carry on an extended dialogue with and his aim in translation by saying, “I did critique of Grice through the book. I have paused at various points to not think I ought to count them (i.e., 8 Asserted by Phillip Stine in his draw attention to how the study of introduction to Gutt’s lectures for a group
27:4 Winter 2010 196 Diverse Voices: Hearing Scripture Speak in a Multicultural Movement of Bible translators and later edited for question. I used the word “translation” Kraft, Charles H. publication (Gutt 1992: 6). I can fi nd no instead of “interpretation.” The latter is 1991 Communication Theory for evidence to the contrary. Gutt’s thesis was more in keeping with Islamic thinking. Christian Witness. Rev. ed. written under Wilson‘s mentorship and And, I know better! But in the fl urry of the Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. published later as Translation and Relevance moment I used the word “translation.” If I Lévi-Strauss, Claude (2000). The literature that engages Gutt’s had said it was an interpretation problem, 1963 Structural Anthropology. Uniform work can be conveniently traced in the I might not have had the tug on my sleeve Title: Anthropologie Structurale. references found in Stephen Pattemore’s (other than the security concern). English. New York: Basic Books. article, “Framing Nida: The Relevance of Nida, Eugene Albert Translation Theory in the United Bible References 1975 Customs and Cultures; Societies” found in Noss, Philip A. Editor; Beekman & Callow Anthropology for Christian Missions. South Pasadena, Calif.: A History of Bible Translation; p. 217 ff. 1974 Translating the Word of God. Dallas: I.A.B. William Carey Library. 9 Shaw and Van Engen provide a very Bernard, H. Russell, ed. Nida, E. A. T. C. R. and a. joint helpful and non-technical description of this 1998 Handbook of Methods in Cultural 1969 The Theory and Practice of complex communication reality. Shaw, R. Anthropology, Walnut Creek, Translation. Leiden, E.J. Brill. Daniel; Van Engen Charles Edward; 2003; CA, AltaMira Press. Noss, Philip A., ed. Communicating God’s Word in a Complex Conn, Harvie M. n.d. A History of Bible Translation. World: God’s Truth or Hocus Pocus? Lanham, 1984 Eternal Word and Changing Rome, Edzioni Di Storia E Md.; Rowman & Littlefi eld Publishers. Worlds: Theology, Anthropology, Letturatura. 10 “Manuscript Bible Study” was devel- and Mission in Trialogue. Grand Schreiter, Robert J. oped as a methodology by Paul Byer in his Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan. 1985 Constructing Local Theologies. work with InterVarsity. Similar to inductive Desmond C. Derbyshire and Geoffrey K. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. study the main features of MBS include: far Pullum, eds. Shannon, Claude Elwood and Weaver, fewer questions are pre-formed and directed 1986 Handbook of Amazonian Warren to the text than in other inductive study Languages, Volume 1, Berlin, 1964 The Mathematical Theory of methods; all introductory comments such as Mouton de Gruyter. Communication. Urbana: are frequently added in paragraph headings Grice, H. P. University of Illinois Press. of English Bibles are removed; there are no 1989 Studies in the Way of Words. Shaw, R. D. paragraph divisions; chapter numbers and Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard 1988 Transculturation: The Cultural verse numbers are also removed. The reason University Press. Factor in Translation and Other for these changes is to remove as many of Gutt, Ernst-August Communication Tasks. Pasadena, the later additions to the text as possible, 1989 Translation and Relevance, Calif., William Carey Library. rendering the form far closer to how it London, University of London. Shaw, R. Daniel, van Engen Charles might have come to the original readers, Gutt, Ernst-August Edward and allowing the fl ow of the text itself to 1992 Relevance Theory : A Guide to 2003 Communicating God’s Word in a guide the reader in seeing the breaks in Successful Communication in Complex world: God’s Truth or thought and topics, rather than depending Translation. Dallas, TX: Summer hocus pocus? Lanham, Md.: Institute of Linguistics: New York. Rowman & Littlefi eld Publishers. on the opinions of later editors and Bible Gutt, Ernst-August Sperber, Dan, and Deirdre publishers to provide these. 2000 Translation and Relevance: Cognition Wilson, 1995. Relevance: 11 Though my notes indicate that we and Context. 2nd ed. Manchester: Communication and Cognition, spent almost 20 hours on Luke 1 and 2. 2nd Edition,. Oxford, Blackwell. 12 St. Jerome Publications. In strict MBS methodology, if the Hiebert, Paul G. Van Engen Charles Edward, Whiteman answers to new questions are not in the text 1999 The Missiological Implications of Darrell L., Woodberry John under consideration the principle becomes Epistemological Shifts : Affi rming Dudley. 2008. Paradigm something similar to “this is not a ques- Truth in a Modern/Postmodern Shifts in Christian Witness : tion the author seems interested in” and is World, Christian Mission and Insights from An-thropology, dropped. We did use this principle at times, Modern Culture. Harrisburg, Pa.: Communication, and Spiritual but also allowed free range for discussion of Trinity Press International. Power : Essays in Honor of what seemed initially to be completely out- Hill, Harriett S. Charles H. Kraft. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books.or Hocus side the range of Luke’s concerns or intent. I 2003 Communicating Context in Pocus? Lanham, Md.: Rowman Bible Translation among the did this because I was personally seeking to & Littlefi eld Publishers. understand how the context and cognitive Adioukrou of Cote D‘Ivoire. Fuller Theological Seminary, School of Sperber, Dan, and Deirdre Wilson environment of these men shaped the types 1995 Relevance: Communication and of questions they saw as important, and they World Mission. Hill, Harriett S. Cognition, 2nd Edition. Oxford, ways they saw the text giving answers. Blackwell. 13 2000 The Role of Context in Relevant I mentioned above that we were using Van Engen Charles Edward, Whiteman a new version of Luke written for Muslim Communication (RT for Dummies), Unpublished PhD. Tutorial. Darrell L., Woodberry John Dudley readers and seeking to employ Quranic style Kraft, Charles H. 2008 Paradigm Shifts in Christian and use explanatory description for concepts 1979 Christianity in Culture: A Study Witness: Insights from that frequently give Muslims concern. Anthropology, Communication, 14 in Dynamic Biblical Theologizing Indeed, one of my questions, which in Cross-cultural Perspective. and Spiritual Power: Essays I did not think to ask then, is whether part Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. in Honor of Charles H. Kraft. of the problem was in how I phrased the Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. International Journal of Frontier Missiology Biblical Interpretation Contextualizing Religious Form and Meaning: A Missiological Interpretation of Naaman’s Petitions (2 Kings 5:15-19) by Daniel Shinjong Baeq
n his vivid portrayal of mission over twenty centuries, Lamin Sanneh illustrates in account after account the necessary postulate that Christianity I must be translated whenever it crosses cultural boundaries (Sanneh 1989). Missiologists have also insisted that to make the gospel message comprehend- ible, messengers need to put greater efforts into translating the linguistic and cultural “appropriateness” of the gospel message for the recipients (Kraft 2005).1 This article suggests that this same appropriateness in communication is wit- nessed in the cross-cultural, inter-religious encounter of Naaman and Elisha in 2 Kings 5:15-19, and can provide one more biblical fi lter for sorting and sifting our contextualization efforts. By using linguistic analysis and cultural hermeneutics, I hope to penetrate the complexity of this Old Testament encounter and categorize the possible combinations of biblical meaning when attached to heathen forms.
When God called Abram, a “worshiper of pagan gods” (Josh 24:2), to become Abraham, the founding ancestor of people of faith, he was not called from a vacuum, void of religious or cultural context. God chose to make a covenant with Abram, knowing fully that he was limited by his current religious cul- ture in the understanding of God and the covenant that He wanted to make with him. God used the practices of the Ancient Near Eastern treaty and the epitome of idol worship that Abraham was accustomed to in calling him (Gallagher 2006, 146-147; Petersen 2007, 118-119). Beginning with Abraham Daniel Shinjong Baeq has taught I believe God reveals a model of contextualization for His kingdom ministry Cultural Studies at Cambodian among people groups of other religious traditions. University for Specialties and is the director of SEED International in In recent decades, missiologists have put greater emphasis on contextualization Cambodia. He currently serves as a in presenting the gospel. While many creative and bold efforts have been member of the writing committee and a periodic contributor to Korea Missions made, many others feel unsure about making decisions about what degree of Quarterly (KMQ). He graduated contextualization is appropriate. There is fear among the largely Westernized from Fuller Theological Seminary and Christian community that contextualization, if unchecked, can lead to syn- is currently enrolled in ICS doctoral program at TEDS. He can be contacted cretism. Recent efforts in contextualization among the Muslims is one such at [email protected]. attempt that has received scrutiny.
