TOP 20 most threatened bird habitats in the U.S. Table of Contents

Map of the Top 20 Threatened Bird Habitats in the U.S...... Page 3 Threats to the Top 20 Bird Habitats...... Page 4 What Is Habitat Loss? ...... Page 5 The Economic Contribution of Birds...... Page 7 Habitat 20: Northwest Rainforest ...... Page 8 Habitat 19: Early Successional Habitat in Eastern Deciduous Forests ...... Page 10 Habitat 18: Oak Savannah ...... Page 12 Habitat 17: Ponderosa Pine ...... Page 14 Habitat 16: Bottomland Hardwood Forest ...... Page 16 Habitat 15: Shortgrass Prairie ...... Page 18 Habitat 14: Chaparral ...... Page 20 Habitat 13: Florida Wetlands ...... Page 22 Habitat 12: Habitats of California’s Central Valley ...... Page 24 Habitat 11: Great Plains Wetlands ...... Page 26 Habitat 10: Longleaf Pine ...... Page 28 Habitat 9: Lakes Wales Ridge Oak Scrub ...... Page 30 Habitat 8: Gulf Coast Prairie ...... Page 32 Habitat 7: Coastal Beaches and Marsh ...... Page 34 Habitat 6: Tallgrass Prairie ...... Page 36 Habitat 5: Southwest Riparian ...... Page 38 Habitat 4: Edwards Plateau Savannah ...... Page 40 Habitat 3: Sagebrush ...... Page 42 Habitat 2: Open Ocean/Seabird Nesting Islands ...... Page 44 Habitat 1: Native Forests of Hawaii ...... Page 46 About ABC ...... Page 48

Page 2 of 48 Top 20 Threatened Bird Habitats in the U.S.

This map shows the range extent of each of the 20 most threatened bird habitats in the United States. Prior to European settlement, these habitats would have occupied most or all of the indicated range. Today, however, most only survive in small, isolated pockets, in total, occupying a tiny fraction of the overall U.S. land area.

20

18 17 7 2 20 11

7 3 6 2 19 12 15

14 7 1 5 16 10

8 9 4 7 Overlapping habitat ranges are not 13 shown on this map.

20. Northwest Rainforest 10. Mixed Longleaf Pine/Bottomland Hardwood Forest 19. Early Successional /Eastern Deciduous Forests 9. Lake Wales Oak Ridge Scrub 18. Oak Savannah 8. Gulf Coast Prairie 17. Ponderosa Pine 7. Coastal Beaches and Marsh 16. Bottomland Hardwood Forest 6. Tallgrass Prairie 15. Shortgrass Prairie 5. Southwest Riparian 14. Chaparral 4. Edwards Plateau Savannah 13. Florida Wetlands 3. Sagebrush 12. California’s Central Valley 2. Open Ocean/Seabird Nesting Islands 11. Great Plains Wetlands 1. Hawaiian Forests

Photos left to right: Laysan Albatrosses: Bill Hubick; Swallow-tailed Kites: Ken Meyer; Marbled Godwits: Glen Tepke

Page 3 of 48 Number of Habitats affected

Invasive Species/Disease Threats to the Top Urban/Suburban Development 20 Bird Habitats Fire Suppression This graph shows the threats (historical and current) that have been the foremost causes for the loss of the 20 most reats Agriculture threatened bird habitats, and the number of those habitats Th

T Deforestation/Timber Extraction that they have affected. Those threats that have only -af N fected one each of the twenty habitats were combined into Livestock Grazing a single “Other” category. While global warming is one of the most significant threats facing bird habitats today, its CURRE

D Wetland Drainage effects are only just becoming apparent. With the excep- N tion of sea level rise, it is difficult to quantify how global A

L warming will ultimately reshape bird populations. Hence, Pesticides/Pollution it is only a named factor in two of the top 20 threatened habitats. Forest Management ISTORICA

H Water Diversion Projects

Global Warming

Other* *Includes one each of: forest succession, coastal engineering, deer, fisheries 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 issues, recreation, fire. Wetlands photo: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Natural Resources Service USDA photo: Wetlands Riparian habitat in Wyoming: FWS Wyoming: Riparian habitat in

Page 4 of 48 Photo: Bob Altman What is Habitat Loss? “Habitat” refers to the conditions in which an organ- into thousands of genetically distinct types, resulting ism lives. In the broadest sense, habitat is never lost, in the fabric of living things that brings pleasure into but merely converted from one type to another, even our lives. Each species of bird evolved under particu- if it is from solid land to open ocean, as water that was lar habitat conditions. The continued survival and once locked up as ice is released reproductive success of a species with rising global temperatures. The kind of change that we call depends largely on an intricate Changes in habitat conditions set of relationships with those on Earth have been continuous habitat loss is conversion of habitat habitat conditions. Some throughout time, with mountain conditions required by various bird birds have become adapted to ranges rising and eroding away, habitat conditions that vary various forest types marching species to conditions in which those over time (including decade to north and south, periods of birds cannot survive. This is the decade, year to year, and season cooling and warming, and more to season) and distance. The recently, humans setting fires, fundamental cause of population common birds we see in our moving plants and animals from declines in birds. backyards tend to fall at the one place to another, and building extreme end of this category. shopping malls and tract housing. To a Common Grackle eating french fries outside a fast food restaurant, life has never been better. Other A wondrous result of continental drift, mountains species are rigidly locked into habitat conditions that building, and Ice Ages coming and going has been traditionally remained stable, and their specialized use speciation—birds (and other life forms) diversifying of these conditions renders them ill-equipped to deal

Page 5 of 48 with change. An antpitta deprived of humid forest conditions in the small swath of the Andes in which it

evolved has little chance of survival. FWS Photo: So, as we humans continue to convert habitat to conditions that superficially seem to be of greater To select the 20 most threatened bird habitats, short-term benefit to us, we split the bird world into we considered the severity of historic habitat loss, those that thrive with new opportunities and those current threats to remaining habitat, past and that wither in the face of change. Bird conservation ongoing restoration efforts, and the existence is simply an attempt to provide for the needs of that ever-increasing latter group. of protected areas such as parks, grasslands, wildlife refuges, and reserves. ABC’s Green List The kind of change that we call habitat loss is conver- (www.abcbirds.org/greenlist.htm) was used to sion of habitat conditions required by specialized bird species to conditions in which those birds cannot gauge the value of habitat for conservation priority survive. This is the fundamental cause of population species. The number of Green List species (which declines in birds. includes birds listed under the Endangered Species But not all change is bad. Fire, flood, extreme weather, Act) found in high concentrations weighted the disease, and urban sprawl may benefit some birds. importance of the habitat for birds. Clear-cutting of forests and overgrazing of grasslands work nicely for others. The worst types of change are conversion to agriculture, which tends to be at least partially reversible, and conversion to urban condi- What is Habitat Loss? tions, which tends to be permanent.

Acorn Woodpeckers: Glen Tepke; TOP ROW: Lawrence's Goldfinch: Glen Tepke; Blue Grouse (recently split into Dusky Grouse and Sooty Grouse): USDA Forest Service; BOTTOM ROW: Burrowing Owl; Black Skimmers: Glen Tepke; Tricolored Heron: Bill Hubick; Western Bluebird: Ashok Khosla

Page 6 of 48 The Economic Contribution of Birds

Millions of people love birds for their aesthetic contributes $43 billion annually to the economy. value. They bring tremendous enjoyment to bird An estimated 66 million Americans participate in watchers and hunters, but are also valued by society wildlife viewing, which supports 466,000 jobs. in other important ways. Here is a brief summary of Retail sales of gear average $8.8 billion, trip related how birds benefit our economy and quality of life. expenditures total $8.5 billion, and state and federal tax receipts amount to $2.7 billion. The report is Irreplaceable Ecosystem Services available at www.outdoorindustryfoundation.org. Birds play an important role in maintaining the eco- In 2001, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reported systems on which humans depend to maintain our similar findings: a $38 billion contribution to the quality of life and civilization. For example, birds economy from bird and other wildlife watching. eat billions of insects each year that left unchecked One-third of outdoor enthusiasts take at least one could decimate our crops. Birds also play an impor- bird or other wildlife watching trip per year, and tant role as pollinators, providing a fundamental nearly 70% visit forest land to do so. $23.5 billion service to agricultural production that simply can- is spent on equipment such as cameras, binoculars, not be replaced by other means. and clothing each year; $8 billion on trip-related According to the Smithsonian Migratory Bird expenses; and $6.7 billion on books, magazines, Center, birds eat up to 98% of budworms and up fees, and memberships. See http://library.fws. to 40% of all non-outbreak insect species in eastern gov/nat_survey2001_economics.pdf for a copy of forests. The value of this insect control has been es- the “2001 National and State Economic Impacts of timated to be as much as $5,000 per year per square Wildlife Watching.” mile of forest. Another study found that in orchards, birds eat up to 98% of codling moth larvae, a major Scientific Discoveries pest of apple trees. From birds we have made important discoveries con- cerning aspects of flight, vision, and the mechanism Bird Watching of natural selection guiding evolution. Birds are also An estimated 46 million Americans participate in superb “canaries in the coal mine”, or indicators of bird watching each year, according to the U.S. Fish environmental health and change. Rapid declines and Wildlife Service. in bird numbers have alerted us to the harm being caused to humans and the environment by toxic The Outdoor Industry Foundation released a new chemicals. The knowledge we gain from birds direct- report in 2006 that found all outdoor wildlife- ly affects our quality of life and our understanding related recreation activities generate $730 billion of how economic development can be made more annually for the U.S. economy. The report esti- environmentally sustainable. mated that bird watching and other wildlife viewing

Photos left to right: Orchard Oriole: Bill Hubick; birders: Paul Salaman; bird banding: FWS.

Page 7 of 48 20 Northwest Rainforest

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Marbled Murrelet, Spotted Owl, Hermit Warbler, Band- tailed Pigeon Threats: Resource extraction, forest fragmentation Geographical area: British Columbia, Alaska, Washington, Oregon, California

Photo: stock xchng

he coastal temperate rainfor- making these among the most inten- thousands of fjords cut deep into steep ests of the Pacific Northwest sively managed forests in the world. coastal mountains, and the forest mixes epitomize the dynamic with cliffs, streams, and glaciers right Tinterplay between the conservation of The heart and soul of the Pacific down to the edge of the sea. In north- natural resources and the sustainability Northwest is old-growth conifer forest. western California, massive redwood of timber harvest. From Kodiak Island, A walk through an old-growth rainfor- trees reach into the low clouds and Alaska to the fog-enshrouded redwood est is like a step back in time. Trees coastal fog to create an ethereal, cathe- forests of northwestern California, a over 200 feet tall tower over multi- dral-like setting, and the constant drips mild, maritime climate with stagger- layered canopies and subcanopies, im- of moisture provide the sustenance on ing amounts of rain supports rapid penetrable shrubby understories, and which the trees thrive. vegetation growth including highly forest floors carpeted with the remains productive conifer forests dominated of ancient fallen trees and mats of Birds further the sense of awe that by majestic trees such as Sitka spruce, mosses and ferns. Perhaps the quintes- these forests inspire. Deep in the heart redwood, Douglas fir, western and sential northwest rainforests occur on of an old-growth forest, time stands mountain hemlock, Pacific silver and the Queen Charlotte Islands, known to still when you hear the haunting noble fir, and western red cedar. These their original inhabitants, the Haida, and ventriloquial song of the Varied biologically diverse ecosystems support as “Haida Gwaii” which translates into Thrush, the primordial blast of the more biomass than any other forest “place of wonder,” an appropriate de- Pileated Woodpecker’s call, or the type in the world. The high productiv- scription for the lush forests of spruce, long, echoing song of the Winter Wren ity that results in some of the biggest hemlock, and cedar, some of which from the forest floor. The dawn and trees in the world has also resulted in a are over 1,000 years old. Elsewhere, in dusk forays to the ocean and back by valuable commodity—lumber— the “panhandle” of southeast Alaska, Marbled Murrelets add to the mystery.

Page 8 of 48 However, the beauty and wonder of against economics. After 15 years of these forests are threatened by the research, public rhetoric, accusations, Northwest Rainforest value of trees as a commodity. After and a series of lawsuits, the Northwest European arrival, these highly produc- Forest Plan was completed in 1994 tive forests helped supply the lumber to guide future management of these needs for the growing settlements of forests. the Pacific Northwest. Once rail and boat transportation became estab- Sadly, there is still debate over wheth- lished, this seemingly endless timber er important areas of old-growth for- resource became an important export est should be conserved. Even when that provided not only for the growing there is agreement on this need, the complex issue of sustainable forest population of the United States, but Band-tailed Pigeon: Ashok Khosla also the rest of the world. Decades of management continues to be a chal- exploitation of the timber resource, lenge amidst ever-increasing demands especially in the early years when it timber extraction in old-growth forests for timber. Efforts have been focusing seemed inexhaustible and there was was not sustainable at existing levels. on more selective harvesting and little concern for reforestation, resulted The species that became emblematic of management to retain or accelerate in thriving local economies, especially old-growth and eventually the center old-growth characteristics in younger in the small mountain communities of controversy over the impacts of log- forests, especially on public lands. throughout the region. ging was a moderate-sized, unassuming Some promising results are emerging, owl. The Spotted Owl became the but we are still early in the process in By the 1980s, there was growing focus of an acrimonious debate that an ecosystem that requires at least 200 recognition of the ecological and pitted the conservation community years to reach old-growth status. recreational values of these forests, against the wood products industry, along with an increasing awareness that and more broadly, environmentalism HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT ird conservation in the temperate rainforests of the Pacific forest, but each has unique needs within that forest type. So, the Northwest is primarily about forest management, especially complexities of bird conservation, both among bird species and in development and maintenance of old-growth forest, but relation to other forest management objectives, require considerable B some level of land protection and reserve creation is also forethought and planning at both small and large scales. needed. Large areas of government lands (both managed and To support the avian component of sustainable forest management, unmanaged) and large tracts of single-owner private industrial forest Partners in Flight bird conservation plans provide specifics on what land (intensively managed) dominate the landscape. Consequently, birds need and how forest management affects their populations. the best approach to bird conservation in this habitat type is to ABC has been working with the Pacific Coast Joint Venture and sev- incorporate bird conservation objectives into the plans and policies eral federal agencies to establish biological objectives for forest birds of these larger ownerships. Some examples include retention or cre- and to have those objectives incorporated into the plans, processes, ation of varying amounts of large dead trees for Pileated Woodpecker policies, and projects of various partners. Further guidance for and Vaux’s Swift, and maintaining a mosaic of age classes of forest management, specifically of young forests, will be provided in a soon- patches for Northern Goshawk and Band-tailed Pigeon. to-be-completed ABC and U.S. Geological Survey publication on Within the context of forest management, bird conservation is just Breeding Bird Habitat in Young Conifer Rainforests. The implementa- one of many objectives that have to be considered. This balancing tion of the objectives found in the Partners in Flight plans and the of objectives is not only between what is good for birds and the need recommendations in this guide will provide the best opportunities for forest products and services, but also between specific bird con- to ensure that bird populations servation priorities. ABC Green List species such as the Willow Fly- are maintained and can thrive catcher prefer younger forests, but others such as the Hermit Warbler within the context of forest and Spotted Owl need older forests. One of the highest priority birds, management. the Olive-sided Flycatcher, actually finds the most suitable habitat at the juxtaposition of young and old forest. The Townsend’s Warbler, —ABC’s Bob Altman Varied Thrush, and Winter Wren all display a strong affinity for older

