Identification and Activity of Bacteria Consuming Key Intermediates of Carbon and Sulfur Cycling in Coastal Sands

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Identification and Activity of Bacteria Consuming Key Intermediates of Carbon and Sulfur Cycling in Coastal Sands Identification and activity of bacteria consuming key intermediates of carbon and sulfur cycling in coastal sands Dissertation Zur Erlangung des Grades eines Doktors der Naturwissenschaften - Dr. rer. nat. - Dem Fachbereich Biologie/Chemie der Universität Bremen vorgelegt von Stefan Dyksma Bremen, März 2016 Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde in der Zeit von Oktober 2012 bis Februar 2016 in der Abteilung für Molekulare Ökologie am Max-Planck-Institut für Marine Mikrobiologie in Bremen angefertigt. 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Rudolf Amann 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Ulrich Fischer Tag des Promotionskolloquiums: 08.04.2016 Abstract 5 Zusammenfassung 7 List of abbreviations 9 1.) Introduction 10 1.1) The marine carbon cycle 10 1.1.1) Chemolithoautotrophy in marine environments 10 1.1.2) The organic carbon cycle in marine sediments 12 1.1.3) Microbial degradation of organic matter in marine sediments 13 1.2) The marine sulfur cycle 16 1.2.1) Sulfur-metabolizing bacteria and archaea in marine sediments 17 1.2.2) Pathways of microbial sulfur oxidation and carbon fixation 21 1.3) Hydrogen-producing and -consuming processes 24 1.3.1) Classification of hydrogen-producing and -consuming enzymes 26 1.4) Cultivation-independent molecular approaches to study microbial communities 29 1.4.1) Methods to study the activity of uncultured microbes 30 2.) Objectives of this thesis 33 3.) Manuscripts 34 3.1) Ubiquitous Gammaproteobacteria dominate dark carbon fixation in coastal sediments 35 3.2) Hydrogenase diversity and expression reveal bacterial key drivers of hydrogen consumption in coastal sediments 77 3.3) Quantification of acetate assimilation by uncultured bacteria in coastal marine sediment 111 4.) General discussion 140 4.1) Groups of Gammaproteobacteria are key players in inorganic carbon fixation 140 4.2) The enigmatic and cosmopolitan JTB255-clade 142 4.3) Burial of microorganisms as mechanism for long-term carbon storage 142 4.4) Important role of H2 in energy transfer in marine sediments 143 4.5) Acetate consuming bacteria in coastal sediments 144 4.6) Key functions of the sulfate-reducing Sva0081-clade in coastal sediments 145 4.7) Methodological considerations: linking the identity of uncultured microbes with their activity 147 4.8) Future perspectives of FACS in microbial ecology of sediment bacteria 149 5.) Outlook 152 6.) References 153 Acknowledgement 177 Abstract Abstract Coastal and shelf sediments are hot spots for carbon remineralization and also for carbon fixation. Here, a large fraction of organic carbon is mineralized under anoxic conditions by microorganisms via fermentation or respiration of fermentation products such as molecular hydrogen (H2) and acetate. Reduced inorganic metabolites released during these anaerobic processes and inorganic carbon are used by light-independent chemolithoautotrophs for so- called secondary production. However, still little is known about the in situ relevant organisms and how they contribute to key processes like chemoautotrophy as well as H2 and acetate turnover. To understand how inorganic carbon at sediment surfaces is turned over we surveyed the diversity of candidate bacterial chemolithoautotrophs in 13 tidal and sublittoral sediments and identified ubiquitous core groups of Gammaproteobacteria mainly affiliating with sulfur- oxidizing bacteria. In a novel methodological approach we quantified dark carbon fixation by scintillography of specific microbial populations extracted and flow-sorted from sediments that were short term incubated with 14C-bicarbonate. Here, we show that uncultured Gammaproteobacteria dominate dark carbon fixation in coastal sediments and three distinct gammaproteobacterial clades made up more than half of dark carbon fixation in a tidal sediment. Meta- and single cell genomics along with metatranscriptomics provided evidence for a largely sulfur-based carbon fixation. These chemolithoautotrophic gammaproteobacterial clades also accounted for a substantial fraction of the microbial community in 1,000 to 2,000 year old subsurface sediments, suggesting that burial of chemolithoautotrophic bacteria could possibly be a yet-unrecognized mechanism of carbon sequestration. Microbial scavenging of H2 is an essential process in anoxic carbon mineralization, because only low H2 levels make H2-forming fermentation thermodynamically feasible. In a sediment metagenome we identified a high diversity of genes encoding the [NiFe] uptake hydrogenases of numerous yet-uncultured, potentially H2-oxidizing bacteria. Metatranscriptomics together with incubation experiments suggested uncultured Desulfobacteraceae, in