Stacked Stone Pagodas in Sixth-Century Northern China

religions Article Generating Sacred Space beyond Architecture: Stacked Stone Pagodas in Sixth-Century Northern China Jinchao Zhao Center for Global Asia, New York University Shanghai, Shanghai 200122, China; [email protected] Abstract: A large number of stone blocks, stacked up in diminishing size to form pagodas, was discovered in northern China, primarily eastern Gansu and southeastern Shanxi. Their stylistic traits and inscriptions indicate the popularity of the practice of making stacked pagodas in the Northern dynasties (circa the fifth and sixth centuries CE). They display a variety of Buddhist imagery on surface, which is in contrast with the simplification of the structural elements. This contrast raises questions about how stone pagodas of the time were understood and how they related to contemporaneous pagoda buildings. This essay examines these stacked pagodas against the broader historical and artistic milieu, especially the practice of dedicating Buddhist stone implements, explores the way the stacked pagodas were made, displayed, and venerated, and discusses their religious significance generated beyond their structural resemblance to real buildings. Keywords: pagoda; stupa;¯ miniature; China; Northern dynasties; Buddhism 1. Introduction Citation: Zhao, Jinchao. 2021. During the twentieth century, a number of miniature stone pagodas and hundreds Generating Sacred Space beyond of fragmented pieces were discovered at monastic sites and hoarding pits located in Architecture: Stacked Stone Pagodas northern China (Figure1). Among them, a particular group comprises pagodas formed in Sixth-Century Northern China. by a series of cubical or trapezoidal stone blocks that are once stacked up in diminishing Religions 12: 730. https://doi.org/ sizes (hereafter referred to as “stacked pagodas,” or “stone blocks” if only a single block 10.3390/rel12090730 is under discussion). This group of pagodas is excavated primarily in the Nannieshui W 涅4 County of Shanxi q西 province (Figure2), and several sites in Gansu 甘肅 province Academic Editors: Shuishan Yu and (Figure3). According to dedicatory inscriptions, as well as styles of relief carvings on these Aibin Yan stone blocks, they were commissioned over the course of the sixth century, when northern China was successively reigned by the Northern Wei 北O (386–534), Eastern Wei (534–50), Received: 14 July 2021 and Western Wei (535–57), Northern Qi (550–77) and Northern Zhou (557–81). Historically, Accepted: 24 August 2021 eastern Gansu was named “Longdong” ´q, meaning “to the east of the Mount Long”. Published: 6 September 2021 Once a center of Buddhism, the region is home to several cave-temple sites and numerous Buddhist statues and steles that date to the Northern dynasties (Gansu Sheng Wenwu Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Gongzuodui, and Qingyang Bei Shiku Wenwu Baoguansuo 1987; Cheng 1998; Cheng and with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affil- Yang 2003; Dong 2008; Song 2009; Wei and Wu 2009; Gansu Beishikusi Wenwu Baohu 1 iations. Yanjiusuo 2013; Zheng et al. 2014). Nannieshui in Shanxi, although never a significant local center in history, is located on the path connecting major political centers in the sixth century (Guo 1959, 1979; Shanxi Sheng Kaogu Yanjiusuo 1994, pp. 313–18; Zhang 2005, pp. 51–68). Besides excavation reports, and several catalog entries, there is almost no extensive Copyright: © 2021 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. scholarly discussion of the phenomenon of making pagodas by stacking stone blocks. These This article is an open access article pagodas’ display of rich Buddhist imagery on the surface, in contrast to the simplification distributed under the terms and of structural elements, raises pointed questions about religion, imagery, and architecture. conditions of the Creative Commons Why were stacked pagodas made? How to understand their regional flourish in Shanxi Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// and Gansu? How were stacked pagodas understood in their production, consumption, creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and veneration? How did they relate to the construction of pagoda buildings and other 4.0/). pagoda-centered Buddhist activities of the time period? Religions 2021, 12, 730. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12090730 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 33 Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 33 Religions 2021, 12, 730 in Shanxi and Gansu? How were stacked pagodas understood in their production,2 ofcon- 31 insumption, Shanxi and and Gansu? veneration? How Howwere didstacked they pagodasrelate to theunderstood construction in their of pagoda production, buildings consumption,and other pagodaand veneration?