Marbled Murrelet: G. Van Vliet/USGS

Page 9 of 48 19 Early Successional Habitats in Eastern Deciduous Forests

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Golden-winged, Kentucky, and Prairie Warblers, Henslow’s Sparrow, Northern Bobwhite Threats: Poor management, forest succession Geographical area: East Coast of U.S., from Maine, south through Georgia

Photo: Mike Parr

he eastern portions of the much more attractive prospect than It has been growing back steadily ever United States are now covered the hardscrabble, depleted soils of the since. Even though Americans seem by more forest habitat than East. Industrialization and the associ- to be paving over the country as fast Tthey have been in two centuries. That ated improvements in transportation as they can, the spread and growth forest is also older than it has been meant that fewer and fewer Easterners of forested habitat has, until recently, since American independence. It remained farmers. Farm abandon- outpaced the proliferation of parking would be understandable to assume ment was a common phenomenon lots, highways, and suburbs. that this would please bird conserva- throughout the first half of the 1900s. tionists, and to a large extent it does. Abandoned farms went through What this has meant for birds is a sub- But further examination reveals just normal phases of succession, gradually ject for speculation. At the height of how complex the issue of reforestation growing back into deciduous forests. farming in the East, forest birds likely is when it comes to birds. became rare, and early successional As the era of unregulated timber birds became quite common relative Eastern forests were felled as European harvest drew to a close, virtually all to their abundance prior to European settlers moved from east to west in the remaining mature forest had been cut settlement. These early successional 18th and early 19th Centuries. Most down. These vast clearings responded species include the Prairie Warbler, were cleared and kept clear for agricul- much as did abandoned farms, eventu- Yellow-breasted Chat, Brown Thrash- tural production to provide for local ally growing back as forest. er, and Blue Grosbeak. The quantity communities that had to be essentially of habitat available for these birds self-sufficient. By the beginning of Around 1900, the eastern half of the declined steadily throughout the 20th the 20th Century, however, the more United States was as cleared of trees Century as the forests re-grew. This fertile soil of the Great Plains were a as it had been since the last Ice Age. gradual decline was well underway

Page 10 of 48 when the Breeding Bird Survey began However, there are some early suc- in 1966. Data from the Survey show cessional species that are clearly in Early Successional Habitats that, by and large, early successional trouble. Notable among them is the birds in the East continue on steady Golden-winged Warbler. This species and significant downward trends. may have relied on disturbances by in Eastern Deciduous Forests beavers or other forces that are simply Conservationists have had to consider not as common today. This warbler is what this habitat ‘reversion’ means undergoing a steep decline in the east- and how we should respond. After all, ern and southern part of its range; and Yellow-breasted Chat: Powdermill Research Station what is occurring is merely a return to is now listed on the ABC Green List as the conditions that existed in 1700. a species of Highest Continental Con- not yet abundant in this young forest, Most of the early successional species, cern. Another example is the Northern and gap-loving birds such as Hooded albeit in decline, are still relatively Bobwhite. This popular game bird is and Kentucky Warblers suffer as a common. Perhaps there is no need to not nearly as rare as the Golden-wing, result. Selectively cutting down more maintain early successional habitat, but its decline has been precipitous. trees within forests might improve instead allowing a return to more Much work is still required to build its conditions in this interim period. mature natural conditions. population back up to desired levels. Bird communities do best under the Another issue facing eastern forests is complex set of ecological conditions that the habitat is still relatively young in which they evolved. Altering those and the trees are of a relatively even conditions inevitably affects bird age. Almost all of these trees started populations. When we attempt to growing between 1900 and 1950, and restore habitat conditions to their as a result, the forests they comprise former state, we must monitor the lack much of the spatial diversity of situation carefully and let the status natural conditions. The gaps that are of bird populations tell us if we have Hooded Warbler: Barth Schorre Warbler: Hooded created when old trees die and fall are done the right thing. HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT oday, the deciduous forests of the Midwest eastward are judging from current and historical range maps, were and are still almost all restricted to mountain and hillsides. This is because widely distributed across the Midwest and East. Habitats left from forests now remain only on terrain where steep slopes and strip mining and modern silvicultural practices support these species thin soils cannot be farmed, grazed, or built upon. Even within today, though they lack the biological diversity that the native grass- T shrub communities support. a largely forested landscape, the flatter areas are mostly planted with non-native grasses or row crops, or have become suburban lawns. In May and June this year, I visited three sites that are the subject Before we tamed those flatter lands they consisted not of forests, but of management efforts to restore native grassland and grass-shrub mostly of prairies, thickets and tangles, or grassy areas with scat- communities. Two of the sites are managed by the Missouri Depart- tered trees. This is probably because they were subjected to regular ment of Conservation and the third is at Fort Campbell, a military wild fires that prevented trees from growing. Prior to European base on the Kentucky-Tennessee border in settlement, fires were ignited both by lightning and Native Americans, a region formerly known as the Kentucky and spread more easily across flatter expanses and onto south- and Barrens. The greatest opportunities to bring west-facing hillsides dried by exposure to sun and wind. Some of back those habitat types at the scale needed those grass and grass-shrub habitat types occurred in relatively to adequately support populations of some of our small patches, but, in some landscapes, they spread over hundreds, highest priority bird species are on public lands, but sometimes thousands of acres. without widespread public support for the kinds of management needed to restore native grass-shrub Those fire-modified areas are now extremely rare, and the birds habitats, those birds, and biodiversity in general, associated with them, such as the Henslow’s Sparrow, Northern will flounder rather than flourish. Bobwhite, and Prairie, Golden-winged, and Blue-winged Warblers, have declined as well. Most of these are not forest birds per se, but —ABC’s Jane Fitzgerald

Northern Bobwhite: Bill Hubick

Page 11 of 48 18 Oak Savannah

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Oak Titmouse, Yellow-billed Magpie, Band-tailed Pigeon, Lewis’s Woodpecker Threats: Residential development, introduced disease, fire suppression Geographical area: Washington, Oregon, California

Photo: Bob Altman

olling hills of waist-high prairies and denser woodlands. In Cal- increased survivorship among birds grasses, interspersed with ifornia, small groves and isolated trees such as Acorn Woodpecker, Band- stately oaks, form the quint- of valley oak, blue oak, or interior live tailed Pigeon, Lewis’s Woodpecker, Ressential image of West Coast interior oak are sporadically scattered across Oak Titmouse, and Wild Turkey. valley slopes. But this habitat is now the landscape. Further north, the larg- Western Scrub-Jay and Yellow-billed much less common than it was a mere est patches of oak savannah and the Magpie cache thousands of acorns in fifty years ago. largest trees occur in Oregon, where the ground each year, thus facilitating Oregon white oak predominates. At regeneration of oak trees because most Given room to grow, savannah oaks the northern end of the range, in of these acorns will remain unre- develop stout trunks and massive, Washington and on Vancouver Island, trieved and germinate. gnarly lateral branches beneath an British Columbia, Oregon white oak umbrella of dense foliage. Many of trees occur within a mosaic of prairie Old, large oak savannah trees are the lower branches on bigger trees grasses and forbs in gravelly soils, prone to losing their limbs, resulting reach out until their own weight forming a scrub-like habitat on rocky in trees that are a mosaic of living and forces them downward so the tips of south and west facing slopes. dead branches with natural cavities. their lobed leaves touch the ground. Over half of the bird species that have Savannah oaks are also among the Oak habitats support some of the a strong association with oak trees most aesthetically appealing trees, highest bird species richness in North are cavity nesters. Oak trees are also a both in full foliage and in their more America, in part because their acorns common host for mistletoe, which is austere, leafless form. are a high quality food source. In peak an important food source for Western years, acorn abundance can trigger Bluebirds and other species. Oak savannahs occurred historically increased reproduction, resulting in as transitional habitat between native

Page 12 of 48 Historically, oak savannah was a Yet oak savannah is an imperiled habi- At the forefront of issues facing oak fire-dependent system. Frequent, low tat not only because of loss to develop- savannah habitats is the fact that ap- intensity fires, mostly ignited by Na- ment, but because of the lack of young proximately 90% of it is on private tive Americans, served to thin out the oaks to replace the elder statesmen lands. This presents both a challenge understory of shrubs and small trees. in the stands that remain. As people and an opportunity. The challenge is As human populations grew, fire sup- began to occupy these areas, they the difficulty of large-scale conserva- pression became the norm, and other suppressed the fires that maintained tion efforts in a patchy habitat within tree species, especially Douglas fir, the open herbaceous understory, extensively fragmented land owner- began to establish themselves and out- and minimized the ability of other ships. On the opportunity side, the compete the oaks, eventually dominat- trees and shrubs to colonize the site. issue is “in the backyards” of a high ing the landscape and converting it to This, along with other factors such as percentage of the human population. a closed-canopy forest. overgrazing, and the often accompany- The resulting visibility and concern ing invasion of non-native grasses, can translate into a significant move- Oaks occur where people want to live. contributes to the lack of regeneration ment to educate and act upon the Early Europeans settled and grazed of oak savannah. range of conservation needs, from their livestock in and around oak protection to policy to management. savannah. As the human population The newest threat to oak habitats, The commitment and efforts of private expanded, the oaks were in the way. particularly in California, is Sudden landowners will ultimately determine Now the only legacy of these oaks is in Oak Death Syndrome. The fungal-like the fate of oak savannah habitats and the names of the towns that replaced pathogen that causes it, Phytophthora, the birds associated with them. them—Oakland, Thousand Oaks, introduced from Europe via the do- Oakville. Over one-third of the oak mestic plant trade, has now reached habitat that existed at the time of set- epidemic proportions, with no known tlement has been lost, and oak savan- means of prevention. Some of the nah has taken a particularly hard hit in white oaks such as valley, blue, and some places, with up to 90% gone in Oregon oak have yet to be infected, so the Puget Lowlands of Washington. the disease may yet prove to be limited in scope. Yellow-billed Magpie: Glen Tepke Glen Magpie: Yellow-billed HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT fforts to conserve oak savannah habitats have been a focus habitats in Washington and Guatemala; habitat management and of numerous agencies and organizations over the past ten restoration activities on hundreds of acres in British Columbia, years. ABC is leading the effort through several Oaks and Washington, and Oregon; bird monitoring and research in vineyards in E Birds (or Quercus and Aves) projects that have engaged California to assess species use and distribution; and development of more than 40 partners in Canada, the United States, Mexico, and landowner guides for management of oaks for birds in vineyards. An Central America. With funding primarily through the Neotropical Mi- “Alliance” of 12 signatories, composed of agencies and NGOs from gratory Bird Conservation Act and the Commission for Environmental six countries, has been formed for the protection of Central American Cooperation, these projects have generated over $500,000 towards oak habitats and their associated birds. the primary conservation components of protection, Perhaps the most unique and exciting part of the program is in its research and monitoring, habitat management, formative stages—reintroducing extirpated species to parts of their and education and outreach. ABC has also as- former range. ABC, in cooperation with Ecostudies Institute and sev- sisted other partners in raising over $1 million eral other partners, is beginning to reintroduce the Western Bluebird dollars for the conservation of oak savan- to Vancouver Island, British Columbia and the San Juan Islands, nah habitats through other funding sources, Washington, and is looking at the feasibility of doing the same for the particularly the private lands programs of White-breasted Nuthatch in the lowlands of Washington between the several federal and state agencies. Cascades and the coastal ranges. The scope of activities in the Quercus and Aves projects is extensive. Some examples include —ABC’s Bob Altman acquisitions of over 1,000 acres of oak

Oak Titmouse: Ashok Khosla

Page 13 of 48 17 Ponderosa Pine

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Flammulated Owl, Williamson’s Sapsucker, Lewis’s and White-headed Woodpeckers Threats: Fire suppression, timber harvesting Geographical area: British Columbia, Alberta, Alaska, Washington, Oregon, California, Montana, Idaho

Photo: Dan Casey

istorically, much of the lower peckers (well before Meriweather persist, the scars from bark removal by elevation landscapes of the Lewis first described them). Scientists tribes can still be seen. Rocky Mountain West were estimate that as recently as 100 years Hdominated by dry forests of ponderosa ago, 70% of the acreage of ponderosa Nowadays, old growth ponderosa pine pine and Douglas fir, interspersed with pine in the West existed as old-growth is a rare commodity. As settlers moved extensive grassland and sagebrush in stands, with well-spaced, large trees, across the West, pines were cleared for the valley bottoms. These habitats large snags, and patchy understory. lumber and to make way for cattle and supported herds of elk and bird species crops. More recently, changes in the such as Dusky Grouse and Red Cross- One of the most stately and pictur- patterns of fire, and active fire suppres- bill. Native American tribes also made esque tree species in western North sion, have had an additional influence use of the habitat for their winter America, the ponderosa pine can live on the condition and distribution of camps. Prior to European settlement, hundreds of years, thanks in part to the ponderosa pine habitat. Years of fire low-intensity fires occurred frequently fire-proofing effects of its thick bark. suppression are also a concern for the in these habitat types. Some were due Beneath this armor lies a tender cambi- remaining stands of mature ponderosa to natural causes, but native tribes also um layer that emanates a sweet vanilla- pine. Douglas firs in the understory used fire to drive small game out into butterscotch odor on warm summer of these stands have thrived in the the open so they could be more easily days. These trees were called “medicine absence of fire, making a more con- hunted. These fires created stands of trees” by some Native American tribes, tinuous canopy and providing the large trees with open understories; the who used the cambium and sap for “ladder fuels” that can draw the flames occasional death of a large pine pro- food, flavoring, adhesive, as well as from ground fires up into the canopy vided nesting snags for Lewis’s Wood- medicinal purposes. In many areas of of the larger trees. When fires enter the west where old-growth pine stands these stands now, the big trees can no

