The Impacts of Climate Change Will Have an Effect on Coastal

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Date : 01/2016 - Version : 2015 Date : 01/2016 - Version

The impacts of climate change will have an effect Les effets du changement climatique auront une on coastal infrastructures and facilities in coral incidence sur les ouvrages et les aménagements reef environments and related ecosystems in the présents sur les littoraux des zones récifales inter-tropical zone. coralliennes et des écosystèmes associés de l’espace intertropical. This methodology guide’s objective is to be a tool to inform and warn different types of Le présent guide méthodologique a pour vocation potential players on the risks that key coastal de donner à différents niveaux d’acteurs potentiels infrastructure could incur and the impact that un outil d’alerte et d’information sur les risques their deterioration could have on coral reefs and encourus par les principales infrastructures related ecosystems. Technical recommendations littorales et les impacts que leur dégradation are provided for the adaptation for each type of pourrait entrainer sur les récifs coralliens et les infrastructure. écosystèmes associés. Des recommandations techniques sont fournies en matière d’adaptation This guide has been written in both French and pour chaque type d’infrastructure. English. L’édition du guide est bilingue : français et anglais.

The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 1 THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON INFRASTRUCTURES IN COASTAL AND INTER-TROPICAL MARINE ZONES

Authors Michel Porcher Christian Birault Michel Allenbach

The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 3 The geographical terms and format used in this book do not express IFRECOR’s opinion or that of other relevant organizations on the legal status or authority of any country, territory or region, or the demarcation of their frontiers. The views expressed in this publication are not necessarily those of IFRECOR, or its partners

Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized IN COASTAL AND INTER-TROPICAL without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. All rights on this publication are reserved for resale or other commercial purposes without prior MARINE ZONES written permission.

Citations: Michel Porcher, Christian Birault and Michel Allenbach

Edition: IFRECOR Collection. 224 pp.

Copyright registration: ? Design and layout: Tomasi Marie-laure / Piknetart.fr Translation: Kate Anderson Cover photo: IstockPhoto Available from: IFRECOR, Email: [email protected] Website: www.ifrecor.com

4 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 5 PReFACE

This year’s 21st Conference of Parties to the United Nations Convention Framework on Climate Change, which will take place in Paris in December 2015, is a milestone for negotiating future international agreements on climate that will come into force in 2020, with an objective to keep global warming below 2°C (compared to 2009).

Coral Reef. Photo © Istock.

The Overseas territories already suffer from the of global warming, relying on scientific • a methodology guide for local public As IFRECOR’s funders and facilitators, the first effects of global warming because they protocols and common indicators which were and private decision-makers and planning Ministry of Ecology, Energy and Sustainable are located at all latitudes in four oceans and defined with the National Observatory on the developers has finally been drafted, in a Development and the Ministry of Overseas three continents. Globally, they play an essential impact of climate change (ONERC). They pragmatic way, to guide and give them support Territories welcome the work done by all role in their capacity to capture carbon, fight are all now working within a network using a in the design and development of their coastal the players in IFRECOR’s network, which against the effects of global warming, sustaining common database run by the University of planning projects, by taking into account the today is reflected in this book’s publication: food resources and fighting against poverty in New Caledonia. This network will eventually future impacts of global warming. it is intended to clarify, in a concrete and a number of States including island ones, due be integrated into international networks practical way, how local public as well as to the extent of waters under their jurisdiction, monitoring climate change; private players can address the impacts of the diversity, richness and specificity of their • an overall assessment has been carried climate change. terrestrial and marine biodiversity (mangroves, out on the economic value of services reefs, ...). provided by coral ecosystems (full results will be published in 2016) and it highlighted, The French initiative for coral reefs and related in terms of coastal protection against the ecosystems (IFRECOR)1 set down in its 2011¬ effects of global warming for example, annual 2015 Action Plan its commitment to focus on amounts of €66 million in Martinique and from change climate: €155 to €220 million in New Caledonia, or Director General of French Overseas Territories Director General of Spatial Planning, for carbon sequestration, €10 million and €8 Housing and Nature Conservation • in each Overseas territory an observatory million per year in Guadeloupe and Martinique was put in place to monitor the impacts respectively;

1IFRECOR is a French national action for coral reefs in French Overseas territory communities; it was established in March 1999 on the Prime Minister’s decision. It is France’s national version of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI). It is under the authority of both the Ministry of Overseas territories and Ecology. Its objective is the protection and sustainable management of coral reefs and related Alain ROUSSEAU Paul DELDUC ecosystems (mangroves and seagrass meadows) through innovative and experimental actions in 11 Overseas territories (Guadeloupe, Saint Barthelemy, Saint Martin, Martinique, Reunion, Mayotte, the Eparses Islands, New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna, French Polynesia and Clipperton).

6 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 7 along the coast whose deterioration could • drawing up a schedule for implementation; have an impact on coral reef environments and • Setting up a local group to monitor the action SUMMARY related ecosystems. plan and the technical and scientific aspects, in collaboration with the appropriate central For each type of infrastructure, the guide technical departments, especially monitoring provides: climate evolution parameters and analysing • an intentionally simplified description of the feedback from extreme weather conditions). structures and of the impacts they may have on the natural environment; At the same time, it is important to: • an inventory of structures in each French • check that the effects of climate change have overseas territory and overseas collectivity; been taken into account in existing plans and Foreseeable climate changes in the 21st century need to • a description of possible impacts of climate development plans concerning structures in be taken into consideration as they are likely to cause major change on infrastructure and their implications each territory; disruptions at the land-sea interface. There is a high risk for coral reef environments and their marine • conduct awareness raising campaigns with ecosystems; local populations on the possible impacts of of either slow deterioration or of the sudden destruction climate change; of coastal ecosystems with serious consequences for • technical recommendations on how to adapt existing infrastructure to climate change or on • reinforce climate change observatories to human activities in coastal areas. the construction of new infrastructure. optimise adaptation based on ongoing climate change; As most of the infrastructure is directly affected • create a policy to ensure climate risks are by water, including its management and the taken into account, using a project quality structures built to protect it against the impact approach. These risks must be included in The coral reef ecosystem is one of the most Such an analysis will: of floods and flooding, a chapter is dedicated to Schemes Organizing Quality Assurance Plans sensitive areas in an inter-tropical zone • identify potential risks to specific infrastructures these aspects. (SOPAC), and subsequently in QAPs (Quality and as France has Overseas territories in and the technical measures that need to In the conclusion, we present a matrix table Assurance Plans). three oceans it is of particular interest The be taken to protect existing infrastructures, containing our recommendations for structures services provided by coral reef ecosystems maintain their function and optimize future that may be the most affected by these hazards. are increasingly recognized today and their developments; protection is a vital issue for all inter-tropical local This summary underlines the high risk of • if the right measures are taken, the impact of authorities. This is the reason why IFRECOR damage to existing infrastructure and the any damage on sensitive natural environments was founded. consequences for coral reef environments can be reduced and the environmental and related marine ecosystems. It is crucial resilience to the effects of climate change Rising sea level, the increasing occurrence to implement the necessary measures enhanced. of extreme weather conditions, increasing to limit such risks as rapidly as possible. air and water temperatures and acidification Other tables are included in this guide to help This methodological guide is designed to of the oceans will all have a major impact on decision making, they are based on diagnoses inform different actors of the risks faced by the coral formations and their marine ecosystems of exisiting infrastructure and list the alterations main coastal infrastructure and of the impact including a direct effect on the biology of the we recommend to adapt to climate change (for that deteriorating infrastructure could have on most sensitive species. They will also have an example items to be incorporated in a diagnostic the coral ecosystem. We do not claim to be indirect impact on both individual structures survey). and collective infrastructure located along the exhaustive or to answer all possible questions. coast. Some structures risk deterioration and Technical investigations conducted in a French The guide contains: pollutants will increase in coral reefs and in their overseas territory will enable the development marine ecosystems). To help identify appropriate • a state-of-the-art review of climate change and of a strategy and subsequently preparation oif adaptation strategies when planning future its consequences for the land-sea interface a Climate Change Adaptation Plan for specific developments in coastal areas, the possible (GIEC 2014) in French Overseas territories in infrastructures, based on the following measures: impacts of climate change on each type of inter-tropical zones; • defining priority actions; coastal zone development need to be analyzed • an analysis of the main infrastructure offshore and the likely effects on sensitive marine areas • prioritising actions and estimating construction and infrastructure directly linked to activities close to the coastline need to be calculated. costs;

8 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 9 CONTENTS

Introduction p. 13 1. Status report on climate and climate change p. 21 1.1. Core elements for climate forecasting p. 23 1.2. Extreme weather phenomena in inter-tropical zones p. 25

2. Water-related infrastructures and structures p. 29 2.1. Stormwater p. 30 2.2. Wastewater p. 35 2.3. Water consumption and drinking water supply systems p. 43 2.4. Coastal protection structures p. 46 3. Key public infrastructures p. 67 3.1. Airport infrastructure p. 67 3.2. Port infrastructure p. 79 3.3. Road infrastructure p. 91 3.4. Energy-related infrastructure p. 102

4. Infrastructures linked to coastal activities p. 123 4.1. Tourist infrastructure p. 123 4.2. Industrial and artisanal infrastructure p. 133 4.3. Housing and urbanisation p. 133 4.4. Fisheries, aquaculture and pearl oyster farming p. 136 4.5. Agriculture and forestry p. 153

5. Conclusions and recommendations p. 163 Appendices p. 173 Appendix 1: Background on climate p. 174 Appendix 2: France’s Centre for marine and fluvial technical studies p. 176 methodology for protection structures Appendix 3: Airports in French overseas territories, Airport vulnerability p. 185 in the face of climate change, Construction of major seaports Appendix 4: List of Abbreviations and Acronyms, List of Tables, Glossary, p. 197 Ministries and Services, Bibliography

NB: Chapters 2, 3 and 4 each have subchapter linked to a type of structure, these include: 1. Overview of structures 2. The different types of structures in Overseas territories 3. Possible impacts of climate change 4. Technical recommendations on adaptation Turtles in Kelonia on Reunion Island Photo: © I, Thierry Caro via Wikimedia Commons

10 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 11 introduction

IFRECOR: the French Initiative for Coral Reefs was created in 1999; its objective is to ensure sustainable protection and management of coral reefs and related ecosystems (mangroves, seagrass meadows) in French overseas territoryies. IFRECOR is made up of a national panel and a network of eight local committees representing French territories with coral reefs: Guadeloupe, Martinique, Reunion Island, Mayotte, Eparses islands, New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna and French Polynesia.

