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Evolution, Bio-Statistics and Computer Applications in Zoology MZO-04 Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Evolution, Bio-Statistics and Computer Applications in Zoology MZO-04 Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Evolution, Bio-Statistics and Computer Applications in Zoology Course Development Committee Chair Person Prof. Vinay Kumar Pathak Vice-Chancellor Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Coordinator and Members Convener SANDEEP HOODA Department of Zoology School of Science & Technology Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Members Prof. L.R.Gurjar Dr. Anuradha Dubey Director (Academic) Deputy Director Vardhman Mahaveer Open School of Science & Technology University, Kota Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Dr. Arvind Pareek Prof. K.K. Sharma Director (Regional Centre) MDSU,Ajmer Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Prof. Maheep Bhatnagar Prof. S.C. Joshi MLSU, Udaipur University of Rajasthan,Jaipur Dr. Anuradha Singh Dr.M.M.Ranga Department of Zoology Department of Zoology Govt. College, Kota Govt. College, Ajmer Editing and Course Writing Editor SANDEEP HOODA Assistant Professor & Convener of Zoology School of Science & Technology Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Writers: Writer Name Unit No. Writer Name Unit No. Dr. Rajesh Yadav 1, 9, 11 Sunil Choudhary 2,3,4 Dept. of Zoology, Arid Forest Research Institute, JECRC University Jaipur Jodhpur Mr. Pankaj Kumar DMRC, Jodhpur Prof. K.K.Sharma 5,6 Dr. Varsha Gupta 7,8 Ex Head, Dept. of Zoology, Dept. of Microbiology, MDS University, Ajmer JECRC University Jaipur Dr. Abhishek Rajpurohit 10,12,13 Mohammed Kasim 14 Department of Zoology Dept. of Zoology,JNVU Lachoo Memorial College of Jodhpur Science &Technology ,Jodhpur Ms. Mugdha Agarwal 15 Banasthali Vidhyapeeth Academic and Administrative Management Prof. Vinay Kumar Pathak Prof. L.R. Gurjar Vice-Chancellor Director (Academic) Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Prof. Karan Singh Dr. Subodh Kumar Director (MP&D) Additional Director (MP&D) Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota ISBN : All Right reserved. No part of this Book may be reproduced in any form by mimeograph or any other means without permission in writing from V.M. Open University, Kota. Printed and Published on behalf of the Registrar, V.M. Open University, Kota. Printed by : MZO-04 Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Index Unit No. Unit Name Page No. Unit - 1 Evolutionary Mechanism 1 Unit - 2 Quantifying genetic variability: genetic structure of natural 37 populations, phenotypic variation, models explaining changes in genetic structure of populations, factors affecting human disease frequency Unit - 3 Molecular population genetics: patterns of change in 58 nucleotide and amino acid sequences, ecological significance of molecular variations, emergence of non- Darwinism-neutral hypothesis Unit - 4 Genetics of quantitative traits in populations, genotype- 76 environment interactions, inbreeding depression and heterosis, molecular analysis of quantitative traits, phenotypic plasticity Unit - 5 Genetics of speciation: phylogenetic and biological concept 96 of species, patterns and mechanisms of reproductive isolation, models of speciation (Allopatric, Sympatric, Parapatric) Unit - 6 Adaptation diversity & nature of adaptation: adaptive 111 radiations & occupation of new environments & niches: mimicry and coloration Unit - 7 Biostatistics 122 Unit - 8 Frequency distributions & centering constants (Mean, 153 Median and Mode). Measures of variation (standard deviation, variance, standard error of the Mean) Unit - 9 Sampling Variation of Proportion, Significance difference 207 of proportion & Analysis of Variance Unit - 10 Student’s t test, Chi-square test. Correlation and regression 240 Unit - 11 Probability Distributions : Binomial, Poisson & Normal 272 Unit - 12 History and generation of computer, Fundamentals of 310 computer Unit - 13 Computer peripherals and architecture, elementary idea 348 about operating system, DOS and window environment, Applications of MS-Office Unit - 14 Software used in biomedical science (image analysis 388 system automation). sound spectrum analysis, computer simulation, digital alternatives of invasive techniques in anatomy and physiology Unit - 15 Bioinformatics 408 MZO-04 Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Preface The present book entitled “Evolution, Bio-Statistics and Computer Applications in Zoology” has been designed so as to cover the unit-wise syllabus of MZO-04 course for M.Sc. Zoology (Previous) students of Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota. The basic principles and theory have been explained in simple, concise and lucid manner. Adequate examples, diagrammes, photographs and self- learning exercises