Thesis Approved

By

Major Adviser

...... j . an

4. / FRANCESCA DA RIMINI ON THE STAGE or

A Study of the Paolo and Francesca Theme As Treated hy George Henry Baker, Stephen Phillips, and Gabriele d*Annunzio.

!..

BY )

GARTH GILBERT GEE

A THESIS Submitted to the Faculty of The Creighton University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Master of Arts

in the Department of English \( %

OMAHA, 1932

-13 7 7 2 FOREWARD

It is the purpose of this thesis to look into the history and tradition of the Francesca tragedy, and to note the effect of each on Baker, Phillips, and d ‘Annunzio; to discuss the approach of the authors to their theme and their manner of handling it; and to discover by what means and by what tools their stage success was due. It is also my intention to compare the poetic efforts of the dramatists with a view to placing them in a scale of values; to study the likenesses and dissimilarities between th^ outstanding four corresponding characters of each author; and, finally, to attempt some fair estimate of the value of their plays to the world.

Obviously, there is no desire to exhaust the theme, even relative to the American, British, and Italian play­ wrights. If the high points, listed in the paragraph above, are reached, I snail feel that I have partially succeeded.

- 1 GARTH G. GEE

i \ "it TABLE OP CENTENTS

I. The History and Tradition of the Francesca Tragedy - -

Page One II* The Approach of the Authors to the Theme ------

Page Nine III. The Dramatic Technique of the Authors ------

Page Twenty-Two ■-*: I. IV. The poetry of the Plays-

Page Thirty-Two V. The Pour Major Characters of Bach Author ------* Page Forty VI. An Estimate of the Authors

*% Page Forty-Nine I. THE HISTORY AND TRADITION OF THE FRANCESCA TRAGEDY

The northeastern shores of Italy, about which the tragedy of Paolo and Francesca centers, is one of that country's most beautiful spots. Rimini, the oldest and smallest of the Italian republics, is situated in a ice o f V enice Ühiogkia Parenz« fertile plain surrounded by river J\fo\ähs P.ïiella M aestra l the hills, mountains, and a sea. R. The city is bounded on three sides by water. It faces the Adriatic to the north, has the

torrent, Aprusa, on the east * and has the river, Maracchia,

>raja I. on the west. Its position is Ù . . vi / MÔntttïcin° ^P iom b ili f ^ ass '•¿ft*/} such that it commands a pros­ y Elba lanosa ■ Oy4 P . Onibronc Colo J' -2ï. ui Ibegn pect of almost unrivalled Y nigcil ICWIU II Formica I. • ^Giglio I.Q Monto Christo* beauty over hill and plain.

In order to gain a right perspective of the political situation at the time of the slaying of Paolo and Francesca

it is necessary to look back a century or two into the past before the days of the powerful Ma'latesta. The records 4. show that in the tenth century Rimini was governed by the pope through the agency of counts, the city having been given to the pope by the Franks. This rule went on without much molestation until the rise of the Hohenstaufens in Germany. As this new power began to assert itself, the pope found himself struggling with a new voice of authority. At this (2 ) time there commenced the age-long struggle between the im­ perial and papal factions known as the feuds of Guelfs and Ghibcrllines. (Their names are the corrupted Italian forms for Welfs, enemies of Conrad Hohenstaufen, and Waiblings, friends of Conrad, so-called from the birthplace of Conrad, Waiblingen.) The friction between these two factions was no less severe in the days of Paolo and Francesca as is indicated i by the words of Alda, one of Francesca's women, in speaking of the dead troubagour, Guido,

11 Good, let him dies he's for the emperor. i 1. May he now go and make this rhymes in hellIM This condiction of hatred between the two groups, with the Alternate rise and fall of each, continued at white heat until the rise of the despots. Even then the Guelfs and Ghibellines remained the stiffest of enemies, but a turn in historical events followed the ascendency of the tyrants.

* In the year 1216, Rimini, after being torn almost asumder in its struggle with the city of cesena, turned, with the per­ mission of the emperor, Otho, to the powerful Malatesta tribe headed by Giovanni and Malatesta. These violent men even granted citizenship for the sake of their aid and that of 4. their vassals in the defense of the state. For a period of over 300 years/ the tyrants of Malatesta ruled Rimini. —------‘—c------1. A.Symons,d'Annunzio*s "Francesca da Rimini", p.22. (3 ) We come now to the particular MalateSta who really founded that famous House. This man was called Malatesta da Veruccio, and had the distinction of living one hundred years. He was the father of Giovanni, Paolo and Malatestino, who figure in the tragic death of Paolo and Francesca. During Verucchio's lifetime, the Guelfs were greatly in the ascendency and needed only a little closer cooperation to complete the subjugation of the Ghibellines. To the north of Rimini lay Ravenna, the other stronghold of papal adherence.

An alliance between Ravenna and Rimini would mean that prac- I tically al^ of Romagna would-be placed under Guelf control. The central person who could effect this union was Giovanni, * the ugly but exceptionally brave, oldest son of VeruccMo. V H© had been a great help to Guido of Ravenna in the wars against the latter*s enemies. As a result of this service, a way was paved to unite the two cowerful houses of Romagna. *> Francesca, the handsome daughter of Guido, was given to Giovanni, as a reward for his services. It is concerning this match that Ostasio, thinking of the possibility of uniting Romagna, asks of Ser Toldo in Act One: $ ”By this alliance Shall we have got Cesena,' Cervia, Faenza, Forli, Civitella, Half of Romana?" 1. This political "marriage uade of Francesca a kind of "jeptha's >. 2. daughter, her father's sacrifice”, as the food, Pepe, intimates.

1. Ibid, p .33 2. A.H.Quinn,"Representative American Plays” (G.H.Baker's "Francesca da Rimini”, Act III, Scene 2), p.342. - (4 ) But according to available records Francesca went through with the ceremony. To make the link of bondage still stronger between the Malatesta and Polenta, another marriage was con­ summated. A son of Guido married a daughter of the Malatesta.

At the time of their nuptials, Giovanni was at least thirty years old and Francesca was a mere slip of a girl,

being hardly seventeen. The marriage existed for ten years during which time a boy and girl were born. The boy, Francesco, died while still a child, and the girl, who lived, was

named Concordia, a strange misnomer in the light of her

mother's life, after her grandmother, the wife of Verucchio. - •'* * About two years after the slaying of the lovers, Giovanni married Zambrasina, by whom he had three sons and two daughters. From 1295 to 1304, at the time of his death, he was lord of Rimini.

Paolo, who was only four years younger than Giovanni, was seventeen years old when he married Orabile Beatrice,

who was fifteen at the time. It seems that the marriage, too,

was political. Orabile bore Paolo two children#* the elder of whom, Uberto, asserted his father's innocence in the love affair, and vowed revenge on Giovanni, his irnele. The latter invited him to a banquet and bad him slain by two of \ V his (Giovanni's) bastard sons. Paolo was a widower at the time of his love affair with Francesca, Orabile having passed away before Giovanni and Francesca were married. (5 )

So much for the actual history of the Polenta and Malatesta families. Besides the historical records, other information concerning the families may be found in the realm of tradition, the authenticity of which may or may not be trusted. One of the first questions one might ask is, "Since the Italian records and traditions are filled with hundreds of such tragic love-tales in which the victims die by the

t dagger, the rope, or poison, why is it that the story of Paolo and Francesca should be picked from the rest and, consequently, shed a halo of sacredness about the otherwise insignifleant city of Rimini?" The reasons are two: (1) the high position of the families and (£) the poet, Dante.

The latter is the main reason why Francesca da Rimini lives today. In his masterpiece, "The Divine Comedy", Dante re­ cords only sixty lines, the last sixty of Canto Five of the "inferno", in which he deals with the theme; but his poetic

effort is so great that it has inspired at least nine taagic dramas, >three operas, and two poems. Perhaps the reason for

the great inspiration of that portion of the "Inferno" lies

in the fact that Dante knew the Polenta family and lived through the horrible tragedy. He was only twenty at the ,time of the double murder, an age of youth which would forever burn the story of the crime and its events into his soul. ( Fifteen years later he went to live at Ravbnna in the very house where Francesca had lived, as the guest and friend of

Guido Novella da Polenta, own nephew to Francesca. It is (6 ) now thought that Dante wrote his poetic version while at Guido's home.