It is widely accepted by the international • Water-related infrastructure and structures: scientific community that any degradation of • stormwater; coral environments and related ecosystems will • wastewater; directly increase the vulnerability of the territories • water consumption and drinking water considered in this guide (see table page 15). supply systems. Coastal infrastructures will all be affected by • Coastal protection structures. evolving climate change parameters. It is thus • Key public infrastructure: appropriate to review these structures and • airport infrastructure; facilities, whether they are located close to coral • port infrastructure; reefs or in related watersheds because the • road infrastructure; damage they will undergo is likely to augment • Energy-related infrastructure. the negative impacts of climate change on coral reefs and related ecosystems. • Infrastructure linked to coastal activities: • tourist infrastructure; This guide begins with a review of current • industrial and artisanal infrastructure; knowledge on climate and climate change • housing and urbanisation; (i.e. an update on the basic elements available • fisheries, aquaculture and pearl oyster to predict future climate and a description of farming; extreme weather conditions in inter-tropical • agriculture and forestry. zones) in addition to the review of existing infrastructure in coastal areas. A description of each type of infrastructure is

provided. An inventory of exisiting infrastructure in French overseas territories was carried out and the possible impacts of climate change on these infrastructures identified. Coral reef fish © Mateusz Dutkiewicz

12 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 13 Finally, technical recommendations are provided 2014), with a focus on the inter-tropical zones for the adaptation of existing infrastructure and/ in French overseas territories; or how to construct new infrastructure. • an analysis of both major offshore infrastructure CORAL REEFS AND and infrastructure directly linked to coastal This guide is intended as an aid to reflection by activities whose deterioration could have an Related ecosystems the decision¬ makers and engineers who need impact on coral reef environments and related to address coastal infrastructure management ecosystems. issues in view of climate change and preserve CORAL FORMATIONS coral reefs and related ecosystems. For each type of infrastructure, the guide Coral (biological characteristics) provides: However, it is not intended to be a technical Corals are marine invertebrate animals belonging manual, although it includes a number of • an intentionally simplified description of the to the cnidarians genus (like sea anemones and technical aspects. It is up to each decision structures and their impact on the natural jellyfish). Coral has a polyp body form with a maker, public project manager (or private environment; mouth, a stomach, a wall and stinging tentacles manager) to contact the appropriate authorities • an inventory of local structures in each French to catch food. Polyps which live alone are called and technicians before forming a final opinion on overseas territory; a solitary coral. But most corals are made up of colonies of hundreds of genetically identical the specific issues linked to their project. • a description of possible impacts of climate polyps, all stemming from the division of a single change on these infrastructures and their polyp. Polyps capture zooplankton as food The guide is desiged as an educational tool to implications for coral reef environments and highlight specific areas where problems involving using their stinging cells. related ecosystems; Photo: Coral reef ® Wallis and Futuna’s Environmental Territorial coastal facilities in major communities in French Service overseas territories could arise or exisiting • general technical recommendations on how to adapt existing infrastructure or how to problems could escalate due to increased These photosynthetic algae capture light thereby construct new infrastructure. climate forcing. bringing an additional energy source to the coral which enables it to grow its calcareous skeleton. As most of the infrastructure described is directly Awareness raising has different objectives: In turn, the coral provides a stable environment affected by water, including its management and and the elements the algae needs to complete • reinforcing the role and the importance structures built to protect it against the impact of the photosynthesis process. of climate change adaptation strategies, flooding, a dedicated chapter deals with these schemes and national plans in French aspects. overseas territories, to limit possible Global warming is a major threat to coral reefs. In particular, rising water temperatures malfunctions and impacts on the coral The conclusion includes a matrix table listing threaten the fragile balance between polyps and reef ecosystems as far as possible; the types of structures which could be the zooxanthellae, which causes a coral bleaching • drawing the attention of local decision- most affected by the hazards .and a summary phenomenon. makers to the importance of the potential of appropriate recommendations. Tables listing impact of climate change on coastal areas the components of infrastructure diagnoses are and providing them with the necessary included to help decision makers (for example Formation of coral reefs decision-making tools. items to be incorporated in a survey), along with A distinction is generally made between soft alterations recommended to adapt to climate corals (such as alcyonacea) and hard corals It is vital that the technical recommendations are change. in line with progress, made in climate change called «reef-builders». Unlike soft corals, hard coral polyps secrete a solid limestone skeleton, scenarios, but also with technical and scientific Finally, an appendix is provided for each chapter which is the foundation of a coral reef. After the advances concerning both the appropriate suggesting where the reader can obtain further organism dies, the organic part decomposes infrastructure and natural environments. This information. is a difficult approach, but was chosen to help while the mineral skeleton lives on. Over the years, the lime scale residues build up and avoid burdensome and constraining proposals Photo: Polype ® Parent Gery which would be difficult to adapt in the future, if corals continue to grow on the surface of this structure, and this is how a coral reef is formed. required. Coral lives in symbiosis with algae: some types Volcanic islands in inter-tropical areas provide of corals have their own symbiotic micro-algae in an ideal substrate for polyp larvae and hence for The guide contains: their tissues called zooxanthellae. the formation of coral reefs. • an updated review of climate change and its consequences for the land-sea interface (GIEC

14 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones / 15 THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF REEFS • An Atoll largest in the world (1,600 km long). acts as a barrier against erosion caused by swell An atoll is an offshore coral reef. It is ring-shaped • New Caledonia and Mayotte both have double by reducing wave energy and changing Three main types of coral reefs can be found in and encircles a sizeable lagoon of variable depth. barrier reefs, an extremely rare phenomenon in the hydrodynamic conditions. In addition, due French overseas territories. The reef can be continuous and ring-shaped or a the world (there are fewer than 10). to its high productivity, it is the beginning of set of islands separated by channels connecting the nutrient cycle in coastal zones. The coastal • France has one of the largest Exclusive • A fringing reef the lagoon to the ocean. French Polynesia has waters around mangroves are generally rich in Economic Zones in the world, largely due to Fringing reefs form a border along the shoreline atolls. Clipperton and Europa and Bassas da shrimps and fish. A mangrove is an important the presence of these reefs; French overseas and have a shallow backreef zone, they are India Islands (Eparses Islands) are atolls. Reef shelter, and hosts significant animal biodiversity territories account for over 90% of the French mainly found in Reunion Island and in the benches exist in addition to this geomorphologic including molluscs, crabs, fish, lizards, snakes, maritime area. Caribbean. trilogy. Reef benches are coral formations on turtles, and birds. shallow offshore beds. • A barrier reef Coral reefs, like tropical forests, are among the SEAGRASS MEADOWS Unlike the fringing reef, the barrier reef is richest and most productive ecosystems in RELATED ECOSYSTEMS: separated from the coast by a lagoon. Barrier the world. They host exceptional biodiversity MANGROVES AND SEAGRASS and provide an unparalleled panorama of reefs are found in New Caledonia, around MEADOWS the islands in French Polynesia, on Wallis and underwater life including corals, fish, rays, Mayotte. There is also a barrier reef on the east turtles and sharks. A third of all known marine Mangroves and seagrass meadows are coast of Martinique and Guadeloupe (Grand species, ( nearly 100,000 species) live in reefs. ecosystems «associated» with coral reefs. Cul-de-sac Marino). A sub-variety is made up Mangroves are located along the shoreline. of double barrier reefs, consisting of two parallel barrier reefs. New Caledonia and Mayotte each SOME EXCEPTIONAL MANGROVES have double coral barriers, which are extremely Seagrass meadows. Photo: © Alain Pibot rare (there are fewer than 10 in the world). FEATURES OF FRENCH OVERSEAS TERRITORIES These beds of seasgrass form marine «meadows». They include many different • France is the only country with coral reefs in underwater plant species. Located between three oceans. These different contexts explain the reef and a mangrove, they are also home their exceptional diversity. to a wide range of fauna and flora including sea • These coral reefs and lagoons cover urchins, sea cucumbers, and starfish. They are approximately 55,000 km2 which is almost also nurseries offering shelter and food for many 10% of the total surface area of coral reefs in juvenile reef fish,. Marine herbivores including the world. Mangrove, Martinique. Photo: © Ifrecor.com the dugong or manatee adore these marine • 20% of the world’s coral atolls are located in meadows. Bora Bora’s reef complex. © Überraschungsbilder French Polynesia. Mangroves are aquatic «forests» lying between Coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass meadows • New Caledonia’s barrier reef is the second fresh water and seawater. This ecosystem is are all closely interacting ecosystems. They are EEZ: Communities belonging to French overseas territories under IFRECOR specific to an intertidal zone and is one of the the source of many ecological services but are most productive in the world. It has developed particularly fragile and currently threatened by the capacity to adapt to highly selective climate change. conditions and its different plant species depend on specific parameters including salinity (Walsh, the 197 flooding duration (McKee, 1993), the SERVICES PROVIDED sedimentation rate (Ellison, 1998). Currently, mangroves occupy about 75% of tropical BY CORAL REEFS shorelines and cover 200,000 km2. Their AND Related ecosystems vegetation is made up of ± 19 mangrove families, broken down into ± 27 genuses ± 70 species When coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass (Marchand et al. 2010). A mangrove is crucial meadows are healthy they provide human from both an ecological and economic point of communities with: view. It plays a vital role in the conservation of • a supply of food: an estimated half a billion tropical coastlines. It stabilises the shoreline, and people live off reefs; 16 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones / 17 • innovative development: a large number of Worldwide, nearly 500 million people depend on activities related to fishing, aquaculture, pearl coral reefs for sustenance, coastal protection, oyster farming, for jewellery or even medicinal renewable resources and tourism. And around purposes are possible in coral zones. 30 million people, among the world’s poorest, Mangroves and seagrass meadows provide depend entirely on coral reefs for their food. many fishing resources, and mangroves also It is estimated that the goods and services provide wood; provided by coral represent an annual net profit • tourism: coral reefs are a source of beauty and of 30 billion US dollars to the world’s economy wonder; they are an icon in French overseas (César, 2003). In monetary terms, revenues from territories; fisheries located near mangroves are estimated at US$10,000/ha/year, although this varies • coastal protection: reefs, mangroves and coinsiderably depending on the area and market seagrass meadows protect the coast from value. The total value of goods and services erosion by reducing swell. For example, a provided by mangroves exceeds US$ 200,000/ coral reef can absorb up to 97% of a wave’s ha/year in some cases (Marchand, 2010). energy, and 200 meters of mangrove along the shoreline can absorb 75% of its energy, However, degraded coral reefs may reduce fish thus protecting the coastline and coastal catches which can result in food insecurity due to infrastructure; protein deficiency; a reduction in revenues from • finally, mangroves and seagrass meadows tourism and an increase in the risk of erosion and trap the finest sediments, thus protecting coastal destruction caused by natural disasters. coral reefs from asphyxiation due to hyper- sedimentation. It is thus essential to preserve these unique ecosystems for current and future generations.

Pocillopora corals. Mayotte. Photo: © Jean-Pascal Quod

Aerial view of Sainte Anne. Photo: © Franck Mazéas

18 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones / 19 Taemae Lagoon, Moorea, French Polynesia. Photo: © Franck Mazéas chapTER 1

1 / CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE A STATUS REPORT

Parameters to take into account for coastal infrastructure. We refer here to the 5th IPCC report (2013-2014).

