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Master's Degree Programme – Second Cycle (DM Master’s Degree programme – Second Cycle (D.M. 270/2004) in International Relations Final Thesis Title Linguistic rights for the protection of cultural identity in International Law Supervisor Ch. Prof. Sara De Vido Co-supervisor Ch. Prof. Antonio Trampus Graduand Giulia Tessari 831948 Academic Year 2014 / 2015 1 Table of contents Introduction……………………………………………..................................................................12 Chapter one – Cultural rights in International Law 1. History of cultural rights in human rights literature...................................................................16 2. International conventions and bodies defining cultural rights ………………………………...24 3. The Fribourg Declaration of Cultural Rights.………………………………………………………..31 4. The right to participate in cultural life and the right to cultural identity………………………35 5. States’ obligations and violations of cultural rights………………………………………........47 6. Universalism or relativism for cultural rights?...........................................................................54 Chapter two – Linguistic rights in International Law 1. The development of linguistic rights as a category of cultural rights…………………….........62 2. International instruments defining linguistic rights………………………………………….....75 3. Language Rights and Linguistic Human Rights………………………………………………. 86 4. The different typologies of linguistic rights…………………………………………………….92 Chapter three – Linguistic rights of linguistic minorities 1. History of the linguistic rights of people belonging to linguistic minorities in International Law………………………………………………………………………………………….....99 2. No-language discrimination for minority groups……………………………………………..108 3. The different domains of use of linguistic rights……………………………………………..114 4. Legal documents dealing with the linguistic rights of linguistic minorities…………………..124 5. The OSCE contribution to the protection of linguistic minorities…………………………….132 6. Cases of the European Court of Human Rights dealing with linguistic rights………………..142 7. Linguistic rights in the Spanish context……………………………………………………….151 8. Linguistic rights in the Latin American context………………………………………………166 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………..175 2 Abstract L’identità di ciascuna persona, così come quella di ciascun popolo, è costituita dalla cultura e dalla lingua. Per questo motivo, il diritto di possedere un’identità culturale, ovvero di sentirsi parte di una specifica comunità culturale e quello di avere accesso alla vita culturale che tale comunità offre, fanno parte di quella categoria di diritti umani che va sotto la denominazione di diritti culturali. Dal canto suo, essendo la lingua una delle principali manifestazioni della cultura, espressione del patrimonio e dell’identità culturale di un popolo, i diritti linguistici possono essere considerati una categoria racchiusa nella categoria dei sopradetti diritti culturali. Ci si trova dunque di fronte ad una rappresentazione a tre cerchi concentrici dove il cerchio più esterno coincide con i diritti umani, il secondo cerchio corrisponde ai diritti culturali, all’interno del quale si trova il cerchio più piccolo dei diritti linguistici. Dato che nella maggior parte dei casi i lavori di ricerca riguardanti la cultura e la lingua considerano questi due elementi da un punto di vista puramente antropologico, ovvero come due aspetti caratterizzanti ciascun essere umano, il presente lavoro si pone l’obiettivo di andare oltre l’ambito dell’antropologia per comprendere piuttosto come la cultura e la lingua si relazionano con il diritto. Più precisamente, la tesi vuole offrire una panoramica della modalità in cui la cultura e la lingua vengono interpretate dalla giurisprudenza e, in particolare, dal quadro giuridico internazionale. La ricerca evidenzia che tanto i diritti culturali quanto quelli linguistici sono stati per molto tempo trascurati dalla dottrina, se paragonati ai diritti umani, come dimostra il fatto che le due Dichiarazioni ad essi relative sono state elaborate in tempi piuttosto recenti e che l’opinione pubblica stessa non conosce abbastanza tali diritti. La tesi presenta la struttura seguente: il primo capitolo riguarda i diritti culturali, il secondo si focalizza sui diritti linguistici e il terzo illustra i diritti linguistici dei gruppi minoritari. Infatti, dato che i diritti linguistici vengono negati perlopiù a tali gruppi, questi diritti coincidono quasi sempre con i diritti delle minoranze. Il primo capitolo si apre con l’inquadramento dei diritti culturali all’interno del sistema giuridico internazionale dei diritti umani. Da ciò emerge la difficoltà che è stata riscontrata tanto nello sviluppo come nell’applicazione di tali diritti, difficoltà che viene principalmente attribuita