Because of Dante's close association with the Polentas, it has always been assumed that what he has to say about

Paolo and Francesca is reliable. No one, however, would deny after studying the history of the case, that Dante has idealized the lovers. He obviously sympathizes with them. While one could not go all the way with Mrs. Becker in saying that 1. Francesca did not fare so badly, even if she went to hell, yet it may be safely said that there is nothing historically < t to lift her to a position of praise. The Lancelot and Guinevere part of Dante's account has always been unquestionably ac­ cepted by adapters and critics*. The unorthodox question which has been running in my mind is, ’’Did the reading of the metrical romance actually precede the slaying of Paolo and Francesca, or was the usé of the romance an embàllishing device ' * of the idealizing Dante?" I merely raise the question.

Another traditional source for material, and one which has been generally used and relied upon, is Boccaccio's

Commentary on the Divine Comedy. Boccaccio recites several details which have served as an outline for many dramas on the Rimini theme. It is he who says that Guido arranged the ■f i - marriage of Francesca to Giovanni to conciliate the friend- % ship of the elder Malatesta (Verucchio), and that Paolo was

1. Saturday Review of Literature, "Plays Based upon the Francesca Episode in Dante", 6 :43, (Aug. 10,1929) . (7 ) sent to deceive Francesca with his beauteous person, and thus make her believe that he was the prospective husband.

Francesca did not discover the trickery played upon her until she rose from her bed the morning after the first, night spent with her husband. Boccaccio adds that a report of the

illicit love was carried to Giovanni’s camp by a spying ^domestic lago", and that Giovanni hastened home to bring the affair to an ill end. The picture of the trapped Paolo, endeavoring to escape viien he heard Giovanni coming into the room, is Boccaccio*s story, as well as that of Francesca

throwing herself between the sword wièlded by Giovanni, and its intended victim, Paolo. | Just how much credence is to be attributed to these statements of Boccaccio is still

a question of dispute among critics. Upon the strength of Mr.Charles Yriarte’s research in Rimini in 1883, which seems to confirm Boccaccio’s details, Gertrude Urban is willing 1. to rest. To the contrary, however, there is another

voice which has spoken against Boccaccio with the zeal of a prophet, contending that Boccaccio has been the cause of leaving misconceptions to posterity. All those who have followed this medieval Italian poet, according to the author,

have "converted those whom the poet (Dante) apparently in­

tended to present as ideal lovers into commonplace violators 2 . of the seventh commandment". All of which discussion will ■f l probably lead nowhere. So far as the point in question is

1. The critic, "Paolo and Francesca in History and Litera­ ture", 40:435-6, (May, 1902). 2. T.Martin, Blackwood’s Magazine, "Dante’s Paolo and Fran cesca", 182:319-320, (Sept,,1907). (8 ) concerned, the important thing is that both Dante and Boccaccio have served as source material for poems, operas, and dramas which have wrung the world's heart. It is a significant fact that over six hundred years Paolo and Francesca have been listed among the world's great lovers. Writers and artists have seized upon the theme of MYouth going toward Youth” , and,in this case, have pointed the I tgragic results which followed.

< ♦

i

4

< . \ (9 )

II. THE APPROACH OF THE AUTHORS TO THE THEME “There;, are apparently two main ways in which the world at large has sought to justify, vicariously, its amorous wrongdoings. One is through the emotions, the other through devious rationalizing. The first admits the wrongdoing, but seeks to excuse it. The second way simply refuses to admit the fact of wrongdoing and seeks a dozen or more reasons for calling it right. The emotional way is essentially the way of the theatre or the poem, whereas the rationalizing method 1. is essentially that of the essay,"

■4 i A study of the dramas based upon the Italian tragedy will prove that Mr. Skinner is right. ’'The emotional way is essentially the way of the theatre." George Henry Baker, Stephen Phillips, and Gabriel d ’Annunzio, the dramatists, whose versions of Francesca de Rimini occupy the balance of this study, are no exceptiones to this generalization. All three, at various points in their plays, try to play upon the heart strings. They endeavor to convince the reader that people caught in the foils of fate deserve, not condemnation, but the greatest pity. t a. George Henry Baker ' 4

The great Ab£ rican tragedy of Francesca was written by ♦ George Henry Baker in 1855. It would take^only a casual %

1. R.D.Skinner, The Commonweal, "Paolo and Francesca", 9:684, (April 17, 1929). (10) reading by one who is familiar with Dante's and Boccaccio’s incidents to see the influence of both upon him. He utilizes the reading of "Lancelot du Lac" as one of the high spots of his drama, adopts Boccaccio’s conception of the marriage as a scheme to reconcile the house of the Malatesta to the house of Polenta, and thoroughly saturates his play with the deception story of Boccaccio. In fact, Baker's "Francesca da Rimini" i is one deception after another. He even takes over the germ of Boccaccio's idea of the servant who spies and reports on the lovers, but he does it in the decidedly novel way of creating a Pourt fool to do it, a rather odd turn of mind for a playwright. Baker "skillfully blended Joist orical facts and tradition to create a situation in which two noble natures, Paolo and Francesca, are tricked by the machinations of two wiley lords of the rival Italian States of Ravenna and Rimini, 1. ‘ first into love, and theinto crime and death". He is at » * once the romanticist and the realist. When Lanciotto kills the tattling Pepe, he becomes the typical, hot-headed Italian of the medieval ages, but one senses the romances at work when Lanciotto soliloquizes and becomes introspective and hesitant.

Baker knew the Italian woman as is evidenced by Francesca's more-than-willingness to give her entire being to Paolo.

Numeroussother instances could be cited in the play which ( ■ illustrate both the romancing and realistic traits in Baker.

1. A.H.Quinn, Scribner's Magazine, "G.H.Baker - Playwright and Patriot", 73:706, (June,1923). (11) The play opens in and about the palace at Rimini. Baker assumes that Guido and Ravenna arq ©libellines and, consequently, bitter enemies of the Malatesta. Since Ravenna was in a fairly bad way because of the wars between the two powerful houses, Malatesta, together with Guido, had contrived the marriage scheme between the hunchback of Rimini and the beautiful princes? of Ravenna. Pepe, almost in paroxysms of laughter, i reports the plan to Paolo and his frollicking troubadours. The scene changes to a hall in the castle, and Malatesta is presented in conversation with his warrior son, Lanciotto.

When the latter is told of thfe marriage bond, he immediately assumes that introspective manner which envelopes him thorough-

out the play. He cannot imagine a twisted body such as his

own in the embrace of a wife. ”Wed my brothers” , he says 1. to Malatesta. ”They’ll rear you sons. I ’ll slay your enemies.” ■n When Paolo discusses the, ^contemplated scheme with him and «■ * encourages him to go ahead, Lanciotto decides to send Paolo to Francesca with the appointed task of telling her the entire truth about his person.

The scene shifts to the palace at Ravenna where a

• t discussion ensues between the cardinal and Guido.* The former objects to the method which Guido is pursuing and warns him to be careful. Francesca rushes in alarmed and \ wondering what her father is planning to do with her.

Rittai¿Francesco's maid, knows of the plan, and keeps quiet

1. 1.H.Quinn,’’Represent ative American Plays” ,p .322,a about it to Francesca because Guido has threatened to boil her, if she does not. Word is received that Paolo, the beautiful is being sent as the representation of Lanciotto, and it is then that Guido decided to let Francesca think that he is to be her husband. A humorous account follows of Ritta’s endeavor to break up what she knows to be th© truth. She is too honest, however, to hold out for long. Boiling or no boiling, she i finally lets the plan escape her lips. When the truth-is knowgt, Francesca become disillusioned and no longer cared to

remain at home. As Paolo approaches ner he tells her of Lanciotto*s great exploits and great mind, but not a word of his ill-arranged physique. It is evident, in fact, that

Paolo is beginning to love hi Sj brother * s anticipated wife.

In Act Three, there is a return to Rimini. A trumpet » sound announcing the arrival of Paolo and the delegation • *> from Ravenna interrupts a phildsophizing duel between the * serious Lanciotto and the ever-jocular Pepe. Amid great pomp and show the party is received, and, ere long, Fran­ cesca beholds her future husband for the first time. Again

she is deceived and this time by Paolo. When Lanciotto • i learns of the deceptions practiced on her, he qffers to

release her. This Francesca refuses to do, chiefly because ♦ her father continues to push her into the carriage. The act % closes with Lanciotto genuinely happy for the only time in

the play. The thought of beauty really giving itself to a mis­

fit overwhelms him in a new passion. (13) Act Four introduces, again, the old, misgiving Lanciotto. He is full of doubts concerning Francesca's love, and Pepe's little ballad entitled nThe Babe's Confession” only complicates affairs. Paolo enters and tries again to cheer the down-cast Lancelot, but his job is more difficult than ever since he realizes that he is falling in love with Francesca. When it is time for the marriage Paolo interrupts a touching conversation

i between Francesca and Ritta and finally takes the hesitat­ ing Francesca to the church. Amidst the doubts and fears immediately following the ceremony, a messenger rushes in, bringing word of a new uprisifig among the Ghibellines. What a message for the weary Lanciotto« He joyfully leaves for the battlefield, his only true field of labor.

