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Hydrosolidarity and the Power of Being Good

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Hydrosolidarity and the Power of Being Good HydrosolidarityHydrosolidarity andand thethe powerpower ofof beingbeing goodgood AA comparativecomparative accountaccount ofof hydrohydro--hegemonyhegemony inin thethe OrangeOrange andand OkavangoOkavango riverriver basinsbasins Prepared for the Third International Workshop on Hydro- Hegemony London School of Economics, 12 and 13 May 2007 Pål Arne Davidsen University of Bergen [email protected] Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. AA momentmoment ofof reflectionreflection...... Pål Arne Davidsen©2004 Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. AimAim andand structurestructure ofof thethe presentationpresentation • AimAim • ”To develop an understanding of how the securitisation- desecuritisation nexus can provide valuable insights into hydropolitical relations in the Orange and Okavango river basins” • StructureStructure • The river basins – both ”at risk” (Wolf et al. 2003) • Methodology, discourse matters! • A brief theoretical overview • Case studies – hegemon or hegemonized? • Concluding comments Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. TheThe OkavangoOkavango –– JewelJewel ofof thethe KalahariKalahari • Basin area of approximately 413 550 km² (differs) • Three riparians • Angola – upstream, a “sleeping giant”!? • Namibia – midstream, thirsty • Botswana – downstream, tourist revenues, Ramsar site • Relatively symmetrical power distribution • The basin relatively pristine • How to balance economic development and environmental protection? Pål Arne Davidsen© Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. TheThe OrangeOrange –– thethe ””sourcesource ofof lifelife”” forfor SouthSouth AfricaAfrica ((TurtonTurton 2005)2005) • BasinBasin areaarea ofof approximatelyapproximately 896896 368368 kmkm²² (Earle(Earle etet al.al. 2005)2005) • FourFour ripariansriparians • Lesotho – upstream, water rich, but power poor. LHWP with SA • South Africa – midstream/downstream. IBT dependency and Apartheid legacy → bilateralism • Botswana – midstream, but contributes no surface runoff. A diplomatic bargaining position (Turton 2001) • Namibia – downstream, in need of a dam for seasonal runoff storage. Table grape industry Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. TheThe OrangeOrange • AsymmetricalAsymmetrical powerpower distributiondistribution • AA technicallytechnically closedclosed riverriver basinbasin!?!? • Technical innovation, Technical innovation, Source: TCTA howhow toto distributedistribute whatwhat isis ””leftleft”” Pål Arne Davidsen ©2005 Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. MethodologicalMethodological frameworkframework • ””ProblemsProblems andand solutionssolutions areare likelike beautybeauty,, thethe existexist inin thethe eyeeye ofof thethe beholder.beholder. ThatThat whatwhat peoplepeople perceiveperceive,, willwill determinedetermine howhow theythey willwill actact”” ((BrynardBrynard 2003:310)2003:310) • Discourse analysis – search for rhetorical structures • Securitisation – the social construction of enmity, threats and vulnerabilities • Desecuritsation – the social construction of amity, trust and cooperation • Document analysis • Interviews with stakeholders Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. TheoreticalTheoretical frameworkframework • The Copenhagen School of International Relations (Wæver 1995, Buzan et al. 1998, Buzan and Wæver 2003) • Overcoming the widening-broadening debate • Securitisation (Carl Schmitt 1930/32/34) • Security as a speech act (Austin 1962, Bourdieu 1991) • Security sectors (5) - interconnected • Multifaceted, not only state – legitimacy depends on sector • Desecuritisation • More security not necessarily good or desirable. A trade-off (Jonas 1984) • Desecuritisation a transformative capacity (Aradau 2004), not a-security • From water sharing to benefit sharing (Sadoff and Grey 2002/05, Turton 2004, Phillips et al. 2006). Increasing the pie. Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. CasesCases –– OrangeOrange RiverRiver BasinBasin • SecuritisationSecuritisation • Orange River border dispute, South Africa and Namibia. Northern bank or thalweg? Issues at stake for Namibia: Access to dam/runoff storage (LORMS), grape industry, Kudu Gas Field. South Africa: Private property rights, dangerous precedence • Fuzzy border scenario/colonial overlay (Gleditsch et al. 2004) • South Africa still colonial master and basin hegemon • Hydrohegemony as a layered cake (basin level, profession level). A bilateral, technical discourse; ”not really a problem”→ the issue securitised+depoliticized. No need for SA to securitise because technical discourse maintains status quo • Technical closure→political closure? ”There is nothing left”. Black boxing (Callon and Latour 1984). Participation? Pressure from below? Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. CasesCases –– OrangeOrange RiverRiver BasinBasin • OperationOperation BoleasBoleas, South Africa and Lesotho. Election turmoil, Lesotho 1998. BDF+SANDF intervention. LHWP protection by SA, unilateralism? • SA securitised the LHWP/IBT to Gauteng. Fraught with top-level security rhetoric • ”Echoes of the past”? Total National Strategy during 1980s (Botha), survival of the Apartheid State • Intervention underpinned SA’s position as hydro- hegemon. What about Lesotho? Protection? Further phases of LHWP? Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. CasesCases –– OrangeOrange RiverRiver BasinBasin • DesecuritisationDesecuritisation • The Lesotho Highlands Water Project, South Africa and Lesotho. Water transfer from Maluti Mountains to Gauteng • Benefit sharing. Succesful cooperation; royalties,jobs, infrastructure, electricity (Lesotho); pure White Gold (South Africa) • Water poor, economic rich (SA) + water rich, economic poor (Lesotho) = A ”Win-win” situation (Don Corleone)? • Water scarcity and current allocations? Concealing unequal access and control • Domestic benefits in Lesotho? Compensation? • SA, a goodwill strategy when security(zation) of supply+benefit sharing. Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. CasesCases –– OrangeOrange RiverRiver BasinBasin • The Lower Orange River Management Study (LORMS), joint initiative by Namibia and SA, improve management of common section • Benefit sharing. Water supply, river regulation, dam construction etc. ”Win-win” and common good • But, desecuritisation (BS) together with security of supply • Desecuritisation= technocrats, not securocrats reign supreme (Phillips et al. 2006:20), but → depoliticization→no discursive contestation. Politics THE problem... • Common good conceals inefficient irrigation • Unfavourable flow regime. Namibia a victim? But, ”can kill the goose that lays the golden egg”, bargaining power vs. SA (LHWP) Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. CasesCases –– OrangeOrange RiverRiver BasinBasin • The Orange Senqu River Commission (ORASECOM), established 2000, a multilateral agreement of 4 riparians. • Benefit sharing, ”because of the river” (avert conflict), ”beyond the river” (regional integration) → IWRM and SADC • A technocratic regime. Technical advisor, technical level, technical solutions and hard facts (Angula) →politics aside (depoliticized?) • Why did South Africa join? Does not supersede bilateral regimes (LHWP)+depoliticization→hegemony of SA not threatened. Question of unequal access remains (Beekman et al. 2003:39) • IWRM a depoliticizing effect (Wester and Warner 2002). Border demarcation a POLITICAL choice (Botswana) → SA access to Zambezi and Congo → a Southern African Hydropolitical Complex (Turton 2003, Davidsen 2006) Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. CasesCases –– thethe OkavangoOkavango RiverRiver BasinBasin • SecuritisationSecuritisation • TheThe RunduRundu--GrootfonteinGrootfontein pipelinepipeline andand thethe ENWCENWC,, 19971997 waterwater crisiscrisis Namibia,Namibia, OkavangoOkavango lastlast optionoption • Namibia, economic securitisation (mercantilist)→ Botswana, environmental (wildlife), societal (tribes) and economic (tourism) counter-securitisation→ security dilemma • Cumulative threat perceptions • Enemy constructions, Namibia ”the bad neighbour” Third International Workshop on Hydro-Hegemony, LSE, May 2007 Do not cite without author’s permission. CasesCases –– thethe OkavangoOkavango RiverRiver BasinBasin • The Popa Falls Hydropower Station, 50 km upstream of Delta in Namibia. Namibian need for power supply • Wide ranging securitisation in Botswana through economic, environmental and societal sectors. Discourse coalition of Government+safari operators+environmental groupings: A threat the the Okavango Delta (Ngami Times, ”Death of Delta if project goes ahead”) • Delta a Ramsar site 1997. A discourse of goodness + hydrosolidarity (Davidsen 2006). Botswana: national security (tourist GDP) + environmental protection(wildlife)= the ”common good”. A hydro hegemon (Lukes
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