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La Estructura De Los Medios De Comunicación En Estados Unidos: Análisis Crítico Del Proceso De Concentración Multimedia

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La Estructura De Los Medios De Comunicación En Estados Unidos: Análisis Crítico Del Proceso De Concentración Multimedia UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS DE LA INFORMACIÓN LA ESTRUCTURA DE LOS MEDIOS DE COMUNICACIÓN EN ESTADOS UNIDOS: ANÁLISIS CRÍTICO DEL PROCESO DE CONCENTRACIÓN MULTIMEDIA MEMORIA PARA OPTAR AL GRADO DE DOCTOR PRESENTADA POR Ana Isabel Segovia Alonso Bajo la dirección del Doctor: Fernando Quirós Fernández Madrid, 2001 ISBN: 84-669-2229-6 Universidad Complutense de Madrid Facultad de Ciencias de la Información Año 2001 LA ESTRUCTURA DE LOS MEDIOS DE COMUNICACIÓN EN ESTADOS UNIDOS: ANÁLISIS CRÍTICO DEL PROCESO DE CONCENTRACIÓN MULTIMEDIA Ana Isabel Segovia Alonso DIRECTOR: Fernando Quirós Fernández Hay mucha gente a quien debo agradecer la fuerza, los ánimos y el empeño necesarios para sacar adelante este proyecto. No creo necesario dar ningún nombre: ellos y ellas saben de quién estoy hablando y por qué. Unos colaboraron como apoyo personal, otros como fuente intelectual ―aunque en ambos casos algunos ya no estén entre los vivos―. En fin, a todos aquellos que me han ayudado a recorrer la fascinante y al mismo tiempo dolorosa senda del conocimiento. ÍNDICE INTRODUCCIÓN ... pp. 1-3 CAPÍTULO PRIMERO. Marco metodológico: La economía política de la comunicación ... p. 5 1.1 Primeras aproximaciones a la economía política ... pp. 5-10 1.2 La escuela de la economía política de la comunicación ... pp. 10-13 1.2.1 Norteamérica: Smythe y Schiller ... pp. 13-20 1.2.2 Europa: Murdock, Golding, Garnham y Mattelart ... pp. 20-27 1.2.3 Tercer Mundo ... pp. 27-28 1.3 Nociones fundamentales de la economía política ... pp. 28-31 1.3.1 Estudios sobre concentración, diversificación e internacionalización de los medios de comunicación de masas ... pp. 31-44 1.3.2 Estudios sobre mercantilización y homogeneización de la industria cultural ... pp. 45-58 CAPÍTULO SEGUNDO. La concentración de poder en la sociedad norteamericana: La integración de los medios de comunicación en la élite del poder ... p. 59-63 2.1 El poder corporativo ... pp. 63-67 2.1.1 La cadena interminable ... pp. 67-72 2.1.2. La participación en la vida política ... pp. 72-80 2.2 La integración de los medios de comunicación en la élite del poder ... pp. 80-94 2.3 El nuevo orden mundial ... pp. 94-98 CAPÍTULO TERCERO. La posición de Estados Unidos en el sistema comunicativo internacional: Las políticas nacionales de comunicación y su repercusión internacional ... pp. 99-108 3.1 El libre flujo de la información ... pp. 108-109 3.1.1 La actuación de las empresas de medios de comunicación ... pp. 109-114 3.1.2 La adopción del “libre flujo de la información” como política exterior estadounidense ... pp. 115-119 3.1.3 Imposición internacional de la doctrina del “free flow of information” ... pp. 119-125 3.2 Las políticas comunicativas en EE.UU. ... pp. 125-137 3.3 Consecuencias para el sistema internacional de información ... pp. 137-146 CAPÍTULO CUARTO. El sistema de medios norteamericano (I): Bases legales del sistema ... p. 147-150 4.1 La Ley de Comunicaciones de 1934 4.1.1 Contexto de creación y aprobación de la ley ... pp. 150-160 4.1.2 La Comisión Federal de Comunicaciones ... pp. 160-170 4.1.3 Razones de los errores y negligencias de la FCC ... pp. 170-185 4.1.4 Restricciones en el contenido de los medios de radiodifusión ... pp. 186-203 4.1.5 Limitaciones en la propiedad de los medios de comunicación ... pp. 204-212 4.2 Los años 80: Los nuevos medios y los comienzos de la desregulación ... pp. 213-216 4.2.1 El concepto de desregulación ... pp. 217-218 4.2.2 Las leyes del cable y los nuevos medios ... pp.219-231 4.2.3 La desregulación de los medios tradicionales ... pp. 231-233 4.3 La Ley de Telecomunicaciones de 1996 ... pp. 233-239 4.3.1 Después de 1996: Consecuencias de la Ley de Telecomunicaciones ... pp. 239-244 4.4 Posibles causas de la ineficacia de las leyes de comunicaciones ... pp. 244-247 CAPÍTULO QUINTO. El sistema de medios norteamericano (II): Evolución del sistema de medios de comunicación ... p. 249-254 5. 