An ignominious end for a successful design. The R-100 being John Bradshaw demolished at Cardington Air Station on 3rd December, 1931. S. Martin's College The furnishings were sold as souvenirs. However, the photo- graph does show the construction based around 16-sided reg- ular polygons, each with cables in tension from every apex to the centre, the axis of the ship. @ The Hulton-Deutsch Collection. There must be many examples of mathematical models currently in use which could demonstrate actual applications of school maths - but it is not so easy to find ones in which both the context and the maths is understandable by the pupils. The Editors would welcome examples which do in fact satisfy these requirements, but meanwhile here is a description of one from the past which pupils from the fourth to the sixth form have appreciated when studying the solution of simul- an taneous equations and subsequently the resolution of forces. A little background information may be in order first. The novelist Nevile Shute's surname was Norway, it being dropped early so far as publication was concerned in order to extract disassociate his 'literary amusements' from his "real" job in the aircraft industry. At the time he describes in the following from passages, 1924 and on, the Labour Government of the day invited bids for the construction of two experimental commer- cial airships. It transpired that Vickers Ltd were to build one 'Slide Rule-' (the R100) while the Air Ministry would build the other (the R101) in direct competition. It was seen to some extent Nevile Shute's to be "testing" the better principle: capitalism or State enterprise. As a result the Ministry team at Cardington were urgently pressed for rapid results throughout the five year project by Ramsay MacDonald's Committee and so were autobiography encouraged to cut corners and make approximations and unsupported assumptions. In sharp contrast, Barnes Wallis* *Barnes Wallis went on to design the Vickers Wellington bomber of WW II, which featured the light but immensely strong geodetic construction; the 'bouncing bomb', see 'Dam Busters', Alan Irving, M.i.S. March '88 (Vol. 17, No. 2) pp. 32, 33; and latterly the 'swing-wing' aircraft; to mention but three more products of his highly creative & fertile mind. Mathematics in School, September 1993 15 R-100, moored at Cardington during a visit by the Graf Zeppelin, under Dr. Eckener on 26th April, 1930. The R-101 and the earlier Air Ministry designs, such as the equally ill-fated R-38, were built largely empirically by copying the successful German ships. SThe Hulton-Deutsch Collection. insisted that there be a firm theoretical basis for each and R.80, built by Vickers at the conclusion of the war. My every feature of the Vickers design. Nevertheless, the job was to get together a staff of calculators to do the work completed airships first flew within a month of each other in on R.100, translating the theories of the consultants into 1929, but- the RIO1 was found to have insufficient lift and so the forces and stresses in each member of the ship and so was cut in half and another section grafted in to accommodate providing the draughtsmen with the sizes for each girder an extra gasbag. Spurning the R100's extended flight- and each wire. testing, the impatient Secretary of State for Air, Lord This was an important matter, for the previous experi- Thomson, insisted on flying to India in the R101 forthwith. ence of England in the construction of rigid airships had Almost certainly as a result of a structural failure, the RO11 dived into the ground at Beauvais, France on 5th October, 1930, killing all but six of the fifty-four persons on board. Despite the fact that the R100 had successfully passed all ..... her flight trials, performing as per the original specification, and had safely weathered storms over the Atlantic during a return trip to Canada, she was scrapped by order of the Air Ministry ostensibly on the grounds that airships were OON IAto.-PROPELLERS unsafe. The Zeppelin dirigibles, the most successful of the dirigibles because of their rigid frameworks, were usually filled with hydrogen gas. The use of a number of small balloons within the framework was a safety feature. If one balloon broke, the entire Slide Rule structure would not be affected. Large vertical and horizontal fins helped in stabilizing flight. Mr. B. N. Wallis, who was then* a designer of rigid airships working for Vickers Ltd, was gathering together a staff for the design of a very large airship to be known as the R.100. I joined this staff in the capacity of Chief not been happy. Rigid airships had been built during the Calculator, which should not be misinterpreted. I knew war upon the lines of the German airships that had been nothing of airships at that time and the Airship Guarantee shot down. Vickers had had a hand in this programme Company, a subsidiary of Vickers Ltd, employed three with the construction of R.80 and other ships, and R.80 at consultants who were to teach me the fundamentals of my any rate had been properly stressed according to the best job and carry out research into the methods. Professor aerodynamic data available at the time. Most of the other Bairstow was our authority on aerodynamics, Professor ships had been designed and built by a staff of government Pippard on structures, and Mr. J. E. Temple was the most officials attached to the Air Ministry, but the methods of practical and useful of them all because he had been Chief the German designers were not known, of course, and Calculator for Wallis on the design of a former ship, the these ships had been built empirically and by copying the sizes of the girders in the German ships. The last of them was R.38. On her third flight a structural weakness in the "1924. girders was revealed, but was made light of. On her fourth 16 Mathematics in School, September 1993 R-101, built by the Air Ministry at Cardington in Bedfordshire. The specially constructed hangers in the background can still be seen there today. Close inspection of the photograph will show the two seams in the fabric where the extra section was grafted in and which subsequently failed while turning over Beauvais, France. @ The Hulton-Deutsch Collection. flight she was doing turning trials over the Humber in solution it was usual to find a compression force in one or very perfect weather when she broke in two, the front part two of the radial wires; the whole process then had to be catching fire and falling in the river and the rear part begun again using a different selection of wires. coming down on land. Forty-four lives were lost in the When a likely-looking solution had at last been obtained, accident. At the enquiry into the disaster it came out that deflection diagrams were set out for the movements of the the officials responsible had made no calculations whatso- various corners of the polygon under the bending moments ever of the aerodynamic forces acting on the ship in flight; and loads found in the various portions of the arched rib, it was not therefore very surprising that she broke when and these yielded the extension of the radial wires under doing turns at full helm and full speed. load, which was compared with the calculated loads found My own work in the calculating office led at times to a in the wires. It was usual to find a discrepancy, perhaps satisfaction almost amounting to a religious experience. due to an arithmetical mistake by a tired calculator ten The stress calculations for each transverse frame, for days before, and the calculations had to be repeated till instance, required a laborious mathematical computation this check was satisfied. When the deflections and the by a pair of calculators that lasted for two or three months calculated loads agreed, it was not uncommon to discover before a satisfactory and true solution to the forces could that one of the wires thought to be slack was, in fact, in be guaranteed. To explain this for the benefit of engineers, tension as revealed by the deflection diagrams, which I should say that each transverse frame consisted of a meant that the two calculators had to moisten the lips and girder in the form of a stiff, sixteen-sided polygon with start again at the very beginning. the flats at top and bottom; this girder was twenty-seven The final check was to take vertical and horizontal inches deep and up to a hundred and thirty feet in components of the forces in every member of the frame to diameter. Sixteen steel cables ran from the centre of the see that they equated to zero, that your pencil diagram polygon, the axis of the ship, to the corner points, bracing was not sliding off the paper into the next room. When all the polygonal girder against deflections. All loads, whether forces were found to be in balance, and when all deflections of gas lift, weights carried on the frame, or shear wire proved to be in correspondence with the forces elongating reactions, were applied to the corner points of the polygon, the members, then we knew that we had reached the truth. and except in the case of the ship turning these loads were As I say, it produced a satisfaction almost amounting to symmetrical port and starboard. One half of the transverse a religious experience.