Page 14 of 48 longer survive. As little as 5% of the White-breasted Nuthatch, and ponderosa pine forests in the West are Williamson’s Sapsucker are all be- currently in the open, mature condi- lieved to have declined due to changes tion so prevalent 100 years ago. What in habitat structure. Sooty and Dusky effect has this had on birds? Grouse, dependent on the open, forb- dominated hillsides of mature pine, Species closely associated with older have declined dramatically. forests and snags such as the Lewis’s Woodpecker, Flammulated Owl, In many areas, efforts are underway on both public and private lands to open up existing stands of ponderosa pine and Douglas fir by removing the dense understory of young trees and reintroducing low intensity fire

to maintain stands with more widely- Bill Hubick Nuthatch: White-breasted spaced mature trees. Incentives are being provided to landowners to programs and stewardship guidelines reduce the risk of fire in populated are available to landowners through areas by restoring stands to open ABC, the National Forest system, conditions. While doing so, manag- state forestry programs, and others. ers have the opportunity to provide With a concerted effort, we may once habitat for declining bird species, but again see the majesty and diversity this will require incorporating some of old growth ponderosa pine stands of the elements these species require throughout the West. (see below), such as pockets of thick shrubs and seedlings, and large snags

Williamson's Sapsucker: Peter LaTourrette Peter Williamson's Sapsucker: for nesting. Landowner assistance

HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT

he Flammulated Owl is one of a handful of ABC has been working with state and regional birds identified as a primary focal species Partners in Flight groups and the Intermountain for ponderosa pine conservation and resto- West Joint Venture to develop and refine habitat T ration efforts in the West. This tiny, elusive and population objectives for priority species on owl inhabits montane pine and aspen forests in more than 26 million acres of this habitat in 11 western North America and Mexico. A true neo- western states. At the local and regional level, ABC tropical migrant, it feeds almost entirely on insects, and our partners are identifying specific stands in especially moths and beetles. Flammulated Owls need of enhancement, providing outreach materi- nest primarily in cavities excavated by woodpeck- als and detailed habitat prescription recommenda- ers, two species of which, Lewis’s and White- tions (e.g., snag densities and recruitment) to land headed, also rely heavily on mature ponderosa trusts, and to those agencies, landowners, and pine stands for nesting. All three species consis- loggers working in pine habitats, and are helping tently select habitat that combines open forest to implement more comprehensive monitoring for stands with large trees for nesting and foraging, Flammulated Owls throughout their range. To- scattered clusters of thicker vegetation (shrubs and gether, we are hoping to return to conditions where small trees) for cover, and adjacent openings (e.g., fires are not “catastrophic”, and where “medicine grasslands, sage, and burns) that provide optimum trees” once again dominate the landscape. Flammulated Owl: Brian E. Small/ edge habitat for foraging. www.briansmallphoto.com —ABC’s Dan Casey

Page 15 of 48 16 Bottomland Hardwood Forest

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Swainson’s Warbler, Swallow-tailed Kite, Cerulean Warbler, Ivory-billed Woodpecker (possible) Threats: Agriculture, resource extraction Geographical area: Southern states along the Gulf and Atlantic Coasts

Photo: FWS

ottomland hardwood forest is Historically, the greatest expanse of remained. The plantation system and the essence of the Deep South. bottomland hardwoods lay in the val- the region’s dispersed human popula- Swollen rivers meandering ley of the Mississippi River, but every tion, and the resultant allocation of Bacross the gently sloping Atlantic river from the Neches in Texas to the political power stemmed, at least in Coastal and Gulf Coastal Plains carve Roanoke in North Carolina supported part, from the distribution of the soils broad valleys between pine-covered its share of these trees. This vast area of former bottomland hardwood for- uplands. Melting snow far to the west sustained a diverse fauna: alligators, ests. As everywhere else, the character and north results in spring floods cottonmouths, snapping turtles, black of the ensuing civilization grew out across these valleys, leaving oxbows bears, red wolves, and birds. Birds of the nature of the land on which and swales across a topography in of legend occurred here, from the it evolved. The swamp is not just an which inches of elevation spell the Bachman’s Warbler to the Carolina image of the Deep South—it lies close difference between flooded and merely Parakeet, to that great mystery bird, to its soul. damp. The same floods deposit rich the Ivory-billed Woodpecker. There is topsoil, originally eroded from the no place on earth like the swamps of The highest and driest of the bottoms Rockies and Appalachians. These are the South. were cleared first for cotton. This was swamps, rich and productive. Great the first great wave of habitat loss. The oaks of many species, elms, sweetgum, This habitat was daunting to humans, second came after the Civil War, when and that most emblematic species, but the rich soil underlying it drew Northern timber companies systemati- bald cypress, are festooned with Span- people intent on making a livelihood. cally cleared the swamps of trees. The ish moss, creating a haunting environ- The institution of slavery provided third came recently, after the middle of ment. This is the Gothic architecture the labor to drain these swamps and the 20th Century, when high soybean of the American wilderness. to plant and harvest cotton on what prices drove landowners to clear ever

Page 16 of 48 lower and wetter ground for less and Ever since planning for bird conserva- less reliable agricultural endeavors. By tion began in this type of forest, the the 1980s, over 80% of the Mississippi highest priority birds have been the Valley was cleared, and what forest Swallow-tailed Kite, Swainson’s War- remained tended to be in small frag- bler, and, where it occurs, the Ceru- ments. Human poverty accompanied lean Warbler. The possible rediscovery this ecological ruin, particularly for of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker in the rural African-Americans. The pattern winter of 2004-2005, albeit contro- was repeated in many of the other versial, adds a new conceptual layer river systems of the South. The histori- to conservation planning. Although cal aura of tragedy, emblematic of the it has long been known that distur- region, reached its full essence in the bances, in the form of tornadoes, ruins of bottomland hardwood forests. windstorms, ice storms, and occasion- ally fires, have an enormous impact The bottom had been reached, but Swainson's Warbler: Brian E. Small/ www.briansmallphoto.com on the nature of bottomland hard- fortunately, in the decades that have woods, the apparent need for large, followed, there have been glimmers tions that formerly focused on other dead standing trees by the Ivory-bill of a renaissance. Landowners have systems have come to recognize that suggests that, should it survive, more learned that a forest that can be leased the sheer magnitude and richness of aggressive simulations of the impacts for hunting and sustainably harvested these floodplain forests make them a of these types of disturbances may be for timber brings greater economic truly unique American resource. The warranted for this species, as well as rewards than repeated failures to result has been hundreds of thousands other birds, bats, and bears. produce soybeans. Government of acres of reforestation. agencies and conservation organiza-

HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT

t is an early, damp Louisiana morning, and the sunlight flashes imagination of managers, grant-makers, and through the canopy of young oak and sweetgum trees, occasion- donors, resulting in reforestation of several ally catching the wings of a Downy Woodpecker dancing its way hundred thousand acres of low quality farm Iup a skinny trunk, probing the tree for breakfast grubs. The ham- fields over the past fifteen years. Major donors merings of the woodpecker reverberate through the thin forest, soon include big energy corporations from around disappearing into the heavy morning air. the country that buy land, plant trees, and fund public ownership and management of Though large, this forest pales in comparison to the old, deep and the land thereafter, all to obtain carbon credits dappled swamps of the Mississippi Valley’s pristine bottomland that will become extremely valuable once public hardwood forests. But then there are precious few of those left policy embraces the urgent need to address global after the wholesale felling of the last 200 years that decimated so warming. Much remains to be done, but the bottomland much of this habitat. Yet this emerging woodland is equally a world hardwood forests of the Mississippi Valley—the largest in the away from the soybean monoculture that, until recently, covered the world—are now in better shape than they have been since their nadir same landscape. What is most exciting, though, is how and why as wildlife habitat in the 1980s. Reforestation projects emanating this Louisiana forest came to be. Unlike the Appalachians, where from the habitat plans only brighten the future further. If there really abandoned farmland was simply left to revert to woodland, this forest is an extant population of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers, the creative was planted and will be managed in accordance with goals for priority Jerry Bright Kite: Swallow-tailed groundwork, organizational momentum, and habitat improvement birds established by the Lower Mississippi Joint Venture, a series of that began many years before hope sprung anew in the Big Woods public-private partnerships extending throughout the region. of Arkansas could give this most enigmatic of birds a new lease on Biologists including ABC staff have formulated the needs of key life—a lesson that good conservation design can have positive, if bird species such as the Swainson’s Warbler and Swallow-tailed sometimes unforeseen consequences. Kite into what are perhaps the most sophisticated conservation ­—ABC's David Pashley objectives for any part of the country. The goals have captured the

Page 17 of 48 15 Shortgrass Prairie

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: McCown’s Long- spur, Lesser Prairie-Chicken, Sprague’s Pipit, Baird’s Sparrow, Upland Sandpiper Threats: Agriculture, residential development, fire suppression Geographical area: South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Texas

Photo: Ron E. VanNimwegen/Bioimages

merica’s shortgrass prairie behind this picture were the prairie were significant as grasslands were teeters on the brink of not dogs, bison, elk, and pronghorn that eaten up by the plough and bulldozer. being a prairie at all. Nestled grazed incessantly on the open plains. Today, more than 50% of the former Ain the eastern shadow of the Rockies, Despite its size—some 70 million shortgrass prairie is used for cropland, the area receives, on average, a mere acres—the shortgrass prairie was home with significant acreage also lost to 10-12 inches of rainfall annually, most to a remarkably low diversity of bird suburban sprawl. of the moisture content of the frontal species, with only 30 or so totally or systems having been lost to the moun- mostly reliant on the habitat. As you Before they were wiped out, the graz- tains before it. The maximum rainfall travel to the eastern extreme of this ing effects of the bison were uneven as total for an area to be classified as a region and rainfall increases, shortgrass herds crisscrossed the plains, creating desert is 10 inches per year, and it is gives way to mixed-grass then tallgrass an ever changing patchwork of succes- these few extra inches of rain that cre- prairie, and a higher accompanying sional grassland habitat, ideal for the ate one of the most delicately balanced diversity of birds. varying needs of Long-billed Curlew, habitats in North America. Sprague’s Pipit, Swainson’s Hawk, With such a small percentage of Lark Bunting, Chestnut-collared Sometimes described as the “lost America’s avifauna present, it is easy to Longspur, Upland Sandpiper, and Serengeti of North America”, the re- see why declines in bird populations Cassin’s, Grasshopper, and Baird’s gion was once a broad canvas painted were overlooked for a long time, as Sparrows. Though the shortgrass prai- with ankle-high blue grama and buf- attention was diverted to the diversity rie of today owes much of its contin- falograss, interspersed with wheatgrass of the eastern forests and other higher ued existence to the broad-scale grazing and occasional non-grass species such profile habitats where bird popula- of cattle and sheep, livestock grazing is as yucca and prickly pear. The artists tions were also in trouble. Yet declines far more static than that of the bison,

Page 18 of 48 shortgrass habitat that is preferred by transportation improvements. The the Mountain Plover and McCown’s shortgrass prairie will likely never Longspur. Burrowing Owls use vacant be restored to its pristine state, but burrows for nesting, and Ferruginous conservation efforts are making a dif- Hawks prey on the prairie dogs them- ference in the restoration of some of selves. Without this native mammal, our Serengeti for bison, prairie dogs, these bird species continue to decline. and birds. If focus was lacking before, there now exists an abundance of conservation Grasshopper Sparrow: Bill Hubick initiatives working with local land- producing a paucity of those subtle owners towards clear population and habitat variations. Fire was also once habitat goals. Conservation easements an important part of the delicate habi- pay farmers and ranchers to set aside tat equation, and the intensive grazing land for wildlife rather than crops, of cattle now leaves little fuel for the and under the Endangered Species fires to take hold. Where the potential Act, Safe Harbor Agreements provide remains, fires are suppressed, changing a voluntary incentive for landown- the ecology still further. ers to protect the 55 vertebrate and plant species listed as Endangered or Suburban expansion around cities Threatened that inhabit the shortgrass such as Denver continues to destroy prairie. Colorado’s Shortgrass Prairie McCown's Longspur: Bill Schmoker thousands of acres of remaining Initiative is a cooperative venture prairie each year. Housing construc- between The Nature Conservancy and tion continues to threaten prairie dog federal and state agencies, working colonies, which have declined by as with local communities and landown- much as 98% in the past century due ers to preserve tens of thousands of to bulldozing, poisoning, and shoot- acres of habitat in eastern Colorado to ing. Prairie dogs create the shortest of offset losses caused by impending HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT or the past seven years, Prairie Partners, a program of the gists to locate and mark over 200 plover nests to Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory, with support from a broad help landowners avoid them during cultivation base of federal, state, and non-governmental institutions, has activities. To date, more than 50 workshops have F developed long-term solutions for bird conservation by engag- been held throughout the Great Plains, reaching ing private landowners in conservation activities, and by building part- 2,500 landowners and resource professionals. nerships between landowners and funding agencies. The program Prairie Partners has organized and implemented the has been successful because it encourages voluntary, cooperative fabrication of 1,000 stock tank ladders, free of charge partnerships that are win-win solutions for landowners and wildlife. to landowners. Levels of involvement in the program by landowners vary widely, From 2003–2006, Prairie Partners initiated 35 but may include attending workshops, reading outreach materials to habitat enhancement projects in five states, learn more about the wildlife on their lands, using stock tank ladders affecting 60,000 acres of short grass and mixed (designed to reduce wildlife drowning deaths), participating in the grass prairie and associated wetlands. Projects Mountain Plover Nest Conservation Program, or conducting habitat implemented include playa lake restoration, riparian restoration projects. and upland grazing management, and the inter-seeding The Mountain Plover project is a voluntary, non-regulatory effort to of Conservation Reserve Program lands with a variety of forbs for

conserve the species in Colorado and Nebraska. In 2006 alone, Lesser Prairie-Chickens. Ashok Khosla Hawk: Ferruginous landowners enrolled 267,000 acres in the program, permitting biolo- ­—Tammy VerCauteren, Prairie Partners

Page 19 of 48 14 Chaparral

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Wrentit, Allen's Hummingbird, “Bell’s” Sage Sparrow, California Gnatcatcher, Island Scrub-Jay, California Thrasher Threats: Development, invasive species, fragmentation Geographical area: Southern California, Mexico

Photo: Ron Reznick, www.digital-images.net

he giant HOLLYWOOD sign and southern tips of Africa, or the area most coast of California, supports the that overlooks Los Angeles with which we are currently concerned Coastal California Gnatcatcher, which is set in chaparral, and spells —southern California, extending is now listed under the Endangered Tout part of the big problem for this into Baja California—the systems Species Act. Riparian zones that cut habitat—it is being consumed by one are dominated by woody shrubs with through chaparral support oaks and of the largest metropolitan areas in the drought-resistant leaves and winter sycamores, with additional bird species country. growing seasons that are adapted to such as the Pacific-slope Flycatcher relatively frequent fires. Much chapar- and Nuttall’s Woodpecker. Chaparral (referred to outside of ral habitat lies atop unconsolidated the Americas as Mediterranean), is a steep slopes, resulting in a tendency habitat type that occurs on temperate for landslides to occur after combina- western coasts of continents where tions of fire and rain. there are winter rains, but little or no precipitation in spring, summer, Birds characteristic of California’s and fall. Although the plant species chaparral include the Wrentit, Califor- vary greatly from place to place, the nia Thrasher, Allen’s Hummingbird, vegetative structure is always very Sage Sparrow, and Golden-crowned similar. Whether in Spain, Chile, Sparrow. Coastal sage scrub, a similar southwestern Australia, the northern habitat that occurs along the southern-