International Journal of Frontier Missiology 27:4 Winter 2010•197 198 Contextualizing Religious Form and Meaning: A Missiological Interpretation of Naaman’s Petitions (2 Kings 5:15-19) A Review of Discussions on and Naaman (Tennent 2006, 108). It interpretation of the Naaman narrative Mosque Attendance is this use of the Naaman account in raised by Tennent (2006). In “Contextualization Among Muslims” contextualization discussions that has This story is especially interesting to (1989), Dudley Woodberry shed a led to this paper’s further examination the study of contextualization, since it new light on missionary practices of 2 Kings 5: 15-19 discourse. is a conversion story of a Gentile that in the Muslim context as well as on I believe this Old Testament account returns to his home culture. This story is the missiological understanding of offers us another biblical case in our similar to situations and dilemmas that contextualization. He argued that the missiological discussions surrounding many missionaries and newly converted “fi ve pillars” in Islam, in fact, are “all the contextualization of the gospel. I Christians experience in countries where adaptations of previous Jewish and will present different interpretations Christianity is scrutinized. In the three Christian forms” (Woodberry 1989, of Naaman’s petitions and Elisha’s petitions that Naaman makes to Elisha, 283). By pointing out that Paul and response, using biblical exegesis and two of them have been the cause of James continued to attend Jewish theology of mission as it relates to many debates and discussions because synagogues even after the community of contextualization. In addition, the they involve Naaman’s actions after his new faith was formed, he among others relationship between form and mean- conversion and seem to overlap with his provided biblical evidence that permitted previous religious practices. the “followers of Isa” to attend Mosques (Woodberry 1989, 289). His argu- Synopsis of the Naaman Narrative ment resulted in strong support for the In the three The pinnacle of the Naaman narrative “followers of Isa” movement and led to petitions that Naaman is his confession of faith in YHWH many successful case stories in Muslim after the miraculous healing of leprosy. contexts, to the development of the C5 makes to Elisha, two In the Ancient Near Eastern cul- “Insider” Movement,2 and to reaching ture, the disease and its cure signifi ed out to the forgotten peoples behind the of them have been the judgment and divine salvation for the formidable walls of religious traditions cause of many debates patient. In Smith’s words, biblical heal- (Travis 1998; Caldwell 2000; Culver ing “is not limited to the relief of physi- 2000; Massey; Massey; DeNeui 2006). and discussions. cal suffering; healing generally refers to much larger theological issues as well” Those not so enthusiastic about the C5 (1994, 205). Therefore, the narrative4 of and Insider Movement cautiously dis- Naaman’s healing is not only an account agreed, believing that any legitimization ing as described by Paul G. Hiebert of who the true God is and who fi nds of attending Mosques will make the (1989) will be utilized. The strength of favor with God, but also provides the “followers of Isa” vulnerable to religious the link between form and meaning, foundational plot of the narrative. syncretism (Parshall 1998, 409-410). evolved from Hiebert’s discussion on This paper will especially address one the “connectedness” between form and The broader plot of the narrative is particular argument from Tennent’s list meaning,3 will also be explained in order the clash of two religious worldviews: of the possible dangers in the C5 move- to develop a model of contextualization. YHWH, the true God, against ment (Tennent 2006). In his brief exe- Using this model, the Naaman nar- the false god of Syria, Rimmon. By gesis of 2 Kings 5:18-19, Tennent states rative will be re-examined to fi nd the considering parallel characters5 from that practitioners of C5 movement strength of relationship between forms the domain of YHWH in contrast to inappropriately legitimize the Mosque and meanings embedded within the those of Rimmon as shown in Figure 1, attendance of Muslim background narrative and deepen our understanding readers are prone to assume that those believers (MBBs hereafter) by misin- of issues related to contextualization. siding with YHWH have a covenantal terpreting Elisha’s response to Naaman Further, lessons from the narrative will relationship with God and are the as a positive agreement between Elisha be used to reevaluate some issues in the benefi ciaries of an unfathomable grace, while those in the domain of Rimmon Figure 1. Contrasted Characters in the Naaman Narrative. are heathens. This premise, however, is challenged as the narrative progresses. RIMMON YHWH Subplots appear as different characters are introduced. There are three contrast- King of Syria King of Israel ing pairs of characters. The fi rst pair of Naaman Elisha contrasting characters are the King of Aram, Ben-Hadad II, and Johoram of Young Naaman’s Servants Gehazi Israel (Kaiser 2000, 42; Schultz 2000, Girl Wife 180). Both are kings of their respective International Journal of Frontier Missiology Daniel Shinjong Baeq 199 countries and both would be vitally he evaluation of his questionable petitions dependent on their god for the wellbe- ing of their kingdom. The King of should be based on the quality of his “spiritual Aram was a man who did not know transformation.” or have a relationship with YHWH. T He served and worshiped his god, also contributed positively to the overall activity of YHWH, Naaman is brought Rimmon, according to their religious confi guration of the plot because without into an invisible divine congregation of traditions and cultural rituals. But when their input Naaman would never have true believers. Of those who were on the healers of Rimmon could not cure washed himself in the Jordan River. the Israelite side, the only true believer “the honorable and highly regarded On the contrary, the servant of proved to be Elisha. The King of Israel general,” he released the general to the Elisha, Gehazi, despite his position as and Gehazi were not true servants of hands of the prophet of YHWH with a YHWH’s servant, was not controlled the Lord. From the religious world of considerable amount of treasure (Kaiser by his faith in YHWH but instead by Rimmon, however, Naaman, a foreign 2000, 44).6 his material greed. As a consequence general, found favor with God. The The King of Israel shows all the signs of his choice, the curse of leprosy from critical roles played by the servant girl, of despair when he is approached with which the general was released became Naaman’s wife and the servants testify Ben-Hadad II’s request. Sweeney con- a shackle to this servant of Israel’s that they were under the will of God, cludes that the King of Israel “dem- prophet (2 Kings 5:27). unconsciously obeying God so that they onstrates his own lack of confi dence fulfi lled their part in this story. Lastly, two most prominent contrast- in YHWH and the prophet of God ing human characters are Naaman Therefore this narrative suggests that in his own capital city” (2007, 299). and Elisha. The prophet, Elisha, was the conventional manner of separating Although Johoram was outwardly a man who had a strong relation- those who belong or don’t belong to connected to YHWH, he neither ship with YHWH. Naaman did not the true God simply by their religious knew the breadth of God’s power nor know YHWH nor had any relation- association is not a valid assumption. sustained any expectation that God ship with him, but he came to the We often assume that conversion is would help him. prophet of YHWH in desperation simply switching from one religious The second set of contrasting fi gures to be rid of leprosy that was “beyond world, or religious association, to are the servants of Naaman and Elisha. everyone’s control” in his homeland another. But in this narrative we can The young female servant of Naaman’s (Brueggemann 2007, 265). Naaman see that identity in YHWH is not wife is presented as a special person is clearly disappointed at the recep- that clear-cut. This narrative forces of faith. Despite her sufferings and tion that he received and the method the missiological question of reli- hardships as a casualty of war, she did proposed for healing (v. 11,12). gious identity and what true conver- not give up her faith in the God of Being fully immersed in his religious sion involves. It forces us to ask what Israel. It is possible to conclude that culture, he expects rituals similar to indicators of change should be present her faith in the true God enabled her those he had previously experienced in when a person of another faith identi- to be confi dent enough to suggest that his homeland. fi es with Christ. Naaman visit Israel, knowing fully After the miraculous healing of Naaman’s Conversion that if the mission turned sour it would Naaman, which may not have hap- bring calamity on her. Unlike the king Despite the consensus among scholars pened without the plea and persuasion 8 of Israel, however, she did not lose on Naaman’s great confession of faith, of his faithful servant, Naaman returns her connection to God. The unshak- their reactions to Naaman’s petitions, to Elisha to make his confession of able faith that a young girl showed which shortly follow his confession, faith, which is the climax of the narra- throughout sufferings and hardships in display a wide theological spectrum. tive to which all devices of the narra- her life is often used as an important However, the evaluation of his ques- tive plot lead. hermeneutical device in the Asian tionable petitions should be based on context to encourage believers in the I know that there is no God in all the the quality of his “spiritual transfor- face of persecution and oppression and earth, but in Israel…your servant will mation” (Long 1991, 73). Scholars to give reasons for endurance.7 no longer offer burnt offering nor will have raised a series of questions on he sacrifi ce to other gods, but to the Naaman’s conversion and his petitions: Naaman’s wife, as well as the servants Lord (v.15b, 17b, NASB henceforth). Was Naaman’s conversion partial or who accompany her, persuade their lord perfect? (Nwaoru 2008, 35) Was his Although YHWH caused the victory of to follow through