NEW SCENARIOS USED BY THE IPCC

The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate references, which are representative of changes Change) is now using new baseline scenarios in concentrations (RCP - Representative (RCP scenarios) rather than the previous Concentration Pathways) of greenhouse gas SRES scenarios (see below). In the following (GHG), ozone and aerosol precursors for the paragraphs we refer to the ONERC paper 21st century and beyond. These scenarios can «Discovering new RCP scenarios and SSP used be correlated with quite important global efforts by the IPCC (French Ministry of Ecology, Energy to reduce GHG emissions. and Sustainable Development - 2013- Authors: Sylvain Mondon and Maurice Imbert). Weather conditions and associated impacts of climate change were deduced by climatologists The SRES scenarios in the «Special Report on for each of the four «representative pathways». Emissions Scenarios» were defined by the IPCC Sociologists and economists also worked in the late 1990s and used up until 2007. The on scenarios with differing socio-economic report discusses a collection of possible future development characteristics and adaptation and scenarios for companies which incorporate alleviation strategies. A group of five scenarios multiple economic, technological and social named SSP (Shared for Socioeconomic determining factors). In preparation for the 5th Pathways) was defined. IPCC Assessment Report, a group of international experts identified four scenarios to be used as

20 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 21 This approach allows everyone to collaborate 1.1. CORE ELEMENTS and ensures coherence between climatologists and economists. FOR CLIMATE FORECASTING

Forecasts for climate change take the following major parameters into account: A SUMMARY • rising temperatures, OF CLIMATE CHANGE • changes in rainfall, IN FRENCH OVERSEAS TERRITORIES • intensification of cyclones, Photo: © Michel Porcher • melting ice, • rising sea levels. TEMPERATURES AND RAINFALL This section provides an initial estimate of The profiles of RCP: Representative Concentration Pathways are referent scenarios for Meteo-France is now running regional temperature and rainfall forecasts for French changes in radiative forcing over the 2006-2300 timeframe. simulations in French overseas territories to overseas territories (French West Indies, supplement current information. The simulations French Polynesia, Reunion Island and New can be viewed on the «Drias the future climate» Caledonia). The results found using the Name Radiative forcing GHG Concentration (ppm) Pathway portal. The regional values given below are taken regional climate model Aladin-Climat, state from this portal: www.drias-climat.fr that every region can expect: RCP 8,5 > 8.5 Wm2 in 2100 > 1.370 eq-CO2 in 2.100 Increasing • a 0.7 °C increase in temperature by 2100 -6 Wm2 at stabilization -850 eq-CO2 at stabilization Stabilizing without Temperature and rainfall: in the RCP2.6 scenario and a 3-3.5°C RCP 6,0 level after 2100 level after 2100 exceeding the global average increase in temperature increase in the RCP 8.5 scenario; by the end of the century will be+ 2.8 °C. -4.5 Wm2 at stabilization -660 eq-CO2 at stabilization Stabilizing without • a decline in average rainfall, especially in RCP 4,5 level after 2100 level after 2100 exceeding the dry season. A significant rise in temperatures is expected Peaking at -3 Wm2 before Peaking at -490 eq-CO2 Peaking then in the French overseas territories, but with RCP 2,6 2.100 then declining before 2.100 then declining declining differences depending on the geographical area. CYCLONE ACTIVITY A significant increase in rainfall is also expected in We refer here to the latest IPCC report: Table 1: Main characteristics of Representative Concentration Pathways (Moss et al Nature 2010) the higher latitudes (more than 10% in the Arctic Radiative forcing, expressed in W/m2, is the change in radiative results (declining radiation and Antarctic), but the values vary from one • at the beginning of the 21st century: a minus increasing radiation) at the top of the troposphere (10 to 16 km in altitude) due to a region to another and are lower in subtropical slight change in the frequency of tropical change in climate patterns such as the concentration of greenhouse gas emissions. The regions (see Table 2). cyclones was predicted. Only a few 2011 value is 2.84 W/m2. studies showed an increase in the intensity The 5th IPCC report confirms the most of cyclones in the North Atlantic basin and pessimistic temperature predictions, i.e. the an increase in the frequency of Category increase in global average temperatures could 4 and 5 cyclones in the North Atlantic and be between +2.6°C and 4.8°C (the RCP 8.5 Pacific Southwest basins. scenario being the worst). • by the end of the century: it is likely Regions Average temperature in °C Rainfall % that the frequency of tropical cyclones • Intensification of cyclones worldwide will decline or stay the same. According to IPCC forecasts, cyclones are Yet the average rainfall and maximum Caribbean +2°C (+1.8 to +2.4°) -12% (-19 to -3%) expected to intensify in all tropical zones, with average wind speed of tropical cyclones stronger maximum winds and higher occasional Guyana +3.3°C (+2.6 to +3.7°) +0% (-3 to +6%) will undoubtedly increase. rainfall. This intensification is linked to rising Indian Ocean +2.1°C (+1.9 to +2.4°) +4% (+3 to +5%) tropical sea temperatures; however, it is not yet South Pacific +1.8°C (+1.7 to +2°) +3% (+3 to +6%) possible to identify changes in cyclone frequency. Extract from «France’s climate during the 21st century» Volume 4. Regional scenario - 2014 edition-for France and New Caledonia +1.9°C (+1.8 to +2.1°) -6,5% (-5 to -8%) • Melting ice its Overseas territories -August 2014 - G. Ouzeau et al. One of the best indicators of the impact of global Table 2: Predicted temperature and rainfall between now and 2099. Scenario A1B - IPCC 2007. The unpredictable ranges (quartiles 25/75%) are in brackets (Extracted from: Petit J and Prudent G. 2008, Climate Change and biodiversity in the EU Overseas territories. warming is the extent of the ice shelf surrounding IUCN, Brussels. 196 pp). Greenland: from 1978 to 2007, the ice cover

22 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 23 decreased by 40%. Between 2005 and 2007, impact on coastal and marine structures and more than one million km2, an area equal to infrastructure. However, acidification will have a five times that of the United Kingdom, was lost. major impact on the growth and survival of coral, 1.2. EXTREME These results exceed all forecasts in the IPCC and could eventually have a significant indirect (2007) assessment report. In addition, mountain effect on airport infrastructure located on or WEATHER PHENOMENA glaciers have retreated and snow cover has near reefs, as coral formations provide natural IN INTER-TROPICAL ZONES The actual zone seriously affected by a declined in both hemispheres, except in the coastal protection against erosion (a large reef depression at a given time is small, but the path Antarctic, where the ice cover currently appears can absorb up to 90% of a wave’s impact). So Most of the information in this section comes a depression takes is variable and can only be to be increasing. the destructive effect of strong swells on from Meteo-France publications. The largest predicted at most a few hours in advance. infrastructure could be magnified. coral reefs are found in inter-tropical zones • Rising sea levels where the climate enables them to develop, The risk of being hit by a HTD or cyclone, A global rise in sea levels has been observed but includes periods of severe weather. especially for small islands in a vast ocean for several years and directly linked to the These events are usually tropical depressions environment, is thus the combination of a risk of global warming phenomenon. It is mainly due of varying strength with strong winds and heavy a depression starting and that its path crosses to the thermal expansion of the oceans as they rainfall: tropical depressions (TD), heavy tropical a particular island, which fortunately means a become warmer, but also because glaciers depressions (HTD), cyclones, typhoons, and significantly low probability of high impact. and ice sheets are melting. The global sea hurricanes. level has risen by 0.20 meters since 1900 Statistics include data on rainfall, wave height, A cyclone is a vast area where the atmospheric and now appears to be accelerating. The wind speed, minimum, average, and maximum air rotates around a low pressure centre, 5th IPCC report (RCP 8.5 – being the worst temperatures, based on recorded weather called a trough: the depression is the eye of scenario) forecast an average increase of reports. the cyclone. The pressure gradient between 0.45 to 0.82 m. In 2100, the maximum increase the zones of surrounding high pressure and could be between 0.52 and 0.98 m with a rate of These statistics give the probability of a return low pressure causes air to be drawn into the 8 to 16 mm/per year from 2081 to 2100. These period, which can be annual, decadal, 50 years centre, the Coriolis acceleration deflects winds estimates have increased significantly or a century; however, these are only statistics to the right in the northern hemisphere and to since the previous IPCC report (AR4, 2007) and a ten-year return for example, may occur the left in the southern i.e. anti-clockwise in whose highest forecast was 0.59 m. twice in this specific period, i.e. in a shorter time the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the frame than that defined, and even only 8 days southern. There are consequently no cyclones A similar increase is expected in most French apart! near the equator between latitudes 7° north and overseas territories, but to varying degrees south, where acceleration is zero or too weak. depending on the region concerned. The trough will thus follow the points where the temperature of the seawater is at its highest and Other climate change parameters, such as SUMMARY OF CYCLONES release maximum energy due to the latent heat oceanic acidification, have not been mentioned AND TROPICAL DEPRESSIONS of seawater condensation. This energy raises as they are not expected to have a real the thermal temperature from 10 °C to 25 °C. Tropical depressions usually originate in the The intensity of a cyclone is determined by temperature of sea water, which is a huge the maximum wind speed it generates, which potential source of energy (usually from 26 °C at is an easy parameter to predict and measure. the starting point at a depth of 50 meters in the The destruction caused by a cyclone is actually ocean mass). caused by the wind (the most violent wind ever It is however very difficult, if not impossible to recorded scientifically was 408 km/hr on April 10 predict the statistical probability of a depression 1996, on Barrow Island in Australia). occurring at a given location or its level of violence; only the inter-tropical confluence can The evaporation of large quantities of hot forecast a non-quantifiable risk. Cyclone analysis water releases high thermal energy, which involves counting the occurrence of cyclones in is transformed into very high winds and a large defined geographical area along with extensive, powerful clouds. their power. Tropical cyclones plague the inter-tropical Collapsed beach seawall in Saint Paul, Reunion Island 2012. Photo: © BRGM zone, where coral reefs are located, but extra-tropical and even polar cyclones occur.

24 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones / 25 When a cyclone reaches the continental shelf or ten minutes and maximum two hours. In areas is close to land, the counter current disappears, where there is a large continental shelf, i.e. the and only the surface current remains strong. sea remains shallow for kilometres offshore, This produces a natural surge of water towards intense cyclones can cause storm surges the surface, which builds up as it approaches of 5, 6, or even 7 meters; so under certain the shore. The steeper the shelf, the greater the local conditions (e.g. Bangladesh) victims can build up. number in the hundreds or even thousands of people, their homes devastated and washed Depressions tend to push the water level up away. (intumescent or inverted barometer effect). The normal atmospheric pressure is approximately 1 «Bagging» can occur in lagoons, which is when bar at sea level, which is the pressure exerted by water is unable to evacuate as quickly as it a 10 m water column, one millibar is equivalent enters. to 1 cm of water. Waves can be huge, sometimes exceeding the Cyclone Bejisa, January 2014. Leaching on roadways, dispersal of pollutants and soil deposits. Photo © Imazpress The «overvalue» reaches maximum when all theoretical wave height limit of 15 meters. The the effects are combined with a high tide. In the energy generated by cyclones is usually very THE EFFECTS OF CYCLONES the destruction of homes located next to bodies southern hemisphere, this is the case of cyclones intense and causes huge rollers on exposed AND TROPICAL DEPRESSIONS of water. moving westward in the north¬eastern part of shores and up to several hundred kilometres the eye. This «spike» is sometimes referred to from the weather system. The amount of rainfall generated by a cyclone as the storm surge, which usually lasts around Effects due to high winds varies considerably. High intensity cyclones Cyclones often cause irreparable damage. can be quite «dry», with only a few dozen Erosion on a beach in Reunion Island. Photo: Michel Allenbach They destroy electricity networks, precarious milimetres of water recorded in their path; dwellings, and the vegetation. For example, a others, considered to be less intense because Category 4 cyclone is accompanied by sustained the winds are moderate, cause flooding and winds of 220 to 240 km/hr; some gusts exceed deadly landslides. Local conditions can play an 280 or 300 km/hr. If the pressure at sea level is important role in the impact of rainfall: as low as 920 millibars, it is a class 5 cyclone (the lowest pressure ever recorded at sea level • mountainous terrain magnifies vertical was Typhoon Tip in the Pacific Ocean with movement and hence the instability of the 870 millibars measured on the 12th of October terrain and the condensation of evaporating 1979 with a maximum wind speed estimated water; at about 310 km/hr!). A cyclone’s magnitude • the presence of a mountain chain or other is the pressure on a surface area proportional natural obstacle can change the direction to the square of the wind speed. A 200 km/ of the system; hr wind is four times stronger than a 100 km/ • when a cyclone moves slowly, the amounts hr wind. Buildings that meet cyclone standards of rain increase, which happens when it can withstand winds of 240 km/hr (class 4). This remains stationary in one place. wind speed corresponds to a dynamic pressure of 310 kg force/m2. The effects due to the storm surge and Effects due to rain the state of the sea: Heavy rains are also destructive, and more The storm surge causes a rush of seawater, a importantly, they are the biggest killers, especially rise in sea level that floods everything in its path, since they may accompany less intense cyclones; and destroys everything along the coastline. The the most extensive damage, the most surge is caused by high winds blowing over the destruction, and large numbers of victims surface of the sea around the eye of the cyclone, are mainly due to the effects of water and which tend to create a strong current through rainfall, i.e. rapidly flowing gullies, overflowing friction, and is generally offset at depths of over rivers, raging mountain torrents, cut off and 50 to 60 m, by a counterflow in the opposite dangerous roads, landslides and mudslides, and direction.