Act Five really has two climaxes. Paolo and Francesca

in the garden, lost in the romance of Lancelot and Guinevere, is certainly a very high‘.^dramat,ic spot, but the killing of the lovers almost matches it. Pepe takes on the characterics of a typical Italian eavesdropper and informer by running to Lanciotto's camp and reporting to him the love scene in the garden. This message serves as a link to join the garden to the grave. 4 b* Stephen Phillips

♦ ( England has her contribution in the field of drama on the % Rimini story. It appeared in 1899 under the signature of Stephen Phillips, a man who had made quite a reputation for (14) himself in the field of poetry. Phillips appears to be in­ debted to Dante only. Th®**e Is no evidence from his play, at least, that he had ever read Boccaccio's "Commentary” . It might be said, when one considers how closely Phillips follow Dante, "that his drama is really his own commentary upon the Italian writer". Phillips borrowed enought from the historical records to form a plot and then proceeded to write I a gripping tale dipped in Victorian sentimentality. There is nothing medieval about his characters or setting, nor is there any Italian feature about them. The author has rejected ail local color and*peculiarities of race, because his purpose seems to be that of looking -at the tragedy from a modern point of view. The jjlay is distinctly English, and contains an apologetic attitude throughout toward those who are caught inextricably in the cogs of fate. If Baker is both romancer and realis-fc, Phillips is a romancer pushed * to the highest point.

Phillips plunges into the story "in medias res". A hall in Rimini serves as the background for Act One. A ■I crowd is addressed by Giovanni who informs the people con- • / cerning the coming of Francesca, who is led by^ Paolo. The

last-named essays to leave after turning Francesca over to

Giovanni, but is urged to stay by the latter. Paolo is reluctant to remain, for he senses all too wdll his grow­ ing regard for Francesca. The remainder of Act One is taken

up with Lucrezia and the blind Angela. The former, jealous (15) of the young convent girl and envious because she has been denied children, pours suspicion of another love in Giovanni's ears. The blind Angela, nurse of Giovanni, pronounces the note of doom which hangs like a pall on the entire play.

A week elapses, and as Act Two opens Giovanni again urges Paolo to stay, the latter being more impatiant than ever to get to Florence, especially when Giovanni tells him of Angela's prophecy. Even Francesca begs Paolo to stay, but he almost leaps out of the palace to get away from the feeling of love which he knows is gradually conquering him. < $ Then there follows a dialogue between Giovanni and Lucrezia in which the former tells her of Angela's vision, and Lucrezia informs him gradually of the lbver’s name. It is too much fb r Giovanni; he swoons. The first part of Seene Two, Act Four is a little side-light between a group of soldiers and some girls, which has nothing bo do with the main thread of * the drama. The scene at the inn is interesting. Paolo is twitted by some of his soldiers because of his moodiness. After they leave, Paolo decides to go to Pulci's apothecary shop to obtain poison to end his grief. All of his con- . / fessioh, which he makes to pulci, is heard by Giovanni who is behind the door. Giovanni had come for a potion to arrest the straying heart of Francesca. Both return to the \ castle at Rimini, Giovanni only to be called away by troubles again at Pesaro, and Paolo to see Francesca before he imbibes the poison. Then follows the climactic episode of love, (16) brought about through the reading of Lancelot’s story.

In Act Four, Giovanni returns from Pesaro only to discover that Paolo, instead of killing himself has like­ wise come back. Lucrezia suggests the old and much-used idea of a feigned departure in order that Paolo and Fran­ cesca may be caught together. The plan, although it works, would have worked much better, had not Francesca thrown herself as a motherless child upon the affections of the lonely Lucrezia. However, Lucrezia’s change of heart is too late. While she is seeking Giovanni to offset him from ~i, % his contemplated task, the lovers get together, though apparently unwillingly, and are discovered by the enraged husband. The murders are committee off stage and the bodies then brought out to be married in death.

c. Gabriele d ’ Annunzio •>' : It is certainly fitting that an Italian love theme should be treated by an Italian writer. D'Annunzio's play, “Francesca de Rimini", appeared in 1901. This lengthy play occasioned a riot on its first showing, but was a great success after it had been shortened. It has been noted that Baker was in- 4. fluenced by Dante and Boccaccio, and that Phillips was in­ debted to Danter. D'Annunzio, as further investigation will \ show, followed Boccaccio very clearly. He took over the latter's conception of the marriage as a scheme to procure the help of the strongest Guelfs. He adopted the idea that (17) Francesca was deceived in the marriage, the heroine thinking Paolo was Gianciotto. Boccaccio’s spy finds his counter­ part in Malatestino, the one-eyed younger brother of Gianciotto, who gladly tells on the lovers. D'Annunzio takes over bodily the story of Paolo's coat catching on a nail when he tries to escape, and the subsequent killing of Francesca when she intercepted the sword blow intended for Paolo.

t Phillips reve&ls the extreme romanticist at work, Baker the romanticist with some realism thrown in, but d'Annunzio is the realist "par excellence". He is as much historian as he is dramatist. He pictures the Jife of thirteenth century Italy with all of its strength, Its cruelty and its inclination toward bhe mad love of beauty. He delineates the Italian battlefield. The hand to hand encounters on the stage by hot-headed, blood-thirsty men are shown. The

Italian women are arranged in their gay color schemes, wear­ ing their famous shawls, etc. Everywhere passion, license, deception, hatred, and treacherous bloodshed run riot. It is as much a tragedy of ljlood as a tragedy of love.

Imagine a man wounding his defenseless brother,'a base son poisoning his father, a captor killing his prisoner, and 4. a brother selling his pretty sister for one hundred horsemen. There all happen in d'Annunzio's play. So faithful to details is the author that the exact words of the French romance,

"Lancelot du Lac", are put literally in the Italian. Even the architecture is faithful to medieval Italy. "The element (18) of di lent ante ism in his talents has led him to attempt a minute 'reconstruction* of the period so that the thread of his drama is almost lost in a labyrinth of archaeological and ety- 1. mological details.” But this is apparently what d'Annunzio wants, for he says himself that the value of the tragedy "rests on the sum of the active life it contains".

The play begins in a court in Ravenna where there occurs a bit of banter between the woman of Franscesca and the Jester.

Suddenly Ser Toldo and Astario come $nto the stage, and, through their heated debate, reveal the contemplated plan of Ser Toldo's to deceive Francesca into the marriage. During * this conversation, Bannino, a brother- to Astario and Francesca, enters to report a defeat in battle. He is accused of cowardice

by Ostario, because his clothes show no sign of struggle. Piqued, Bannino assails Ostasio for attempting to poison their. * father. The result of this s&riy is a wounded cheek received

by Bannino. A beautiful scene of sister love follows.

Francesca and Samarit ana, not knowing who the husband of Francesca is to be, are worried. They discuss the terrible f thought of separation. In this connection, Francesca turns to • / Smaragdi, her slave, and tells her she will not, leave her,

but will take her with her to Rimino. At this time, Francesca's * women cry for her to look, for her husband is coming. She % runs to view him and, unbeknown to herself, she sees Paolo

and cries for joy. Somewhat against her will, she meets

1. E. Wharton, North American Review, "Three Francescas", 175:21-22, (July, 1902). (19)

Paolo, just as the first act ends, and offers him a flower.

Act Two opens with a man-at-arms stirring a caldron of

Greek fire and talking to a young archer close by. Their conversation centers about Gianciotto, Malatestino, and

Francesca as they wait for the astrologer’s signal. Without warning, Francesca appears to see what they are doing. When she hears about the mysterious and powerful Greek fire, she dips a staff into it and ignites the saturated stick. The men are alarmed as she brandishes the flame about, and, but for the appearance of Paolo, the soldiers might have become so < I, excited as to allow the surroundings to burn. Paolo then ascends the tower to give the signal for battle, but hesitates as he notices Francesca close by. A conversation ensues be­ tween the two in which she upbraids Paolo for playing her false in the marriage. Before they can finish a cry of battle is raised and Paolo rushes ‘in to the fraf, followed by Francesca, who constantly calls his name. She assists him as he shoots the crossbow, by raising and lowering the portcullis. As

Paolo’s head is grazed by sin arrow, Francesca takes his head in her hands, and gives thanks when she finds hd is safe.