on the good news. faith faultless or bound to his old belief the Aramean general (v. 1), the general Naaman’s wife, upon hearing the news system? (Buttrick 1962, 490) Was his was still devoid of the knowledge of of her husband’s hope for cure, persuades confession monotheistic, henotheistic, Naaman to seek help. The servants the Lord. However, by the sovereign 27:4 Winter 2010 200 Contextualizing Religious Form and Meaning: A Missiological Interpretation of Naaman’s Petitions (2 Kings 5:15-19) or monolatristic? (Gray 1970, 507; it is premature to accept Naaman’s Sweeney, who says that “by declining Kaiser 2000, 46; Nwaoru 2008, 37) subsequent petitions and behavior as to accept the gift, the narrative portrays How then should we evaluate the con- indicative of genuine conversion with- both YHWH’s and Elisha’s magnanim- version of Naaman? out closer examination. ity and highlights once again the relative power of Naaman and Elisha” (Sweeney According to the theologians of con- Debate on Naaman’s Petitions version, there are two aspects in the 2007, 300). Elisha’s acceptance of the Naaman’s petition to take some dirt Greek word for conversion, epistrophe: gifts would have sent the wrong mes- from Israel back to his country and directional metanoia (repentance) and sage that somehow this miracle was the request to be pardoned of bowing confessional pistis (faith) (Berkhof Elisha’s doing and thus take the glory down at the Rimmon temple have 1996, 482; Peace 2004, 8). In the case away from YHWH. been the center of much controversy of the Naaman narrative, there is a and debate among scholars of the Old Second Petition: Soil for an Altar? faith confession that Naaman makes Testament and of theology of mission. Just after Elisha declines Naaman’s plea to Elisha, “there is no God in all the These petitions arose because Elisha of accepting his gifts, Naaman says, earth, but in Israel” (v.15). On the con- refused to accept Naaman’s gifts. “If not,” which indicates a conditional trary, it is not easy to fi nd his repen- statement. The rejection of the former tance immediately from the narrative. petition gave cause for the second Naaman could repent of many crimes petition, to obtain “two mules’ load of he may have committed in his military earth” (v.17). Some scholars criticize this career. There is, however, no evidence Repentance has petition as an act of “idolatrous supersti- of his repentance of any of his previous tion” because it refl ects his polytheistic crimes, and his conversion may seem to to be a life-time process territorial concept of divinity and limits be incomplete. of behavioral redirection the almighty God to the soil of Israel Here we have to carefully examine (Keil and Delitzsch 2001, 3:226; Hobbs the biblical words for repentance. The toward God, not a once- 1985, 13:66). Others criticized this peti- Greek word for repentance, metanoeo tion as having a “monolaterous” 9 inten- or metanoia, focuses on the “emotional in-a-lifetime event. sion (Nwaoru 2008, 37). Scholars fi nd change of one’s mind” (Arndt, Danker, it diffi cult to judge whether Naaman and Bauer 2000, 640). But the Hebrew decided to worship God exclusively word, niham, is closer to a “directional (monolatrism) or to believe God exclu- change” of behavior (Kromminga 1984, First Petition: Please Take sively (monotheism) from the given text. 936). In the Old Testament, when the These Treasures! Gray’s quote from a German theologian prophets urged the Israelites to repent, Scholars speculate on why Elisha refused widens our understanding of the context it meant a behavioral turn from their Naaman’s gifts. Brueggemann claims of the narrative. that Naaman is acting according to the idol-worship to become true worship- (Naaman’s) reason consented to pers of the YHWH. Repentance, religious and traditional customs of his monotheism but convention bound therefore, has to be a life-time process of country, where heathen prophets often him practically to monolatry. Eissfeldt behavioral redirection toward God, not offered their services for money (2007, has argued that there was already a a once-in-a-lifetime event, since people 269). Just as Naaman’s expectation of tendency to monotheism in the cult are always under a constant inclination what Elisha would do to heal him was of Baal-shamaim in Syria, so that to fall way from God. based on his experiences with heathen Naaman was the more prepared to prophets in his own country, likewise his confess that the one God was Yahweh If repentance is a directional change of offering of gifts after the healing was a (Gray 1970, 507). behavior, Naaman’s second statement compensation for the healing received This observation suggests that it is of faith can be accepted as an evidence (Brueggemann 2007, 269). of repentance: “[Y]our servant will unreasonable to conclude that Naaman’s no longer offer burnt offering nor will Also, if the prophet accepted the gifts, petition was rooted in “idolatrous he sacrifi ce to other gods, but to the Naaman would consider his debt to superstition” or “territorial concept of LORD.” (v. 17) Directional change God or to Elisha fully repaid, or maybe divinity.” Other scholars evaluate his is apparent in Naaman’s confession. that God can be coerced into doing request as a decision to maintain his Therefore, I cautiously conclude that miracles in return for riches and trea- faith in YHWH using the dirt as a Naaman’s conversion, which shows his sure. Elisha wanted this man to fully “sacramental attachment” (von Rad confession of faith and repentance of understand that it was God’s divine will 2001, 35) or for simply building his own directional change, meets the theological and His power alone that had healed altar for YHWH (Bullock 1861, 161; requirement of conversion. However, him. This idea is concurrent with the Provan 1995, 193; Nwaoru 2008, 35). moral and functional perspective of Whether he intended to build an altar International Journal of Frontier Missiology Daniel Shinjong Baeq 201 or to use it as a sacramental attach- issionaries must uncover the deeply rooted ment, the petition to get earth of Israel indicates the clear intention to worship underlying connection between the cultural YHWH alone. form and meaning. Third Petition: Worship M in the Heathen Temple? requirement and not a serious theo- A Principle of Contextualization logical act” (2007, 269). The third petition is even more con- The core discussion of the Naaman troversial. Naaman says, To understand Naaman’s true inten- narrative has to do with using religious patterns of heathen culture (form) to When my master goes into the house tions, Elisha’s response must also be express Christian faith (meaning). of Rimmon to worship there, and he taken into consideration. To Naaman’s leans on my hand and I bow myself third petition of pardoning his bowing Tillich (1964) defi ned the relationship in the house of Rimmon–when I at the temple of Rimmon, Elisha between form and meaning by identify- bow myself in the house of Rimmon, succinctly replies, “Go in peace” (v. ing differences between “religious sign” the LORD pardon your servant in this 19a). Scholars differ in their opin- and “religious symbol.” 11 Borrowing a matter (v.18b, NASB). ion of Elisha’s answer as well. Some theory of linguistics, he contended that if form and meaning have a strong and Many scholars negatively inter- interpret Elisha’s response as a simple natural connection, it is a symbol. If the pret Naaman’s petition as based on farewell in Hebrew (Edwards, Rogers, connection is weak (or detached), it is “polytheistic superstition” (Keil and and Dwight 1839, 2:741; Grieve a sign. His account of the relationship Delitzsch 2001, 3:226), “religious 1920, 306). Other scholars suggest a between religious symbol and meaning compromise and superstition” (Hobbs neutral interpretation. They propose provides a clearer understanding of reli- 1985, 13:60,66), or a “pagan notion that Elisha did not give any decisive gious symbolism, especially in the use of of territorial deity” (Maier III 1997, answers, neither approval nor disap- Christian symbols.12 187). Similarly, Kaiser asserts that proval (Keil and Delitzsch 2001, Naaman “mixes his new Yahwehism 3:227; Fritz 2003, 260; Maier III 1997, [S]igns do not participate in any way with strands of an old paganism” 190-191; Kaiser 2000, 48-49). They in the reality and power of that to which they point. Symbols, although (2000, 47). Smith is most severe and interpret Elisha’s response to mean they are not the same as that which regards this petition as an excuse that now with a new faith in YHWH, they symbolize, participate in its to get permission for “worshiping Naaman should go back to his country, depending on the guidance of YHWH meaning and power.… The differ- another god” (1994, 210). Nwaoru ence between symbol and sign is the takes this further and surmises that alone. A number of others are of the opinion that Elisha’s answer is a posi- participation in the symbolized reality Naaman experienced only a “partial which characterizes the symbols, and tive affi rmation,10 which acknowledges conversion” (2008, 35). A few scholars the non participation in the “pointed- the “social requirement” and “unavoid- such as Brueggemann, however, take to” reality which characterizes a sign a more generous position and regard able occasions” in Naaman’s situation (Tillich 1964, 54-55). Naaman’s petition as “only a social (Provan 1995, 193; Brueggemann 2007, 269). Paul G. Hiebert also observes that the development of scientifi c theory in the Figure 2. Interpretative Graph of Religious Symbols. West has led to the merging of the cul- Attached tural form and meaning as an insepara- ble entity (1989, 103). He advocates the D. A. necessity of a divorce between form and Idolatry Act of Faith meaning. According to Hiebert, form (Syncretism) (Faith Tradition) and meaning can be connected differ- ently, either arbitrarily, loosely, or tightly. Therefore missionaries must uncover Pagan
Christian the deeply rooted underlying connection C. B. between the cultural form and mean- Modify or Accept Religious Depravity
RELIGIOUS MEANING ing if they intend to impart a different (Contextualization) (Reformation) meaning through accustomed cultural forms (Hiebert 1989, 104). If a local Detached form has an indivisible connection to the pagan religious meaning, it may need to RELIGIOUS FORM be rejected (Hiebert 1989, 110-115).