26 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones / 27 chapter 2

2/ WATER-RELATED INFRASTRUCTUREs AND STRUCTURES

This chapter deals with all water management structures that could have an impact on the coastal and marine environment, in particular coral reefs and related ecosystems, stormwater, wastewater, drinking water systems and coastal protection structures.

The water cycle is an integral part of life and of swimmers and for the consumption of living human activities; it begins and ends in the ocean. organisms caught in polluted rivers or the sea; Both natural phenomena and repercussions • risk of degradation caused by hyper- from human activities and structures linked to sedimentation and/or the pollution of sensitive water can have a strong impact on coral reefs natural environments, leaching and erosion of and related ecosystems. the soil during heavy rainfall resulting in floods and overflowing water management structures Any structure linked to the management of (water retention structures, water treatment stormwater and wastewater is very sensitive to plants (lagooning and sewage treatment climate. The main risks are: plants); • risks associated with civil protection as rainfall • risks of deterioration of buildings due to heavy is often destructive. Rainfall is the deadliest of all rains, especially during the cyclone season. weather hazards leading to rapidly overflowing ravines, flooding rivers, roads may become Coastal protection structures are included in dangerous and even cut off, landslides and this chapter because they are directly linked to mudslides, destruction of homes located near water and are affected by erosion and coastal water; degradation. • health risks: heavy rains frequently pollute French Polynesia, Fakarava. Photo: © Franck Mazéas stormwater systems creating risks for

28 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 29 2.1.1. SUMMARY • desludging and/or water retention tanks: in OF INFRASTRUCTURE addition to the above-mentioned structures, SALTWATER INTRUSIONS An example in Guyana: http://www. it is often important to build water retention dailymotion.com/video/xatrmq_crise-du- AND STRUCTURES LINKED structures to control the flow to the bevel-sale-en-guyane_news TO STORMWATER MANAGEMENT downstream network that serves as an outlet. «Saltwater intrusion» occurs in coastal These structures are often built to desludge freshwater aquifers in natural coastal An example in New Caledonia: http: i.e., to limit sedimentation in waterways, and to environments. This is where bodies of // www.geophysical.nc/carte/poum- retain certain accidental effluents before they saltwater and freshwater meet and form a biseau-sale OVERVIEW are discharged into the natural environment; hydrologic barrie, also called a «corner» or «front». It is a freshwater/saltwater Outside natural environments, human • anti-salt dams help maintain a certain level of interface, and is made of brackish water. settlements and human activities have required freshwater above a salt intrusion; the construction of artificial structures to collect • The size of these structures has varied over As saltwater is heavier (its density ranges and conserve water, or to allow it to circulate or time, originally they were large and their between 1.023 and 1.034) and thicker than evacuate through an outlet. These include: dimensions were calculated according to freshwater, they only interact when there • water holes: the oldest and simplest structures resources available at the time of construction, is a movement between the two water 2.1. STORMWATER were naturally occurring holes or holes dug then by the water flow rates, and the acceptable bodies. Given this difference in density, the by hand to access open or very shallow recurring flow rate, but also to function of the freshwater table must be 30 to 40 m deep water. These have gradually become more structure: food, protection, regulation, and to exert sufficient pressure to contain the In a natural environment, rain and stormwater sophisticated; particularly the funding capacity. saltwater in a sustainable way. infiltrates the ground to the limit of its permeability thereby supplying the water table. Some water • canals built to capture some of the flow in waterways to direct it into a channel or pipe; In the coastal areas of islands, the evaporates and some is captured by the THE IMPACTS OF STORMWATER freshwater table is in direct contact with vegetation. Any excess runs off and supplies • reservoirs: in the absence of natural lakes, it MANAGEMENT STRUCTURES ON THE surface water bodies: streams, rivers and lakes. the denser saltwater table. If too much is often necessary to build dams to capture NATURAL ENVIRONMENT groundwater is pumped and/or the large quantities of water not only to meet water level of the watertabl drops due to a low Weather records from specific locations are requirements, but also to regulate the flow of These structures have both positive and negative rainfall period, the saltwater «pollutes», used to measure the probable cumulative water downstream by withdrawing all or part impacts: the freshwater aquifer used as a source rainfall (generally on a monthly and annual of the flow; of water for irrigation, drinking water, and basis) and the maximum recurring rainfall • flood or storm weirs: these weirs are built where • Positive impacts, linked to the objective of water for industrial use, leading to a shift in (usually on an annual, decadal, fifty year or it is impossible to capture the overflow and/or building the structure (controlling flooding and the saltwater/freshwater interface. centennial and exceptional time frame). It is excess water. An overflow in a water retention desludging phenomena) to limit the transport important to note that, in statistical terms, the structure can destroy it, unlike canals, which of terrigenous particles and sometimes to A salt intrusion rises very slowly towards same measurement may be recorded several can be submersed without being destroyed; prevent pollutants dispersing in the natural land and is difficult to reverse because times within a specific period or only recur after environment. saltwater acts as a «impermeable barrier». the period has ended. • water channels and/or dykes: waterways have been channelled, altered, or contained by • Negative impacts: changes to a biological Once the intrusion has risen, the hydraulic cut-off effect, degradation caused by flooding gradient required to move it back is greater Groundwater is naturally present in different earth mounds or walls to improve the flow of some rivers and keep them in their «normal» during extreme weather conditions (turbidity, than the original one. kinds of water tables that account for part of the hyper-sedimentation and sometimes pollutants surface water flow between periods of rainfall. beds. These structures may improve or enable navigation in inland waterways; trapped in desludging tanks, erosion). When These can be open or retained water bodies, a structure is destroyed it can cause major superficial or deep water, and sometimes • crossings and bridges: structures have been damage to the downstream environment, both lenticular on islands, especially coral islands built to cross waterways, which were formerly to assets and possibly to people. These impacts where the freshwater floats on top of the crossed by fords: viaducts for motorways, are often linked to under-sized water retention saltwater. roads and railways, but also aqueducts for infrastructure and insufficient riverbank some ancient water supply channels or even protection against erosion and sometimes lack canals that bridge the waterway; of maintenance of the facilities (dilapidated • stormwater drainage pipes: rain water is and infrequent cleaning of desludging tanks or A schematic section perpendicular to the coastline collected and channelled by pipes to different ditches and canals) and river banks (jammed according to Ghyben Herzberg (extracted from Frissant up, full of rubble, sediments and waste). et al. 2005) outlets, especially in urban areas;

30 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 31 2.1.2. INFRASTRUCTURE overloaded WWTPs often release waste water • deforestation linked to mining and the lenticular table. Stormwater drainage is LINKED TO STORMWATER directly into the natural environment. thedevelopment of residential areas, the provided by the coastal road ditches. Catch proliferation of wild deer and pigs, loss of basins have been built to complement these MANAGEMENT IN FRENCH Finally, there is very little or even no treatment wetlands by infilling, agricultural drainage ditches to stop stormwater overflow running into OVERSEAS TERRITORIES of stormwater, which flows directly into the sea, works; the lagoon. The island is partly surrounded by thus strongly contributing to the pollution of the • soil sealing by housing developments or mangroves and some have been made into taro marine environment. plantations; these mangroves play an important Equipment in French overseas territories artisanal and industrial areas, mainly in or Thus, despite the efforts already made, a lot around Greater Noumea. desludging role and must be protected. generally complies with global standards, and of work remains to be done and improved the design of the structure takes into account stormwater management programmes are These floods cause material damage and Futuna Island has no barrier reef and therefore the tropical rainfall conditions and the lie of the planned. The aim is to reduce the risk of flooding no lagoon, its mountainous terrain generates land (many sites have geological formations a high level of pollution in sensitive aquatic and to optimise the management of terrigenous environments (rivers and marine environments). important flows in each valley’s small coastal that are easily submerged by stormwater). deposits and associated pollutants to limit their rivers. Only the coastal strip is inhabited and has Specific alterations may be required, but these impact on the sensitive marine environment. In Wallis and Futuna: a very low impact. are sometimes difficult to implement, especially One of the major problems to be resolved is the given the risk of cyclones which requires These two islands have very different rehabilitation of sewage systems and to prevent characteristics. L’île d’Alofi est vierge et ne porte aucun habitat oversizing of certain structures: ditches, bridges, stormwater overflow from entering wastewater flood spillways on dams. Uvea island - Wallis - has no rivers. As there are systems. no structures, stormwater infiltrates and supplies

However, the population density varies (COM) considerably with the territory, requiring the use IN FRENCH OVERSEAS TERRITORY of equipment that is sometimes atypical. For THE MAIN CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION example, in Tahiti, gratings were put on retention IN FRENCH POLYNESIA IN NEW CALEDONIA structures in rivers running through inhabited In Papeete, a stormwater system exists, but valleys to retain different types of waste, thereby there is still a risk of floods in low-lying regions. protecting the lagoon, beaches and coral reefs During heavy rains, the network collects heavy • Domestic pollution (fecal coliforms, nitrogen, pesticides and herbicides (nitrates, downstream. loads of suspended solids (SS) resulting phosphorus and organic matter) mainly in phosphates, potassium used for cereal from erosion in the watershed and the many the cities on the west coast; crops, livestock, gardening and horticulture, Scientific observation facilities (experimental excavation works on slopes. In additiion, • terrigenous deposits (heaby loads of SS) mainly on the west coast. The east coast is measurement sites) have been set up to measure macro-waste clutters the highly urbanised valley due to soil erosion, especially in mining self-sufficient in food crop production and is the flow of solids and liquids in waterways. For bottoms (in particular, around Papeete) along catchment areas and all deforested areas cleaner; example French Polynesia and New Caledonia, with pollutants discharged from illegal, artisanal because the soil has a loose surficial geology • pollution linked to livestock farming which both of which have several mining catchment or industrial activities (although these are few), and is consequently easily dislodged; is very varied throughout New Caledonia; areas, have been monitored over the last five leaching in paved areas, and sludge from the • metals from the soil and mining waste; extensive cattle farms on the west coast and years to check the level of fine sediment deposits overflow of malfunctioning micro-plants due to pig farms (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, in the lagoon, and ultimately, to protect the coral lack of maintenance or inappropriate design. • various pollutants linked to artisanal or organic material and fecal coliforms); reefs. The lagoon can become extremely polluted as a industrial activities. With the exception of • pollution caused by aquaculture result. Several studies conducted in the last 20 mining, there is no heavy industry in New (DOM) (mainly shrimp farming): salt nutrients, years confirmed the existance of such problems, Caledonia only processing. These activities’ organic matter (faeces and unconsumed IN FRENCH OVERSEAS TERRITORIES mainly in Papeete harbour. are scattered tjhroughout the island, but 70% are located in the Southern Province. food), mainly on the west coast and in the Southern Province. Aquaculture causes In general, stormwater management structures IN NEW CALEDONIA They can generate pollutants including major hyper-sedimentation and mangrove are basic and although in theory, sewage Most districts have a stormwater system with petroluem products, solvents, heavy metals, eutrophication; networks exist in the overseas territories, in open structures (concreted or unconcreted chemical products, and organic matter from practice, problems of non¬compliance are ditches), except Noumea where some networks food processing factories and processing • overflow of sewage treatment plants during ubiquitous. The many stormwater connections are underground. plants; the rainy season and waste from often to wastewater networks dramatically increase malfunctioning individual sanitation systems; the amount of polluted water in waste water • discharge of oolluting liquid effluents Flooding occurs frequently in several districts for (leachates) from waste management and • dumpsites and macro-waste that can end treatments plants (WWTPs). And in most cases, a number of reasons: once this polluted water is in the WWTP there waste disposal centres; up being carried down the rivers during is no way of confining it. As a result, substantial • the tropical rainfall patterns and the • agricultural pollution linked to fertilisers, heavy rains. leaching occurs during the rainy season and geomorphology of a number of steep slopes;

32 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 33 2.1.3. POSSIBLE IMPACTS ongoing rise in sea level, with a corresponding 2.1.4. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR 2.2. WASTEWATER OF CLIMATE CHANGE reduction in the hydraulic slope at the outlet TECHNICAL ADAPTATIONS and consequently, in flow.