Gianciotto soon appears, thanks Paolo for his straight shot 4 which kills Ugolino, drinks aJLdng with Paolo a wine brought

by Smaragdi, and tells Paolo he has been appointed captain

by the people of Florence. Malatestino, who àt this point enters the play, is brought in wounded, after he had captured

Montagna. Francesca nurses his wounds, and he later returns (20) to the battle.

Act Three finds Paolo gone to Florence, and Francesca, surrounded by her women, reads the story of Lancelot and Guinevere. After rebuking the women for their joking of the story, Francesca's thoughts turn toward the falcon which Malatestino has lent her. She fears Malatestino if it is lost, especially because of the attention he had paid her since she healed him. Smaragdi promises her a potion which will cure Malatestino of his love. The announcement that the merchant from Florence has arrived startles Francesca into * *•> activity. After Francesca has chosen what she wants from the merchant, and listened to his remarks about Paolo, a doctor, the jester, and an astrologer appear to see if they cannot chase away Francesca's gloom. The doctor proudly gives a technical definition of Melancholy along with a little Latin, all of which the ’¡fester «makes sport. When the astrologer

starts his string of riddles, the jester makes fun of him, challenging him to recall experiences of the past. There

follows playing, singing, and dancing in commemoration of the Calends of March. The whispered announcement of Smaragdi

• / that Paolo has arrived leads to clearing the house, and

Paolo enters. Their love for one another soon quiets all fears, and Paolo and Francesca begin to read alternately the

old French Romance, which leads to the fatal kiss.

Act Four begins with Francesca talking with Malatestino, (21) and. upbraiding him for killing the falcon. When she tells him he is athirst for blood, he becomes menacingly objectionable and Francesca threatens to call Givanni. The cry of the imprisoned Montagna only makes her fears worse. As Gianciotto appears, Malatestino has just left to kill the Parcitade.

Upon returning, he faces the scrutiny and severe questions of Gianciotto who wants to know what he has done to Francesca.

i With danger confronting him, Malatestino tells of seeing Paolo with Francesca. The feigned departure plot is then prepared by Malatestino. Before Gianciotto leaves Rimini, he tells i 1 Paolo to take good care of Francesca until he returns.

In the final act, Paolo appears just after Francesca has

had a terrible dream. As soon1as the opportunity arrives, Francesca throws herself into the arms of her lover. As they recline with the light turned out, Gianciotto appears, crying to Francesca to o‘#en tha door. She opens the door

to him, and he immediately dashed for the escaping Paolo who has been caught in the trap-door. As the sword is

plunged toward Paolo, Francesca throws herself in its way

and receives the blow. Paolo, with his lips placed upon those of the dying woman, receives a killing thrust in 4 his side.

( \ (22)

III. THE DRAMATIC TECHNIQUE OF THE AUTHORS

Under this caption such questions as nHow do the authors get their effect on the stage?” and "what dramatic devices do they use?” appear for consideration. It is apparent that all three dramatists have not gone off on an independent tangent using only such tools as they might have been able to invent. In fact, it may be said that each has his model. In a general way, Baker has followed the Elizabethans, Stephen Phillips the Greek tragedians, and d'Annunzio sticks fairly close to Shakespeare. This is not to say that each one has claimed < ♦ a monopoly upon his particular model. It will be seen that phases of all three patterns appear at various times in all of the authors. But it still /seems, in spite of this concession, that the sum total of Elizabethan influence in

Baker is sufficient to place him as a follower of that group, that Phillips» predominant note of fatalism labels him as a classicist, and that the entire manner in which d'Annunzio handles his theme is Shakesperian. The following discussion $ treats the authors with reference to the devices which each utilizes.

a. George Henry Baker 4 Having admitted that portions of each model are present

{ - in the authors under consideration, the classical device of prophecy, as used by Baker, is worthy of note. It enters the drama through three persons, - (1) the nurse of Lanciotto, (23) (2) Pepe, the fool, and (3) Dante, who appears in the play indirectly*

While the nurse is not a character in the drama, Lanciotto vividly remembers her words,

"May this spot stand till Guido’s dearest blood 1. Be mingled with thine own.”

This is Baker’s first hint of what is going to take place in the final act. Immediately following this prophecy of the nurse, the mind of Lanciotto is further disturbed by the "i, £ miraculous action of his sword:

"Francesca's name was fresh upon my •'mind, So I half-uttered it. Instant my sword Leaped from its scabbard* as with sudden life, Plunged down and pierced into the oaken floor, Shivering with fear I Lo, while I gazed upon it - - Doubting the nature of the accident - - Around the point appeared a spot of blood, Oozing upon the fLoor, that spread and spread . . " 2. *> Pepe, fool that he is, drops prophetic utterances throughout the play which are direct insights into the future, but, due to his clounish office, they are not taken seriously as they might be. As early as the latter part of Act iD^e, he says, when Lanciotto asks him where he is going,

"To have my jewel carried home: * And, as I'm wise, the carrier shall be 3. A thief, a thief, by Jove’ the fashion’s new."

1. A.H.Quinn, "Representative American Plays", p.321. 2. Ibid., p.325 3. Ibid., p.328 (24)

The frequent forebodings of Pepe are too numerous to be cited in a paper of uhis length, so the foregoing will of necessity have to suffice for illustrative purposes.

Before Francesca comes onto the stage, something has happened to alarm her. She senses a dark picture ahead and, in talking with her father and the Cardinal, lays the forecast on Dant e. ” ...... Yon moody men Seem leagued against me. As I passed the hall, I met your solemn Dante, with huge strides, Pacing in measure to his stately verse. The sweeping sleeves of his broad scarlet robe Blew-put behind, like wii.de-expanded*> wings. He looked into my eyes and shook his head, As if he dared not speak of what he saw, Then muttered, sighed, and slowly turned away The weight of his into lei* able brow.” 1. *

Prophecy, the old trick of the tragedians, is followed by fatalism in the Greek tragedies. This last-mentioned

is another classic trait present in Baker. Lanciotto,

Francesca, and Paolo feel themselves being pushed into something which they fear, and yet, perforce, have to do. In one of his soliloquies, as he contemplates the thought of

marriage for himself, which he deems absurd, Lanciotto admits the impossibility of escape, - * ” I'm but an actor in this comedy. " l - ^2 • My part is bad, but I must through with it.”1

1. Ibid., p.329 2. Ibid., p.343 (25) Nor is Francesca any more pleased about the prospect of doing this thing which she ought not to do, yet undoubtedly will,

"I fulfill a doom. We who are topmost in this heap of life Are nearer to heaven's hand than you below; And so are used, as ready instruments, To work its purposes. Let envy hide Her witless forehead at a prince's name, And fix her hopes upon a clown's content. You, happy lowly, know not what it is To groan beneath the cfowned yoke of State, And bear the goadings of the sceptre. Ah J Fate drives us onward in a narrow way Despite our boasted freedom.” 1.

' < $ Paolo, no less than the rest, made every effort to free himself from the shackles of fate. He cities out in despair,

” . . . . iO, heaven! I struggled with it, but ‘it mastered me I I fought against it, but it beat me down! I prayed, I wept, but heaven was deaf to me; And every tear, rolled backward on my heart, To blight and poison! ” 2.

While prophecy and fatalism are present in Baker, there is no such stree laid upon them as Phillips has in his drama. The weight of both prophecy and fatalism is heavy and they are good tools in the hands of Baker, but we are not’overwhelmed by them as we are in Phillips.

It is in the spirit, the lively action, and the natural ♦ humor, all of which are very much present, Which makes Baker r a fitting follower of the Elizabethans. The play moves on

1. Ibid., p.352 2. Ibid., p .358

• 1 3 7 7 2 (26) with a graceful ease which is pleasing. Perhpas, this is 1. due to the "easy, colloquial, and jocose dialogue", which pervades throughout. Pepe reflects the fool of ancient Rome the court jester whose witty remarks were held to he prophetic. The fool of "King Lear" and Pepe are a lot alike in their pro­ phetic hints and impromptu ballad-making. Baker adds the further Elizabethan characterics of developing a large number of characters and stressing the intrigues leading to the marriage and death of the lovers. He gives Francesca the privilege of choosing her fate, and makes her, as well

%■ * as the othei? characters, natural enough to draw upon our sympathy. * *

b. Stephen. Phillips

The two strongest elements of Phillips* drama are prophecy and fatalism. The effect of this decidedly strong combination is such that the characters appear as mere puppets dangled about by the three weird Sisters, as they will. The play is a checkerboard and the characters are the checkers which the gods move at their fancy.