Island Scrub-Jay: Glen Tepke

Page 20 of 48 While the northernmost chaparral Many of the broken fragments of islands have suffered the fate of islands habitat, including the Big Sur area, habitat that remain are too small to everywhere—feral herbivores such as is relatively intact and protected, support high priority birds. goats, sheep, and even bison, and a the southern portions now support whole host of invasive, exotic plants. 56% of the human population of Chaparral is also dominant on Aggressive invasive species removal California, the most populous state in California’s Channel Islands, home to programs over recent years have begun the nation. Direct and permanent loss the Island Scrub-Jay (an endemic spe- to turn the tide against these forces, of habitat to residential development cies found on Santa Cruz Island), and though, and conditions for these rare has greatly reduced habitat available several endemic subspecies, including birds are starting to improve. for birds, particularly from the Los the Loggerhead Shrike and Sage Spar- Angeles area south through San Diego. row of San Clemente Island. These

Allen’s Hummingbird: Glen Tepke California Thrasher: Bill Hubick Wrentit: Ashok Khosla

HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT

arine Corps Base Camp Pendleton represents one of habitats near the vireo’s riparian stronghold along the Santa Magarita the largest contiguous blocks of coastal sage scrub in River. But perhaps the biggest boost for this habitat is the base’s southern California. The federally-listed Coastal California comprehensive fire management plan. An annual controlled burn and Gnatcatcher is a common resident, such that approxi- an enhanced network of fire- and fuel-breaks help control the spread Mmately 18% of the species’ population in San Diego County has been of wildfires and minimize their potential adverse recorded on the base. A number of priority subspecies identified by impacts to people, while maximizing the Partners in Flight also thrive here: Bells’ Sage Sparrow, Southern benefit to birds. After a fire, either Sage Sparrow: Ashok Khosla Sage Sparrow: California Rufous-crowned Sparrow, and Coastal Cactus Wren, all planned or unplanned, special found here, are defined by the state as being of “Special Concern.” efforts are made to reduce erosion and prevent invasive plants and Bird and habitat man- weeds from taking hold in areas occu- agement on Camp pied by bird species of concern. Coastal Pendleton directly sage shrub habitat continues to thrive on and indirectly benefits Camp Pendleton, providing a safe haven for these species. A cowbird some of the region’s highest priority species. trapping program for the Least Bell’s Vireo has also ­—Chris Eberly, Department of Defense— helped increase productivity Partners In Flight for the gnatcatcher and other species that nest in shrubland

California Gnatcatcher: Scott Streit/www.bird-friends.com

Page 21 of 48 13 Florida Wetlands

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Mangrove Cuckoo, White-crowned Pigeon, Black- whiskered Vireo, Mottled Duck, Short- tailed Hawk, Snail Kite, Wood Stork Threats: Development, agriculture, drainage and channelization projects Geographical area: Florida

Photo: Maurice J. Kaurmann/Bioimages

lorida’s landscape is the result of and build up the shoreline. These Everglades, the “river of grass” flowing millions of years of accumulat- saltwater swamps create a network slowly south from Lake Okeechobee ed fossils, shells, and sediments, of life-sustaining nurseries for fish, to Florida Bay. These watery sawgrass Fdeposited layer upon layer by the shrimp, and other crustaceans. Man- plains provide habitat for species such warm, shallow sea that once covered groves host colonies of White Ibis as the Snail Kite, Short-tailed Hawk, most of the state. The land that even- and Brown Pelican, while Mangrove Limpkin, and the federally-listed tually emerged from these prehistoric Cuckoos, White-crowned Pigeons, Cape Sable Seaside Sparrow. waters was an extensive limestone pla- and Black-whiskered Vireos skulk teau, thousands of feet thick in places. through the thick foliage. Shadowy, moss-draped swamps of This limestone is extremely porous, cypress and tupelo, such as Big allowing the area’s abundant rainfall Florida wetlands also include salt Cypress National Preserve and Cork- to penetrate deep down to extensive marsh and sandy shores which host a screw Swamp, shelter White Ibis, aquifers, underground rivers, springs, multitude of resident and migratory Wood Stork, and a wide variety of and caves. bird species including Snowy, Piping, and Wilson’s Plovers, and the en- Florida’s geology combined with its demic Florida subspecies of Mottled low elevation has made it a state rich Duck. Many species of shorebirds, in wetland habitats. The mangrove such as Snowy Plover, and ducks, thickets along the southern coasts, such as Green-winged Teal, winter supported by tangles of specialized in Florida. “prop” or “brace” roots that trap and hold sediment and soil, help stabilize Freshwater prairies and sloughs are exemplified by the world-famous

Snowy Egret: Ashok Khosla

Page 22 of 48 resident and migratory bird species, than 126,000 acres, many of them as well as Florida panther, river otter, wetlands. Recent efforts at wetland black bear, and a unique diversity of restoration include the Comprehen- orchids, bromeliads, and other plants. sive Everglades Restoration Plan, a collaboration between the U.S. Army European settlers considered Florida’s Corps of Engineers and the South wetlands breeding grounds for Florida Water Management District mosquitoes, alligators, and noxious to restore and preserve south Florida’s diseases. These “worthless” lands have natural ecosystems, enhance water since been filled, bulldozed, drained, supplies, and ensure continuing flood and deforested to create agricultural fields, golf courses, and land for resi- dential development. Engineering projects such as roads and irrigation Mangrove Cuckoo: Gerald Singer channels choked off the flow of fresh water from Lake Okeechobee through migrate from other states to Florida the Everglades, drying out many wet- at substantial rates, drawn by jobs, lands and, ironically, preventing the sunshine, and relatively affordable real recharging of underground aquifers estate. According to state demograph- which supply so much of the state’s ic estimates, Florida’s population has fresh water. already exceeded 18 million, and will By the time Florida was granted top 19 million by 2010. statehood in 1845, over half of its Fortunately, people have begun to ap- wetlands—over ten million acres, preciate the value of Florida’s natural more than any other state in the lands, including its wetlands. In ad- country—had been destroyed. Popu- dition to sheltering many of Florida’s Wood Stork: Bill Hubick lations of wading birds and other threatened and endangered animals, species reliant on wetland ecosystems wetlands contribute to higher water plummeted. quality by filtering out agricultural Agricultural pesticides and fertilizers and industrial pollutants, and help continue to degrade water quality conserve fresh water by containing throughout Florida, and the state’s floodwater and diverting it to under- burgeoning human population ground rivers and aquifers. In this demands ever-increasing amounts state, where major hurricanes occur of water, putting wetlands under on an annual basis, wetlands act as further strain. People continue to important buffers, stabilizing shore- lines and protecting land from storm surges and flooding. Wetlands have great economic value: birders, fisher- men, hunters, campers, and boaters

bring substantial tourism revenue to Limpkin: Laura Erickson/Binoculars.com the state. The Everglades alone attract more than a million visitors each year. control. Many other wetland restora- tion projects are ongoing throughout Federal, state, and local governments, the state, all with common goals: res- as well as private advocacy groups, toration of this much-abused habitat have begun to take action to preserve and protection of the wetlands that and revitalize Florida’s wetlands. still exist; continued acquisition of Legislation such as Florida Forever, lands and/or conservation easements, the world’s largest conservation land and continued water resource devel- purchase program, has helped the opment and supply. public and state to protect more

Short-tailed Hawk: Ashok Khosla

Page 23 of 48 12 Habitats of California’s Central Valley

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Tricolored Blackbird, Yellow-billed Magpie, Nuttall’s Woodpecker, Swainson’s Hawk Threats: Development, agriculture, pesticides Geographical area: California

Photo: stock.xchng

orty-two million years ago, Before the wagon trains of the 1800s today America’s market garden—an more than 100 million years and the railroad trains of the Indus- agricultural Goliath that is respon- after the formation of the Sierra trial Era brought millions of settlers sible for growing one-quarter of all FNevada Mountains, much of western westward, the region was one of the the food this country consumes. California lay beneath the ocean’s most ecologically diverse, rich, and surface. Around that time, another bountiful in North America. Vast To make way for the new frontier, series of massive seismic events rent populations of waterfowl wintered wetlands were reduced from four the Earth’s crust and created the in the abundant freshwater marshes; million acres to fewer than 300,000. California Coastal Range. Between migratory songbirds converged on Many of those that remain are heavily the two sets of mountains, as the riparian woodlands of willow, western degraded and often managed for water inland sea slowly retreated, a large, flat sycamore, box elder, cottonwood, and impoundments, or runoff and efflu- alluvial plain, some 430 miles long oak to breed; shorebirds made exten- ent storage. Nearly 90% of riparian and 40 to 60 miles wide, was formed. sive use of the unique vernal pool ecol- habitats were decimated to make way The new topography, combined with ogy; and grassland birds abounded in for cows and combines. An estimated a temperate climate, gave rise to a perennial bunchgrass ecosystems that two-thirds (4,300 square miles or diverse array of ecosystems, including included desert grasslands, prairies, 2.8 million acres) of the vernal pools grasslands, riparian woodlands, and and oak-grass savannahs. were destroyed, the remaining third freshwater marshes, with vernal pools restricted to higher terraces. Only ­—seasonally flooded hollows—scat- It was the very productivity of the 26% of the land ended up in federal tered like ephemeral oases throughout region, however, that resulted in a ownership, compared with 49% in the the landscape. rapid and devastating conversion rest of the state. of the landscape to become what is

Page 24 of 48 It is not simply habitat loss that has such as Northern Pintail and Green- impacted birds and other wildlife of winged Teal. Protected vernal pools, the region. Such intensive farming such as Merced and San Luis National comes at a heavy cost that is not al- Wildlife Refuges, harbor islands of na- ways reflected in the cheap price of the tive grasses for the Loggerhead Shrike, food it produces. One-third of all the Savannah Sparrow, and the ABC pesticides applied in the United States Green Listed Tricolored Blackbird are liberally spread over the Central (which, along with the Yellow-billed Valley, leading to both lethal and sub- Magpie, is largely endemic to the val- lethal effects that can impact entire ley) amidst the sea of farmland. The bird populations. Water use is on such Cosumnes River Preserve, owned by a scale that many aquifers have been The Nature Conservancy, protects one “overdrafted”—used to the point that of the best remaining examples of val- they have permanently lost much of ley oak riparian woodlands, maintain- their capacity. Introduced grasses now ing healthy populations of Swainson’s dominate grassland habitats, and giant Hawk and Nuttall’s Woodpecker. reed (Arundo), brought in for erosion control, is now pervasive throughout Many of the threats that have plagued the Central Valley for decades con- riparian landscapes, along with other Loggerhead Shrike: Glen Tepke exotic invasives such as yellow starthis- tinue today. Deforestation is still tle, broom, and knapweed. More than stealing habitat corridors away from nine and a half million people call birds such as migratory warblers and the region home, with climbing real Yellow-billed Cuckoos, which rely on estate prices on the coast driving a new contiguous riparian woodlands. Chan- influx of people to the valley over the nelization and flood-control projects, last decade. salinization, toxic runoff, and erosion are ever-present threats to rivers and The remaining blocks of natural their associated habitats. Yet there are habitat are fragmented and isolated, bright spots. New state standards for with only small patches of relatively drinking water may help limit pesticide undisturbed native flora remaining, use in the region; the U.S. Fish and though the foothill areas are more Wildlife Service has released a Recovery intact than the valley floor. Yet the Plan for the myriad species dependent Green-winged Teal: Ashok Khosla Central Valley is still vital for birds, upon vernal pools in California and particularly Pacific Flyway waterfowl southern Oregon; and the Riparian Habitat Joint Venture, established in 1994, has produced the Riparian Bird Conservation Plan to guide conserva- tion policy and action on behalf of riparian habitats and California’s land- birds. The Central Valley Joint Venture has protected more than 55,000 acres of wetlands through the purchase or donation of land title and conserva- tion easements, and is enhancing more than 50,000 acres of wetland every year. Nuttall’s Woodpecker: Ashok Khosla

Tricolored Blackbird: Ashok Khosla

Page 25 of 48 11 Great Plains Wetlands

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: American Avocet, Long-billed Curlew, Marbled Godwit, Yellow Rail, Le Conte’s Sparrow Threats: Sedimentation, agricultural development Geographical area: Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas Photo: FWS

he Great Plains Region is of the wetland that holds water) aver- America’s heartland—the ages 1,300 feet across, after which the “Breadbasket of the World.” land slopes up over a quarter of a mile TThis status has come at the expense to a ridge that separates it from the of wildlife. Populations of the great neighboring basin. Millions of acres mammals are gone or badly depleted. are covered this way. Birds are still in decline. Potholes occur in areas from which Thousands upon thousands of depres- Pleistocene glaciers retreated 10- Northern Pintail: FWS sional wetlands of the Great Plains— 15,000 years ago. The current course termed “potholes” in the northern of the Missouri River through Plains, and “playas” in the south—are Montana and the Dakotas marks the among the most prolific breeding furthest extent of those glaciers, and grounds for birds in the world. These potholes lie to the north and east of small closed basins may be perma- that line. Most remarkable are the nently inundated or underwater only Missouri and Prairie Coteaus, glacial periodically. moraines marking deposits of vast amounts of material pushed into place When dry, the landscape appears flat by the ice. The rolling topography of LEFT: Horned Grebe: Donna Dewhurst/FWS RIGHT: Le Conte’s Sparrow: Laura Erickson, to the naked eye, but actually dips a the coteaus results in an incredible Binoculars.com mere (but critical) few inches to each abundance of potholes—and great wetland. Each central basin (the part habitat for birds.

Page 26 of 48 The Prairie Potholes are rightfully than 30 acres in size. Playas are impor- Fortunately, the system of Joint Ven- recognized as North America’s “Duck tant for many breeding birds, but they tures (JVs), public-private partnerships Great Plains Wetlands Factory” and are also key for the are of critical value for many ducks initially designed for waterfowl conser- reproductive success of many grebes, and shorebirds during migration and vation, but now dedicated to the well- rails, gulls, terns, and shorebirds. in winter. being of all birds, has been especially Drier swales are also home to many of successful in the Great Plains. The the world’s Le Conte’s Sparrows and Great Plains wetlands have been Prairie Potholes JV has protected huge Sedge Wrens. besieged by all manner of human areas of wetland-grassland complexes. assaults. The most common has been The Rainwater Basin JV in south- Playas occur farther to the south, drainage, as land has been converted central Nebraska has restored many across the High Plains from Nebraska to agricultural production. Another wetlands of enormous importance to to the panhandle of Texas. The land prevalent threat to playas is sedimenta- migrating waterfowl, shorebirds, and here is flatter than in the Dakotas, tion. The ridges between the playas cranes within a heavily converted ag- and playas are flat central portions are ploughed for agriculture, and over ricultural landscape. The Playa Lakes of closed basins that drain internally time, soil erodes and fills in the basins JV is taking innovative approaches to and flood periodically. Nearly 90% of to the point that they can no longer wetland conservation. these ephemeral wetlands are smaller hold water.

HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT

f you are a farmer in the Southern High Plains, you may not care playas contributed to their bottom line, perhaps more would be willing much about wildlife, but you certainly care about water. Working to conserve them. And, if more playas are conserved, birds and other a landscape facing persistent drought, with little surface water or wildlife will ultimately benefit. rainfall, farmers must eke out their existence from the one source The connection to groundwater aside, simply making producers Iof water big enough to quench their fields—the Ogallala Aquifer. The aware that playas exist is a key strategy. The JV is getting the word Ogallala is a 174,000 square mile groundwater formation that spans out on playas through its weekly radio program “Playa Country”, portions of eight states: Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, which airs on High Plains Public Radio, and through a new film en- Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, and Wyoming. It is the main source titled “The Playas—Reflections of Life on the Plains.” Under the 2004 of water for the region, sustaining the livelihood of industries, cities, USDA Farm Bill, the Wetlands Restoration Non Floodplain Initiative, and most notably, agriculture. But the Ogallala’s water table has largely brought about by PLJV partners, reimburses landowners for been steadily declining since the advent of modern irrigation in the their efforts to restore playa hydrology and establish grass buffers 1940s. around them. It also provides an annual rental payment from the The water crisis has captured the attention of farmers, ranchers, federal government for 10-15 years. resource managers and politicians across the plains. But many of Even the JV’s research priorities are focused on how playa buffers these groups do not understand the crucial role played by playas in filter soil and contaminants from surface water. Currently, the JV maintaining the Ogallala’s water quantity and quality. Playas are the is facilitating the development of research projects to find the best primary, and possibly exclusive, source of recharge for the Ogallala. possible buffer prescriptions for playas. Thus, when more landown- Playas filter surface water and runoff before it gets to the Ogallala, ers begin to realize the value of playas and start increasing their keeping groundwater contaminant-free. enrollment in the federal Conservation Reserve Program (and similar The Playa Lakes Joint Venture programs that set aside land to enhance wildlife habitat), the buffer (PLJV) focuses much of its out- prescriptions used will be backed by the best possible science. reach and conservation efforts In the PLJV region, and most everywhere, bird conservation cannot on the link between playas be achieved by only touting what we as birders think is important, and the Ogallala. but also by walking in the shoes of our constituents, understanding Water is what is important to them, and tying it all together. In a landscape simply a more approach to conservation, elements such as wildlife and water (and compelling hook than economics, politics, and human dimensions) can’t really be separat- wildlife when it comes to reaching the ed. Out here, what is good for the farmer comes first, and fortunately public, especially private landowners, who what is good for farmers is also good for birds. own more than 90% of the landscape. If more farmers and ranchers understood that —Debbie Slobe, PLJV Communications Team Leader

American Avocet: Ashok Khosla Page 27 of 48 10 Longleaf Pine

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Red-cockaded Woodpecker, Bachman’s Sparrow, Brown-headed Nuthatch, Northern Bobwhite Threats:Deforestation, fire suppres- sion, conversion to other pine forest types Geographical area: Southern coastal plain, from Texas to Virginia

Photo: Lisa Kelly/BioImages

xtending from Texas to Vir- pure longleaf pine with very little else, ginia, longleaf pine was once even in the mid-canopy. The ground the dominant ecosystem of cover is another story. Hundreds of Ethe uplands of the southern coastal low herbaceous plants and grasses plain. This environment thrived on co-evolved with longleaf pine, thriv- disturbance. Floods in the valleys ing in the fire system and coating the fostered bottomland hardwood forests, floor of this otherwise homogeneous while frequent fire outside of the forest with a mat of savannah-like wet lowlands promoted the longleaf undergrowth. What results is a vegeta- system. Longleaf pine evolved not only tive ecosystem that is among the most to withstand fire, but to encourage it, diverse on the continent. Many species and so it became the prevailing tree of orchids and insectivorous species, species over a vast area. such as pitcher plants, are among the Red-cockaded Woodpeckers: Bill Hubick conspicuous members of this extraor- Longleaf pine, at all but the briefest dinary flora. stage of its life cycle, tolerates low- years later, a lightning strike (or per- intensity fires, whereas other pine haps more commonly today, a human) The bird life of this system is equally and hardwood species are killed by starts yet another low-intensity fire tied to the ecology of longleaf pine. fire when they are young. After a fire, that historically would spread for miles Ground nesters, such as the Bachman’s pine needles build up on the ground, and miles between river valleys. This Sparrow and canopy species, such providing a new fuel source. Several age old cycle produces a forest with an as the Brown-headed Nuthatch will overstory comprised almost entirely of tolerate other pine species, but thrive

Page 28 of 48 in longleaf. Likewise, many species systems, but others, most notably the now associated with early successional Red-cockaded Woodpecker, have not, Longleaf Pine conditions, such as the Northern Bob- which is reflected in its endangered white and the Prairie Warbler, prefer status today. longleaf pine. The bird species most tied to longleaf, however, is the Red- The worst for longleaf now seems cockaded Woodpecker, which lives in to be over, however. Awareness of colonies among clusters of trees old the special qualities of the tree, the enough (50 to 60 years) to develop undergrowth, and the associated a fungal rot into which the birds can Bachman’s Sparrow: Berlin Heck birds has been gradually spreading. excavate their cavities. This is the only Knowledge of how to use fire in ways North American woodpecker that high quality wood also made excellent that simulate natural processes has creates nest and roost cavities in living furniture, flooring, and other goods, grown too. The USDA Forest Service trees, and there are few examples of and longleaf was harvested at rapid now manages many longleaf forests, this species using anything other than rates early in the 20th Century. The and many more private landowners are longleaf pine. An intriguing possibility system was able to withstand this up converting their lands back to long- is that the Ivory-billed Woodpecker, to a point, but it could not endure the leaf. Even the woodpecker is doing typically thought to be a bottomland suppression of fire. Without fire, other better under creative programs such as species, once used longleaf just as species such as loblolly or slash pine the Safe Harbor initiative inspired by frequently, tracking disturbances that took over, often encouraged by land- Environmental Defense, in which the killed trees and allowed the beetle lar- owners and foresters who mistakenly burden of supporting an endangered vae they feed to their young to thrive. thought that they grew more rapidly. species is eased for private landowners. By the end of the 20th Century, at least The longleaf pine forest has a very European settlement brought dramatic 95% of the original extent of longleaf long way to go to get back to real changes to the longleaf system. The habitat had been converted to other health, but it is rebounding, and with tall, straight trunks of the pines were forest types. continued conservation may one day perfect for the masts of ships, and no longer merit inclusion on this top the great quantities of sap were used Some birds, such as Pine Warblers, ten list. for naval products such as resin. The have fared well in the altered pine HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT

he majority of southern forestland is family owned – collec- Initiatives in Mississippi, Louisiana, tively, 4.3 million families in the South hold 127 million acres, Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina or 59% of southern forestland. To be successful, landscape- have helped restore over 140,000 acres T level conservation efforts for the longleaf pine ecosystem of upland pine habitat in the past three need to engage family forest owners. years. A total of 3.6 million longleaf pines have been planted on over The American Forest Foundation, in partnership with ABC and oth- 6,700 acres. Species that have ers, has launched the habitat conservation program, Forests for Wa- benefited include the Northern tersheds and Wildlife, which works with family foresters to create and Bobwhite, Red-cockaded Woodpecker, and conserve upland pine habitat for birds. Initiated with important seed Prairie Warbler, as well as the threatened gopher tortoise. funding from the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Home Depot Foundation, Southern Companies, and the Perkins Foundation, the Upland pine conservation efforts do not end with the planting of program develops wildlife and stream habitat recommendations, trees. Significant effort is needed to create and maintain the open organizes educational events and field tours, produces handbooks understory required by birds and other wildlife. Family forest owners and other publications for family forest owners, and encourages the are encouraged to use prescribed fire every two to three years to voluntary actions of landowners. The program’s Forested Flyways control hardwoods, and to thin trees periodically so that sunlight initiative promotes multi-year collaborative efforts that encourage will continue to reach the forest floor. To learn more, visit family forest owners to implement sustainable management practices www.conservationforestry.org. that improve habitat for imperiled bird species. —Drew DeBerry, American Forest Foundation

Brown-headed Nuthatch: Bill Hubick

Page 29 of 48 9 Lakes Wales Ridge Oak Scrub

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Florida Scrub- Jay, Red-cockaded Woodpecker Threats: Agriculture, development, fire suppression, invasive species Geographical area: Middle of the Florida Peninsula

Photo: Reed Bowman

tanding in the sandy scrub that ocean, forming a narrow, sandy ridge lines the dry spine of Central that rises 300 feet above sea level and Florida, it is hard to imagine stretches 150 miles down the center of Sthat, at one time, you would have the state. The largest of these ancient been able to dip your toes into the dune ecosystems, known as Lake ocean from this very spot. Wales Ridge, extends south from Lake to Highlands counties. Two to three million years ago, most of peninsular Florida lay beneath a Sometimes referred to as the “roof of shallow sea. The only dry land in the Florida,” Lake Wales Ridge consists of state was an archipelago formed by a variety of habitats: sandhills topped the highest land ridges running down by longleaf pine; scrublands of shrub the center of the otherwise submerged oak, Florida rosemary, and lichen; landmass. Over time, the sea deposited sinkhole lakes that descend into the sand onto the shores of this island limestone substrate; and flatwoods chain, and beaches and sand dunes of pine trees and saw palmetto. began to build. As the sea receded Infrequent but intense fires caused during the subsequent glacial period by lightning maintain the ridge scrub- to form the Florida Peninsula, these Florida Scrub-Jay: Peter LaTourrette/birdphotography.com lands’ open character. The sandy soil beaches and dunes became isolated in of the ridge drains quickly, forming the middle of the new mainland. To- important recharge areas for Florida’s day they lie 60 miles from the nearest aquifers.

Page 30 of 48 Many endemic plants and animals Lake Wales Ridge will be challenging evolved on the isolated islands that to manage and restore. In addition to eventually became Lake Wales Ridge. the threat of increased development, The ridge contains one of the high- most of the scrub is overgrown, often est concentrations of threatened and meaning that fire management is endangered species in the United needed to restore the habitat. This States—over 20 plant and six animal is made difficult by the fragmented species. nature of the landscape, particularly the number of roads that crisscross the Bird species of particular importance countryside. on Lake Wales Ridge are the endan- gered Florida Scrub-Jay and Red-cock- However, public and private organiza- aded Woodpecker. Florida Scrub-Jays tions began to acquire conservation in particular are highly dependent lands along the ridge in the 1990s. upon this habitat. They are territorial These lands form a jigsaw-like network birds that live in family groups, and so of preserves, owned and managed are particularly vulnerable to fragmen- by federal, state, and county govern- Red-cockaded Woodpecker: Bill Hubick tation and other human disturbance. ments, as well as private groups such The ridge also provides habitat for as The Nature Conservancy. Members Other initiatives are providing much ABC Green List species such as the of these groups formed the Lake Wales needed habitat enhancements. The Swallow-tailed Kite, as well as en- Ridge Ecosystem Working Group in fire strike team, an inter-agency col- dangered reptiles such as the eastern 1991 to ensure long-term protection laboration coordinated by The Nature indigo snake and gopher tortoise. of the region’s remaining flora and Conservancy and funded in part by fauna, promote research along the the Disney Wildlife Conservation Some 80,000 acres of scrub habitat ridge, and generate public awareness Fund, conducts prescribed burns on existed along Lake Wales Ridge before and support. the ridge. Together these programs are European settlers arrived. This sandy, helping to ensure a brighter future for sparsely vegetated landscape proved The two most important pub- the Florida Scrub-jay, Red-cockaded easy to farm and develop; over 85% licly-funded acquisition programs Woodpecker, and the other birds of of the scrub on the ridge has now are Conservation and Recreation Lake Wales Ridge. vanished, cleared for citrus groves and Lands (CARL) and Florida Forever housing developments. Fire suppres- (FF), both managed by the Florida sion causes underbrush to grow too Department of Environmental Protec- dense for species such as the scrub-jay, tion. Florida Forever is the world’s further degrading the ridge ecosystem. largest conservation land acquisition Invasive, exotic plants, such as Old program, having purchased more than World climbing fern, have invaded one million acres in the last five years. this habitat, growing and spreading The Lake Wales Ridge CARL-FF proj- rapidly, choking out already rare native ect has identified over 43,000 acres for plant species. state purchase, approximately half of which has so far been acquired. Also significant is the Lakes Wales Ridge National Wildlife Refuge which will ultimately total 19,630 acres. This is the first refuge created specifically for the recovery of threatened plants, in- cluding the Florida ziziphus and scrub Swallow-tailed Kite: © M. Hyett/VIREO blazing star.

Indigo snake: FWS

Page 31 of 48 8 Gulf Coast Prairie

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: “Attwater’s” Greater Prairie-Chicken, Reddish Egret, Buff-breasted Sandpiper, Hudsonian Godwit, Whooping Crane Threats: Agriculture, fire suppression, development, levees, canal channeliza- tion, impoundment construction, dredg- ing, invasive species Geographical area: Louisiana- Mississippi border to the mouth of the Rio Grande, 10-100 miles inland

Lacassine National Wildlife Refuge. Photo: FWS.

t seems as though every time we ning and possibly Native American see an aerial photograph of the tribes. These fires prevented trees and Gulf Coast these days, it is entirely woody shrubs from taking hold, but Icovered by a giant mass of swirling burned the grasses so quickly that their cloud, the ominous eye of which roots were unaffected. Little bluestem, stares out at us, exuding menace and Indiangrass, switchgrass, and big destruction. The hurricanes of recent bluestem predominated, giving way to years, whose names are now nearly as freshwater and saltmarsh vegetation of familiar as celebrities—Katrina, Rita, sedges, rushes, saltgrass, and cordgrass Andrew—have altered the landscape closer to the coast. and rewritten the way we view this part of the country. Yet these changes The coming of the railroad in the mid- pale in comparison to the human 1800s heralded a new wave of human settlement, and with it, the beginning impact on the coastal habitat of the Reddish Egret: Gary Smyle Gulf, particularly the coastal prairies. of the wholesale destruction of prairie From the Louisiana-Mississippi border These tallgrass prairies rivaled those habitat. Today, only 1% of coastal to the mouth of the Rio Grande, there of Iowa and Minnesota for diversity, tallgrass remains in Texas; perhaps as once existed a near-unbroken plain harboring a multitude of grassland little as 0.1% in Louisiana. Agriculture of grasses, extending from ten to 100 birds, waterfowl, and other wildlife. was the main culprit, with fertile flats miles inland, and covering over nine Like most grassland communities, converted to pastureland for cattle, or million acres, dotted with occasional the coastal prairie was a fire adapted dramatically altered to support vast islands of trees and shrubs. system, with frequent fires set by light- rice fields and sugarcane plantations.