The main impacts of a changing climate are The rising sea level will gradually, but permanently A number of immediate measures are required 2.2.1. SUMMARY linked to: reduce outlet capacity to the sea. to prepare for the possible changes listed above: OF INFRASTRUCTURE • changes in rainfall patterns and in sea level: • based on an inventory of existing structures in AND STRUCTURES LINKED TO • an increase or on the contrary, a decrease in These changes will increase the previously each overseas territory, a survey is required of THE ROUTING AND TREATMENT annual cumulative rainfall; described risks. The lagoons will suffer from their status (degree of dilapidation, investigate • a decrease in the return period of heavy increased deposits of terrigenous particles, debris incidents that have occurred during extreme OF SEWAGE WATER AND THEIR rainfall; and rubble, macro-waste from natural and/or weather conditions); IMPACT ON THE NATURAL anthropogenic sources sometimes loaded with • very heavy rainfall exceeding present levels; • rank structures as a function of possible risks ENVIRONMENT pollutants, all of which will seriously degrade • the intensification of cyclones: winds and the and immediately resize those subject to major reef environments and related ecosystems by low pressures which generate them cause a risks if necessary; mechanical action, asphyxia, eutrophication and temporary rise in water levels, in addition to the OVERVIEW the effects of different chemical pollutants. • start systematic hydrological calculations on catchment areas, taking into account the Sewage water is water affected by human geomorphologic features of the sites, the activities after domestic, industrial, artisanal, vegetation cover and likely evolution based on agricultural or other uses. It is assumed to be foreseeable climate changes, but also on any polluted and has to be treated. Several different developments planned in the catchment areas; wastewater treatment systems are used: • regularly update flood risk prevention plans, to account for progress made in climate change Collective wastewater treatment systems projections; In most countries, especially in urban • limit human settlements, housing and activities environments, wastewater is collected and in sensitive areas; transported through a sewage network (or sewage system) to treatment facilities (treatment • consider the progressive transfer of existing plant, lagoon, etc.). Water which has undergone settlements that will be exposed and set aside treatment is then released into the natural land to prepare for such movements in the environment (into a river or the sea via an outlet). future; • limit developments which have an impact on Collection networks river hydraulics (deforestation, soil, sealing, These can be separate or combined: etc.) and/or remedy them, for example by • separate pipes are used for effluents and creating sedimentation-settling basins (like the sewage and others just for stormwater, mining sites in New Caledonia). • one pipe is used for all effluents. Generally speaking, completed and ongoing • in the two systems, the treatment is never master management plans for water and perfect during heavy rains, as flows are high sanitation do not appear to take the «climate and the effluents diluted. Treatment plants are change dimension» into account in their saturated and the waste generally overflows recommendations. As such structures are and pollutes the natural environment. usually designed for a service life of more than ten years, it is essential to include the Pumping stations are needed in low-lying areas possible effects of climate change, in order or where gradients are not sufficient to carry to optimise existing and future master plans, the effluent to treatment plants and outlets by and to be prepared to alter recommendations gravity. at each update, according to advances in our knowledge of climate change and possible technical innovations. Inondation Mayotte, Cyclone Hellen, 30 mars 2014, source Firinga.com. Photo : NC

34 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 35 Semi-collective sewage treatment In the marine environment, these outlets are WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS These are mini and micro-purification stations usually made of cast iron or HDPE pipes which (20-500 PE) and small collective stations (up to discharge at sites where the conditions (depth, 1,000 PE). In general, these are designed for currents, biological characteristics) are right to housing developments, and for private houses, limit the impact on the environment and public There are two main techniques to purify water: secondary schools and high schools when health (depending on the required degree of biological and physical-chemical processes these buildings cannot be connected to a public processing). The route of the pipe is optimised network. according to the site’s geomorphological and biological features and its exposure to strong biological process Aerobic biological processes swells, thus limiting the degradation of sensitive sea beds and damage to the pipe in extreme PE: POPULATION EQUIVALENT is A biological process is used for secondary Pollutants are degraded by micro-organisms weather conditions. The pipe’s fixtures are a unit of measure defined in France treatment of urban and industrial wastewater. which are naturally present in the environment. adapted accordingly. under Article R2224-6 of the local This process is mainly used to eliminate Aerobic biological processes are based on the authorities’ General Code as an organic biodegradable soluble organic contaminants purifying properties of soil (planted reed filters, biodegradable load requiring 60 grams such as sugars, fats, proteins, because the sand filters) or rivers (lagooning, activated sludge). of biological oxygen per day for five days physical-chemical process is less effective, The oxygen supply can be natural (from the wind (BOD5),. In waste-water treatment, PE more costly or difficult to implement. Biological or a cascade system) in small lagoon systems, is the ratio of the sum of the pollution treatment breaks down the biological matter or artificial (turbine or microbubble distribution) load produced during in 24 hours by using micro-organisms, mainly bacteria. in «activated sludge» treatment plants. Bacteria industrial facilities and services to the can be suspended (activated sludge, lagoons) individual pollution load in household The different processes can be classified or fixed (planted trickling filters, sand filters, sewage produced by one person during according to aeration and micro-organic bio-filters) or RBCs. In an urban wastewater the same period (source Wikipedia). conditions: treatment plant with an activated sludge system, the process involves the following steps: • aerobic biological processes or activated sludge. Activated sludge is usually used in • pre-treatment i.e. screening, grit and oil In France, a population equivalent is 60 g of French overseas territories, removal, biological oxygen demand, 135 g of chemical • aerobic suspended-growth systems, • primary treatment: pre-settling basins to settle oxygen demand, 15 g total Kjeldahl nitrogen sludge and surface skimmers, with or without • anaerobic biological processes or activated (TKN) and 4 g of total phosphorus in a daily flocculation, sludge, quota of 150 litres of wastewater. • secondary treatment: aeration and mixing, • anaerobic fixed-film systems. secondary sedimentation (also called Creating the population equivalent for public clarification). Here, clarified water is rejected sanitation facilitates communication between (except if tertiary treatment is required) and technical services and the administration most of the settled sludge is returned to the and helps determine the size of a wastewater aeration basin, whilst the excess is directed treatment plant based on the polluting load. Wastewater treatment plant outlet, French Polynesia towards a specific circuit or storage tank, Photo © M. Porcher • possibly tertiary coagulation-flocculation Non-collective or individual sewerage treatment or chlorine or ozone disinfection (to treatment: Impacts on the natural environment destroy pathogenic germs), This is used when it is impossible to connect Normally, wastewater treatment plants • secondary treatment may include anoxic housing to a collective network. Domestic considerably limit the impact of wastewater on stages to reduce nitrates. wastewater is treated in a pre-treatment the natural environment: less turbidity, fewer • metals in solution can be neutralised by monitoring tank followed by spreading sewage nutrient inputs (nitrates, phosphates) retention varying the pH of the water. This settles the sludge on the soil or using sand filters. of sludge and some pollutants (heavy metals, pollutants...?????????? pesticides, hydrocarbons), even removal of Process flow diagram of a large-scale treatment plant. (Source Wikipedia) Wastewater treatment plants micro-biological pollution. See box. However, if the system does not function Outlets for treated water are usually located in properly, the discharge from the wastewater streams and rivers or at sea. treatment plant can lead to high concentrations

36 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones / 37 of nutrients at the outlet, causing eutrophication • Mayotte: Mamoudzou (40,000 PE). into the natural environment. First, the particular population density in French and hyper-sedimentation that are toxic for Exisiting facilities are usually inadequate. The • sewage collection networks: connection to Polynesia has to be taken into account. The town sensitive species like corals. This is followed by most common problems are: collective networks is generally not sufficient, of Papeete in Tahiti has a permanent population temporary bacterial pollution, which is dangerous • the ratio of purifying capability to total i.e. between 10% and 40%. Little information of around 130,000 residents, and there are for residents. The same phenomena can occur population is low (ranging from 24% in Mayotte is available on these networks; very few two zones with a very localised high population during heavy rains as the waste water treatment to 85% in Martinique); diagnoses are carried out on them and as a density due to the presence of luxury hotels plants are overloaded and overflow, or may even result, they are often in poor working condition. on Bora Bora and Moorea. The rest of French be destroyed during high intensity cyclones. • the WWTP’s self-monitoring systems are not Polynesia has a more dispersed population. always reliable; Some were badly designed or poorly built and some are even on slopes. In some coastal Papeete is the biggest town; the villages have • the operation and management of the WWTPs areas, sea water seeps into the networks and maximum of 3,000 inhabitants. 2.2.2. SANITATION is not up to standard, for example in Mayotte disrupts the sewage treatment process. INFRASTRUCTURE IN FRENCH only 6% function correctly; All the low population density areas have • in addition, topographical changes and the individual sanitation systems, except some OVERSEAS TERRITORIES • the choice of treatment systems is not always tropical climate increases the presence of appropriate, their size does not meet real needs hotels which have a mini treatment plant whose H2S in pumping stations and storage tanks, treated effluent is discharged into the lagoon. and the location of the facilities is not always making it dangerous to operate the networks IN OVERSEAS TERRITORIES (dom) ideal. Many treatment plants are overloaded and H2S can cause rapid chemical corrosion The urban area of Papeete is still does not as soon as they start functioning. High of the pipes. The wastewater treatment systems in the five temperatures all year round mean bacterial have a collective sewage system. Only the town French overseas territories differ because the processes are very effective, but the WWTPs • sludge management needs to be improved of Puna’auia has a treatment plant in which the geography, demography and socio-economics that use the activated sludge (low sludge) in all the overseas territories. A number of effluent treated by physical-chemical system in each territory are very different, as is their systems overflow when intense short tropical technical solutions exist: located 60 m from the lagoon. There are many urban density. Their objectives are behind those storms occur, also because there are no • direct recycling via agriculture; small treatment plants (biological plants with of mainland France (Nicolas Richez, 2011). effective separate sewage systems. Lagoons • use of sludge drying beds, although this is suspended or fixed¬film growth systems with face the same problems, which reduce their difficult in a humid climate; trickling filters or bio¬towers) and individual Collective wastewater treatment systems efficiency, and as a result, large loads of • filter presses that can reduce water content sewage systems in the rest of the Papeete Eighty percent of exisiting waste water treatment suspended solids (SS) are discharged into the from 96% to 40%, thereby reducing the urban area. plants use an activated sludge system, the natural environment during heavy rains. volume 10 fold: sometimes the residue is remainder use other systems, including incinerated. More than half of these small treatment plants lagooning, aerated lagoons, membrane filtration. • many WWTPs deal with urban sewage as well do not comply with standards, and the situation However, some systems are not suitable for as industrial and artisanal wastewater and of the individual sanitation systems is worse, stormwater; Sludge is less problematic or has a low impact marine conditions because they are too technical on the marine environment. meaning untreated or inadequately treated or the cost of maintenance is too high. • semi-collective sewage systems (mini and effluent flows into the stormwater networks micro-treatment plants of 20 to 500 PE) and then into the lagoon. The rest of Tahiti has Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) and small collective (up 1,000 PE) systems IN OVERSEAS TERRITORIES (Com) individual sanitation systems, also with a lot of and sewage treatment have rapidly increased in number, due to untreated effluent running into the valley basins, where a lot of litter can also be found. There are currently between 150 and 200 housing developments, and the high rate of IN FRENCH POLYNESIA WWTPs of over 2000 PE in French overseas construction means there is a time lag between The information in the following paragraph However, Papeete’s liquid sewage master plan territories. the construction of housing developments and mainly comes from a report written in 2009 by (SDAL) has been drawn up and is under way for construction of a collective WWTP; the ASPA Consultant for AFD «Economic costs the other areas. The first section of the collective The largest plants are located in: • most small treatment plants are badly of deficient sanitation in French Polynesia». sewage system is currently being built in the city • Reunion Island: Grand Prado in Saint Denis maintained resulting in overflows into the centre, with a planned pipe outlet outside the (160,000 PE); natural environment; This document confirms the alarming situation lagoon. • Martinique: Dillon in Fort de France (85,000 • there are also a large number of non-collective concerning wastewater management in French Polynesia, which is similar to that in French PE); treatment plants (or individual ones) in the Moorea island overseas territories, and highlights a significant overseas territories; 60% to 80% of individual Most of the island’s luxury hotels are in the • Guadeloupe: Ponte a Donne, Jarry Baie delay in building water processing plants. sanitation systems compared to less than 20% Ha’apiti area which has a sewage network Mahault (45,000 PE) in mainland France and they are mainly located and a sewage treatment plant with an effluent However, wastewater management programmes • Guyana: Kourou (30,000 PE) and Cayenne in rural areas. Between 90% and 95% of these pipe outlet outside the lagoon. However, these are in progress, especially in Papeete. which is under construction (60,000 PE with a facilities do not comply with official standards facilities are not yet functioning. Elsewhere, there planned extension to 90,000 PE); and discharge insufficiently treated wastewater are individual sanitation systems except for a