.1 There are two outstanding statements of Lucrezia and £he blind Angela which determine the outcome of the-play. They appear in the first act, and are as powerful in their effect ■r { to destroy what might have been a clever use)of suspense. As soon as we read them, we are ready for the finish; there is nothing more for which to look. 1

1. S.A.Allibone, "critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Authors", Vol.I,p.214a, (1899$ (27)

It is insane jealousy and morbid mind which make Lucrezia pour into the ears of Giovanni,the man whom she undoubtedly

loves, this prophetic sentiment, ”0, beward This child scarce yet awake upon the world! Dread her first ecstacy, if one should come That should appear to her half-opened eyes Wonderful as a prince from fairyland ...... Youth goes toward Youth" 1.

This perilous fact of youth going toward youth, which

so deeply moved Giovanni, receives added weight when the blind Angela seeks him, not to give him her blessing as he had hoped, "Sut to pronounce ^hat amounted, to almost a curse

upon the wedding. She foresees the reading scene in the

garden of roses, and even see^ the dead lovers.

"I see two lying dead upon a bier - 2 . Slain suddenly, and in eath other»s arms."

Angela is not only a prophet, she realizes the uselessness

of trying to stop the inevitable. So she utters words which,

to me, are the best in the play. "Unwillingly he comes a wooing, she Unwillingly is wooed; yet they shall woo, His kiss was on her lips ere she was born." 3.

Phillips, in his picture of Angela, approaches Aeschylus in his characterization of Cassandra, who appears( in "Agememnon", and is somewhat like Sophocles in his characterization of the

blind Tiresias, who prophesies in "Oedepus Tyrannus" and 1

1. T.H.Dickinson and J.R.Crawford, "Contemporary Plays", p.7,8 2. Ibid., p.9 3. Idem. (28)

"Antigone" .

In the prophecies one perceives fate at work. How like

the tragic Aedipus is Giovanni! Everything possible was done to prevent Qedipus from fulfilling his awful purpose in life.

Yet he did kill his father, marry his own mother, and become

king of Thebes. No wonder he put out his own eyes when he dis­ covered that he had done the very thing he had tried to avoid!

Giovanni is just like him. When he hears the prophecy he immediately does all in his power to retain Paolo at the

palace that he might watch over and guard Francesca, little < % knowing that every such entreaty is bringing the tragedy closer. * The play of emotions in Paolo'y s'breast reveals a heart at first determined to conquer, then slowly but surely be­ ginning to submit like one weakened in a great struggle, and

finally succumbing to the fate of a predetermined love. *> Francesca seems too young to realize the fatality of it all.

Fresh from the convent every advancement of hers toward Paolo is done in the fullest innocence, and she never seems to sense the consequences until Lucrezia tells her of Giovanni’s 4

return to catch her alone with Paolo., Then it is too late./ She has gone too far and cannot resist Paolo when he comes.

* While, in general, it may be said that Phillips is

decidedly classical, there are certain indications in his plays of the Shakesperian and Elizabethan influence. He has the lighter relief scenes which take place in the inn, and which offer temporary surcease from the strain of the -great struggle. His prose of the lighter scenes is certainly not patterned after the Greek, and he reveals a Shakesperian touch in the ease of his blank verse. These influences, however, when taken together, are small compared to the dramatic power and technique of the overwhelming fatalism in which the entire play is immersed.

c. Gabriele d'Annunzio

The effect which d'Annunzio desires to transmit to the audience is. decidedly different from either Baker or Phillips. He is anxious for his listeners to obtain a picture of medieval Italian life and every thought and action is made subsurvient i to that end. Conseouently, most of his dramatic power is centered about picturization. At times the reader,or listener, is so intent upon the history and life of the thirteenth * * century in Italy that he forgets that Paolo and Francesca are in the story.

There is scarcely any prophecy in the drama, and fatalism, while obviously present, is not at all played up. I cannot agree with G.G.Brainerd when he says, "Fate, like a 'loud'

1 • 4 rushing river', sweeps through the drama." Fate is there­ to be sure, as is expressed by Francesca, -{ "I am ready } .. For any mortal game men play with fate, Knowing I shall not lose. Seeing that all is lost." 2. 1

1. Poet Lore, "Paolo and Francesca theme in Modern Drama", 27:400, (July, 1906). 2. A Symons,"D'Annunzio's Francesca da Rimini", (A Translation), p.91 (30)

- - but to say that it is like a "loud rushing river" seems to me a bit far-fetched.

It is the Shakespearianism about d'Annunzio which gives the play its power. Like the great playwright, d'Annunzio is interested in presenting a panoramic view, a cross-section of the life of the day which he treats. One heard Francesca's woman joke with the jester, witnesses a quarrel of brothers, sees the man-at-arms stir the cauldron, observes a brave Fran­ cesca in battle with the men, discovers a wounded Malatestino, has picture.^ for him the typical merchant, doctor, and astrologer of the day, and hears the dying groan of a captured Ghibelline. *

The stage is equipped to represent medievalism. The loggia about the court, the Byz;antine sarcophagus, the cross­

shaped room in the house of the Malatesta with its beams and pillars, the battlements^ the cjatapults, the crossbows, balistas, the tower, all take one back to the Italy of the old days, as

do the festoons and the fresco on the walls, and so on. It is a luxuriant picture, and complexity reminiscent of Shakespeare.

The action is not hurried, it could not be. D'Annunzio intends that the action should be fairly slow in order that as co$- 4. plete a picture of the time as possible should be presented.

This does not mean that suspence has been sacrificed. It is \ increased by the occasional side-lights thrown about the chief characters by the minor actors. His best dramatic power

is in the Fourth Act. -There is quick movement and intensity (31) in preparing the way for the climax of Act Five.

The one characteristic of d>Annunzio•s"Francesca da Rimini" which is especially like the Greek drama is the singing of the women of Francesca, which reminds one of the Greek choruses

*

4 (32) IV. THE POETRY OP THE PLAYS

Baker’s, Phillips’, and d ’Annunzio’s plays are all dramatic poems, or poetical dramas. The form is blank verse a type of poetry suitable for the drama, and made famous in the field by Shakespeare.

A. George Henry Baker Very little has been said across the water in praise of Baker’s poetry. He has been criticized neither constructively nor destructively in this respect, except, possibly, a very

little. Generally, he has been ignored as not vd rh considering. ~i. % But who can read his lines and not see their power? He has

emotion and passion, large imagination ahd beauteous figures, and there is the rise and falliwith the particular situation. The following passage, Lanciotto’s reply to Paolo, is of such high class that Shakespeare would be proud to own it. "I know the seasons’Aof our* human grief, And can predict them without almanac. A few sobs over the coffin; then a sigh or two, Whose wierdy passage dries the hanging tear; Purchance, some wandering memories, some regrets; Then a vast influx of consoling thoughts - Based on the trials of the sadder days, Which the dead missed, and then a smiling face Turned on tomorrow. Such is mortal grief.* It writes its histories within a span, Snd never lives to read them.,, 1.

Another picture of life as Lanciotto sees it is the following: \

"This life Is one unending struggle to conceal Our baseness from our fellows. Here stands one In vestal whiteness with a lecher’s lust; - There sits a judge, holding law’s scales in hands That itch to take the bribe he dare not touch; - Here goes a priest with heavenward eyes, whose soul1

1. A.H.Quinn,"Op.Cit." • f p. 324 (33) Is Satan's council-chamber; - there a doctor, With nature»ssecrets wrinkled round a brow Guilty with conscious ignorance; and here A soldier rivals Hector's bloody deeds - Out does the devil in audacity - - With craven longings fluttering in a heart That dares do ought but fly! Thus are we all Mere slaves and alms-men to a scornful world, That takes us at our seeming." 1,

One wonders where Lanciotto's philosophizing will end as he continues in the beautiful strain:

"Nature bows down to science's haughty tread, And turns the wheels of smutty artifice; New governments arise, dilate, decay, And foster creeds and churches to their taste: At each advance, we cry, "Behold the end!" Till tome fresh wonder breaks upon the age. But man, the moral creature, midst it all Stands still unchanged; nor moved towards virtue more, Nor comprehends the mysteries in himself, More than when Plato taught academies, Or Zeno thundered from his attic porch." 2.

Again Laneiotto soliloquizes, this time upon nature.

"Beautiful Is the first vision of a d«sert brook, Shining beneath its palmy garniture, To one who travels on his easy way; What is it to the blood-shot, aching eye Of some poor wi^it who crawls with gory feet, In famished madness, to its very brink; And throws his sun - schorched limbs upon the cool And humid margin of its shadey strand, To suck up life at every eager grasp?" 3.