27:4 Winter 2010 202 Contextualizing Religious Form and Meaning: A Missiological Interpretation of Naaman’s Petitions (2 Kings 5:15-19)
Interpreting the form-meaning When pagan forms are detached believers as a “hermeneutical com- relationship of religious symbols is from pagan meanings (Quadrant C), munity” can determine whether (or complex, for the Christian context as the forms become a characteristic of how) the form and meaning can be well as in the context of other reli- culture with another religious heritage, detached or not (Hiebert, Tienou, and gions. Based upon theories of Tillich rather than a form that is crucial to Shaw 1999, 385). and Hiebert, a graph might help us that religion itself. Missionaries often see the different realities of religious assume that since the form has lost its Re-evaluation of Two Petitions symbolism (Figure 2 on p. 201). religious meaning, it can be used to Using Form-Meaning Dynamics Within a “faith tradition,” a Christian convey Christian meaning. Sometimes, The various viewpoints of scholars form may be attached to a particular however, minor modifi cations may on the second and third petition of Christian meaning as an “act of faith” be required to create a distance from Naaman were reviewed earlier. Now, (Quadrant A). Missionaries can often certain previous meanings.13 in light of the previously discussed relationships of form and meaning, make the mistake of thinking that The fi nal quadrant represents a dan- the two controversial petitions will this form will carry the same mean- gerous area where syncretism often be re-examined using form-meaning ing as it crosses religious and cultural occurs (Quadrant D). This is where boundaries. Since the bond between connection to shed greater clarity on the Christian form and meaning is the debate and its implications for very strong in the mind of the mis- contextualization in mission contexts. sionary, he or she feels compelled to impose it upon the new believers in The Signifi cance of Soil (v. 17) the mission fi eld. But missionaries In order to understand Altars of animal sacrifi ce are promi- should avoid the absolutization of his actual intention, we nent structures in religious cultures of Christian traditions and any graft- the Ancient Near East. Israel also had ing of those traditions on to a foreign need to take into account altars for burnt offerings. Even though context by simple transplanting or his worldview. Naaman used an ancient worldview translation. These traditions should with a pagan notion of God, we need also be contextualized appropriately to be cautious in judging his petition within any other intellectual, linguis- as paganism or syncretism. As was tic, and cultural setting. mentioned in the previous exegeti- cal review, some scholars believe that The area of religious depravity pagan forms and pagan meanings Naaman’s petition refl ects a “polytheis- (Quadrant B in Figure 2) is where are tightly linked. Therefore, when tic territorial concept” of divinity, that the Christian meaning is detached a non-believer in the mission fi eld the link in his worldview between the from a Christian form, and can comes across that form, it potentially almighty YHWH and the soil of Israel often indicate a place in need of conjures up all the idolatrous mean- is too strong (Keil and Delitzsch 2001, reformation and revival. Extensive ings associated to that form. Attempts 3:226; Hobbs 1985, 13:66). Although renewal is constantly required when to disassociate the pagan meaning this attachment of pagan theological a Christian symbol or form has lost from pagan form and give it a new form is true, a deeper level of speaker’s its meaningfulness. When these Christian meaning are extremely intention still needs to be interpreted. forms are transferred to the con- diffi cult and have more often cre- text of other religions, appropriate ated syncretism rather than effective Naaman’s second request of two contextualization has to be applied contextualization. Missionaries, how- mule-loads of soil can be analyzed with great caution. ever, should avoid directly attacking with “deep-level semiotic narrative structure” (Pavel 1985, 91).14 In order When a Christian form and its or passing judgment without the proper understanding of deep-level to understand his actual intention, we Christian meaning are detached or are need to take into account his worldview. only arbitrarily linked, the form has meaning and function of religious symbols in this area. If, as Paul In linguistics, an utterance contains lost much of its religious connection a surface meaning and a deep-level in the missionary’s home country and Hiebert posited, the level of connec- tion between religious symbols and meaning; thus, let us examine these may easily be dismissed as not having levels in Naaman’s petition. any religious value in the foreign their meaning can be arbitrary, loose, context. While pushing the form onto or tight, then this particular area Naaman’s actual utterance to Elisha the target culture is not advisable, the where religious symbol and meaning is a request to take the soil of Israel, missionary needs to restore the lost are tightly linked requires extensive which is the surface meaning. Biblical meaning of that form and see whether discussion. Further interaction and scholars sense the syncretism in his it could be used in the target culture. examination among local leaders and request because they see an embed-
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Daniel Shinjong Baeq 203 ded connection between his petition and the old religious worldview. Fritz ince Naaman confessed to not worship any of his points out that in the Ancient Near former gods, it is more reasonable to interpret Naaman’s Eastern context, soil and deity are intermingled (2003, 260), and von petition in the context of his duties to the King. Rad interprets Naaman’s intention S in pagan religious symbols, the use there to worship (B), Naaman has to as refl ecting the belief that there is a of a pagan form endangers Christian support the King next to him (C). “sacramental attachment” between dirt meaning with syncretism, even though You’ll notice that B-B’ and C-C’ have and YHWH (2001, 35). These views, Naaman was personally able to detach formatic (syntactic) similarity; yet, including Hobbs and Keil above, all the pagan meaning from its form. even though the discourse is symmetric agree that in Naaman’s belief system, in form, the meaning behind is not the the form (soil) had an intricate connec- It is improbable that Naaman wor- same. Nelson endorses this in stating, tion to meaning (god of that land). shiped YHWH exactly as the Israelites did. More likely, he would “because his loyalty is to his king and This is, however, only a partial inter- have offered up sacrifi ces in the not to Rimmon, as his overfull speech pretation of the deep-level semiotic most reverent and worshipful way he tries to make clear, his request does structure. A fuller interpretation knows. Certainly the likelihood of not undercut his monotheism” (Nelson takes the connection one step fur- his generating syncretism was there, 1987, 179). In other words, Naaman’s ther. When Naaman confessed his but more likely, because the mate- bowing is not because of his faith in exclusive monotheistic faith (v. 17b) rial that made up the altar was from Rimmon, but because of his duty to in his heart and mind, he had already Israel, he would never forget that he the King. Since Naaman confessed replaced Rimmon with YHWH. Thus is, in fact, worshiping God. That altar to not worship any of his former gods Naaman’s fi nal and deep-level inten- would represent no being other than (v.15), it is more reasonable to interpret tion can be interpreted as Naaman’s YHWH, the God who searches the Naaman’s petition in the context of his intention to worship YHWH. hearts of men, the God who would duties to the king. Let’s add our work in Figure 2 to this accept his sacrifi ces. As was discussed earlier, our inter- deeper analysis of Naaman’s request. pretation can only be complete when In his theological frame, Naaman Bowing at the Temple: it includes Elisha’s response. Naaman was unable to detach the meaning Detachable Meaning (v. 18) had to return to his home in Aram. from the form. In his mind, dirt was Namaan’s third and fi nal petition to But what will happen next is a critical a direct representation of the deity. excuse his bowing in the temple can question both to Elisha and Naaman. When he realized that YHWH was yield deeper meaning with narrative Naaman knows that as the com- the only true God, he immediately analysis. Structural semiotic analysis mander of the army and a notable attaches YHWH to the dirt from (Wolde 1989, 24-28) of Naaman’s and powerful offi cial, he is unable to Israel. In essence, he has taken a bibli- discourse reveals an interesting sym- excuse himself from all the state func- cal meaning, YHWH, and attached it metric meaning structure (Figure 3). tions, which usually entailed religious to a pagan framework of worshiping a The utterance can be divided into six rituals. Thus, rather than trying to deity. Naaman’s request, however, is a phrases where the fi rst three phrases hide what he would be required to do, dangerous attempt to contain biblical are mirrored by the last three phrases. he is earnest and honest before Elisha, meaning, the worship of YHWH, In the fi rst and last phrase, Naaman voluntarily informing Elisha of an in a pagan religious form. As we see begs pardon (A, A’) from the Lord unavoidable, inevitable activity in in Quadrant D in Figure 2, if there for his bowing (C’) in the house of his home land. The fact that he even is a tight form-meaning connection Rimmon (B’). When his master goes brought up this subject strongly indi- cates that Naaman had already con- Figure 3. Symmetric Structure of Naaman’s Second Petition (2 Kings 5:18). sidered the future and foreseen what serving YHWH would entail in his A In this matter may the LORD pardon your servant: home country. In essence, Naaman is B when my master goes into the house of Rimmon to worship there, explaining to Elisha that even though he has to physically bow down before C and he leans on my hand (to bow in the house of Rimmon) the idol, he is not worshiping the idol. C’ and I bow myself in the house of Rimmon, He wants Elisha to know where his B’ when I bow myself in the house of Rimmon, heart is, what his true intensions are. A’ the LORD pardon your servant in this matter In this context, the form is the act of (2 Kings 5:18, NASB, parenthesis and emphasis is mine) bowing in the temple. The mean- ing associated with this form is the 27:4 Winter 2010 204 Contextualizing Religious Form and Meaning: A Missiological Interpretation of Naaman’s Petitions (2 Kings 5:15-19) worshiping of Rimmon. Based on may also know about Naaman’s new surface structures indicate an affi nity Naaman’s confession of faith, one faith in YHWH. If this is the case, to his old belief system (form), should cannot assume