1 Concentración en el sector de la edición: de las empresas familiares a las cadenas multimedia ... pp. 254-256 5.1.1 Prensa diaria ... pp. 256-280 5.1.2 Gannett Co. … pp. 280-285 5.1.3 Publicaciones periódicas ... pp. 285-292 5.2 El sector de la radio ... pp. 292-306 5.2.1 Clear Channel Communications ... pp. 306-310 5.3 La industria de la imagen ... pp. 310-312 5.3.1 De Hollywood a la industria de medios de comunicación ... pp. 312-321 5.3.2 La televisión ... pp. 321-356 5.3.3 TCI y AT&T … pp. 356-364 5.4 El futuro: los grupos multimedia ... pp. 365-374 5.4.1 AOL-Time Warner … pp. 374-385 5.4.2 The Walt Disney Co. … pp. 386-394 5.4.3 Viacom / CBS … pp. 394-405 5.5 Repercusiones en el sistema de medios ... pp. 405-409 5.5.1 La dependencia de la publicidad ... pp. 409-417 5.5.2 La concentración y los intereses interconectados ... pp. 417-420 CONCLUSIONES ... pp. 421-433 APÉNDICE 1: Leyes anti-trust de EE.UU. ... pp. 435-442 APÉNDICE 2: Gannett Co. ... pp. 443-446 APÉNDICE 3: Clear Channel Communications ... pp. 447-452 APÉNDICE 4: AT&T y TCI ... pp. 453-455 APÉNDICE 5: AOL-Time Warner ... pp. 457-465 APÉNDICE 6: Walt Disney Company ... pp. 467-472 APÉNDICE 7: Viacom ... pp. 473-480 BIBLIOGRAFÍA ... pp. 483-501 INTRODUCCIÓN 1 INTRODUCCIÓN «La cultura popular de los Estados Unidos es hoy lo más cercano a una lingua franca universal, que funciona a través de una zona cultural federada distribuyendo algunos sueños compartidos de libertad, riqueza, comodidad, inocencia y poder. [···] la participación de los Estados Unidos en la unificación mundial, heredera y en ocasiones superior en alcance a la de los romanos, la Iglesia Católica y el islamismo, aunque sin ejército ni dios. Gracias a la seducción de las multinacionales, los Estados Unidos producen los escenarios y los símbolos de una curiosa especie de sensibilidad mundial, una semicultura global» TODD GITLIN (2001, p. 12) «El problema no es tanto su presumible interna para vehicular consignas políticas o ideológicas muy precisas [···] sino ante todo el riesgo de sustracción de otras fuentes informativas y la supresión de matices políticos en las formas de gestión de la opinión pública; es decir, el riesgo de la uniformidad más absoluta en la producción del consentimiento» EDUARDO GIORDANO (1995, p. 50) La implicación de los medios de comunicación de masas como fuente de valores e instrumentos sustitutivos de la experiencia personal ha hecho que éstos se conviertan en objeto de estudio desde hace muchas décadas. Las investigaciones que han generado supondrían volúmenes enteros de reseñas bibliográficas. Muchos de ellos se dedican a valorar los efectos de los media, incluso para concluir que su influencia es limitada. Pero, dada su actual omnipresencia en la vida de cualquier ciudadano de cualquier nivel social, su atracción como sujeto de estudio sigue siendo irresistible. 2 La estructura de los medios de comunicación en EE.UU. Las perspectivas desde las cuales podría abordarse el sistema de medios de comunicación actual son múltiples. Sin embargo, la liberalización, privatización y concentración del sector, los cambios que se han producido a lo largo de los 80 y los 90 —elevados a su máximo exponente en la última década— nos hacen pensar en lo conveniente de un análisis desde la economía política. La importancia de un estudio de estas características ha sido ya puesta de manifiesto (y llevada a la práctica) por muchos académicos: Sus reflexiones son la base teórica fundamental de esta investigación. Entre ellos, y como eje primordial, aparece Herbert I. Schiller, aquel que ha investigado más a fondo el papel de Estados Unidos y sus corporaciones transnacionales en el sistema económico internacional, tema que supone el punto de partida de la investigación. Lo que nos ha motivado es la pretensión de reunir, en unas mismas páginas, tanto la perspectiva política y la económica como las consecuencias del sistema internacional que se perfila, esbozado en su mayor parte por las corporaciones de medios estadounidenses. Aunar los diferentes medios en una perspectiva total y dar la significación que merece a su conjunto. Extraer las aportaciones personales de cada autor para unirlas en una investigación que pretende delinear el panorama mediático y social al que nos vemos abocados. Una manera de acercarse a la cultura que, según el mismo Herbert Schiller reconoce en una de sus obras, no se había tenido en cuenta hasta entonces: Los tratados de economía, desde la mitad del siglo pasado hasta ahora, han estado ocupados exorcizando la influencia de Marx. Sus análisis excluyen las condiciones políticas y mucho más las culturales. Al mismo tiempo, los teóricos de la cultura se han negado a reconocer un elemento económico en las actividades culturales, a no ser como factor de fondo y muy alejado, sólo muy ligeramente relacionado con la producción y actividad cultural. Sin embargo, es un absurdo separar ahora la economía, la política y la cultura. La comunicación electrónica sirve de denominador común a todos los INTRODUCCIÓN 3 que contribuyen cada vez más a la producción de todos lo bienes y servicios. Y la información, que se ha convertido en parte principal del proceso productivo, siendo ella misma un bien importante por derecho propio, se rige también por las leyes del mercado que ocasionan uniformidad en la producción industrial y cultural (1986, pp. 101-102). CAPÍTULO PRIMERO 5 CAPÍTULO PRIMERO Marco metodológico: La economía política de la comunicación «Nos encontramos más cerca de la realidad y, por lo tanto, estamos destinados a tener impacto.
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