38 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 39 few hotels who built individual treatment plants Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) Overall, the networks are in poor condition and Existing industrial activities are in three main around the island. There are 13 WWTPs in New Caledonia, of there is little or no monitoring of their actual sectors: food processing, shipbuilding and which six are in Greater Noumea and two are condition. manufacturing construction parts. About 80% Bora Bora has a collective system which serves under construction, plus numerous micro-plants of these activities are on the Leeward Islands, the whole island with a collection network, a in private housing estates or schools. WALLIS AND FUTUNA and in particular Tahiti, in industrial zones in the treatment plant, and a pipe outlet discharging There are no wastewater treatment networks, all Punaruu valley, in Greater Papeete and vicinity. into the lagoon, but at depth, and with a current The city of Noumea has six communal treatment treatment is individual. Aside from Tahiti, there are smaller zones in that flows towards the channel and open sea. plants with a capacity of 83,200 PE, for an Moorea and Raiatea. estimated 127,000 PE sanitation needs: Given their low population density, the other • Riviere Salee: 8,500 PE ARTISANAL OR INDUSTRIAL Small factories are located on steep-sided islands are equipped with individual sanitation WASTEWATER valleys and often discharge untreated effluents systems. • Yahoue: 5,000 PE into rivers. The pollutants, organic matter and • Tindu-Kamere: 4,700 PE heavy metals, pollute the lagoons, especially IN OVERSEAS TERRITORIES (dom) On the atolls, some luxury hotels and schools • Magenta: 4,000 PE Papeete harbour. have WWTPs with activated sludge systems or bio¬towers and the treated effluent is • James Cook 20,000 PE Overseas territories differ one from another. Forty percent of existing companies are in discharged through pipes into the lagoon. The • Sainte Marie Bay 2, 000 PE agribusiness, including the Tahitian brewery main problem on atolls is lack of water, rainwater In Guyana and Mayotte, there is little industry which has a beer factory in Punnauia and a fruit and exisiting companies are currently not is collected in tanks and freshwater from wells. Currently, 45% of Noumea’s households are juice factory in Moorea. Both these factories considered to be significant sources of pollution However, 95% of individual sanitation systems connected to the network (95% connections are produce highly polluting organic matter. for the natural environment. in the villages are not up to standard and the planned by 2030). The WWTPs’ capacity starts However, they have a treatment plant which freshwater table is affected by bacterial and at 50 PE (for micro-plants) and the largest is is complies with environmental standards and In the Caribbean and Reunion Island physical-chemical pollution. Consequently it is the Koutio plant in Dumbea with 12 700 PE. a deep underground pipe outlet at sea (60 m essential that individual sanitation systems at Industrial wastewaters are a major source of from the shore in Punnauia). Pig and poultry pollution for the natural environment (streams and least have a waterproof pit and drainage system There is also a significant amount of treatment farms in valley bottoms cause significant organic rivers and the sea). In Guadeloupe for example, before the effluent is discharged into the ground. by lagooning. The recent lagoons of Bourail pollution. organic pollution by industries is estimated at 96 and La Foa are well adapted to any changes in 000 PE, which is more than twice that generated IN NEW CALEDONIA loads and flow rates, which is not the case of a Extraction of river gravel is among the main by the population. However, significant progress The data below comes from a report on a number of other treatment plants. contributors of suspended solids (SS) in the study conducted by the A2EP and Roche has been made in recent years and efforts are lagoons. In 2005, extraction in Tahiti accounted continuing. group in February 2009 for the New Caledonian Wastewater collection networks for 86% of the total flow of suspended solids Government entitled « Report on sanitation in Public networks are in urban sectors and in (SS). Since then, management plans for gravel Industrial pollution is mainly organic, it originates New Caledonia –inventory and diagnosis ». recent housing developments where micro- extraction have been established in the main in the food industry which plays an important plants have been built. They are mainly single valleys concerned and the situation has probably role both in the local economy and in exports. The population of New Caledonia is 230,789 units which consist of underground pipes or improved. Most companies are involved in processing (ISEE 2004) distributed as follows: open ditches, or a combination of the two. local fruit or distilling rum from sugar cane. Most These networks collect effluents from septic IN NEW CALEDONIA • Greater Noumea = 63% sanitation problems are due to the absence of tank or individua users. In Greater Noumea, wastewater from the • North Province = 19% pretreatment before discharge, which saturates main industrial zones (Ducos in Noumea, the the WWTP and pollutes natural environment • South Province = 8% When a single unit is part of a sewage network, Numbo peninsula and Noumea’s port zone (increase in water turbidity and massive nutrient stormwater overflows are usually added to avoid with its hydrocarbon storage tanks) goes mainly • Loyalty Islands = 9%. deposits, in particular, causing eutrophication). overloading the pumping stations and local into a single unit sewage network, but is not treatment plants downstream. discharged into the communal WWTP. With the exception of Noumea, no urban centre has more than 5,000 inhabitants. The biggest network is in Great Noumea, it is IN OVERSEAS TERRITORIES (com) Wastewater treatment plant 340 km long, 60% in units and 40% in a separate Industrial, artisanal and urban wastewater flows IN FRENCH POLYNESIA into the Anse Uare (Creek Sale) and Koutio Bay. COLLECTIVE WASTEWATER TREATMENT system. Part of Dumbea’s southern sector has a Industry is limited because the domestic market In most cases, a basic type of pre¬treatment is SYSTEMS separate system; the Mont-Dore district has no WWTP and wastewater from septic tanks often is small, labour costs are high and there are no applied consisting of settling, skimming oil and The main techniques are activated sludge raw materials. Industrial activities are thus mostly systems or lagooning. goes into the stormwater network. During heavy sludge. rains, many outflow points cause pollution of the artisanal and have only a few employees. natural environmental. 40 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 41 The rising water level could also have serious In the case of a rise in the sea level, empty tanks consequences for certain treatment plant basins will have to be stabilised to prevent them being which could disgauge when emptied. lifted up by the water pressure.

If the forecasts of increased heavy rains are confirmed, combined sewage systems will run a high risk of clogging and as a result, more 2.3. WATER CONSUMPTION untreated waste will be discharged into the natural environment. AND DRINKING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS Treatment plants should not be affected by rising temperatures (high oxygenation parameters and bacterial seeding). 2.3.1. Summary of It will no longer be possible to improve sanitation infrastructures and in low-lying coastal areas. structures linked to drinking water supply High winds do not directly affect hydraulic Wastewater treatment plant. Photo: © All right reserved systems structures, but trees can be blown down and block outlets. In addition to simple watering points, human In Noumea there are four industrial WWTPs. The • two major projects are starting: the Vale activitives have required the construction of other industrial areas are Normandie, La Coulee Inco NC hydrometallurgical plant in the far High winds, the low pressures that generate dedicated structures in catchments: (in Mont-Dore) and Ziza in Paita. south of New Caledonia, and the Vavouto them, and stormwater cause water levels to rise • wells were originally dug by hand, but the depth pyrometallurgical plant in the VKP area in the which often reduces the hydraulic slope of the of the water table and the growing demand for Aside from Greater Noumea, medium-sized north. The high level of pollution from these outlets. For that reason they may need elevating water for a variety of uses means deeper wells artisanal zones are mainly located on the west types of factories is due to heavy metals which in order to evacuate effluents. are now required. These should enable access coast at La Foa, Bourail, Kone and Koumac. end up in the marine environment. Existing lagooning stations may be too small if to water tables with a better flow rate and/or In the VKP area (Voh/ Kone/Pouembout), there heavy rains are more frequent, which will result in that are less polluted, are also rapidly expanding industrial zones and But the three factories already are - and will physical and biological pollution of neighbouring artisanal projects linked to the nickel treatment continue to be - subject to rigorous environmental natural environments. • reservoirs or pumping stations, pipes convey plant. monitoring. the water from its source to the end user,