that he will be worship- Naaman’s case can be applied to the be interpreted from a conversion that ing Rimmon by bowing at the temple, C5 movement as well.15 indicates his genuine commitment to since he explicitly confessed that there Secondly, Tennent assumes that YHWH (meaning). Further, since is no other God other than YHWH. Naaman already had guilty feelings Jesus comments positively about Thus even though he bows out of when he asked Elisha for “ forgive- Naaman’s healing story in Luke 4:27, necessity, he has detached any spiritual ness” because “they both knew (it) inter-textual agreement is reached meaning from this transaction and is was wrong” (Tennent 2006, 108). when Elisha’s response to Naaman is only performing an empty act. This interpretation, however, has also accepted as positive. A Short Response to Tennent shortcomings because the symmetri- Contrasting characters in the narrative cal structure of his petition explicitly raised a question of who the true people What is the potential contribution of showed that his bowing did not have of God were. Those who have a “theo- this interpretation of Naaman’s nar- the same meaning as his master’s centered directionality,” 16 whose incli- rative to the theology and practice of bowing, which was described as nations lean toward God, consciously contextualization? Can we develop a or unconsciously, are the people of God principle of contextualization based in reality. A conventional boundary of upon this story? As mentioned at the religious culture, one which was used to beginning of this paper, Tennent is divide Jews and Gentiles, was found to critical about the mosque attendance They cannot simply be inaccurate. Therefore, the readers of of an MBB. He presents two argu- the Naaman narrative should acknowl- ments. In his fi rst argument, he states denounce their old edge that God is at work not only that if Naaman accompanied the king belief, convert to among the Israelites but also among because the King was frail, it would the Gentiles, in and through situations legitimize mosque attendance only in Christianity, and start prior to their conversion experience. cases where the new convert had to going to church. Traditionally, mission in the context dutifully accompany “his ailing and of other religions has often focused on feeble father” (Tennent 2006, 108). extracting a new believer from their However, as it was pointed out earlier, pagan religious context. Then the new the reason for Naaman’s temple atten- “worshiping” to Rimmon. If he does convert becomes isolated from the com- dance was because of the “social pres- not attach a pagan spiritual meaning munity of his own people with lesser sure” and expectation that came with to his form of bowing, it should not possibilities to bring others to Christ. his position as the chief general of be interpreted as an act of idolatry. There has been less appreciation for the the King (Brueggemann 2007, 269). Naaman in fact sought understand- theo-centered directionality of those like Muslim “followers of Isa” can be said ing from Elisha because even though Naaman who fi nd themselves within to be under similar social pressures. he appears to be bowing at the other religious associations. They cannot simply denounce their temple of Rimmon, he is only going Can we simply allow new believers to old belief, convert to Christianity, and through the motions and has detached attend religious rituals at a Buddhist start going to church. They will be spiritual signifi cance from the act of temple or worship at a Mosque? Or disowned by their families, communi- bowing to Rimmon. should we ban the pagan temples alto- ties, and society at large and pos- gether? Stuart Caldwell, a practitioner sibly face life-threatening situations. Conclusion and scholar of the insider movement, Tennent asserts that C5, if social As all theologians acknowledge, bibli- takes a negative view on the “place- pressure is the case, is comparable to cal messages are not always found in location” interpretation of the pagan Naaman’s case: it is not a C5 move- the literal meanings of the scripture. temple issue. In his research on “Jesus ment anymore because the condition It is important that in a narrative in Samaria,” Caldwell concludes is more likely close to C6 (hiding discourse like that of Naaman’s story, that Jesus’ response to a Samaritan identity and faith in Christ). In the the interpretations of passages be in woman, “not on this mountain nor passage, there is no explicit clue as agreement within the context and in Jerusalem temple” (John 4:21), to whether Naaman concealed or not in confl ict with each other. The actually implies his recognition of disclosed his new faith to the king Naaman narrative shows a positive both places (Caldwell 2000, 26). and people around him. Yet, since inner coherence between his con- His interpretation indicates that if a the king and the people in the palace version and consequent petitions. worshiper can revere God “in spirit will hear about Naaman’s miracu- Naaman’s petitions, though their and in truth,” the actual place does lous healing, it is plausible that they International Journal of Frontier Missiology Daniel Shinjong Baeq 205 not matter.17 However, although he task of the missionary is not only to coach new Caldwell’s view respects the subjec- tive position of the worshipers, it does believers in preaching the gospel, but to assist them in not adequately deal with objective cultural analysis. understanding and the relationship T one has with other members of the Muslims. International Journal of Jones, Gwilym H. faith community. Frontier Missions 17(1): 61-70. 1984 1 and 2 Kings: Based on the DeNeui, Paul H. Revised Standard Version. Grand The lesson of the Naaman narrative 2006 A Typology of Approaches Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans advises us to allow a new believer to to Thai Folk Buddhists. In Publishing Company. remain in the person’s own familiar Appropriate Christianity, ed. Kaiser, Walter C. Jr. context while consistently discerning Charles H. Kraft, 415-436. 2000 Mission in the Old Testament: Israel Pasadena, CA: William Carey as a Light to the Nations. Grand and developing better ways for the Library. Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. new believer to express his new faith Dindamo, Belaynesh Keil, C. F., and Franz Delitzsch in God. The task of the missionary 2002 Hakalla Amale, 1905-1991: 2001 Commentary on the Old Testament: is not only to coach new believers in Kale Heywet Church. http:// 1Kings-2 Chronicles. Vol. 3. 10 preaching the gospel, but to assist www.dacb.org/stories/ethiopia/ vols. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson hakalla_amale.html. Publishers. them in cultural analysis, and to apply Edwards, Jonathan, Henry Rogers, and Kim, Jean Kyoung the form-meaning dynamics in reli- Sereno Edwards Dwight 2005 Reading and Retelling Naaman’s gious symbolism as they seek together 1839 The Works of Jonathan Edwards: Story (2 Kings 5). Journal for the to contextualize the gospel. IJFM With an Essay on His Genius and Study of the Old Testament 30: Writings. Vol. 2. 2 vols. London, 49-61. References Cited England: William Ball. Kraft, Charles H. Fritz, Volkmar 2005 Appropriate Christianity. Anon. 2003 1 & 2 Kings. 1st ed. Minneapolis, Pasadena, CA: William Carey 2010 Semiotics. Wikipedia. http:// MN: Fortress Press. Library. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotics. Gallagher, Robert L. Kromminga, C.G. Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker, 2006 The Hebraic Covenant as a 1984 Repentance. In Evangelical and Walter Bauer Model for Contextualization. Dictionary of Theology, 936-937. 2000 A Greek-English Lexicon of the In Appropriate Christianity, ed. Walter A. Elwell, ed. Grand New Testament and Other Early Charles H. Kraft, 135-154. Rapids, MI: Baker Books. Christian Literature. Chicago, IL: Charles H. Kraft, ed. Pasadena, Long, Burke O. University of Chicago Press. CA: William Carey Library. 1991 2 Kings. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Berkhof, Louis Gray, John Eerdmans Publishing Company. 1996 Systematic Theology. Grand 1970 I & II Kings: a Commentary. Mackay, A B. Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: The 1882 The Story of Naaman. London, Publishing. Westerminster Press. England: Hodder and Brueggemann, Walter Grieve, Alexander James Stoughton. 2007 2 Kings 5: Two Evangelists and a 1920 A Commentary on the Bible. T. Maier III, Walter A. Saved Subject. Missiology 35(3): Nelson & Sons. 1997 The Healing of Naaman in 263-272. Hiebert, Paul G. Missological Perspective. Bullock, Charles 1989 Form and Meaning in the Concordia Theological Quarterly 1861 The Syrian Leper: A Chapter Contextualization of the 61: 177-196. of Bible History Expounded. Gospel. In Word among Us: Massey, Joshua London, England: Wertheim, Contextualizing Theology for 2004a Living like Jesus, a Torah- Macintosh, and Hunt. Mission Today, ed. Dean S. Observant Jew: Delighting in Buttrick, George Arthur Gilliland, 101-120. Dallas, TX: God’s Law for Incarnational 1962 The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Word Inc. Witness to Muslims. Part I. Bible. Nashville, TN: Abingdon 1994 Anthropological Refl ections on International Journal of Frontier Press. Missiological Issues. Grand Missions 21(1): 13-22. Caldwell, Stuart Rapids, MI: Baker Books. 2004b Living like Jesus, a Torah- 2000 Jesus in Samaria: A Paradigm Hiebert, Paul G., Tite Tienou, and R. Observant Jew: Delighting in for Church Planting among Daniel Shaw God’s Law for Incarnational Muslims. International Journal of 1999 Understanding Folk Religion: A Witness to Muslims. Part II. Frontier Missions 17(1): 25-31. Christian Response to Popular International Journal of Frontier Chomsky, Noam Beliefs and Practices. Grand Missions 21(2): 55-71. 1965 Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Nelson, Richard D. MIT Press. Hobbs, T. R. 1987 First and Second Kings. Louisville, 1972 Language and Mind. New York, 1985 Word Biblical Commentary—2 Tenn.: John Knox Press. NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Kings. Vol. 13. 52 vols. Waco, Nwaoru, Emmanuel O. Culver, Jonathan TX: Word Books Inc. 2008 The Story of Naaman (2 2000 The Ishmael Promise and Kings 5:1-19): Implications Contextualization among 27:4 Winter 2010 206 Contextualizing Religious Form and Meaning: A Missiological Interpretation of Naaman’s Petitions (2 Kings 5:15-19)