al fatto che essi riflettono la complessità che caratterizza il concetto stesso di cultura. Si esamina che il diritto internazionale iniziò a prendere in considerazione i diritti culturali solo quando il concetto di cultura divenne oggetto di un ampliamento, ovvero, quando esso smise di rappresentare esclusivamente l’arte e la letteratura e di identificarsi puramente con le discipline accademiche, 3 iniziando a comprendere anche i vari aspetti che caratterizzano la vita culturale delle persone come la religione, l’istruzione e la lingua. Inoltre, si può constatare che l’indeterminatezza e la marginalità dei diritti culturali sono da attribuire alla scarsa chiarezza che circonda il concetto di cultura. La complessità di tali diritti deriva anche dal fatto che essi sovrappongono altre categorie di diritti, così come dal fatto che i diritti culturali si legano inevitabilmente all’identità di ogni individuo, dalla quale non possono essere separati. Il quadro d’insieme si complica se si considera che tali diritti possono avere una dimensione individuale così come una dimensione collettiva. Tutto ciò fa capire la ragione per cui la definizione di quei diritti che si sarebbero poi dovuti ascrivere alla categoria di diritti culturali è stato il frutto di un lavoro particolarmente complesso. Si evidenzia come la difficoltà nella loro caratterizzazione risalga già al periodo dell’elaborazione della Dichiarazione Universale dei diritti umani del 1948, che peraltro fa riferimento ad essi in solo due dei suoi articoli, riguardanti rispettivamente il diritto all’istruzione e il diritto alla partecipazione alla vita culturale ma che, tuttavia, non ne fornisce una definizione vera e propria. Successivamente, si offre una descrizione dei principali strumenti legali internazionali che sono stati elaborati nell’ambito dei diritti culturali, evidenziando la collocazione di questi rispetto ai più noti diritti civili e politici. In particolare, si rileva che, data la sua importanza nella promozione della cultura, l’Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite per l’educazione, la scienza e la cultura (UNESCO), ha elaborato numerosi documenti sul tema in questione. Essi riguardano soprattutto la cooperazione in materia culturale e la partecipazione alla vita culturale e risalgono agli anni sessanta e settanta del secolo scorso. Anche il Patto Internazionale sui Diritti Economici, Sociali e Culturali della fine degli anni sessanta presenta solo due articoli riguardanti i diritti culturali, senza però fornirne alcuna definizione, come già considerato per la Dichiarazione Universale. Poiché lo strumento più specifico in materia di diritti culturali risale all’inizio del ventunesimo secolo, è dunque significativo notare che dovettero passare molti anni dall’elaborazione della Dichiarazione Universale prima di ottenere una chiara idea di cosa dovesse intendersi con tali diritti. I lavori per raggiungere tale scopo iniziarono negli anni novanta del ventesimo secolo ad opera di esperti che andarono a costituire il cosiddetto Gruppo di Friburgo e fu grazie a loro se nel 2007 fu finalmente possibile godere di una definizione di diritti culturali o, per meglio dire, della prima vera definizione di tali diritti. Questa è infatti contenuta nella Dichiarazione che prende il suo nome da quello del gruppo stesso, la Dichiarazione di Friburgo, che, pur non avendo un carattere vincolante, presenta numerose disposizioni riguardanti la protezione dei diritti in questione. 4 Un importante aspetto del documento è costituito dalla sua concezione più antropologica che materialistica di cultura, a testimonianza dell’avvenuto ampliamento di tale concetto. Inoltre, anche la Dichiarazione ribadisce il nesso che i diritti culturali hanno con l’identità individuale. A proposito di ciò, dato che i conflitti e la violenza sono principalmente causati dai tentativi di ottenere il riconoscimento dell’identità di ogni singolo individuo, si può dedurre l’importante ruolo ricoperto dall’educazione ai diritti culturali, proprio per evitare eventuali contrasti e per contribuire alla difesa dell’identità. Dalla Dichiarazione emerge anche il legame che i diritti culturali hanno con i diritti linguistici, nel momento in cui anche la libera scelta da parte dell’individuo della lingua che preferisce utilizzare costituisce una parte della sua identità. Inoltre, è opportuno ricordare che il diritto di ciascuno di identificarsi con una determinata comunità culturale, che comprende la scelta della lingua con la quale esprimersi nella vita pubblica e privata, così come della cultura con cui identificarsi, costituisce uno dei diritti culturali più importanti. Parte del primo capitolo è dedicata al diritto alla partecipazione alla vita culturale e al diritto all’identità culturale, che costituiscono i principali
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