Exact information concerning the discharges Other industrial mining sites enrich the ore • drinking water treatment plants. This kind of from these industrial and artisanal activities and before it leaves the site, transportation like the 2.2.4. RECOMMENDATIONS plant consists of: their impact on the natural environment is not SLN Tiebaghi and SLN Nepoui cleaning sites. FOR TECHNICAL ADAPTATION • an extraction point, followed by sieving and available, and small businesses are subject to The discharges from these facilities into the sea screening, little control. Nevertheless it is perfectly obvious are also subject to strict monitoring. In the future, whenever possible, stormwater • a settling pond with or without the addition these discharges cause chronic pollution of the and wastewater should be separated. of a flocculation adjuvant, marine environment. IN WALLIS AND FUTUNA • a series of gravitational filters (slow filtration) There is no industry in Wallis and Futuna. In combined sewage systems, at least small or pressurised (fast filtration), overflow outlets should be installed to limit the • a chlorination-disinfection unit and Ph (lime) INDUSTRY LINKED TO MINING disruption of water treatment plants during correction, 2.2.3. POSSIBLE IMPACTS violent storms. • possibly an ozone tower, The main industrial sites are: OF CLIMATE CHANGE • possibly a series of activated carbon filters, • the SLN pyrometallurgical plant at the Treatment plants which are at risk from « high • a chlorinating output unit to protect the Doniamboen site which is directly linked to Water treatment plants are still being built in swells » should have enhanced protection. network (an injection rate of 1/10 of «shock» nickel processing, is responsible for major low-lying areas, i.e. on coastlines or next to river disinfecting chlorine); Pipe outlets in areas where there is a risk flows of pollutants to the Grande Rade, in outlets and consequently risk submersion. • industrial wastewater treatment plants; addition to significant air pollution caused by of hydrodynamics and silting will also need • pipes that convey water to the reservoirs and gases emitted by the neighbouring power In addition, their outlets are exposed to swell, protecting, and if necessary adapted to the distribution pipes; plant; and rising waters could significantly reduce their rising water level, for example, using recovery hydraulic gradient and hence their flow. systems. • reservoirs to store water and distribute it with 42 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 43 sufficiently consistent gravitational pressure; 2.3.3. POSSIBLE IMPACTS In coming decades, with the continuous increase • these parts of the networks should be • discharge facilities and compressors which OF CLIMATE CHANGE in the density of coastal populations and the reinforced; ensure an increase in pressure if required resulting freshwater extraction, the rise in sea • waterstorage facilities and reservoirs, should (pressure drop, the level of the groundwater level and lack of infiltration,the risk of saltwater be constructed wherebthere is a risk of water When extraction takes place in open water, table at certain sites and IGH); intrusion into lens groundwater tables will shortage; water treatment plants and their catchments are increase. Building hydrodynamic models to • pipes for distribution of the water to users. located nearby, and therefore more likely to be assess water mixing conditions in aquifers is • settling tanks should be constrcuted for highly flooded. In some overseas territories, extraction highly complex; they depend on the hydro- turbid water; Wastewater treatment entails the discharge is by pumping in low-lying areas (atolls), and the geological structures and capillary changes, • piezometers should be installed to monitor of effluents into the natural environment, after facilities are at risk of submersion. Other facilities seasonal flows, variable marine pressures due to groundwater and saltwater intrusions; desludging and filter washing. The effluent is may also be at risk, although usually to a lesser different tidal ranges and high tides and storms. thus concentrated and also contains treatment extent, pipes in particular burst in some parts. • when appropriate, funding plans should be This rise in water levels makes low-lying drawn up and resources prioritised. products (flocculents FeCl3, (SO4)3Al2, «wac» structures more vulnerable to flooding. disinfectants, etc.) The main impacts of climate change will be due (Source:brgm:http://www.brgm.fr/ to two different types of changes: rainfall and projets/explore-2070-relever-defi- Small treatment plants which deal with good rising sea level. changement¬climatique). quality water only chlorinate to protect the 2.3.4. TECHNICAL ADAPTATION network. Impacts of climate change on the natural RECOMMENDATIONS environment and on drinking water supply RAINFALL systems are: To be carried out: Two scenarios are possible, depending on the • rising lens groundwater tables which can 2.3.2. INFRASTRUCTURE LINKED • different water needs (human, industrial, region: reduce their volume or even make them TO DRINKING WATER SUPPLY crop and livestock farming), and foreseeable disappear; • first, limited rainfall, meaning the water table is increases should be estimated; SYSTEMS IN FRENCH OVERSEAS not replenished. This can result in periods of • increase in concentrated effluents from waste • the resources and their sustainability should TERRITORIES low water flow when distribution will have to be water treatment plants discharged into the be assessed; interrupted or selective measures introduced natural environment due to high turbidity French Overseas territories use conventional (stopping irrigation of crops that require a lot of • the current performance of the network should during increasingly violent rainy periods; equipment which complies with global water,, for example, corn); be assessed along with ways to improve it, to • a risk of toxic pollutants from agricultural optimise extraction levels; standards. • second, more frequent and more violent rainfall, plant protection products (especially HCl, which reduces infiltration and increases runoff. • critical parts of structures that are at risk of NaOCl, Cl2, FeCl3, (SO4)3Al2) stored at sites In some sites, if water quality is adequate, it During heavy rainfall, turbidity is such that it deterioration during violent weather conditions damaged by flooding and released into the does not need treatment, only chlorination to is no longer possible to treat it and comply should be identified; natural and coral environment. These storage protect the network (Uvea-Wallis and a number with standards. In this case, the distribution of facilities have to be protected. of islands and atolls with brackish lens waters). drinking water must be interrupted. Frequent violent rainfall means distribution will be (the Cayenne treatment plant in Guyana: the increasingly at risk. extraction point is located 60 km upstream from the estuary, which is the limit of saltwater during According to some forecasts, the period of storms). reccurring heavy rainfall will be shorter making such rainfall events more frequent. In some rural and natural areas, there are no drinking water supply systems because the In some areas, an increase in the annual population density is very low. cumulative rainfall can be expected, but a decrease in others. Very heavy rainfall, exceeding High pumping rates mean water is removed present levels, is also to be expected. from aquifers faster than it is replaced by rainfall, as a result,, the groundwater level is decreasing In parallel, the slow rise in sea level is causing on all five continents. a rise in lens groundwater levels, in some low areas these will then be aboveground, thus threatening the water supply. Modernisation of the WWTP Le Port – Possession, Reunion. Photo ©AFD (Agence Française et Développement)

44 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 45 2.4. COASTAL 2.4.1. SUMMARY OF COASTAL PROTECTION STRUCTURES PROTECTION INFRASTRUCTURE MAJOR ROLE FOR CORAL REEFS IN COASTAL PROTECTION AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE Many studies have shown the natural The study also showed that an artificial Like coastal zones all over the world, the French NATURAL ENVIRONMENT breakwater effect of coral reefs. A recent study breakwater and a coral reef are just as efficient. overseas territories suffer from beach and land ‘The effectiveness of coral reefs for coastal The breakwater reduces wave height by 30 to erosion due to strong swells, including those OVERVIEW hazard risk reduction and adaptation’ (Filippo 70% and the reef by 51 to 74%. The authors caused by cyclones. The expected effects of Ferrario, Michael W. Beck, Curt D. Storlazzi, concluded that the restoration of a degraded climate change (rising sea level and increased These structures can be classified according to Fiorenza Micheli, Christine C. Shepard, Laura coral reef is around 15 times cheaper than the intensity of cyclonic swells) will increase both their function, design, type of materials used and Airoldi - Nature Communications) confirmed construction of an artificial breakwater. erosion and flooding. their size: and quantified their role and found that, on reaching the shoreline, coral reefs reduce The role of mangroves and seagrass • land protection and embankment slope There are two types of flooding wave energy by 97% (the reef crest reduces meadows: mangroves play an important role structures: linear structures built parallel to wave energy by 86% and a reef flat 65% of in protecting not only the coastline, but also its • Flooding in low-lying areas (especially coastal the coast: flood walls, low walls and rock or marshes and mangroves, low coastal plains or the remaining energy). Likewise, the reef inhabitants. It is estimated that the roots and concrete structures (cubes or unreinforced reduces wave height on the shore by 85% vegetation of a 200 metre wide mangrove can embankment slopes on reef flats) Concrete Armour Units: ACCROPODE™ or (the reef crest reduces the breaking wave absorb 75% of the swell’s energy and sharply • Temporary storm flooding («episodic flooding Tetrapod units as protective structures for large height by 64% and the reef flat 43% of the reduce the risks of coastal degradation behind of coastal areas due to severe weather coastal roads, airport runways or industrial height thereafter). The study also found that it, protecting its infrastructure and bordering conditions (strong depressions and high port zones; on the reef flat, the 150 m closest to the reef populations. During the 2002 tsunami, winds) and exceptionally high tides» (Garry et • beach protection structures: groynes, flat crest reduce these residual waves by which hit Indonesia hard, large mangroves in al. 1997). breakwaters (rocks or concrete blocks) 50%. This shows that even relatively narrow coastal areas helped to limit mortality of the reef flats are effective. The key parameters in coastal population mortality and damage to • dykes to protect ports and marinas The Coastline Risk Prevention Plan (MATE/ reducing waves is the reef flat’s water height infrastructure. (concrete walls and/or an outer layer of rocks METL 1997) distinguishes between different (significantly higher than in open water) and or concrete blocks (cubes or Accropodes). types of coastal flooding: the roughness of the coral, but its coefficient Dykes are made up of layers of grit, varying in varies depending on the species (branching • «surges» when the sea level is higher than the quality depending on the structure); or encrusted corals do not have the same protection structures or dunes; • ecological protection: detrital levees and roughness coefficient). • «flooding by heavy seas» due to overtopping; artificial dunes, re-sanding beaches and • «a dune line bursting or being destroyed replanting dunes or upper beaches, restoring after intense erosion» or «dykes and defence coral reefs, creating artificial reefs, replanting structures bursting» when the topographic seagrass meadows and reinforcing or restoring level inland is below sea level. mangroves; • natural structures (coral reefs, seagrass All other things being equal, the rising sea meadows, mangroves, beaches, dunes, rock level will result in an intensification of these beaches and gravel bars. It is essential to phenomena. preserve or restore them, given their crucial role in protecting the coast, over and above French overseas territories all have extensive their biological role. coastlines which were - and still are - interconnected and are served by port facilities. Defence structures were first built around the ports and second around tourist facilities. As most French overseas territories are islands, many protective structures were required against the sea’s actions. Consequently, the impact of climate change should be taken into account when managing existing structures and when designing future ones. Source : F. Ferrario, M.W. Beck, C.D. Storlazzi, F.Micheli, C.C. Shepard, and L. Alroldi, «The Effectiveness of Coral Reefs for Coastal Hazard Risk Reduction and Adaptation, “Nature Communications“ (2014), dol : 10.1038/ncomms4794 - © 2014 The Pew Charitable Trusts

46 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 47 GENERAL COMMENTS ON THE • disruption of the shore profile, prevention on the pressure on the site and on the potential DESIGN OF COASTAL PROTECTION of sediment exchanges between the upper impacts of climate change, in the short, medium STRUCTURES beach and shoreline, thus increasing erosion and long term. phenomena; • biological disruption within or along the ROCK STRUCTURES shore profile; 2.4.2. OVERSEAS TERRITORIES • during construction: destruction of sensitive COASTAL PROTECTION Most of these structures are made up of layers areas in and around the construction site, INFRASTRUCTURE built from the core outwards, with either very fine deposits of terrigenous particles during earth (silt, with alterite type characteristics) or coarser moving and building the structure’s core backfill materials (blocks and rubble). This core (depending on the type of materials used); French overseas territories differ in their coastal is protected by one or more layers of rubble or • accidental pollution by diggers, trucks, etc.; rock that increasie in size outwards, ending with geomorphology, their economic activities, and in an outer layer made of larger rocks or concrete the nature and the size of their coastal protection blocks. A geotextile underlayer is often placed Examples of concrete structures, Marutea Atoll docks (Photo: SA • impacts of structures once they are in structures. Palacz) between the rubble core of the structure and service: Other than the effects mentioned the rocks to prevent loss of the finer material above caused by poor design, the The following structures are classified according due to the effect of swell and destabilization (especially for older structures) or prefabricated hydrodynamic phenomena that damage to the size of the structure: of the structure’s core. The outer layer is made concrete caissons assembled on site, and structures also have a negative impact on of rock or concrete, depending on its use. The then covered with a concrete outer layer. Their sensitive natural environments including coral • Type 1: Large coastal protection structures. revetment slopes typically vary between 1/3 anchors are sometimes on posts especially on reefs, seagrass meadows and mangroves; These are flood walls that are several metres and 1/4. The offshore side of port and marina pontoons and dolphins (ducs d’Albe). • direct functional effects: when building high, protections with armoured layers made protection dykes is usually protected by large materials (blocks, concrete blocks, rubble) of large rocks or concrete blocks measuring blocks of rock whereas smaller blocks or vertical are dragged over reef flats during strong several cubic metres and weighing between concrete docks are used for the harbor side. IMPACTS ON THE NATURAL swells they cause local damage to coral one ton and dozens of tons. The wing walls are reinforced by larger rubble ENVIRONMENT formations; • hyper-sedimentation originating from either mounds in exposed areas. • Type 2: Medium-sized structures. These • The impacts are linked to the design and the fine construction materials used for the are the most common type, and protect construction of the structure: core of the dyke, or degraded land upstream most coastal infrastructure: average size from the coastal protection structures. CONCRETE STRUCTURES • sedimentological and hydrodynamic or small ports and marinas, low to medium These sediments can suffocate the corals changes linked to poor design which cause exposed waterfronts, embankments, beaches These are either mixed structures (rockfill dykes and seagrass meadows and soil leaching hyper-sedimentation, and create confined protected by groynes and breakwaters. They topped by concrete flood walls) or vertical or can bring pollutants (pesticides, heavy zones that facilitate eutrophication or are protected by medium-sized rocks weighing sloping structures, built with concrete blocks metals, hydrocarbons) although in smaller increase erosion; hundreds of kilos up to 3 tons or by low or quantities, into these sensitive biological medium height vertical or sloping walls. environments; • high levels of accidental pollution, critical risks are leakage of hydrocarbons or highly • Type 3: Small structures. These protections toxic industrial products into the environment are mostly built by residents or small hotels in when industrial infrastructure or industrial areas less exposed to risk. They are low walls port zones are located upstream from or small rock protection structures weighing a coastal protection structures, which, when maximum of a few hundred kilos. damaged or destroyed by extreme swells, no longer fulfil their protective role. All these structures are described in detail in the sections on large infrastructure. It is therefore essential to conduct a diagnositic survey of existing coastal protection structures, and to repair them or consider building different structures or even dismantling them depending

Examples of a structure’s cross-section. Here a rubble mound breakwater type (source FAO building a fishing shelter).