The speeches of Laneiotto are, by far, the best poetry in the play, but Baker has a beautiful way of opitimizing what the average person feels, but cannot say, For example, Francesca is overcome by Paolo's words so she says to him, 1

1. Ibid., p. 325. 2. Ibid., p.341 3. Ibid., p.347 (34)

"There's secret poppy in your sugared phrase, 1 • I ’ll taste before I take it.”

And Paolo, thinking he has been misunderstood, tries to explain himself. "For mere loveliness 2 . Needs inward light to keep it always bright.

In the cardinal*s discussion of Guido's contemplated plan

to deceive Francesca, the churchman warns the lord.of Ravenna

that %■ ■ < "Each wicked action spauns a brood, 3. And lives in its succession,"

A statement, the truth of/‘which is admirably illustrated

in the outcome of the play.

Volumes have been written on the problem of the aristocrat *•* * and the proletariat, the Brahman and the Sudra, in fine, on tfee whole gamut of life's irregularities. Whether or not this social problem will ever be settled, there is one place in life

where all men are equal, and that is the grave. Even a fool,

like the wise-cracking Pepe, can teach men a fundamental ^

truth when he cries, "I will get even with them yet - haI hai ( In the democracy of death we'll square. 4.

In a different mood, when full of a x*wvengeful spirit, 1

1. Ibid., p.337 2. Idem. 3. Ibid, P.331 4. Ibid, p.349 (35) feeling that something might he done for this old globe he infomms us, 1 "I have an itching to reform the world."

The above, taken together, will suffice to show the poetic power of George Henry Baker. It is my humble opinion that, in spite of the high reputation attributed to Phillips as a poet, Baker excells him in the long passages of the two plays, and is nearly his equal in the shorter passages. The American poet has a "noble expression in blank verse that 2 . has rarely been excelled in English". A # b. Stephen Phillips * Most critics agree that, if Phillips is strong anywhere i' in his play, his strength lies in his poetry. His blank verse is short, delightfully rapid, vital, imaginative, impassioned, majestic, and musical. There is an eveness, on the whole, which *> is fascinating. It will stand as a great lyric poem, despite G. G.Brainerd* 3 assertion that a fourth reading of the play finds one dreamily moving along without sympathy, a condition of mind which Brainerd thinks beyond all question indicates 3. t an empty poem. The truth is the poetry is too great for most acting. «

One wonders about the advisability of making a girl old before her time; and &et that is just what Italy does with 1

1. Ibid., p.341 2. Ibid., (A.H.Quinn*s Introduction to Francesca da Rimini), p.316 (36) her young marriages. Experience, even at the tender age of seventeen, such as Francesca was at the time of her marriage, was deep enoughs to justify Phillips' placing of this fine poetry on the lips of his heroine. She is talking to Nita.

"0 Nita, when we women sin, 'tis not By art; it is not easy, it is not light; It is an agony shot through with bliss; We sway and rock and suffer ere we fall." 1.

t Lucrezia, whose bosom heaves with jealousy, couches her delight in informing Giovanni of Paolo's love for Francesca in the following, matchless terms: l ■ "Giovanni! who shall set n shore to love? When hath it ever swerved from death, or when Hath it not burned away all barriers, Even dearest ties of mother and of son, Even of brothers? . . " 2. i'

Paolo, in a contrast of moods, utters some fine lines.

He agonizes, "I have fled from heb\ have*refused the rose, Although my brain was reeling at the scent. I have come thither as through pains of death; I have died, and I am gazing back at life." 3.

This he speaks just before he has made up his mind to postpone his suicide until he obtains one more lobk at Francesca. Later, with Francesca in his arms, and in mad ecstacy, he prays 4 to God in an effort to justify what he feels is an inexorable law of love. , \ "0 God, thou seest us thy creatures bound'' Together by that law which holds the stars 1

1. Dickinson and Crawford, "(Bp. Cit."., p.24 2. Ibid., p .13 3. Ibid., p .15 (37) In palpitating cosmic passion bright; By which the very sun enthralls the earth, And allthe waves of the world faint to the moon.” 1.

Two more quotations from Phillips will serve to convey his power of versification. One is the heart pang of a child­ less woman, who has almost reached the insanity stage, as her own words indicate.

”Oi but I grudge the mother her last look Upon the coffined form - that pang is rich - Envy the shivering cry when gravel falls. And all these maimed wanted and thwarted thoughts, Eternal yearning, answered by the wind, Have dried in me belief and love and fear. I am become a danger and a menace, A wandering fire, a disappointed force, A peril - doeyou hearj^ Giovanni? - Oi" 2.

The other is from one who, before her love for Paolo, i* did not know sadness.

"Whatis it to be sad? Nothing hath grieved me yet but ancient woes, Sea perils, or some long-ago farewell, Or the last sunset-ery of^wounded kings. I have wept but on the pages of a book, And I have longed for sorrow of my own." 3.

c. Gabriele d^nnunzio

In Phillips} the important thing is the poetry. One * has a feeling that everything else must submit to the diction the author has in mind. Not so with d*Annunzo. * With him "the play is the thing", and the metre is purely the means « to a dramatic end. He does no "Poetizing around a situation", but gives us the heart of the situation from the lines spoken 1

1. Ibid., p.25. 2. Ibid., p .8 3. Ibid., p.6 (38) by liis characters.

Realizing the truth of the statement that "comparisions 1. between plays in different languages are usually idii", due should be cautious about any strong remarks he makes with respect to d'Annunzio's verse. It would certainly be granted

that plays on the same subject, although in different tongues, may be compared, on all points, except the language, and even in the language strength and weakness may be noted within

reason.

About all there is upon tfhich to base a judgment concern­

ing d'Annunzio's poetic gifts in "Francesca da Rimini" is the

agreement of scholars that Arthur Symons* translation of

d'Annunzio is almost a duplicate of the latter's "vers libre". This being the case, a few excerpts may be cited to illustrate his method of writing. *

Francesca tries to comfort her sister, Samaritana, who sorrows because the former is leaving for Rimini.

"peace, peace, dear soul, My little dove, Why are you troubled? Peace; You also, and ere long, Shall see your day of days, . , And leave our nest as I have left it; then Your little bed shall stand Empty beside my bed; and I no more Shall hear through dreams at dawn Your little naked feet run to the window, And no more see you, white and barefooted, Run to the window, 0 my little dove, And no more hear you say to me: 'E'rancesca, Francesca, now the morning star is born, And it has chased away the Pleiades." 2. 1

1. A.H.Quinn, Scribner's Magazine, "G.H.Bkker, Playwright and Patriot", 73:708, (June, 1923). 2. A.Symons, "Op. Cit"., p. 49/ (59)

One more example, along with the foregoing, will he sufficient to reveal d*Annunzio*s verse form. The scene is during the height of the battle. Paolo is fighting valiantly with the aid of Francesca who raises and lowers the portuullis. As she watches the manliness of the struggling Paolo, Francesca

cries out, "I have seen the sea, The eternal sea, The witness of the Lord, And on the sea a sail That the Lord set to be a sign of saving. Paolo, brother in God, I make a vow If the Lord of Mercy * Have-iyou in keeping!" I 1. It may be seen, if Symons* translation is true to the

metre, that d*Annunzio*s verse of his play at times approaches prose. It is not poetry at all in the sense that Baker and

Phillips are poets. But again, the handicap of another language must be admitted. *

1. Ibid., p.92. (40)

V. THE POUR MAJOR CHARACTERS OP EACH AUTHOR

In considering the ability of the authors in drawing characters, it is out of the question, profitably, to consider every member of the ’’dramatis personae” in the three plays. To try to procure a fair estimate of Baker's, Phillip's, and d'Annunzio's character-building power, the four strongest persons in each play have been chosen with a view to noticing the similarities and differences between the corresponding characters. The persons will be discussed in descending order; that is, the greatest first, followed by the next greatest, < ♦ and so on, down to the fourth. * a. George ffenry Baker

1. lanciotto. Baker one time wrote a letter to Stoddard in which he said he knew that his treatment of the famous Italian love story was unlike any other which had ever appeared. And he was right. Who but Baker would have thought of making a hero out of Lanciotto, the character who historically is a heartless wretch?