Page 32 of 48 The large mammals, such as bison, fast growing exotic soon spread. It is antelope, elk, and red wolf, are now all now prevalent in much of the remain- gone, and birds such as the Henslow’s ing coastal habitat, and because it is Sparrow, White-tailed Hawk, and largely fire resistant, has eluded control the endangered “Attwater’s” Greater and continues to flourish. Prairie-Chicken just cling to scattered fragments of remnant habitat, mostly Ongoing development along the Gulf alongside railroad rights-of-way and Coast, and sea level rise associated highways. with global warming are expected to reclaim hundreds of thousands of Historically, coastal wetlands along the Buff-breasted Sandpiper: Gary Smyle acres of coastal marsh over the next Gulf fared somewhat better than the 50 years, and we can expect many inland prairies. The region still hosts rate, particularly in Louisiana, where more hurricanes to become household one of the world’s largest concentra- construction of levees on the Missis- tions of colonial waterbirds, with large sippi River has dramatically affected habitat. Canal channelization, im- poundment construction, and dredg- ing have all altered marsh salinity with resultant habitat impacts. The oil and gas industries, too, have taken their toll. The last traditional migrating population of Whooping Cranes win- ters at the Aransas National Wildlife

Refuge in Texas, squeezed between a Hudsonian Godwit: Dale and Marian Zimmerman ring of natural gas wells and the Intra- Redhead: FWS coastal Waterway, which carries barges names in coming seasons. But bright laden with petrochemical products spots exist. Agreements under the and other potential contaminants. Endangered Species Act have helped restore several thousand acres of pri- Invasive Chinese tallow has added vate lands for the “Attwater’s” Greater environmental insult to injury. In- Prairie-Chicken, and the Gulf Coast troduced to America during colonial Joint Venture is working to restore and times (allegedly by Benjamin Franklin) protect habitat for waterfowl through- for its oil and wax-rich seeds and out the region. fruits, and its ornamental appeal, this Gadwall: Michael Stubblefield numbers of breeding Reddish Egrets, herons, ibis, Roseate Spoonbills, and Brown Pelicans. The region also provides critical stopover habitat for migrating shorebirds such as the Buff- breasted Sandpiper and Hudsonian Godwit, and over 14 million ducks also winter here. Significant propor- tions of the continent’s Gadwall, Green-winged Teal, Redhead, and Lesser Scaup shelter in the marshes and bays, along with as many as two million Snow and Greater White- fronted Geese. In recent decades, however, coastal marsh has been lost at an alarming “Attwater’s” Greater Prairie-Chicken: Philip D. Sudman

Page 33 of 48 7 Coastal Beaches and Marsh

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Snowy and Pip- ing Plovers, Least and Roseate Terns, Clapper and Black Rails, Saltmarsh and Nelson’s Sharp-tailed Sparrows, “Cape Sable” Seaside Sparrow, Wilson’s Plover Threats: Development, recreation, pollution, global warming, coastal engi- neering projects, invasive species Geographical area: Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts; Great Lakes shorelines

Photo: FWS

here is something irresistible punctuated by small “pocket” beaches about shorelines – perhaps it is and sandspits. The dunes of wider the sight of endless sky meet- beaches shelter populations of endan- Ting seemingly boundless water, or the gered “Western” Snowy Plover and sharp smell of brine, or the rhythmic “California” Least Tern, while Black sound of the surf. Or it could be the Oystercatcher, Common Murre, and expanses of marsh grasses that ripple Pelagic Cormorant breed along the like an ocean themselves, and harbor a rockier shores. wealth of shorebirds, waterfowl, fish, Black Rail: Ashok Khosla crabs, and other natural resources. The warm, placid waters of the Gulf of islands contain a variety of habitats, Whatever the reason, our coasts exert Mexico shelter miles of sandy coastline such as sand dunes, intertidal flats, a powerful draw, which has led to and extensive sea grass and shellfish and salt and freshwater marshes, vital increasing strain on this habitat, as beds. The coastline is also known for for nesting Piping Plovers and Least animal and human needs compete for its rookeries of wading birds, including Terns. Most of the continental popula- a declining resource. ABC Green List species such as the tion of Roseate Terns nests on islands Reddish Egret and Little Blue Heron. The Atlantic Coast is notable for its off the Atlantic Coast. Barrier islands many barrier islands, such as North are critical stopover points for migrat- The five Great Lakes, carved out Carolina’s Outer Banks, Chincoteague ing Sanderlings, Dunlin, and other more than a million years ago by the and Assateague Islands off Maryland shorebird species. movement of huge glaciers, contain and Virginia, and the Monomoy one-fifth of the Earth’s fresh water. The Pacific Coast is known for its Islands off Cape Cod. These barrier Sometimes referred to as “inland seas,” rocky coastline and steep bluffs, the Lakes are bounded by thousands

Page 34 of 48 of miles of varied shoreline, includ- West Coast, upsetting the food chain ing sand dunes, rocky beaches, and and resulting in large-scale seabird extensive freshwater marshes. The sand die-offs. Agricultural runoff has created dunes of the Great Lakes region form toxic food webs in some estuaries and the largest freshwater coastal dune eco- massive algal blooms in others. Storms system in the world, sheltering Piping deposit garbage and agricultural waste, Plovers and other endangered species. chemicals, and sewage along shorelines. Oil tanker traffic poses an ever-present Some four million acres of rich salt- Least Tern: George Jett threat of spills, as do pipelines and marsh and estuary systems occur along industrial plants. America’s seacoasts, providing impor- erosion and flooding, often necessitat- tant habitat for ABC Green List species ing expensive beach “nourishment” Other threats include non-native such as the Nelson’s and Saltmarsh projects, where dredged sand is plants such as common reed and Sharp-tailed Sparrows, “Cape Sable” pumped onto eroding shorelines, often purple loosestrife, and feral cats that Seaside Sparrow (confined to Florida), resulting in loss of beach habitat and prey on endangered Piping Plovers and Black Rail, and American Black Duck. increased disturbance from beachgoers. other beach-nesting birds. Great Lakes Egrets, herons, ibis, and many species Mosquito control efforts including sand dunes are threatened by mining of shorebird and landbird also depend drainage, flooding, and pesticide operations that take the sand for glass on marshes for food and a place to rest spraying pose an additional threat to and concrete products. during migration. Saltmarshes also saltmarsh habitat and its bird species. provide irreplaceable habitat for Despite the ongoing threats, there wintering ducks, geese, and swans. Climate change is leading to sea have been some successes, including level rise at the current rate of ap- conservation gains made by ABC and Although these coasts and marshes proximately 0.1 inch per year. On its partners for Red Knots in Delaware vary widely in their physical charac- average, a 1-foot rise in sea level will Bay. ABC also helped achieve a ban on teristics, they face a similar barrage of cause a retreat of shoreline of 100 the pesticide fenthion that was used to man-made threats. More than half of feet or more. Under these conditions, kill mosquitos in Florida—Piping Plo- the country’s marshes have been lost habitats naturally “migrate” inland, but vers and other shorebirds are no longer or altered; areas such as the margins of with increasing coastal development, being killed by this hazardous chemi- San Francisco Bay have been particu- are unable to do so. Warmer ocean cal. Nevertheless, as global tempera- larly affected. Human development of temperatures have disrupted seasonal tures and demand for oceanside real coastal land removes vegetation and ocean currents, particularly along the estate rise, bird populations continue dunes that act as a natural barrier to to be at risk along our coasts. HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT he U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is the federal agency with the Corps and other natural resource agency partners to expand responsible for maintaining the U.S. shoreline. It is also the the potential of the Corps to contribute to bird conservation. primary agency charged with engineering the navigable wa- Many areas along the Atlantic and Gulf coastlines regularly receive terways of the country. Both of these activities have dramatic T shoreline protection in the form of beach nourishment, which can effects on the distribution, quantity, and quality of the beaches, provide high-quality habitat for beach-nesting birds such as Piping mudflats, and wetlands frequented by coastal birds. In highly-popu- and Snowy Plovers, Black Skimmers, and Least Terns. However, lated, economically important, and environmentally significant coastal they can also result in foraging or nesting habitat degradation and areas, the Corps must balance the increased disturbance to birds by beachgoers. ABC is advising the practical tasks of shoreline protection Corps on how to improve the way that beach nourishment projects and waterway maintenance with its are designed, so that bird habitat creation and disturbance reduction environmental mission of manag- become more common outcomes of shoreline protection activities. ing lands for long-term natural ABC’s strong working relationships with the Corps and the U.S. Fish resource productivity, while com- and Wildlife Service ensures that birds have a voice when it comes to plying with a large array of local, the maintenance of our beaches. state, and federal environmental regulations. ABC is now working —Casey Lott, ABC

Snowy Plover: Glen Tepke Page 35 of 48 6 Tallgrass Prairie

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Henslow’s Spar- row, Dickcissel, Grasshopper Sparrow, Upland Sandpiper, Greater Prairie- Chicken Threats: Agriculture, fire suppression Geographical area: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma

Purple Coneflower, a native tallgrass prairie species. Photo: Kenneth R. Robertson

ith careful route selection, moving to the east, and the dominant it is probably possible species of grass changes from those that to drive from Omaha, grow to your ankles to those that can WNebraska, to Columbus, Ohio, with- grow higher than your head. Still far- out ever being out of sight of a corn ther east, in pre-European times, this field. This is what remains of one of tallgrass prairie ceded to savannah, and America’s greatest biomes—the tallgrass savannah to eastern hardwood forest. prairie. Frontiersmen marveled at this endless sea of grass that could reach In addition to precipitation, fire Upland Sandpiper: Ted Steinke as high as a horse’s shoulder, and its was a key factor, pushing the prairie bounty of wildlife. With determination, for its soils and climate make this one eastward as it killed competing trees. guns, and plows, however, they were of the most productive regions for The extension of tallgrass into Indiana able to exterminate the herds of bison crops in the world. The climate of the and Ohio may have been entirely a and other wildlife, the Native American Great Plains is shaped in part by the result of fire, perhaps set intention- tribes, and eventually the native grass Rocky Mountains, which strip westerly ally by Native Americans to enhance itself. It is ironic that America’s heart- winds of their moisture, creating a rain the land’s production of wildlife for land, its bedrock of rural values, exists shadow to their east. The High Plains, hunting. The entire tallgrass prairie where we have utterly destroyed the from Colorado to the Texas panhandle, was devoid of trees because of fire, save natural fabric of the land. receive very little rainfall, and an perhaps for some protected patches arid-adapted shortgrass system is all near water. The alluvial soil, rich in The almost complete conversion to that clings to the parched earth as a nutrients and bathed in sufficient and agricultural use was perhaps inevitable, result. Precipitation gradually increases dependable moisture, provided perfect

Page 36 of 48 conditions for John Deere’s newly policy. Intense production of biofuels, invented plow that could cut through for example, could pull some of the the thick sod for mass production of land recently returned to bird habitat crops. Some say that the historical rise back into agricultural production. in prominence of the United States What becomes of land after short-term was due less to cultural values and conservation contracts expire is prob- industrial growth than to the reliable ably going to be based on the best eco- production of vast quantities of food nomic opportunity for the landowner. from the former tallgrass prairie. Heavy subsidies for crop production such as biofuels could prove enticing. Bird populations have fluctuated with The tallgrass prairie is on the list of management changes in the tallgrass. Henslow’s Sparrow: Laura Erickson, Binoculars.com the top ten threatened habitats in the While conversion to crop production United States not just because of the made habitat unsuitable for most management can put back, and imple- huge percentage that has already been birds, land use for pasture or hay was mentation of various Farm Bill pro- lost, but also because its future as bird reasonably compatible with the needs grams over recent decades has helped habitat remains so precarious. of many species. This deteriorated, many of these populations. Even the however, when early-maturing strains Henslow’s Sparrow, with its need for of alfalfa were introduced. Mechanical tall, weedy, “rank” grass a few years harvesting while birds are still nest- after disturbance but prior to inva- ing has led to high mortality and sion by woody plants, is doing well in reproductive failure, contributing to many areas, benefiting from the Farm the oft-cited statistic that grassland Bill’s Conservation Reserve Program. bird populations have declined more than any other habitat-based group in The future of the tallgrass prairie as the country. However, what negative bird habitat is tied to international management can take away, positive economics, energy use, and farm Dickcissel: Gary Smyle HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT

he Greater Prairie-Chicken, perhaps more than any other bird the grassland bird habitat recommendations outlined in Partners in species, is the “canary in the coalmine” of tallgrass prairie Flight bird conservation plans, and have designated “core areas,” landscapes. Once abundant from central Canada to south- each in excess of a thousand acres, centered upon Greater Prairie- T eastern Texas and east to Ohio, the species has declined Chicken leks. Acquisition and prairie restoration efforts in these areas dramatically with the demise of the tallgrass landscapes on which are considered the top priority, as these are the places where mating it depends. While birds still occur in relatively large numbers from occurs and hens subsequently prefer to nest. the Dakotas through eastern Oklahoma, populations to the east and Most of the acreage in the core areas consists of public lands, on south are dangerously small and isolated. For example, in Missouri which the potential to manage and restore native prairie (including and Iowa, it is estimated that the current population may be as small the removal of woody vegetation that fragments the grasslands and as 500 individuals. provides cover for predators) is greatest. Similar kinds of habitat im- Fearing the complete loss of provements, implemented by willing private landowners, and funded prairie-chickens from these largely by state and federal incentive programs, are encouraged in two states, professional areas encompassing thousands of acres around each core. biologists and concerned Following these conservation efforts, the Greater Prairie-Chicken citizens joined forces in population in one focus area appears to be rebounding, and another 1999 to form the Grassland shows promise. Whether adequate effort can be implemented in Coalition, with the goal time to save the other populations remains uncertain, but without the of re-establishing healthy dedication of Coalition members, the forecast would be dire indeed. populations in ten areas where remnant populations were known —Jane Fitzgerald, ABC to exist. The Coalition has embraced

Male Greater Prairie-Chickens sparring: Al Perry

Page 37 of 48 5 Southwest Riparian

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: “Least” Bell’s Vireo, “Southwest” Willow Flycatcher, “Yuma” Clapper Rail, Elf Owl Threats: Deforestation, livestock graz- ing, invasive species, development, flood control and water diversion projects Geographical area: Southern California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Southern Utah and Colorado, West Texas