have also been included to enable the students to grasp the subject easily. The unit writers have consulted various standard books and internet on the subject and they are thankful to the authors of these reference books. ---------------- Unit - 1 Evolutionary Mechanism Structure of the Unit 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Hardy-Weinberg Law of genetic equilibrium 1.2.1 Gene pool 1.2.2 Gene frequency 1.2.3 Hardy-Weinberg Law 1.3 Destabilizing forces 1.3.1 Natural selection 1.3.2 Mutation 1.3.3 Isolation 1.3.4 Genetic drift 1.3.5 Migration 1.3.6 Meiotic drive 1.4 Molecular Evolution 1.4.1 Gene evolution 1.4.2 Evolution of Gene families 1.4.3 Molecular drive 1.4.4 Assessment of Molecular variation 1.5 Summary 1.6 Glossary 1.7 Self-Learning Exercise 1.8 References 1 1.0 Objectives After going through this unit you will be able to understand: Gene pool and gene frequency Hardy-Weinberg Law of genetic equilibrium What are the different types of destabilizing forces? What is Molecular Evolution? What are the causes of molecular Evolution? How the evolution of gene families occur? What is Molecular drive? 1.1 Introduction Evolution has been described as “descent with modification” by Darwin. Evolution cannot be an individual phenomenon, because an individual lives and dies with a fixed genotype. Recently, evolution has been regarded as a change in the genetic composition of the population rather than the change at individual level. Thus, the population rather than the individual has been regarded as the functional unit of evolution. With the development of the concept of gene and alleles, the genetic basis of inherited variation was established. And the changes over time in relative frequencies of the genetic variations in sub-population are the basis for the evolution of the species. The total genetic stock of the population is its gene pool. Individuals have a selection of alleles from that gene pool, possibly taken randomly. The Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium is a means of calculating expected genotype frequencies from allele/gene frequencies determined in the same population (and vice-versa) assuming random mating, equal reproductive success, no mutations and no effects of selection or migration affecting particular genotypes. If a population does not fit Hardy-Weinberg predictions then that is evidence of some real effect (e.g. Natural selection) operating to disturb it. Thus, Gene frequencies and the forces that change these frequencies such as mutation, migration selection and genetic drift are being studied widely these days. 2 1.2 Hardy-Weinberg Law of genetic equilibrium The concept of population is generally used to denote a group of individuals which have common features. A population may be defined as an assemblage of living beings that represents a closely interacting system. Or, more elaborately, population may be defined as a group of individuals; each of them could potentially mate with a member of the same group of the opposite sex and hence could take part in the reproduction of the population. The potential to reproduce by mating with another member of the population is the main aspect of population. The particular individual may not take part in actual reproduction but the potential for it remains within. Populations are dynamic, they may grow and expand or diminish and contract through changes in birth or death rates, by migration or by merging with other populations. The members of one population could mate with members of another population, but they usually do not, because they are reproductively isolated by some barriers. The resulting gain or loss of inherited variation over time within populations of the species determines the course of evolution. 1.2.1 Gene pool In a Mendelian population, the set of genetic information carried by all members which can interbreed is known as the gene pool. Or, in other words, it is the sum total of alleles/genes present in a Mendelian population. The genes are temporarily embodied in the individuals and are passed on to the next generation in the reproductive gametes of the population. Therefore, gene pool going in the gametes is called gametic pool. The study of gene pool of a population tells us about the kind of genes present in the population, the proportion of different kinds of genes and also the way in which these kinds are distributed among the individuals of the population. The ratio of a gene in the gene pool of a population is called gene frequency. The gene pool of each population maintains its integrity as long as there is free random interbreeding between the individuals of this population. When there is interbreeding among populations of a species, the genes from one gene pool enter another and vice-versa. This exchange of genes among populations is called gene flow. This causes
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