In reading Baker's play, one sympathizes continually with

Lanciotto. He is by far the most remarkable character of the group, so much so that the play becomes the tragedy of Lanciotto instead of the tragedy of the lovers. His character is a fine psychological study. On the one hand he is strong and mighty in battle, facing death without the slightest hesitation; on the other, he is the introspective weakling, (41) out of joint with, life as well as in physique, dEeading the

possibility of marriage and the ridicule which that state

would bring upon him. no doubt, it was his dislike of Pepe’s

raillery and remarks about his person which contributed to his slaying of Pepe when the latter reported seeing Paolo

and Francesca in the garden together. H© is honest to the core. ”I would not take The barren offer of a heartless hand If all the indies cowered under it.” 1.

This sentiment in which he refuses to take Francesca unless her heart is also offered is repeated time and again t throughout the drama. It is perhaps his best characteristic. Yearning for the love of a true woman as fie does, he will accept no counterfeit. }

Another new turn is given to the plot by Baker in the reciprocal love of Lanciotto and Paolo. There is no in- * v* ♦ dication of such a close relationship either in history or tradition, so the conception must be original with the American author. Phillips, it seems, must have borrowed the

idea from Baker, for there is no other source for it. This brotherly tie was exceptionally strong, and it is no wonder that, when it was broken, Lanciotto lost his head. Taken all in all, Lanciotto is another Hamlet. ♦ si 2. Francesca. The next most impressive child of Baker’s brain is Francesca. Unlike Phillips, whose fatalism is at times 1

1. A.H.Quinn, M0p. Cit.”., p.347. (42) almost fatal to Ills play, Baker makes Francesca independent; she has the power of choice in her marriage, a perrogative granted her by Lanciotto. The heroine is a real individual, despite the fact that she still remains the desirable type of romantic person. She despises leaving home until she learns of her father’s plan to deceive her, then she does not care to stay. There is no deceit in her, she cannot stoop to intrigue. Even though she has loved Paolo by mistake she cannot go bakk upon her love; so like the real Italian, she gives herself, body and soul, to her husband’s brother. And yet, through it all, she ba s *he highest regard for him whom she classes as "the noblest heart in Rimini” , Lanciotto.

5.Paolo. Baker has given Areal individuality to "the beautiful one”. It is true, as Paolo says,that ^anciotto t • 1. "grasps at crowns, while, I pick at Laurel" , and that

Paolo loves to be among his troubadours, but he impresses us nevertheless as a man struggling between two emotions of the male breafet - his love for his brother and his love for his brother's wife. His love for Francesca triumphs, despite the pain caused by his defection to his brother. It is love for Lanciotto which causes Paolo to plead with the former to kill him, when Francesca and he are found together. With all his irresponsibility he commands our respect. \ J\ 4. Pepe. It is odd and yet, nevertheless, a fact that 1

1. Ibid., p.338 (43) the "villain” of Baker's drama is the court jester. He has all the qualities of a real fool, hut his motives for entertain­ ment are not always of the best. It is not his purpose just to make Paolo and Lanciotto laugh. He insinuates, satirizes and deliberately cuts his superiors. Perhaps this is due to the fact that he objects to the unkindly remarks of the two

Malatesta. His sole motive itor reporting to Lanciotto at

i camp what he had seen and heard in the garden is revenge. And to what an untimely end his pains brought him » For pure

cleverness, this person reveals the breadth of Baker's ability to picture .¿Life» s humorous slide.

b. Stephen Phillips A H of Phillips' characters are types, not individuals. He is not a builder of life so great that any of his names stand for someone who is easily recognized as a true character. To the contrary, he has immersed his cast in oblivion by shift­ ing them about as fate decrees. "He seems ever the well-

•ferained showman, dangling his puppets, with one eye on the 1. wires, the other on the audience". Consequently, there is an absence of great characterization.

- * i 1- Lucrezia. Lucrezia is the villainess who turns altruist. She seems to love Giovanni and is jealous when ♦ f ^ Francesca, "all dewy from her convent fetcherd", enters the life of the limping Malatesta. She arouses suspicion in Giovanni's heart by continually reminding him that "Youth 1

1. Nation, "The Poetic Play in the London Theatre", 74:266, (April 3, 1902) (44) goes toward Youth” . It is she who plots to catch the young couple together, hut when Francesca, in fear, casts herself upon her care, she becomes a Benedict Arnold, and turns traitor to Giovanni; too late, of course, to thwart the im­ pending doom. In spite of the fact that Edith Wharton says 1. that Lucrezia is nthe only man” in the play, and that she is Phillips' best character, even this best character is sub­ ject to fatalism. Her sudden change toward Francesca is due to the motherly instinct which forces her wherever it can be satisfied. True, this action is unnatural, but what can be natural in a~*:play so completely dominated by a doctrine of fate?

2. Paolo. The Paolo of Phillips and "Lanciotto of Baker somewhat resemble each other. Both are introspective, and fearful, both soliloquize frequently and both try to kill themselves, rather than fact the inevitable. Paolo does the comforting in Baker's play^ but he needs the comforting in

* Phillips' play. He senses the hand of fate more than all of the other characters put together. He draws as much upon our sympathy as does Lanciotto. Unlike the PaolorofpBaker,

Phillips' hero is a warrior, and has his own troops. He

, i was on his way to the battle when he turned back to Rimini. It is interesting to conjecture how Phillips would have had him act, had the murders been committed on the stage. % 3. Francesca. Phillips' Francesca is a little girl.

l."Op. Git.11, p.19 (45)

She has not known any sorrow. If the thrill of love for

Paolo was present within her, she could not understand its meaning until the close of the play. "Why should Paolo be in such a hurry to leave?’1, she keeps asking. She seems to want him abound as a sort of playmate. The fact that Paolo shrinks from kissing her hand puzzles her. She does not see any peril in it. „ i "But how strange I You dread this little hand? 0 wonderfull Your face is white, and yet you have killed men!" 1.

When the romance of Lancelot and Guinevere has been read and the events in the garden are over, then she realizes. She fears, and hesitates to meet Paolo again, although she surrenders to her passion. She1 cannot seem to give herself, body and soul, at the close of the play like Baker's Francesca.

4. Giovanni. Another distinctly English type of *•* ♦ Phillips' is Giovanni. Neither he nor Baker's Lanciotto are

Italian. Baker and Phillips have both made the husband melancholy and slow to act. Italian blood is wanting in their veins. Has there ever been a medieval Italian lord who would run to a woman for consolation, sob, and then swoon,, as Giovanni does before Lucrezia? He is ever apologetic after the slaying, declaring that the slain were true lovers, and ( it is only fitting that they should be married in death. How- ever, the highest compassion is felt for him as he fastens the chains of tragedy about himself from scene to scene.

1. Dickinson and Crawford, "Op.Cit.", p.ll (46)

e. Gabriele d'Annunzio 1. Malatestino. When the youngest male member of the

Malatesta family is brought down from the battlements wounded, d ’Annunzio introduces the reader to the character who is to be his most outstanding in the play. He is the villain of villains, Malatestino. Francesca's real troubles begin when she nurses him back to health. He falls madly in love with her and * i plagues her with his presence. She fears constantly his next step. When he kills the innocent falcon Francesca musters up the courage to characterize him to his face. "You are»; athirst for blood$ Always, always, at the watch, The enemy of all things. In all your words There is a secret menace, Like a wild beast you bite And tear and claw whatever'comes your way.” 1.

“The enemy of all things", when caught by Gianciotto molesting Francesca, devised the diabolical scheme of catch- ing Francesca and Paolo. It saved his life..

2. Francesca. In Phillips, Francesca is a girlish woman, in Baker a womanly woman, and in d ’Annunzio she is a manly woman. Although she is tender, yet in excitement, like the / Italian woman that she is, she is capable of wild deeds.

The Franpesco of Baker and Phillips could never play with Greek fire, nor manipulate a portcullis during a fierce siege,

^either could they endure the constant sight of blood, such

1. A.Symons, "Op. Cit" • 9 p.166 (47) as d'Annunzio*s heroine is called upon to observe. In fact,

“eight centuries and the Alps lie between this Francesca and 1. Mrs. Phillips«. tt And the same is practically true of many traits of Baker's heroine.

A beautiful affection between sisters is given by d' Annunzio to match the love between brother and brother in Baker and Phillips. Like Lanciotto, or Giovanni, and Paolo,

Francesca and Samaritana have scarcely breathed apart. They have been together inseparably from childhood, and the separation was very hard upon both.

3. Paolo. While Paolo is beautiful and surpassingly

attractive, he is as much man as. his brothers. He is an archer of note, and obtains just as much malicious glee when he kills an enemy as would either Gianciotto or Malatestino. There is none of the weakness of Phillips' Paolo about him.