for Mission Today. Evensk Journal of Frontier Missions 23(3): and worldview for a better communication, Missionstidskrift 96(1): 27-41. 101-115. the gospel message that they preach will Parshall, Phil Tillich, Paul remain a foreign religion. 1998 Danger! New Directions in 1964 Theology of Culture. New York, 2 John Travis (a pseudonym) devel- Contextualization. Evangelical NY: Oxford University Press, oped “C1-C6 spectrum” to portray the Missions Quarterly 34(4): 404- USA. degrees of “Christ-centeredness” in the 410. Tillich, Paul, and Robert P. Scharlemann expression of Muslim background believers Pavel, Thomas G. 1988 Writings on Religion. Berlin, (Travis 1998). His article provided and 1985 Literary Narratives. In Discourse Germany: Walter de Gruyter. pioneered the C5 movement. According to and Literature: New Approaches Travis, John Travis, the C5 believers identify themselves to the Analysis of Literary 1998 Must All Muslims Leave “Islam” as “Muslim followers of Isa Al Masi.” They Genres, p. 86-103. Amsterdam, to Follow Jesus? Evangelical do not dramatically change their religious Netherlands: John Benjamins Missions Quarterly 34: 411-415. practices even though they do so in faith Publishing Company. 2000 Messianic Muslim Followers Peace, Richard V. of Isa: A Closer Look at C5 confession. The C5 movement has brought 2004 Confl icting Understandings Believers and Congregations. controversial discussions among both prac- of Christian Conversion: International Journal of Frontier titioners and missiologists (Parshall 1998; A Missiological Challenge. Missions 17(1): 53-59. Travis 2000; Tennent 2006). International Bulletin of 3 Hiebert’s idea of connectedness Missionary Research 28(1): 8-14. between form and meaning is compatible Petersen, Brian K. to the linguistic and theological concept of 2007 A Brief Investigation of Old sign and symbol. The prominent French Testament Precursors to the The author of the linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure (1857- Pauline Missiological Model Naaman narrative 1913), identifi ed the level of connection of Cultural Adaptation. between “signifi er” and “signifi ed.” If there International Journal of Frontier weaves the miraculous is an arbitrary connection between the Missions 24(3): 117-129. “signifi er” and the “signifi ed,” it is a “sign.” Provan, Iain W. event into an If there is a natural connection, it becomes 1995 1 and 2 Kings. New International a “symbol.”(Saussure 1972, 65-68) The Biblical Commentary. Peabody, intriguing narrative German theologian, Paul Tillich, also iden- Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers. 1997 1 & 2 Kings. Sheffi eld, England: plot. tifi ed similar relationship between “religious Sheffi eld Academic Press. sign” and “religious symbol.” (1964) 4 von Rad, Gerhard Provan also suggests that the books 2001 Old Testament theology: The theol- of First and Second Kings should be stud- ied as narratives in which “plots” are found ogy of Israel’s prophetic traditions. Wolde, E. J. van Louisville, KY: Westminster as literary devices (1997, 27). To portray 1989 A Semiotic Analysis of Genesis 2-3: this conversion story of a Gentile, the John Knox Press. A Semiotic Theory and Method author of the Naaman narrative weaves the Sanneh, Lamin of Analysis Applied to the Story 1989 Translating the Message: The of the Garden of Eden. Assen, miraculous event into an intriguing nar- Missionary Impact on Culture. Netherlands: Van Gorcum & rative plot. Following this informed sug- Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. Comp. gestion, it is proper for us to start fi nding Saussure, Ferdinand de Woodberry, J. Dudley literary plots and their hidden meanings. 5 1972 Course in General Linguistics. 1989 Contextualization among As a literary plot, Alan Smith La Salle, Ill: Open Court Muslims: Reusing Common focuses on two “major characters,” Naaman Publishing. Pillars. Word Among Us: and Elisha (Smith 1994, 205). By elimi- Schultz, Samuel J. Contextualizing Theology for nating the minor characters, he limits his 2000 Old Testament Speaks—5th Mission Today Dean S. Gilliland, research without taking account of the Edition: A Complete Survey ed. p. 282-312, Dallas, TX: bigger picture of the narrative in its reduc- of Old Testament History and Word Publishing. tionism. Kim tries to expand this concept Literature. New York, NY: Zaid, Saraji Umm of “main character” by marking the impor- HarperSanFrancisco. 2006 Secret War: Protecting Yourself, tance of the slave girl’s role in the whole Smith, W. Alan Your Family, and Your plot. However, the overall effort of Kim’s 1994 Naaman and Elisha: Healing, Community from Missionaries. feministic hermeneutics made this young Wholeness, and the Task of http://forum.bismikaallahuma. slave girl (female) stand alone, even with- Religious Education. Religious org/showthread.php?t=1701. Education 89(2): 205-219. out Naaman’s wife, against the other male Sweeney, Marvin Alan characters (Kim 2005). In the given text, Endnotes we observe that there are non-dismissible 2007 I & II Kings: a Commentary. 1 While missionaries need to decul- Louisville, KY: Westminster characters whose relationships positively turate their mother culture so that they John Knox Press. contribute to the Naaman narrative; his become messengers of the gospel, they also Tennent, Timothy C. wife, a young slave girl, the king of Syria, need to fi nd contact points or common 2006 Followers of Jesus (Isa) in Islamic and servants who accompany Naaman to grounds to present the gospel that is mean- Mosques: A Closer Examination Israel. Elisha was also present with the of C-5 “High Spectrum” ingful to the hearers as well. Unless they king of Israel and his servant, Gehazi. Contextualization. International actively research and evaluate local culture International Journal of Frontier Missiology Daniel Shinjong Baeq 207 6 The true intention of the King nstead of showing “lotus hands,” Christians [in is uncertain, as some speculate that the reason for sending Naaman to Israel may Cambodia] press the palms fi rmly so that they have been a way to create an excuse to wage war against Israel. However, what become “prayer hands.” is certain is that YHWH orchestrated all I things so that Naaman would arrive at is only a ‘signifi er,’ i.e., the representation Missionaries,” views the C5 believers as Elisha’s door and later be healed. of something, and it must be combined in “heretical or confused Muslims” since they 7 Nwaoru accounts for the meaning the brain with the ‘signifi ed,’ or the thing profess a different faith from the Muslim of the Israelite girl’s situation missiologi- itself, in order to form a meaning-imbued majority (Zaid 2006). 16 cally, suggesting that the young girl “saw “sign.” If there is a natural connection To articulate this, the concepts of the problems of her life as opportunities between the “signifi er” and the “signifi ed,” “centered-set” and “directionality” are bor- to propagate her faith and to bear witness it becomes a “symbol.” (Anon. 2010) rowed from Hiebert (Hiebert 1994, 123). 12 17 to the healing/saving power possessed by Though Paul Tillich perceived Caldwell’s view, however, is also YHWH’s representative.” (Nwaoru 2008, religion as a system of symbols (1964), defi cient in dealing with the weak believ- 29) It is not certain whether the Israelite his failure of cognition of religious reality ers (1Cor 8:1-13) who cannot worship girl actually acknowledged Naaman’s imprisoned faith in a philosophical and YHWH “in spirit and in truth” with full diseases as an opportunity of evangelism religious symbolic system. Therefore, his knowledge, genuine emotion, and sound or not. However, it is evident that YHWH cognition of God cannot overcome the judgment of their socio-religious context. used her life to make the narrative happen religious symbolism. Unlike the evan- for Naaman’s salvation under his sover- gelical cognition of God as a personal and eignty. It is also interesting to compare a relational being, God, to Tillich, God similar story in contemporary Ethiopia in became an impersonal being imprisoned in which a kidnapped girl, Kakalla Amale, a symbolic religious system. The following was forced to become the third wife of a statement clearly refl ects Tillich’s cogni- Muslim man, Ato Jate Malegu. This laid tion of God: “The fundamental symbol of a foundation for the Kale Heywet Church our ultimate concern is God.” (Tillich and and the conversion of the whole village Scharlemann 1988, 252) 13 (Dindamo 2002). For example, Cambodians greet 8 Naaman’s confession indicates a each other by pressing palms together in major shift in his worldview. He denounces front of face and bowing at the same time the existence of any other god except (hands should be shaped as if they hold an YHWH and that is why he will no longer egg). This is called sompeah(k). The shape offer burnt offerings nor make sacrifi ces of lotus hands symbolizes dedication of life to other “gods.” He declares that the Lord, to the Buddha. Therefore, in some Cam- who resides in Israel, is the true God. bodian churches, missionaries taught new Unlike Naaman’s confession of YHWH believers the Korean bow or the Western as Israel’s regional God, the plot of the “hi” (waving one hand over one’s shoulder), narrative as a whole proves that YHWH is which is improper and absolutely foreign to the True God of the earth and His power the local non-believers. In this case, simple goes beyond the limits of ethnic, religious, modifi cation and rendering with new and national boundaries (Smith 1994, 207; Christian meaning would bring cultural von Rad 2001, 30-31). Gray and Jones appropriateness. Instead of showing “lotus gave Naaman’s confession high marks in hands,” Christians press the palms fi rmly comparison with the Islamic monotheistic so that they become “prayer hands.” When shahada (Gray 1970, 507; Jones 1984, 418) they greet each other, they can confess in However, Gray carefully diagnosed Naa- their heart, “I pray for you.” 14 man’s situation as a form of “monolatry.” In order to interpret the intension (Gray 1970, 507) behind Naaman’s request, one needs to 9 The dictionary meaning of this word consider Noam Chomsky’s famous theory is “worship of one god without denying the of “transformative syntax.” In his book, existence of other gods.” Aspect of the Theory of Syntax (Chomsky 10 Mackay re-narrates Elisha’s 1965), he observed a deeper meaning response; “Your heart is now fi lled with behind the syntax, the surface structure,of peace through the knowledge of Jehovah’s a language. In Language and Mind grace; now wherever you go, whatever you (Chomsky 1972), he argues that linguistics do, take heed that you never lose that peace should not be a study of utterances, but of which is now your portion.” (1882, 111) the “human mind” revealed in the “inner 11 His idea is very similar to Ferdi- relationship between sound and meaning.” nand de Saussure (1857-1913), a prominent (Chomsky 1972, 100-114) 15 French linguist who claimed that “no word A Muslim writer in her article is inherently meaningful. Rather a word titled, “Secret War: Protecting Yourself, Your Family, and Your Community from 27:4 Winter 2010 208 Book Reviews & Notes