-centered BuddhistHow did activitiesthey relate of to the the time construction period? of pagoda buildings and other pagoda-centered Buddhist activities of the time period? Longdong 隴東 Longdong 隴東 FigureFigure 1. 1.Map Map of of Eastern Eastern Gansu, Gansu, Shaanxi, Shaanxi, and and Shanxi Shanxi province. province. Figure 1. Map of Eastern Gansu, Shaanxi, and Shanxi province. Figure 2. A Nannieshui pagoda in display. Early sixth century, Northern Wei. Stone. Nannieshui FigureFigureMuseum. 2. 2.A APhotograph Nannieshui Nannieshui taken pagoda pago byda the in in display. author.display. Early Early sixth sixth century, century, Northern Northern Wei. Wei. Stone. Stone. Nannieshui Nannieshui Museum. Photograph taken by the author. Museum. Photograph taken by the author. The pagoda is usually considered the reinterpretation of the hemispherical stupa,¯ but features a tall, multistory tower-like body instead. In the third century BCE, Buddhism adopted the mound structure to house the relics of the Buddha or to mark the places consecrated as sites of his acts, constituting the earliest presence of stupa.¯ 2 Despite the scarcity of material remains dated prior to the fifth century, literary sources record that the earliest stupas¯ were produced in China no later than the second century CE, along with the eastwards spread of Buddhism.3 From the third century, Buddhism rapidly filtered into Chinese society through increasing contacts with Central Asian Buddhist kingdoms, Religions 2021, 12, 730 3 of 31 translations of Buddhist texts into Chinese, and constructions of Buddhist monasteries (Zürcher 1972; Seishi 2017). The tower-shaped and multistory type of stupa¯ appeared and later became the predominant form in East Asia. Modern scholars usually referred to this Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEWtype as “pagoda” in distinction from the hemispherical stupa.¯ Both types are generally3 of 33 referred to as ta T in Chinese scholarship. FigureFigure 3. 3.Zhuanglang Zhuanglang Pagoda. Pagoda.Gansu Gansu Province.Province. EarlyEarly sixthsixth century,century, Northern Northern Wei. Wei. Gansu Gansu Provincial Provincial Museum.Museum. Photograph Photograph courtesy courtesy of of Wang Wang Xiaoshu. Xiaoshu. TheThe period pagoda in is the usually following considered fifth and the sixth reinterpretation centuries was of the marked hemispherical by the conquest stūpa, but of northernfeatures Chinaa tall, bymultistory non-Chinese tower regimes.-like body Buddhism instead. continued In the third toflourish century regardless BCE, Buddhism of the politicaladopted chaos the mound and social structure upheaval. to house Both the imperial relics andof the ordinary Buddha patrons or to mark sponsored the places the con-con- structionsecrated ofas pagodasites of his buildings. acts, constituting Pagoda and the st earliestupa¯ imagery presence in reliefs of stūpa. and2 Despite murals burgeonedthe scarcity inof Buddhist material remains cave-temples dated andprior on to Buddhistthe fifth century, statues literary and steles. sources Surviving record historicalthat the earliest texts fromstūpas the were time, produced especially inLuoyang China no qielan later ji than洛} =theÍ second記 (A Record century of CE, Buddhist along with Monasteries the east- inwards Luoyang) spread by of Yang Buddhism. Xuanzhi3 FromJRK the, and thirdShuijing century, zhu Buddhism4經è (Commentary rapidly filtered on the into Water Chi- Classic),nese society compiled through by increasing Li Daoyuan contactsHSC with, record Central a myriad Asian ofBuddhist Buddhist kingdoms, pagodas transla- being erectedtions of within Buddhist the texts precinct intoof Chinese, Buddhist and monasteries constructions in Luoyangof Buddhist (Luoyang monasteries qielan ji(Zürcher jiaoshi 1963;1972;Shui Karashima jing zhu 2017)2007).. The An tower upsurge-shaped of archaeological and multistory excavations type of stūpa of pagoda appeared foundations and later ofbecame the Northern the predominant dynasties sinceform thein East second Asia. half Modern of the twentiethscholars usually century referred CE has broughtto this type to lightas “pagoda” information in distinction on pagoda from constructions the hemispherical dated to stūpa. this period, Both types such are as thegenerallySiyuan referred fotu 思 `to[ as圖 taat 塔 Pingcheng in Chineses Îscholarship.(present-day Datong '同, Shanxi Province), Siyan fotu 思燕[圖 at ChaoyangThe period朝} in, Pagoda the following of the Yongningfifth and sixth Monastery centuries8寧寺 wasat marked Luoyang by 洛the} conquest, the Taihe of Pagodanorthern at China Dingxian by 定non#-ChineseCounty, Hebei,regimes. and Buddhism pagodas incontinued temples locatedto flourish at the regardless City of Ye of 4the, Hebei political (Hebei chaos Sheng and social Wenhuaju upheaval. Wenwu Both Gongzuodui

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