► 4r He is not the type who would try to take poison. After being appointed Captain of Florence, he soon deliberately returns to see Francesca. When Gianciotto knocks upon Francesca's door and clamors for entrance, Paolo hides, but he tells her not to fear; if there is any danger,he is there to protect , her. As Francesca receives the dagger intended for him, he bravely kisses her dying lips, knowing that he is next. \I 4. Gianciotto. If one despises Malatestino, he has

1. E. Wharton, 11 Op. Cit" p. 23 (48) less love for Gianciotto. Here is a medieval despot who procures a woman as a reward for his services in battle. There is no mercy in him, and the very sight of his limp­ ing appearance must have brought terror into the hearts of his subjects. He is out for victory at any cost, and woe to anyone who attempts to overturn his hopes or plans I It is no wonder that even a manly woman turned from him in disgust.

i One gets the impression that the killing at the conclusion of the play is just another day’s job with him. He seems to break the sword with satisfaction. V < $

/ 4

( \ (49)

VI. AN ESTIMATE OP THE AUTHORS In giving an estimate of the authors, the discussion will he in the reverse order of their»strength. Prom the standpoints of the approach of the authors, their dramatique technique, their poetry, and their ability in characterization,

Baker stands first as containing the most of these elements, d ,Annun7.io a very close second, and Phillips last.

. a, Stephen Phillips It has already been said that Phillips* strong point is his poetry. He is regarded as a greater poet than a dramatist. His fatalism ( a common thing among English writers at the close of the last century)' hinders the complete effect of the play to a modern ‘audience. It is too apparent.

His experience as an actor gave him some knowledge of stage­ craft, but he lays so little stress on the staging. He uses as few scenes as possible.* He does not seem to care whether or not the reader is given background. It is the situation he wants us to grasp. The result, and, apparently, it is what he wants, is the impression of two families, caught in the whirl of a mighty maelstram and cast into a helpless machine of fate. That is the effect left upon the reader, and it is the only effect. In characterization, for reasons we have clearly seen, he is woefully weak. ”Paolo and Francesca" is a fairly good drama, but does not measure up to d'AnnunziO or Baker (50)

b. Gabriele d'Annunzio D'Annunzio, as is already known, is the realist. His

approach is to the Italy of the thirteenth century with its mighty men, beautiful wogien, and wars and intrigues. His stag­ ing is the best of the three. One sees before him, not only men and women dressed like the older Italians and going through the emotions of medievalism, but his eye is captivated with the

i Italian background which adds so colorfully to the acting. If

d*Annunzio has a faiilt in this respect, it is in overdoing his details; but again, like Phillips, he accomplishes what % - he desires. 4 As has been intimated, little judgment can be placed upon his poetry because it is in the Italian language but it is "vers Liber" and as suhhX does not measure up to either Phillips or Baker. He is a fine character builder,

making all his outstanding people live as individuals of the thirteenth century. "Francesca da Rimini" is "a perfect

* reconstruction of medieval atmosphere and emotion, magnificent in style, and declared by one of the most authoritative Italian critics - Edvardo Boutet - to be the first real

although not perfect tragedy, which has ever been given to 1. the Italian theatre."

c. George Henry Baker Baker has done something which neither Phillips nor d'

Annunzio have done. He has united in a fairly' even manner1

1. "Encyclopedia Britannica", Voi.II., p.79 (51) the historical and the traditional, both in characterization

and in stage setting. In this respect his approach is both medieval and modern. His acts are filled with scenes reminis­

cent of the days of despotism in Italy. One not only sees

Rimini, the palace, and the garden, such as Phillips gives

us, but he beholds the gates of the city richly adorned, gazes upon the citizens and hears them shout, thrills as the men- at-arms parade before him, and as the minstrels perform their

feats. The cathedral with all its attendants commands the attention, as well as the scene depicting Lanciotto’s camp. D ’Annunzio-has idealized the ^characters in a great many ways, but the contrast is delightful. His poetry ranks first.

The greatest citations are enought to establish him as the best

in this respect among the three playwrights. In characterization, too, Baker takes the lead. It would be a mistake to stop a treatment bf Baker as a, characterizer without drawing attention * * to Rltta, Francesca’s maid, who is one of the playwright’s

best inventions. Her deliberations and actions, dependent upon her reaction at times to Guido’s threat of boiling, add a humor to the tragedy which makes the play much more effective.

• / Therefore, since George Henry Baker best measures* up to the standards considered, he must be ranked at the head of

the list. (52) BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Books

1* Allibone,S.A., "Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Authors”, Philadelphia, J.A. Lippincott Co., (1899), three volumes, two supplements. 2. Bradley,E.S., "George Henry Baker”, (Chapter V) University of Pennsylvania Press, (1927)

3. Chandler, Prank, "Aspects of Modern Drama", MacMillan 4. Dickinson, T.H. and Crawfbrd, J.R., "Contemporary Plays", Houghton Mifflin Co., (1925)

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11. Colum, P., New Republic, "Work of Stephen Phillips", 5:193-4, (Dec.25, 1915)

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16. Gwynn,S., Fortnightly Review, "His Poetical Dramas". ■-*. % 91:337-51, (Feb.,1909) «* 17. Hellems, F.B.R., Atlantic Monthly, "Stephen Phillips as a Writer of Tragedy", 102:809-21, (Dec.1908)

18. Henderson,A., Arena, "The Story of Rimini", 39:20-26, January 1908)

* * 19. Henderson,A., Arena, "Rimini Story in Modern Drama" 39:142-8, (Feb.,1908) 20. Independent, "sketch of Stephen Phillips", 77:275-6. (Feb. 23, 1914)

21. Isola,P., Poet-Lore, "D'Annunzio's Dramas", 19:111-19, i (March-May, 1908)

22. Jerome, M.H., Nineteenth Century, "Appreciation of Stephen Phillips", 88:267-72, (July 1920)

23. Jones,T.F., Colonnade, "work of D'Annunzio", 7:118- 24, (Jan.1914) (55)

24. Krutch, J.W., Swanne Review, "Little-Known American Dramatists", 25s457-68, (Oct.1917)

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8:369-78, (1851) 27. Lothair, Florence, G.Book Album, "Sketch of Gabriels

d'Annunzio", 2:1034-8, (Nov.,1909) 28. Luhan, l.D., Arts and Decorations, "Francesca Story", 8:24-27, (July, 1925)

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60:213-15, (Oct.9, 1925)

30. Martin,!1., Blackwood'sv Magazine, "Dante's Paolo and Francesca", 182:316-25, (Sept.,1907) 31. The Mentor, "immortal Lovers:Paolo and Francesca",

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Francesca da Rimini in Three Dramas",29:45-58, (Jan.1921)

33. Nation, "The poetic Play in the London Theatre",

74:265-7, (April 3, 1902) < 34. Nation, "Stephen Phillips and the Poetic Drama", 1 101:708, (Dec. 16, 1915. 35. Nation, "Representative Am rican Plays", 104:547-8, ( (May 3, 1917) ' , 36. Quida (L.de La Rame), Cosmopolitan, "Francesca da Rimini", 18:259-70, (Jan., 1895) (56)

37. Palmer, J., Living Age, "An Appreciation of Stephen

Phillips“, 289:311-13, (Jan.29, 1916)

38. Paul,H.G., Swanee Review, “Present Day Drama: Stephen Phillips’ Dramatic Technique“,15:177-92, (April,1907)

39. Peacock,E.R., Canadian Magazine, “A New Poet and a New PIay“,15:146-50, (June 1900)

40. Porter,C., Poet-Lore, “Phillips’ Paolo and Francesca", i 12:126-34, (1900) 41. Praz, M., London Mercury, “Critical Appreciation of DlAnnunzio",17:404-12, (Feb.,1928)

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32:233-66, (June,1917) 43. Quinn, A.H. »Scribner's Magazine, “George Henry Baker:

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49:77-8, (Dec.1915)

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6:282, (Nov.1906) 54. Ihompson,E.J., London Quarterly Review, "Stephen

Phillips' Masterpieces",126:278-82, (Oct.,1926) 55. Trent,W.P., Forum, "Mr.Stephen Phillips' Play", 29: 116-28, (March 1900)

56. Urban, G., The Critic, J*Paolo and Francesca in

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60. Wodehouse,E.A., Fortnightly Review, "Valuation of Stephen Phillips",83:830-42, (May 1 , 1905) 4 61. Wyatt, Edith, Catholic World, "The Drama", 129: 200-1, (May 1929) \ 62. Wyatt, Edith, North American Review, "Criticism of Stephen Phillips", 203:278-85, (Feb.1916)