ABCFM missionaries seemed at times more interested in Book Christianizing natives out of their culture rather than allow- ing the Holy Spirit to transform them within their culture. Reviews& Notes For example, instead of training indigenous church leaders to baptize new believers, the missionaries insisted on baptiz- ing new believers themselves (p.82). The Field Is the World: Proclaiming, Translating, and Serving by the American Board of Commissioners A second aspect of the ABCFM “Christianizing approach” for Foreign Missions, 1810-40, by Donald Philip Corr was that the ABCFM missionaries insisted on nationals taking on “Christian” names which were chosen by ABCFM (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library Publishers, 320pp.) donors. Corr proposed two possible reasons for this naming —reviewed by Scott Hedley, research associate in Asia practice. First, the original names of the nationals were thought to be tainted by Hinduism or other religions (p.146). orr’s research in this volume is Secondly, native names were often hard to pronounce by C important because it carries us Westerners (p.147). However, the problem with requiring back to the early nineteenth cen- new names for these new believers was that they usually had tury and reveals the strategic goals no relevance within the indigenous cultures. Individuals with of America’s fi rst voluntary mission such names often stood out as not being a part of society. organization: the American Board of Finally, Corr notes that this naming practice created serious Commissioners for Foreign Missions. complications when the nationals wanted to get married. The division of chapters displays A third aspect of the ABCFM “Christianizing” approach the scope of Corr’s considerations: was the “mission station approach.” This practice involved the (1) introduction, (2) sermons preached extraction of national children out of their families in order to to the ABCFM annual meeting, (3) proclamation on the live on the mission compound, both to keep them away from fi eld by ABCFM missionaries, (4) proclamation by indig- their “heathen parents” and to facilitate the preaching to the enous preachers, (5) Bible translation by board missionaries, young people. But the “mission station approach” does not (6) Education, medicine and social concern. facilitate indigenous, self-propagating fellowships of believers. Strengths of the book. The book highlights an important goal A fourth shortcoming of the ABCFM approach was the of America’s fi rst and, for a signifi cant period of time, largest reliance on literate means of scripture distribution, a means mission organization. ABCFM administrators, support- foreign to most unreached people groups. Corr mentioned ers and missionaries between 1810 and 1840 considered ABCFM missionaries who used preaching and tract distribu- propagating the Gospel to be the highest priority, with tion for delivering the gospel (p.170). But, since he made no Bible translation an important complement to preaching. mention of oral Bible storying, the reader can only assume As someone involved in Bible translation in Asia, and who that the ABCFM missionaries did not use this method.1 shares its noble objective, I wanted to read this historic record A fi fth shortcoming of the ABCFM approach was that it of the ABCFM. Indeed, the book shows that the ABCFM seemed that the ABCFM missionaries did not allow the emphasis on preaching the Gospel to all nations was found in the local people to choose their own orthography, the orthogra- sermons given at the annual meetings of the ABCFM. phy which would eventually be used to produce the Bible in The book was also helpful in exposing some of the appropri- the local languages (p.236). ate and inappropriate strategies of the ABCFM. One helpful Potential weaknesses of the book. The book often refers to ABCFM strategy was encouraging new believers to develop concepts that are never defi ned for the general mission audi- their own theology statements. It seems that some of the ence. For example, Corr refers to a concept called the New believers in China were able to develop a complete statement Measures (p. 18f), yet he never defi ned the term. Corr also of Protestant doctrine (p.165). This type of indigenous effort, referred to the Lancasterian schools and the Lancasterian if true, is very noteworthy and a bold challenge to modern method but he never defi ned those terms either. As a reader of methods of contextualization. It goes hand in hand with the the book, I felt the need for more historical aids to help me ABCFM’s strategy of encouraging the missionaries to learn follow the text. the vernacular languages and of addressing the native audience in their own vernacular language (p.175). Some ABCFM mis- Corr has a tendency to make blanket statements which may sionaries went as far as producing vernacular dictionaries, as require some further missiological development. He men- Goodell did in Turkish (p. 229). (Unfortunately, Corr did not tioned at one point that the converts of ABCFM missionar- provide any bibliographic reference for this dictionary). ies became overqualifi ed and unable to live on a native salary and return to rural life (p. 138). I would disagree with this However, Corr also highlights ABCFM practices that we blanket statement and say the “over-qualifi cation” would might today consider inappropriate. First, he points out that International Journal of Frontier Missiology Book Reviews & Notes 209
depend on the type of training that the converts received. take into account the specifi c concerns, themes, and ministerial But the author fails to develop the context in which we can potentials that may be of greatest interest to Christians. see just how this “over-qualifi cation” happened and how it Drs. Howell and Paris are ideal authors of such a text, and prevented them from returning to native life. For instance, their personal backgrounds make the book especially useful if ABCFM missionaries trained these new converts in not only for those considering preparation for frontier mission Koehler’s oral Bible story telling methods, this “over-qualifi - at home and abroad, but also for those who would like an cation” might not have been the case (Koehler 2010). accessible introduction to how anthropology treats certain Overall, I found Corr’s research to be helpful for under- topics today. In many ways the text is an extension of their standing the history of the ABCFM and some of the appro- personal experiences as anthropologists who have studied priate and inappropriate strategies that they implemented. Christian communities, who are active in local congregations, This was especially true of the latter, the inappropriate and who incorporate an engaged Christian perspective in strategies. Understanding how and why these inappropriate their teaching at leading Christian institutions. strategies did not work can help prevent the same mistakes Brian Howell is associate professor of anthropology at in our mission endeavors. Wheaton College (Illinois). He studied at Wesleyan References University, Fuller Theological Seminary, and Washington Goodsell, Fred Field University (St. Louis), and did a Ph.D. dissertation draw- 1959 You Shall Be My Witnesses: An Interpretation of the History of ing on work among Southern Baptists in the northern the American Board 1810-1960. Boston: American Board Philippines. He writes in the areas of globalization, global of Commissioners for Foreign Mission. Christianity, and short-term missions, and to a lesser extent Koehler, Paul. 2010. Telling God’s Stories With Power. Pasadena: William Carey Library. on race and religion in churches in the United States. He is also president of the Network of Christian Anthropologists. Endnote Jenell Williams Paris is a professor of anthropology 1 Paul Koehler, in his book Telling God’s Stories With Power at Messiah College. A graduate of Bethel University (2010 William Carey Library) shows the power of oral Bible story telling in facilitating people movements to Christ in India. (Minnesota), where she also later taught for several years, she earned her Ph.D. in anthropology at American University (Washington, DC), doing dissertation research Introducing Cultural Anthropology: A Christian Perspective, focused on political activism and community formation in a by Brian M. Howell and Jenell Williams Paris (Baker low-income neighborhood of Washington, D.C. Her work focuses on urban anthropology, race, gender, and sexuality, Academic, Grand Rapids, MI, 2011, 261+xiipp.) [Projected with attention also to urban ministry, cultural pluralism, release date is December 2010; as of this writing, the and service to the poor. pagination does not include the projected index] As for the book, it is well organized, with a good selec- —reviewed by Edwin Zehner tion of topics. The fi rst chapter introduces the discipline of anthropology while the second discusses ways to think about vangelical Christians have long the central concepts of “culture,” “cultures,” “ethnocentrism,” E needed an introductory anthro- and “cultural relativism.” Middle chapters discuss topics pology text designed especially for ranging from language, to social structure and inequality, them, a text that introduces anthro- to cross-cultural and anthropological studies of gender and pological topics in ways understand- sexuality, religion and ritual, kinship and marriage, power able to the uninitiated, that takes and authority relationships in society, and globalization and Christians’ concerns into account, cultural change. The next-to-last chapter provides a brief and that demonstrates contemporary introduction to contemporary anthropological theory, and anthropology’s relevance to them as the fi nal chapter focuses on practical applications, with spe- people living, ministering, and serv- cial focus on the work of Christian anthropologists. ing in increasingly complex and multi-cultural situations. Each chapter begins with discussion of general concepts and Introducting Cultural Anthropology, by Brian M. Howell their contemporary relevance, and then proceeds to issues and Jenell Williams Paris, addresses this need beautifully. and questions of special interest to Christians. Each chapter Privileging no particular perspective, other than the value ends with a glossary of key terms and a pair of “devotions” of being grounded in contemporary anthropology while also that draw on passages of scripture to spark thinking about being grounded as faithful Christians, they introduce stan- the chapter’s relevance to our lives as Christians in society. dard anthropological topics and concepts—and also a few less As they proceed, the authors draw frequently on their own standard ones—in language and with examples that are close research and on the experience of other Christian anthro- to home, that draw on their personal fi eld experiences, and that 27:3 Fall 2010 210 Book Reviews & Notes pologists. Short set-aside boxes discuss such questions as recent developments in straightforward terms while dem- whether the United States is a uniquely “Christian” culture onstrating both in this chapter and elsewhere in the book (the answer depends on how you look at it), whether why anthropological theory matters even for those who do “American” can be conceived as an ethnic category, John not plan to become anthropologists. Calvin’s theology