Photo: Al Perry

he desiccated landscape of Rail—all three are federally listed as the Southwest instills in Endangered. At various elevations, us imagery of tumbleweed other birds as diverse as the Elf Owl, Tblowing along dusty ground, ancient Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Wilson’s War- petroglyphs carved on dark cave and bler, Hooded Oriole, and Elegant Tro- canyon walls, cattle skulls blanching gon are found among cottonwoods, under the merciless sun, and sidewind- willows, alders, box-elders, and locust ers slithering between the cacti. trees, and in lower story vegetation of seepwillow, mesquite, arrowweed and But running through this harsh and saltbrush. Overhead, Common Black- arid country are ribbons of lush Hawks soar on rising thermals of hot, green; narrow corridors where rivers dry air. and streams, some ephemeral, some continually flowing, have slaked the Elf Owl: © Greg Lasley/VIREO Today, more than 80% of the riparian parched desert to give rise to riparian habitat of the Southwest has vanished. ecosystems rich with life. While only The distinctive soundtrack to these There is no mystery surrounding occupying a tiny fraction of the land narrow oases is provided by the this disappearance. The story begins, area, these riparian habitats support “zheedle, zheedle, zheedle, zee” of the predictably enough, with the influx both the largest concentrations of “Least” Bell’s Vireo, the “fitz-bews” of European settlers in the early 19th animal and plant life, and the major- and “breets” of the “Southwestern” Century. The first to go were the bea- ity of species diversity in the desert Willow Flycatcher, and the sharp vers, trapped for their pelts by early fur Southwest. “keks” of the “Yuma” Clapper traders. These native rodents played a

Page 38 of 48 significant role in maintaining riparian support few insects. Saltcedar spread combined with flood control projects, habitat through the construction of quickly through the Southwest, where have all but eliminated the broader dams that both ensured a vital source it choked out native vegetation. Today, flood plains and associated swamps of water during periods of low river it has invaded more than one million and marshes of many river systems, flow, and stimulated new vegetation acres of wetlands in the region and particularly along the Colorado and growth through the build up of al- continues to flourish at the expense its tributaries. Habitat fragmentation luvial sediments around their lodges. of native plant, mammal, amphibian, continues to drive down bird popula- The eradication of the beaver was soon and bird diversity. Saltcedar is difficult tions. The Brown-headed Cowbird followed by human settlement, timber to eradicate because it regrows so is thriving, however. Rates of nest extraction, and broad-scale agricultural readily after cutting, however, many parasitism among riparian species have development, particularly livestock programs are now in place to reduce reached as high as 50% in some areas. grazing. its spread, and laws are being enacted to prevent its sale and importation. Achieving riparian habitat conservation Cattle gravitate to stream margins depends on public agency buy-in to from surrounding rangeland and graze Today, urbanization and agriculture broad-scale land management plans and incessantly on native grasses. They continue to be the most severe threats the successful provision of incentives to trample riparian vegetation, resulting to the limited and vulnerable plant life private property owners to restore their in severe bank erosion and water sedi- of southwest riparian systems. Cities degraded land. Riparian areas take time mentation. Cattle manure also leads such as Phoenix, Albuquerque, and to fully recover, but some management to excessive nitrogen levels in both soil Tucson continue to expand into sur- options, particularly fencing out cattle, and water. rounding habitat as their populations provide immediate rewards. Even in rise. severely degraded systems, the speed To combat erosion caused by the and extent of recovery once habitat is cattle, and also for the ornamentation The scarcity of water in the Southwest protected from grazing and trampling of gardens, saltcedar (also known as makes rivers and streams particularly can be remarkable. Currently, though, tamarisk) was planted. This woody important for sustaining the region’s efforts to restore riparian areas are being shrub is a native of North Africa, the communities. This dependence places considerably outpaced by the rate at Mediterranean, and the Middle East, a severe strain on natural ecosystems. which they are being lost, making these and grows in dense thickets that are of Water diversion and pumping for vibrant ecosystems an ever-rarer feature limited value to wildlife because they irrigation and consumer demand, of the Southwest. HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT

ew birds epitomize the dire predicament of riparian habitats Warblers returned to the refuge in 2002 (they number 14 breeding in the Southwest like the “Least” Bell’s Vireo. Once common pairs today), but that victory was soon trumped by the unexpected throughout Southern California and the Central Valley, this appearance of breeding “Least” Bell’s Vireos. riparian specialist was reduced to just 600 breeding birds F At least nine partners have been involved in the program, including when it was listed under the Endangered Species Act in 1986. But the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, PRBO Conservation Science, following two decades of management, including cowbird control and River Partners, and California State University, Stanislaus. A total of riparian restoration, populations have rebounded—in some areas, as over 250,000 native trees, shrubs, and grasses have been planted much as tenfold. on 1,000 acres of the refuge, resulting in one of the Valley’s largest Last year, a pair of birds was observed nesting in a young arroyo wil- contiguous blocks of riparian woodland. low tree in the San Joaquin River National Wildlife Refuge, heralding The return of the “Least” Bell’s Vireo, perhaps the ultimate reward the return of the vireo to California’s Central Valley after an absence for these efforts, clearly more than 50 years. demonstrates the benefits

Just four years earlier, the site of the new vireo nest was open land of riparian conservation, and FWS Vireo: “Least” Bell’s that had long been seeded in row crops. Then, 164 acres along the what can be achieved with San Joaquin River were intensively planted with native understory good science, dedicated part- shrubs and grasses such as button bush, mugwort, and elderberry to ners, political will, and sufficient attract riparian species such as the Yellow Warbler (also long absent funds. from most of the Valley). Project leaders were delighted when Yellow —Gavin Shire, ABC

Page 39 of 48 4 Edwards Plateau Savannah

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Golden-cheeked Warbler, Black-capped Vireo, Scissor- tailed Flycatcher Threats: Livestock gazing, invasive species, development, fire suppression, deer Geographical area: West-Central Texas

Photo: Gil Eckrich

ising out of the ground like as well as the riparian corridors that a giant wall, the Balcones are home to bird species more com- Escarpment abruptly marks monly found in eastern deciduous Rthe transition between the Texas forests, Edwards Plateau is a mecca for Coastal Plain and the eastern edge birders keen to see species as diverse of Edwards Plateau. Before the as the Green Kingfisher, Long-billed escarpment lies the wide expanse of Thrasher, Zone-tailed Hawk, Varied low, fertile, but featureless farm and Bunting, and Acadian Flycatcher. rangeland; behind it the steep, rolling topography of Texas Hill country. If there is one thing that is certain about the climate of Edwards Plateau, Cool, clear rivers cutting through it is that you never know when it is the plateau support riparian habitat going to rain. There are no predict- that is a pleasant contrast to the pre- ably rainy months, or predictably dry dominantly dry scrub and grassland Golden-cheeked Warbler: Al Perry periods. On any given day, the region vegetation, where armadillos and may have to withstand a torrential Greater Roadrunners scurry beneath Eventually the hills flatten out as the downpour or begin a two-month long the hot sun. In spring the plateau is plateau transitions into the Chihua- period of drought. transformed into a glorious tableau huan Desert to the west, the Tamauli- of wildflowers, dominated by a sea of pan Brushlands to the south, and the Rainwater does not remain on the vibrant Texas bluebonnets. short- and mixed-grass prairies to the surface for long, however, instead north. A nexus of all these habitats, seeping through the thick, porous

Page 40 of 48 limestone bedrock that forms the and goat overgrazing has fragmented More than 95% of rangeland is pri- plateau, leaving only a thin skin of habitat and all but eliminated na- vately owned; this makes implement- nutrient-poor soil. The erratic rainfall, tive grasses, now replaced with the ing wildlife plans much harder than limestone geology, and thin soils, have invasive King Ranch bluestem. Deer if it were under combined federal or conspired to produce a unique plant overbrowsing has prevented the spread state ownership. In the 1990s, when community inhabited by some equally of woody species, and suppression of the state pushed for designation of unique animal life. Edwards Plateau natural fires, critical to maintaining Critical Habitat for the Golden- encompasses almost all of the remain- juniper-oak habitat, has further nega- cheeked Warbler, private landowners ing breeding range of the endangered tively affected bird species. responded by cutting down large Golden-cheeked Warbler, and a stands of old-growth habitat, believing significant portion of the range of the In 1900, the population of Texas was that they would otherwise fall victim to endangered Black-capped Vireo. The 80% rural, 20% urban. By 1990, future habitat restrictions. Neverthe- vireo inhabits early successional stage the demographics were reversed. The less, financial incentives for private patchy wood-shrub habitat, while the urban boom continues today. During landowners are one important way in Golden-cheeked Warbler relies on the 1980s the population of Austin in- which the long-term future of what re- mature Ashe juniper-oak woodlands. creased by 50%; San Antonio’s popu- mains of Edwards Plateau habitat can lation increased by 20% each decade be sustained. Federally-administered What comprised pristine vegetation from 1960 through 1990. Because programs such as Partners for Fish and on the plateau prior to European a large portion of remaining habitat Wildlife and the Landowner Incentive colonization is somewhat of a mystery. exists around these cities, continued Program can financially reward ranch- What we do know is that only 2% of urban and suburban sprawl pose a ers for their conservation efforts. Un- the plateau has not succumbed to con- significant threat to bird populations. fortunately there has not been a rush version to pastureland or urbanization. The increase in population has also to join these initiatives on the plateau, taken its toll on the Edwards Aquifer, Edwards Plateau is now home to one indicating that much more education now straining to supply drinking wa- is needed to show that it is possible for of the most significant livestock in- ter to more than 1.5 million people. dustries in the country. Cattle, sheep, both landowners and threatened bird species to come out ahead. HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT he Brown-headed Cowbird presents a curious conservation the cowbird parasitism rate, and starting in 1988, cowbird trapping challenge in many parts of the United States. It is both a native efforts began. After a few years of trying various techniques, the most species and a nemesis of efforts to restore threatened and effective regimen involving both trapping and shooting was established. T declining bird populations. Once existing in limited numbers, in Trapping success is highest when traps are placed near cattle concen- balance with other native species, this brood parasite (a bird that lays trations, which usually coincide with primary cowbird feeding areas. In its eggs in the nests of other birds who then raise the parasite’s young areas away from cattle concentrations, selective shooting of territorial at the expense of their own) has flourished over recent decades due to females proved effective at keeping parasitism modern ranching practices. The destruction of native habitat for cattle rates down. Parasitism of vireo nests on Fort pasture favors the cowbird over more habitat-restricted species that it Hood is now less than 10%, and vireo often parasitizes. Cowbird parasitism has become a threat to several reproductive success has increased species across the country, including the Black-capped Vireo. dramatically as a result, from a low of 5% in 1987 to a high of 55% today. At Fort Hood, Texas, on the northeastern edge of the Edwards Plateau, ranchers graze their herds as part of an agreement struck when the Alternate grazing rotations that keep Army took control of the land in the 1940s. In the late 1980s, cowbird cattle away from vireo habitat during the parasitism rates of Black-capped Vireo nests reached an alarming nesting season may also reduce parasitism. 90%. With continued declines, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, un- However, any cowbird control effort must also der the authority of the Endangered Species Act, could have potentially be coupled with effective land management shut down military operations. Something had to be done—and quickly. to insure ample early-successional oak-juniper habitat. The recovery plan for the Black-capped Vireo created an opportunity for the Army to work creatively with The Nature Conservancy to reduce —Chris Eberly, DoD Partners in Flight

Black-capped Vireo: © Greg Lasley/VIREO

Page 41 of 48 3 Sagebrush

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Greater and Gunnison Sage-Grouse, Brewer’s Sparrow Threats: Livestock grazing, fire, invasive species Geographical area: Between the Rocky Mountain and the Sierra Nevada ranges, from New Mexico north to Washington Photo: Dan Casey

he sagebrush region covers region is evidence that the frequency over 155 million acres of of wildfires was historically low. Habi- the Intermountain West. tats lacking grass, or with only widely TOne would not think that a habitat spaced bunchgrasses, do not carry type that covers such a huge ex- fire well, providing further suggestion panse would be among our most that fire was not a critical component threatened, but the continuing rate of this ecosystem. of degradation and poor chances of recovery make it a clear choice. Today, however, fire, livestock, and non-native plants have brought about This ecosystem is dominated by sev- Greater Sage-Grouse: Carol Davis the deterioration of sage systems ev- eral species of sage, mixed with other erywhere, and their malevolent work shrubs and varying amounts of grass. form the drier Great Basin sagebrush, continues. Many North American Sagebrush covers the semi-deserts of where little grass is mixed in. Scien- ecosystems have withstood cattle graz- the American West, east of the Cas- tists have speculated that sagebrush ing quite well, and in many places it cades and Sierra Nevada, north of the spread through former grassland due is a practice that is compatible with southwestern true deserts, west of the to heavy grazing pressure, but records bird conservation. Not so in sage- Great Plains, and intertwined with show that sagebrush was dominant brush, due at least in part to a lack of the Rocky Mountains. Northern por- even before European settlers brought historical adaptation on the part of tions are often called sagebrush steppe large herds of cattle to the area. sage system plants to grazing. Cattle due to the high concentrations of select and eventually eliminate grasses bunchgrass growing with the sage and Sagebrush does not respond well to and palatable herbaceous plants, other shrubs, while southern portions fire, and so its dominance over the leaving nothing but an increasingly

Page 42 of 48 dense layer of shrubs. Early ranchers dominated habitat. Because responded to this by burning or me- cheatgrass dries so quickly, it is not chanically removing the shrubs and even of value to domestic livestock. introducing exotic grasses for their Where cheatgrass takes over, it is good livestock. This was bad enough for the for only one thing—further perpetua- sagebrush system, but the worst was tion of cheatgrass. Furthermore, once yet to come. established, cheatgrass is extraordi- narily difficult to remove. Burning or Cheatgrass, a species native to central mechanical removal merely serve to Asia, was inadvertently introduced further stimulate it at the expense of into the Intermountain West late in native plants. The only cure involves th the 19 Century. Cheatgrass funda- several years of herbicide treatment mentally changes fire and vegetation Sage Thrasher: Larry Barnes followed by direct seeding of more patterns. Unlike native bunchgrass, it desirable plants. This is very labor- creates a bed of continuous fuel that back native vegetation and optimizes intensive and very expensive, and the carries fire easily. It matures early in conditions for its own success and ex- cumulative area restored throughout the growing season and dries quickly, pansion. It has spread over millions of the West each year pales in compari- increasing the risk of fire. Where acres of the Intermountain West, and son to the additional acres of sage lost cheatgrass dominates, it burns every shows few signs of decreasing the rate to cheatgrass invasion. three to five years, and while fire kills at which it becomes the single, domi- native sage, which can take years to nant plant over ever more ground. Populations of all of the key birds recover, it stimulates reproduction are in decline, and although some of of cheatgrass. So we have a self-per- None of the birds that are completely them still exist in fairly large num- petuating cycle. Grazing and range tied to sagebrush—the Greater and bers, their prognosis is grim. This is management remove native plants, Gunnison Sage-Grouse, Sage why sagebrush ranks so highly in our allowing cheatgrass an opportunity to Thrasher, Sage Sparrow, and Brewer’s top ten threatened habitats—there is invade. Once established, cheatgrass Sparrow—or virtually any of the no system as vast as this one in such creates a fire regime that further sets other species that use sage and other free fall. systems can tolerate cheatgrass- HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT

he Brewer’s Sparrow is the quintessential sagebrush bird— and monitoring for the sparrow, and to protect and restore its sage- its varied song is as much a part of the “sagebrush sea” brush habitat. ABC played a key role in identifying 39 million acres as the characteristic scent of sage itself. Partners in Flight of sagebrush in 11 states that are the highest priority for intensive T currently estimates the continental breeding population of conservation design, habitat protection, and restoration work. This Brewer’s Sparrows to be 16 million birds, but much like the habitat is leading directly to successful on-the-ground habitat conservation on which it depends, abundance does not necessarily mean secu- projects, including the Blackfoot Challenge in western Montana. In rity. Indeed, the population of this species has been in decline since this model community-based, multi-resource, conservation effort, the 1960s, and these declines have accelerated since the 1980s. private landowners and public agencies are collaborating to protect Brewer’s Sparrows depend on large patches of and enhance habitat for an estimated 2,300 pairs of Brewer’s dense, thriving, unburned sagebrush with Sparrows. On the Deseret Ranch in northeast Utah, ranch manag- native grass understory. This means that ers and biologists are working together to test the effectiveness if we are to reverse the trend and achieve of various habitat enhancement techniques to benefit the Greater the continental objective of doubling the Sage-Grouse and Brewer’s Sparrow on actively grazed lands. population over the next 30 years, there Despite the continued loss of sagebrush throughout its range, ABC is much work to be done. and its partners are demonstrating that good conservation can yield immediate gains for this threatened habitat and the birds that rely ABC has been working with upon it. partners at the local, regional, state, and continental scale to —Dan Casey, ABC support much-needed research

