Un Novedoso Enfoque Para El Diseño De Fármacos Antimicrobianos Asistido Por Computadora

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Un Novedoso Enfoque Para El Diseño De Fármacos Antimicrobianos Asistido Por Computadora TOMOCOMD-CARDD: Un Novedoso Enfoque para el Diseño de Fármacos Antimicrobianos Asistido por Computadora Autora: Yasnay Valdés Rodríguez. Tutores: Prof. Dr. Yovani Marrero Ponce. Prof. MSc. Ricardo Medina Marrero. 2005-2006 La ignorancia afirma o niega rotundamente; la ciencia duda… Voltaire (1694-1778) Quiero dedicar este trabajo a todas aquellas personas que me aprecian y desean lo mejor para mi, especialmente a mis padres. A mi padre Dedico este trabajo con mucho amor, por hacerme comprender que siempre se puede llegar mas lejos, y que no hay nada imposible, solamente hay que luchar... A mi madre Por su infinita bondad, por su sacrificio inigualable. A mis familiares Por todo su apoyo y ayuda que me han mostrado incondicionalmente. A mi hermano Por ser mi fuente de inspiración. A la humanidad “...porque si supiera que el mundo se acaba mañana, yo, hoy todavía, plantaría un árbol” Quiero agradecer a todas aquellas personas que me han ayudado a realizar este sueño: A mis padres por todo el sacrificio realizado, y aún parecerles poco, los amo mucho. A mi madre por estar siempre a mi lado en los buenos y malos momentos ayudándome a levantarme en cualquier recaída. A mi padre por guiarme en la vida y brindarme sus consejos siempre útiles, por darme fuerza y vitalidad. A mi mayor tesoro, mi hermano, que me alumbra de esperanza día a día. A mis tías y primos que me ayudaron mucho, aún estando lejos. A mi novio que me apoyo en todas mis decisiones y con paciencia supo ayudarme. A mis tutores y cotutores que siempre me dieron la mano; especialmente a Yovani por su paciencia, a quien debo gran parte de mi formación como profesional por sus exigencias. A todas mis amistades que son como mi familia; pues compartieron conmigo momentos felices y los no tan gratos, gracias por darme la mano: A Yanella, Yahylin, Ana, Daimy, Keila, Mirelis, Yulia, Tatiana, Radexy, Soumanh, Lenier y a todos los que no mencioné, gracias, de corazón. Al grupo de diseño de fármacos Asistido por Computadora e Investigaciones Bioinformáticas (CAMD-BIR Unit) por su colaboración, su gran ayuda e importancia. A todos muchas gracias ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to develop a simple quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) for the classification and prediction of antibacterial activity, so as to enable in silico screening. To this end a database of 2230 compounds, classified according to whether they had antibacterial activity, and for which a total of two TOMOCOMD-CARDD descriptors’s families were calculated, was analyzed. To identify descriptors that allowed separation of the two classes (i.e. those compounds with and without antibacterial activity), analysis of forward stepwise was utilized like variable selection´s method, and models were developed using linear discriminant analysis. Model predictivity was assessed and validated by the used of an external test set, for which predictions were made from the model. The results of the analyses indicated that total and local (heteroatoms and H-bonding heteroatoms) TOMOCOMD-CARDD descriptors, provided excellent separation of the data (>86% y >85% in training and test set, respectively). The models developed are then used in a simulation of virtual search of antibacterial drug-like compounds; >85% of the chemicals used in this simulated search were correctly classified, thus indicating the ability of the TOMOCOMD-CARDD models of finding lead compounds with novel structures and action mode. So, the obtained QSAR model can be applied to a large set of compounds searching for new candidates as antibacterials. RESUMEN El objetivo fundamental de este estudio fue desarrollar relaciones cuantitativas estructura- actividad (QSAR) para la clasificación y la predicción de la actividad antibacteriana, de manera que permita el desarrollo de procesos de “screening” in silico. Con este fin, una data de 2230 compuestos, clasificados acorde a su actividad antibacteriana, y un total de dos familias de descriptores TOMOCOMD-CARDD basados en relaciones de núcleos atómicos, fueron calculados y analizados. Para identificar los descriptores que permitan la separación en dos clases (ej: compuestos con y sin actividad antibacteriana), el análisis de “pasos-hacia-delante” fue empleado como métodos de selección de variables; y entonces los modelos fueron desarrollados usando el análisis discriminante lineal. Para acceder al poder predictivo de los modelos, se realizó una validación externa usando una serie de predicción externa (serie de prueba). Los resultados de los análisis indican que los índices bilineales atómicos (calculados para los heteroátomos y átomos de H-unidos a heteroátomos), proporcionan una excelente separación de la data (> 86% y >85%) en la serie de entrenamiento y en la serie de predicción, respectivamente. Los modelos desarrollados fueron usados en una búsqueda virtual de compuestos antibacterianos tipo- fármacos; >85% de los compuestos empleados en esta simulación fueron