particular the sulfate-reducing Sva0081-clade, as important H2 oxidizers in anoxic sediments. On the contrary, Gammaproteobacteria and Flavobacteria encoding O2-tolerant hydrogenases are possibly involved in H2 oxidation in oxic sediments. In a third study, we quantified the relative contribution of single bacterial populations to total acetate assimilation. Here, we showed that acetate was assimilated by physiologically and phylogenetically distinct bacterial groups such as Gammaproteobacteria, sulfate-reducing Desulfobacteraceae and Desulfobulbaceae as well as likely lithoheterotrophic sulfur-oxidizing Roseobacter-clade bacteria. We identified uncultured Gammaproteobacteria as a major 5 Abstract contributor to acetate assimilation under oxic and anoxic conditions accounting for 31-62% of the total acetate assimilation. In summary, this thesis contributes to our understanding how distinct bacterial populations turn over key metabolites of organic carbon degradation in marine sediments. The quantification of uptake of 14C-labeleld model compounds by defined populations is a major step forward in the identification of key organisms in element cycling in marine sediments. 6 Zusammenfassung Zusammenfassung Küsten- und Schelfsedimente sind höchst aktive Systeme für die Remineralisierung von organischem Kohlenstoff und auch für die Kohlenstoffdioxidfixierung. In diesem größtenteils anoxischen Habitat bauen Mikroorganismen den organischen Kohlenstoff durch Fermentation ab, oder nutzen Fermentationsprodukte wie molekularen Wasserstoff (H2) und Acetat als Substrate für die Energiegewinnung. Reduzierte Verbindungen wie Sulfid werden bei diesen anaeroben Prozessen abgegeben. Diese werden von Licht-unabhängigen chemoautotrophen Mikroorgansimen für die sogenannte Sekundärproduktion genutzt wobei Kohlenstoffdioxid fixiert wird. Jedoch sind die relevanten Organismen größtenteils noch nicht identifiziert und es ist wenig bekannt wie diese zu zentralen Prozessen wie Chemoautotrophie sowie H2- und Acetat-Umsatz beitragen. Um zu verstehen, wie anorganischer Kohlenstoff in Oberflächensedimenten umgesetzt wird, haben wir die Diversität potentieller chemolithoautotropher Bakterien in 13 tidalen und sublittoralen Sedimenten untersucht. Dabei wurden Gruppen von Gammaproteobakterien in allen Sedimenten identifiziert, die mit schwefeloxidierenden Bakterien verwandt sind. In einem neuartigen methodologischen Ansatz haben wir die Kohlenstoffdioxidfixierung für spezifische mikrobielle Populationen quantifiziert. Dafür wurden Bakterien nach der Inkubation mit 14C-Bikarbonat und Identifizierung mittels Fluoreszenz in situ Hybridisierung (FISH) durchflusszytometrisch aus den Sedimentproben sortiert und deren Substrataufnahme gemessen. Wir zeigen dass Gammaproteobakterien, im speziellen drei weit verbreitete Untergruppen, den Großteil der bakteriellen chemoautotrophen Kohlenstoffdioxidfixierung ausmachten. Metagenomik zusammen mit Metatranskriptomik zeigten größtenteils Schwefel-basierte Kohlenstofffixierung. Die Gruppen chemolithoautotropher Gammaproteobakterien machten auch in 1000-2000 Jahre altem Sediment in 5 m Tiefe noch einen wesentlichen Bestandteil der mikrobiellen Gemeinschaft aus, was auf eine bislang unerkannte Weise der Kohlenstoffsequestrierung hindeutet. Der Abbau von H2 ist ein unerlässlicher Prozess in anoxischen Habitaten wie in marinen Sedimenten, da die H2 Konzentrationen auf niedrigen Level gehalten werden müssen, um Fermentation thermodynamisch möglich zu machen, was für den anaeroben Abbau von organischem Material eine zentrale Rolle spielt. In einem Metagenom identifizierten wir eine hohe Diversität von bislang unbekannten potentiellen H2-Oxidierern. Metatranskriptomik in Kombination mit Sedimentinkubationen mit H2 deuteten darauf hin, dass Sulfatreduzierer aus der Familie der Desulfobacteraceae, im Besonderen die Sva0081 Gruppe, wichtige H2- Oxidierer in anoxischen Sedimenten sind. Gammaproteobakterien und Flavobakterien spielen hingegen für die H2 Oxidation in oxischen Sedimenten eine Rolle. 7 Zusammenfassung In einer dritten Studie wurde die Assimilation von Acetat für phylogenetisch identifizierte bakterielle Populationen in marinem Sediment quantifiziert. Acetat wurde von physiologisch und phylogenetisch unterschiedlichen Gruppen assimiliert wie Gammaproteobacteria, sulfatreduzierende Desulfobacteraceae und Desulfobulbaceae sowie von wahrscheinlich lithoheterotrophen Schwefeloxidierern der Roseobacter Gruppe. Gammaproteobakterien trugen 31-62% zu der gesamten Assimilation von 14C-Acetat durch Bakterien bei und machten hier somit einen Großteil aus. Diese Arbeit trägt wesentlich zum Verständnis bei wie Metaboliten aus dem Abbau von organischem Kohlenstoff in marinen Sedimenten von bestimmten Gruppen von Bakterien umgesetzt werden. Die hier vorgestellte Methode zur exakten Quantifizierung der Aufnahme von 14C-Kohlenstoff durch phylogenetisch identifizierte Bakterien ist ein
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