of politics, the signifi cance of the “kins- man redeemer” in the biblical story of Ruth and Boas, and The fi nal chapter builds on this point, discussing the unique examples of Christian anthropologists studying such topics contributions anthropological methods and perspectives as Islam and globalization. can provide on practical issues, and pointing out ways they can be useful in personal and ministerial life, especially in Several of the chapters deserve special praise. For example, cross-cultural ministries serving the global Christian com- the chapter on culture discusses how and why this notion munity. Drawing on examples from corporations who have has changed over time, and why anthropology’s “cultural asked anthropologists to help them design better products for relativism” concept is useful and how it differs from the people in developing nations (fl ashlights on cell phones, for more problematic notions of moral or epistemological rela- example), to a former anthropology major who used his lin- tivism. It also discusses common metaphors for the culture guistics training to learn how to communicate better with his concept, ending with the notion of “culture as a conversa- autistic daughter, to discussions of why anthropology matters tion,” a metaphor highlighting anthropologists’ recent focus in ministry and mission, the authors make a persuasive case. on how shared cultures engage humans with each other while not necessarily homogenizing them. I am aware that there already exist signifi cant works address- ing anthropology and Christianity, including well-known The chapter on gender and sexuality is especially important, efforts by Charles Kraft, Sherwood Lingenfelter, and Paul discussing complex issues with sophistication while remain- G. Hiebert.1 Also deserving special mention are such people ing accessible. Many of its discussions introduce conceptions as Ralph Winter, who was trained as an anthropologist, and that will be new to many of this journal’s readers, but in doing the culturally astute Donald McGavran. so it points out the cross-cultural observations that made these considerations necessary, the biases they seek to address, However, the best known of these works are nearly thirty and some of the biblical and ministerial issues to which they years old, and none of them have digested recent theoretical, may relate. Many of these issues have been little discussed in conceptual, and methodological developments in quite the way missiological training to date, yet they are directly relevant that Howell and Paris do. It is hard to think of another recent to situations that may be encountered in the fi eld, and to work by Christians that so effectively introduces contemporary a degree they are already in the awareness of the younger anthropology’s central concepts, that addresses issues of practi- generation entering ministry. Consequently this chapter is a cal relevance to evangelicals, and that familiarizes readers with must-read even for missionary trainers and administrators, the work of other Christian anthropologists who are model- while its footnotes suggest routes into further reading. ing ways of being loyal to their faith while engaging with the mainstream of their discipline. The chapter on globalization is equally useful, providing conceptual frameworks for thinking about the larger global In sum, this book is a re-invitation to anthropology. I processes that often impact local communities and minis- highly recommend it not only for the undergraduate stu- tries. In doing so it notes some of the real-world issues and dents it addresses but also for more advanced readers who confl icts that have been associated with these processes, and desire an accessible introduction to how anthropologists it discusses some ways Christians have been responding. think today, the topics they address, and how that may help their lives, work, and ministry. IJFM The chapter on anthropological theory deserves special praise. Despite its brevity, it works better than anything else I have seen in helping evangelicals understand how Dr. Edwin Zehner earned his bachelor’s degree at Houghton they can integrate recent conceptual developments with (NY) College and a Ph.D. in Anthropology at Cornell their prior work and faith commitments. Opening with University. His dissertation studied conversions to Christianity discussion of early theories from Durkheim to functional- in Thailand. He teaches anthropology and humanities at SUNY ism to structuralism, it presents newer developments like Canton and St. Lawrence University, while writing on anthro- post-modernist and feminist anthropology as necessary pological and missiological topics. supplements addressing specifi c needs and omissions rather than revolutions sweeping away all that preceded them. Endnote 1 Charles Kraft’s Christianity in Culture (1978); Sherwood G. This is a sensible approach, and it helps that the authors Lingenfelter and Marvin K. Meyers, Ministering Cross-Culturally: have themselves worked within the newer frameworks (in An Incarnational Model for Personal Relationships (1st ed. 1986, 2nd Brian’s case even using feminist “standpoint” theory to ed. 2003); Paul G. Hiebert’s (1985) Anthropological Insights for argue for greater anthropological attention to evangeli- Missionaries, and the introduction to the second edition of Paul G. cal Christians’ perspectives). This enables them to discuss Hiebert’s Cultural Anthropology (1st ed. 1976, 2nd ed. 1983). International Journal of Frontier Missiology In Others’ Words 211
The Cape Town Commitment that emerged from In Others’ Words Lausanne’s continuation efforts this past October also maintains an open and sensitive posture towards insider movements (http://www.lausanne.org/ Editor’s Note: In this department, we point you to resources ctcommitment). It states the following: outside of the IJFM that we hope you’ll fi nd helpful: other journals, print resources, DVDs, web sites, blogs, YouTube Love Respects Diversity of Discipleship videos, etc. We welcome suggestions, but cannot promise that So-called “insider movements” are to be found within several we will publish each one we receive. Standard disclaimers on religions. These are groups of people who are now following content apply. Due to the length of many web addresses, we Jesus as their God and Saviour. They meet together in small sometimes just give the title of the article and the main web groups for fellowship, teaching, worship and prayer centred address or a suggested Google search. around Jesus and the Bible while continuing to live socially and culturally within their birth communities, including some elements of its religious observance. This is a complex phenom- The Son and the Crescent enon and there is much disagreement over how to respond to it. Some commend such movements. Others warn of the Collin Hansen’s anticipated article in Christianity danger of syncretism. Syncretism, however, is a danger found Today, “The Son and the Crescent,” fi nally among Christians everywhere as we express our faith within hit the presses in February 2011 (http://www. our own cultures. We should avoid the tendency, when we see christianitytoday.com/ct/2011/february/soncrescent. God at work in unexpected or unfamiliar ways, either (i) hastily html). Hansen offers his take on both sides of the to classify it and promote it as a new mission strategy, or (ii) debate about the translation of the phrase “Son of hastily to condemn it without sensitive contextual listening. God” in the Scriptures among Muslim majority In the spirit of Barnabas who, on arrival in Antioch, “saw the populations. He has most likely provided the evidence of the grace of God” and “was glad and encouraged them all to remain true to the Lord” (www.lausanne.org/ broadest circulation to this issue among American ctcommitment#_ftn72), we would appeal to all those who Christians to date, an issue that has been debated are concerned with this issue to: almost exclusively by mission personnel over the past • Take as their primary guiding principle the apostolic deci- decade. He makes it clear that the paraphrasing of this sion and practice: “We should not make it diffi cult for Christological title is effective in certain translations the Gentiles who are turning to God” (www.lausanne. and allows Muslims for the fi rst time to respect org/ctcommitment#_ftn73). and read the Bible. He both interviews Rick Brown • Exercise humility, patience and graciousness in recognizing and quotes from two of his 2005 IJFM articles on the diversity of viewpoints, and conduct conversations this topic (22:3 and 22:4, see ijfm.org). But he also without stridency and mutual condemnation (www. lines up theologians who examine the fi delity of this lausanne.org/ctcommitment#_ftn74). paraphrasing. One is suspicious that Hansen’s terse quotes at times can fail to contain full perspectives on Mobile Phone Partnering such complex translation matters. The IJFM may call In the last issue of IJFM (27:3, Fall 2010) we on certain of these theologians to give more complete presented “The Little Phone That Could: Mobile- positions in upcoming issues. Empowered Ministry.” Recently, sixteen participants from fi fteen mission agencies and ministries continued Interpreting Insider Movements in this same vein, tackling the broad picture of mobile The January issue of Evangelical Missions ministry and details of how a partnership might Quarterly highlighted articles which attempt to emerge around their common vision, “that within ten reconcile perspectives on the insider approach to years every unreached person will have had a chance contextualization. Lowell de Jong’s article, “Insider to encounter Christ and His kingdom in a compelling, Believers and the Empathy of God,” as well as contextualized fashion through their personal mobile Robert Johnson’s “Toward a Greater Unity in Muslim device.” If you are interested in an executive summary Ministry,” each examine aspects of this debate and try of this meeting, you can read it at http://tinyurl.com/ to increase sensitivity and better communication. The MobileSummitSummary. Feel free to write if you have January issue of First Things also included an article by any questions or comments. IJFM Gabriel Said Reynolds, “Evangelizing Islam,” which attempted to address this issue.
27:4 Winter 2010 ANNOUNCING:THE SECOND ANNUAL Ralph D. Winter Lectureship
To be convened on the campus of Th e U.S. Center for World Mission, Pasadena, California
April 12th-14th, 2011
THEME: “ Turning Points in World Church History ”
KEYNOTE SPEAKER: Andrew Walls, Ph.D.
Th e second annual Ralph D. Winter Memorial Lectureship will be held at the U.S. Center for World Mission on April 12-14, 2011. Dr. Andrew Walls of Scotland will present fi ve lectures on Turning Points in World Church History. Special venues for missiological interaction with Dr. Walls will be off ered. Complete details will be released in the coming weeks.
For more information, please go to www.uscwm.org/rdwlectureship