Brewer’s Sparrow: Peter LaTourrette/birdphotography.com

Page 43 of 48 2 Open Ocean/Seabird Nesting Islands

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species: Laysan and Black- footed Albatrosses, Xantus’s Murrelet, Hawaiian Petrel, Black Storm-Petrel, Ashy Storm-Petrel, Whiskered Auklet, Black-capped Petrel Threats: Invasive species, marine pollution, overfishing, global warming Geographical area: Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, Gulf of Mexico Laysan Albatrosses. Photo: Breck Tyler

n conservation terms, the seabirds In the United States, the main breed- U.S. and international waters. Conser- of the open ocean are caught ing grounds for seabirds are the vation groups, including ABC, have between a rock and a wet place! Hawaiian, Channel, Farallon, and pushed hard to have proven mitigation IRoving far and wide across the most Aleutian Islands, but other islands, measures for limiting seabird bycatch isolated seas, these birds rarely touch such as the Dry Tortugas off the mandated in all longline fisheries. land. When they do, it is to breed on Florida Keys and Petit Manan off the oceanic islands that can be hundreds, coast of Maine also play an important Like other island species, seabirds if not thousands of miles from the role. evolved in isolated environments, and mainland. Neither land animals nor over the millennia, became specialized true ocean denizens, these birds have Although their remoteness has afford- and highly sensitive to change. The in- often been overlooked by conserva- ed these islands a high degree of pro- troduction by humans of alien preda- tionists dealing with either mainland tection against development, they have tors, including cats, rats, mongooses, or ocean habitats, and so they slipped nevertheless felt the impact of human and foxes, has caused declines in the through the cracks. Today the prob- civilization. The threat of unregulated populations of a number of seabird lems facing alcids (such as murrelets hunting and egg collecting has now species, such as the Hawaiian Petrel, and auklets), tubenoses (including passed thanks to the enactment of Xantus’s Murrelet, Black Storm-Petrel, albatrosses, shearwaters, and petrels), strict wildlife protection laws (though and Whiskered Auklet. Guam has lost and other ocean wanderers, such as too late to save the Great Auk from all three of its populations of breeding frigatebirds, are well understood— extinction), but seabirds, including the seabirds (Brown Noddy, White Tern, namely introduced species on their Laysan, Black-footed, and Short-tailed and White-tailed Tropicbird) due to breeding islands, overfishing, fisheries Albatrosses, are still being killed inad- the introduction of the brown tree bycatch, and pollution of the seas. vertently on longline fishing hooks in snake.

Page 44 of 48 Introduced ungulates can be as land-based sources. An ever-growing devastating as the predators. Left accumulation of plastic trash drifts on unchecked, introduced goats, sheep, ocean currents to the furthest reaches cattle, and horses can wreak havoc on of the globe. Mistaking these items for native habitat and trample ground small fish, albatrosses consume bottle nests. Even introduced plant species caps, cigarette lighters, toothbrushes, can compromise seabird nesting colo- and all manner of household objects, nies, such as golden crown-beard on often with fatal consequences. Midway Atoll (see below). Ultimately, seabirds are reliant on

One advantage of islands is that they Xantus's Murrelets: Glen Tepke ocean-based food chains for survival. are, by definition, enclosed ecosystems, Overfishing has changed the composi- and are frequently relatively small. guarding against the possible spread tion of ocean life almost beyond com- This can make removal of invasive of this invasive predator to Hawaii, prehension, with far reaching effects. species easier than on the mainland. where it could devastate remaining Some U.S. fisheries are beginning The National Park Service successfully native bird populations. to come under better management, removed rats from Anacapa and other but without significant changes to Californian Channel Islands to aid in While at sea, ocean-going birds face global fishing practices, seabirds will the recovery of the Xantus’s Murrelet a mounting barrage of threats. With continue to feel the effects of declin- and Ashy Storm-Petrel; and on Wake the introduction of double-hulled ing food supplies. These effects are Island, between Hawaii and Guam, a tankers, oil spills are decreasing, but likely to be compounded by global coalition of groups removed feral cats many operators still risk catastrophe climate change, the extent and impact to protect Wedge-tailed Shearwaters. by using old, single-skinned vessels. of which is becoming ever more ap- Removal of the brown tree snake from Tanker spills only account for 10-12% parent. While we cannot predict how Guam will be considerably harder, of marine oil pollution, however. seabirds will fare with rising tempera- however, despite recent legislation that An estimated 550,000 tons of oil is tures and sea levels, it is likely that provided much needed federal fund- released into the oceans each year from their current population declines and ing. Conservationists are desperately pipeline ruptures and the continuous sensitivity to habitat change will not discharge emanating from ships and dispose them favorably. HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT ore than two million seabirds live on Midway Atoll in the and Wildlife Foundation’s Pulling Together initiative awarded a grant Hawaiian chain, including the Black-footed Albatross and to the Friends of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge to help with the world’s largest populations of the Laysan Albatross. In- propagation of native plants and provide volunteers to help remove M troduced rats that once plagued the island have now been golden crown-beard. ABC and the Biological Conservation Assis- eradicated, but other invasives, most notably two species of plants, tance Program are also assisting in this effort. are now wreaking havoc. Conservationists hope that the recent designation of the Northwest Ironwood (a large tree that invades open areas) and golden crown- Hawaiian Islands as a National Monument will promote new sources beard, have overrun parts of Midway. Golden crown-beard (a relative of funding to help rid Midway of its most harmful invasive species, as of the sunflower) out-competes native vegetation, growing well even well as financing the removal of lead-based paint from former Navy in sand and in cracks in asphalt, and forms dense stands where barracks on the island. Hundreds of curious young albatrosses have albatrosses cannot nest. It also grows so rapidly that chicks can been poisoned after eating peeling paint that affects their nervous become enclosed by thick walls of vegetation while still in the nest. systems. With an estimated cost of $6 million, the cleanup will require Unable to extricate themselves or be reached by their parents, some a substantial commitment from federal regulators, but ABC, with

chicks starve. support from Lynn White and the Lannan Christy Finlayson crown-beard: chick in golden Albatross Laysan Foundation, is pushing hard to ensure that Beginning in the late 1990s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service initi- the buildings are made safe for future ated a golden crown-beard management program on Midway, which generations of Laysan and Black- was intensified in 2003. The program has included control by hand- footed Albatrosses on Midway. pulling, mowing, and herbicide application. In areas where golden crown-beard has been eradicated, native plants are propagated to —Christy Finlayson, Friends of prevent the invasive from recolonizing. In 2006, the National Fish Midway and Jennifer Arnold, ABC

Page 45 of 48 1 Native Forests of Hawaii

AT A GLANCE:

Priority Species:Akekee, Hawaii and Kauai Creepers, Akiapolaau, Maui Parrotbill, Ou, Nihoa finch, Omao, Oahu Elepaio, Nihoa Millerbird, Alala, Hawaiian Hawk Threats: Deforestation, invasive species, disease Geographical area: Hawaiian Islands

Photo: FWS

ew other places on Earth con- —or as it is known locally, the “Big jure up such vivid images of Island”—is the youngest in the chain, a lush, tropical paradise than and currently lies over the hotspot. As a FHawaii; certainly none in the United result, it boasts two of the world’s most States. Palm tree-lined lagoons, mist- active volcanoes. enshrouded waterfalls, and enticing beaches lapped by frothing, white The descendants of the early finch-like surf beckon from the pages of travel birds that made it to this distant ar- magazines. But the notion of Hawaii as Amikihi: Bill Hubick chipelago soon evolved and diversified a pristine ecosystem is now confined to to take advantage of the many vacant the history books. Overrun by people, stretching some 1,500 miles across the ecological niches they found. Birds and exotic animals and plants (even the east-central Pacific, and lying more particularly benefited from the lack famous Hawaiian macadamia nut is than 2,000 miles west of the North of predatory mammals, which never non-native), the Hawaiian Islands have American continent. The Islands naturally arrived from the mainland. suffered more bird extinctions in recent were formed through volcanic action, Through the process of adaptive radia- centuries than any area of comparable concentrated around a “hot spot” on tion, these early pioneers gave rise to size on Earth. But even with many the floor of the Pacific Ocean. As the many new taxa, and over the millennia, more species teetering on the brink, Pacific plate drifted northwest from the new species arrived, eventually forming Hawaii remains a place of wonder. hot spot, the islands cooled and eroded, the world’s most isolated and unique so that those in the extreme north- avifauna. By the time Captain Cook The Hawaiian archipelago comprises western reaches of the chain are now arrived in Hawaii in 1778, at least 71 eight major and 124 minor islands, low lying atolls. The island of Hawaii endemic bird species and subspecies

Page 46 of 48 remained. From the seed-eating Palila the Akikiki, internationally regarded as to the nectivorous Amakihi and Iiwi, a critically endangered species, remains Native Forests the woodpecker-like adaptations of without the protection of the Endan- the insectivorous Akiapolaau, and gered Species Act. the flower-probing Akepa, Hawaii’s bird life forms an astounding array of Although agriculture, logging, and de- vibrant diversity. velopment were responsible for most of Hawaii of the historical habitat conversion, Some 10,000 species of native plants today introduced mammals such as and animals are unique to Hawaii. cats and pigs, and invasive plants, such Forty-eight different native forest types as guava, present a more significant and more than 175 tree species have threat to remaining native ecosystems. been identified on the islands, which Avian malaria and avian pox are now

include some of the wettest places on Iiwi: Jack Jeffords well established and pose another seri- Earth. The major islands were once ous danger at ever-higher elevations. totally forested with impressive stands Twenty-four of Hawaii’s birds are of native trees such as koa, manele, known to have gone extinct, including Despite its unique flora and fauna and and sandalwood. Since human colo- the Hawaiian Rail, Laysan Millerbird, the high level of threats, Hawaii ranks nization, however, approximately half and both the Lesser and Greater close to the bottom of the list of states of the forest has been lost—primar- Koa-Finches. The most recent of these for spending on fisheries and wildlife. ily in the lowlands. The destruction extinctions likely occurred just two The future for Hawaii’s birds is uncer- began around 1,000 years ago with years ago, when the last remaining tain, and unless their ecosystems can the arrival of Polynesian settlers. The Poo-uli (a small honeycreeper) died be better protected, the list of extinct process accelerated with the arrival of in captivity. Today, only a few native species could continue to grow. Some Europeans, who followed the logging Hawaiian birds, such as the Apapane species appear to be developing a na- with cattle grazing. Only 1.5 million and Amakihi, are numerous. The U.S. scent resistance to avian malaria. This, acres of forest now remain, mostly on Fish and Wildlife Service currently along with conservation techniques the upper slopes. Almost half of this is lists 30 Hawaiian birds as Endangered such as captive-breeding and intensive managed by the state, with the other or Threatened; most are dependent site-based management programs that half in private ownership; just 150,000 on vigilant conservation measures to include invasive species removal and acres falls under federal jurisdiction. survive at all. The Hawaiian Crow or food supplementation, provide hope Alala now only exists in captivity, and that Hawaii’s remaining birds will survive into the future. HABITAT CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT

he Maui Parrotbill is currently restricted to high-elevation rain However, habitat restoration efforts are underway by the Leeward forests above the “mosquito zone” (approximately 5,000 feet) Haleakala Watershed Restoration Partnership, which includes the on the windward side of Haleakala volcano, in east Maui. It Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife, the Department of Hawaiian T occupies most, perhaps all, of the currently available suitable Homelands, Haleakala National Park, and several private landown- habitat, but because this species has a highly specialized foraging ers. Fencing of over 2,000 acres in the Kahikinui area has already behavior that requires each pair to defend a relatively large territory, begun, and long-term plans involve protection of over 20,000 acres. the total population is small—approximately 500 birds. Subsequent removal of feral ungulates will allow natural recovery of koa and other plant species, and soil treatment and reintroduction of In the early 1900s, naturalists reported that the parrotbill was most native plants may be used to speed recovery. common in moist forests, dominated by koa trees, on the leeward side of Haleakala, but this The Zoological Society of San Diego is developing a captive breeding part of the island has been program for the Maui Parrotbill, and it is hoped that sufficient forest severely damaged by in- recovery will have occurred by the time parrotbills are available for troduced feral ungulates, reintroduction. Re-establishment of parrotbills into moist koa forest particularly goats. Rem- on Haleakala would be an important step in the species’ recovery by nants of this habitat exist, but forming a second population to help reduce extinction risk. they are too small and degraded —Eric VanderWerf, Pacific Rim Conservation to support a parrotbill population.

Maui Parrotbill: Eric VanderWerf Page 47 of 48 Photos left to right: Least Tern/George Jett; Buff-breasted Sandpiper/Gary Smyle; Cerulean Warbler/Robert Royse; Palila/Jack Jeffrey

About American Bird Conservancy

American Bird Conservancy (ABC) is the only 501(c)(3) organization that works solely to conserve native wild birds and their habitats throughout the Americas. ABC acts to safeguard the rarest bird species, restore habitats, and reduce threats, while building capacity in the conservation movement. ABC is the voice for birds, ensuring that they are adequately protected; that sufficient funding is available for bird conservation; and that land is protected and properly managed to maintain viable habitat. ABC is a membership organization that is consistently awarded a top, four-star rating by the independent group Charity Navigator.

P.O. Box 249, The Plains, VA 20198 540–253–5780 • 800–247–3624 www.abcbirds.org • [email protected]

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