correctamente clasificados, los cual es indicativo de la capacidad de los modelos TOMOCOMD-CARDD en el descubrimiento de nuevos compuestos líderes (cabezas de serie), desde el punto de vista estructural y de modo de acción. Finalmente, los modelos QSAR obtenidos pueden ser aplicados a grandes bibliotecas virtuales con el objetivo de descubrir/seleccionar compuestos candidatos como antibacterianos. ÍNDICE Pág. RESUMEN GLOSARIO 1 INTRODUCCIÓN 1 Objetivos 4 2 REVISIÓN BIBLIOGRÁFICA 6 2.1 Historia 6 2.2 Definición y características 6 2.3 Espectro de acción 7 2.4 Clasificación y mecanismos de acción 7 2.5 Factores que rigen la sensibilidad de los m.o a los antimicrobianos 8 2.6 Factores que rigen la resistencia de los m.o a los antimicrobianos 8 2.7 Agentes antibacterianos 9 2.7.1 Sulfonamidas 9 2.7.2 Quinolonas 10 2.7.3 Penicilinas 12 2.7.4 Cefalosporinas 15 2.7.5 Otros antibióticos β-lactámicos . Carbapenems (Ej. Imipenem) 18 2.7.6 Aminoglucósidos 18 2.7.7 Tetraciclinas 22 2.7.8 Cloranfenicol 24 2.7.9 Macrólidos 26 2.7.10 Tuberculostáticos 28 3 MÉTODO COMPUTACIONAL Y ANÁLISIS QUIMIOMÉTRICO DE LOS DATOS 31 3.1 Método computacional, 33 3.1.1 Descriptores TOMOCOMD CARDD Basados en Relaciones entre Núcleos 33 Atómicos. 3.1.1.1 Información Química y Vector Molecular Basado en Átomos. 33 3.1.1.2 “Background” Sobre las Matrices de Densidad Electrónica 34 Grafo-Teóricas No Estocásticas y Estocásticas. 3.1.1.3 Definición de los Índices Cuadráticos, Bilineales y Lineales basados 38 en Relaciones de Átomos. 3.2 Análisis quimiométrico de los datos 45 3.2.1 Análisis Discriminante Lineal (ADL) para la Predicción de la Actividad. 45 3.2.2 Estimación de los Coeficientes. 45 3.2.3 Matriz de Clasificación. 46 3.2.4 Significación de la Función Discriminante (FD). 46 3.2.5 Criterios de Selección de Variables. 47 3.2.5.1 Selección del Número Óptimo de Predictores. Principio de la 47 Parsimonia. 3.2.5.2 Tolerancia. 48 3.2.6 Multicolinealidad Entre Variables, Redundancia de la Información y 48 Correlaciones Casuales. 3.2.7 Procedimiento de Selección de ‘Outliers’. El Rol de los ‘Outliers’. 48 3.2.8 Validación Estadística de los Modelos QSAR. 49 3.2.8.1 Validaciones Cruzadas (Validación Interna de los Modelos). 50 3.2.8.1.1 ¿Dejando uno o varios fuera? 50 3.2.8.2 División de la Data Original en Serie de Entrenamiento y Serie de 51 Predicción. 4 MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS 52 4.1 Base de Datos de los Compuestos Usados en la Obtención de los Modelos 52 ADL-QSAR. 4.2 Método Computacional. TOMOCOMD-CARDD software 53 4.3. Desarrollo de las Funciones Discriminantes (FDs) usando ADL. 55 5 RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIÓN 57 5.1 Desarrollo de Modelos QSAR-ADL 57 5.2 Interpretación en Términos Estructurales de los Modelos Obtenidos 61 5.3 Validación externa y ‘screening’ virtual: Una Promisoria Alternativa para la 62 Selección y el Diseño Racional de Fármacos Antimicrobianos. 6 CONCLUSIONES 78 7 RECOMENDACIONES 79 REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS ANEXOS GLOSARIO NEM Nueva Entidad Molecular ITs Índices Topológicos TOMOCOMD TOpological MOlecular COMputer Design bk(x) k-ésimo Índice bilineal basado en relaciones de núcleos atómicos QSAR Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships SE Serie de entrenamiento SP Serie de predicción ADL Análisis Discriminante Lineal λ Lambda de Wilks D2 Distancia de Mahalanobis al cuadrado Fexp Razón de Fisher experimental 1 INTRODUCCIÓN La era antibiótica comenzó con el descubrimiento en 1939 y 1940 de los tres primeros antibióticos, tirotricina, penicilina y actinomicina (Morton, 2000). Estos medicamentos fueron catalogados como “balas mágicas” toda vez que se pensó que con su advenimiento había llegado el fin de las enfermedades infecciosas. Sin embargo, muy poco después de su introducción en la práctica médica rutinaria los microorganismos fueron creando diferentes tipos de mecanismos para evadir el efecto nocivo de dichos medicamentos sobre ellos. Actualmente existe una crisis global en el tratamiento de las enfermedades infecciosas debido a la presencia de microorganismos resistentes a la mayoría, si no a todos los antimicrobianos convencionales (Levy, 2001). Tal es el caso de Staphylococcus aureus resistente a Meticilina (MRSA) (Ayliffe, 1997; Livermore, 2000; Tenover y col., 2001; Aucken y col., 2002), Entrococcus resistente a Vancomicina (VRE) (Huycke y col., 1998; Cetinkaya y col., 2000; Murray, 2000; Murray, 1998; Gold y Oellering, 1996), Streptococcus pneumoniae resistente a Penicilina (PRP) (Gold y Oellering, 1996; Appelbaum, 1992), y bacilos Gram (-) tales como Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Gold y Oellering, 1996; Livermore, 2002), Klebsiella pneumoniae (Tymms y col., 1995), entre otros. La prescripción innecesaria ha sido reconocida como el principal factor que influye en el desarrollo de resistencia y costo (Ball y col., 2002), aunque otros factores como el uso indiscriminado en la salud animal y la presencia en los residuales de las plantas productoras de medicamentos han sido factores importantes para el desarrollo de microorganismos resistentes (Guardabais y Kruse, 2003).
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