48 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 49 REUNION ISLAND

THE MAJOR COASTAL PROTECTION STRUCTURES Such structures only exist on coasts directly exposed to the sea, i.e. not protected by a reef flat: the dykes’ main armour layer is made of large rocks or concrete (cube or Accropode):

• at Gillot Airport; Port of Saint Pierre adjoining a reef flat. Medium sized rock protection – Chiconi, Mayotte. Photo: © Sea-Seek.com Photo: © Dem Boitcha SMALL STRUCTURES SMALLER STRUCTURES Reunion’s industrial port. Photo: © Marie-Annick Lamy-Giner 9th June 2009 Walls, low walls and rockfill embankments There are very few of these structures, which are protecting land (urban areas) and beaches. If simply small rock protections or low walls built these protections are made of blocks of rock, by local residents. they are generally smaller (weighing a few hundred kilos or a few tons). There are not many on Reunion Island. EPARSES ISLANDS

Access is only by air, there is no port infrastructure Mayotte or protection structures along the coast, boats Gillot Airport and Sainte Marie Port, at the end of the runway. anchor offshore. Photo: © DTP Terrassement MAJOR STRUCTURES • along some coastal roads like Saint Denis They protect the runway at Pamandzi Airport, the Port of Saint Gilles. Photo: © Hotel-les-creoles.com WEST INDIES south coastal road, at the foot of steep cliffs Longoni industrial port area and the southern exit (this road is the subject of a very large «New of the Mamoudzou bypass (from Mamoudzou to GUADELOUPE, SAINT MARTIN Coastal Road» project which will include very MEDIUM SIZED STRUCTURES Passamenti). This ring road borders or crosses large embankments and viaducts built on the a mangrove. AND SAINT BARTHELEMY seabed); • Small fishing and recreational sailing ports and marinas (the west coast and southwest MEDIUM SIZED STRUCTURES MAJOR STRUCTURES ports of Saint Leu and Saint Pierre in reef These include the airport runway, the port, Pointe environments; east coast ports of Sainte Rose The port of Mamoudzou (concrete walls, docks a Pitre Ferry Terminal and the industrial port of and Sainte Marie on the coast exposed to the and medium to small sized rocks) and coastal Jarry Baie Malhault (deep water port) and the sea); protection of these developments; Port of Basse Terre and adjoining coastal area, • urban embankment areas along the coastline, linear protection of the seaside boulevard with often near coastal ports and beaches. The large rocks (exposed to the sea). The small port outer protections are generally a main armour of Dehaies has a large rock breakwater and big layer of large rocks weighing from hundreds of concrete cube wing walls (1.5 m high). A major kilos to several tons. port expansion project is underway at Pointe Jarry.

Project: New Coastal Road - Reunion Island. MEDIUM SIZED STRUCTURES © An environmentalist’s journal. Dozens of these structures are distributed Mamoudzou: Medium sized rock embankment protecting the new around the island and its dependencies. These • at the main ports: the industrial port area of Le market. Photo: Philippe Mathieu Port de la Pointe des Galets, the ports of Saint facilities are mainly: Gilles, and Saint Marie at the end of the runway The coastal protection structures in the east • fishing ports and marinas, some moorings with at Gillot Airport (photos below). coast cities of Chiconi and Sada are also in this a dock protected by rocks; category. • facilities linked to hotels, consisting of marinas and a number of beach protection works, Port of Saint-Leu located on a reef flat. Photo: © Sea-Seek.com 50 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 51 especially on the southern coast of Grande- SOUTH PACIFIC SMALL STRUCTURES Terre between Le François and Gosier. The There are many small struxtures in French most important structures are marinas in St. FRENCH POLYNESIA Francis, Bas du Fort in Pointe a Pitre and the Polynesia because the coastlines are generally relatively well protected from open sea swells by Rivere Sense in Basse Terre’s southern tip. MAJOR STRUCTURES a reef complex, consisting of a fringing reef, a The only major structures are the ports of quite narrow lagoon channel (but large enough Papeete and Faratea in the Taravao peninsula to generate an important fetch) and a barrier (second most important French Polynesian reef. Most small structures built are parallel industrial port and Faaa airport runway); to the coast, and consist of low walls and/or rocks to protect natural land, coastal roads or embankments built by municipalities, hoteliers Small rock groynes: reed beach in Capesterre – Belle Eau in Guadeloupe. Photo: © Jojyba and residents. They are built along the upper part of beaches or along the fringing reef flats, on the motus (lagoon side) and to protect artificial La Martinique islands. There are also groynes which protect the beach against erosion, especially artificial MAJOR STRUCTURES beaches belonging to the hotels. Gosier aerial view (Guadeloupe) - Beach Protection: groynes and The only major structures are the airport runway breakwaters with medium sized rocks. © Google Earth Examples of small structures: and the industrial port of Fort de France. An The port of Papeete - Large flood walls and rocks. extension project is underway. Photo: © eminatetcie.canalblog SMALL STRUCTURES MEDIUM SIZED STRUCTURES There are relatively few in Guadeloupe and those MEDIUM SIZED STRUCTURES there are mainly protect beaches, hotels and These are around a dozen ports, marinas and waterfront properties; they are walls, low walls beach hotels, or coastal roads defences. There are many medium sized structures and small rock protections. All are located along which protect virtually all the French Polynesian Marigot Saintes Bay (see photo) and are also airport runways (see chapter on Airports) and relatively common in Saint Martin (on the shores small ports and marinas (around 50 in French of Simpson Bay in the Baie aux Prunes, Baie Polynesia); Longue, Grand Case). Small artificial beach. Club Mediterranean in Bora Bora. Photo: © M. Porcher

La Nouvelle-Calédonie

MAJOR STRUCTURES Runway on a reef flat. © Photo of Gruyere Airport There are only a few: • Noumea port and its industrial port area are closely linked to the mining industry (nickel) in Trois-Ilets Marina (Martinique) © Magic Club travel Anse du Tir; • large marinas: the Orphanage Bay Marina SMALL STRUCTURES (embankments, T-shaped groynes and large Relatively few small structures protect a few rocks); hotels and coastal populations, they consist of small rocks, walls and low walls. • Moselle Bay Marina: concrete docks and Saintes: Marigot Bay - walls and waterfront homes rocks. Photo: © Denise Pelissier View of Uturoa with its marina and in the background, the airport runway on a reef flat. Photo: © Sea- Seek.com

52 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 53 Wallis AND Futuna IMPORTANCE OF COASTAL PROTECTION STRUCTURES IN COASTAL ZONES OF FRENCH OVERSEAS TERRITORIES Wallis Geomorphologic location and environmental pressures

MAJOR STRUCTURES There are none. Number of different types Environmental Overseas of coastal protection Geomorphologic pressures MEDIUM SIZED STRUCTURES Nouméa. Port de la Moselle. Photo: © Panc / noumeaport.nc collectivities structures (definitions location Nil: 0, Low * There are only four (docks, breakwaters, small above) Average **, High *** These are also found on Loyalty Islands; marinas) and large walls at the top of the beaches protecting villas, and/or the coastal road with • Mare Island to Tadine: a dyke with a concrete 4 exposed to sea Type 1: 5 0 to *** dock and outer protective wall with medium to low walls or rockfills, especially near Mata ‘Utu. 1 reef habitat Reunion Island Type 2: <10 0 to *** <5 exposed to sea large rockfill; Type 3: few * to ** <5 reef habitat • Lifou Island: Port We: a dyke, concrete wall Futuna and large rockfill; In reef habitats and mangroves MAJOR STRUCTURES Type 1: 3 ** to *** Vertical or sloping concrete walls protecting part In reef habitats and Mayotte Type 2: 3 ** to *** of Noumea’s seaside boulevards (Anse Vata and There are none. mangroves Type 3: very few * to ** Baie des Citrons). In reef habitat and MEDIUM SIZED STRUCTURES mangroves Eparses Islands: These protect the airport runway, walls to protect Tromelin, Juan 0 coral islands 0 the coast, a dock and walls in front of villas, and de Nova, Europa, local rockfills to protec the coastal road. Glorieuses

Type 1: 3 SMALL STRUCTURES Guadeloupe, Near reef habitats Type 2: between 30 to 40 ** to *** Saint Barthelemy, Near and very close to reef Type 3: few to average * to ** There are many small structures on Wallis and Saint-Martin habitats and/or mangroves Noumea: Sloping wall along the Baie des Citrons coastal road Futuna, mainly low walls protecting land or small number rockfills built by local residents along unexposed Type 1: 1 Mangroves coastal roads. There are also many small Type 2: between 20 to 30 Coastal dune areas, * to ** Martinique embankments on the reef flat, protected by low Type 3: few to average seagrass meadows, coral * to ** walls or rockfills. number reef mangroves

reef flats As there is no barrier reef on Futuna, walls have Type 1: 3 ** to *** been built on the edge of the fringing reef and French Polynesia Type 2: >50 reef flats ** to *** often in tidelands resulting in the erosion of Type 3: numerous reef flats ** to *** Nepoui mining port (New Caledonia) (by Hockers 19) neighbouring lands. New Caledonia, Type1: <10 Near fringing reefs and * MEDIUM SIZED STRUCTURES Iles des Pins, Type 2: around 60 mangroves * to *** Loyal Islands Type 3: numerous * to *** Most medium sized structures are along the New Caledonian coastline. However, since this Type 1: 0 coastline is linear, there are not that many, Wallis and Futuna Type 2: <10 Fringing reef flats * to ** except in the urban area around Nouméa. Type 3: numerous * to **

These structures protect coastal roads, marinas, Table 3: Importance of coastal protection structures in coastal zones of French overseas territories, geomorphologic locations and environmental pressures. small fishing ports, river estuaries, mining docks, and some beaches (groynes and rockfills at the top of the beaches).

54 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 55 Guyana destruction of protective structures during strong IMPACTS ON COASTAL cyclonic swells. Submerging seas due to high AND PORT PROTECTIon STRUCTURES alls and rockfills are intended to protect the swells combined with high floods after intense mangroves which are often backfilled, with tropical rains will have serious consequences. eroded mud banks (pseudo rotation of these Coral reef flats will accumulate rocks, concrete banks to the northwest). blocks, rubble and fine materials from destroyed The size of coastal and port protection embankments and higher wave overtopping. structures, and deposits of terrigenous particles structures is determined by marine forcing data These will have a serious effect on the stability caused by leaching and soil erosion due to and geotechnical conditions. The main hydraulic of the structures, and on port operations and 2.4.3. THERE ARE A NUMBER floodingupstream. Moreover, these matierials pressure originates from swells and the sea infrastructure protection. OF IMPORTANT POSSIBLE contain different pollutants leached from the soil. level. Climate change will have an impact on the geometry of the structures (Hawkes et al., These studies, which were based on the IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE The impact of climate change on coastal 2010). Thus, the following main effects need to theoretical analysis of structural dimensions, ON COASTAL PROTECTION protection structures is described in the be taken into consideration: changes in offshore enable the following conclusions to be drawn: an STRUCTURES following chapters, with specific details on each swells (average sea surges). It is difficult to predict increase of one meter in the average water level AND CONSEQUENCES major type of coastal infrastructure including its how this will evolve as the impact of the swell means that structures located in shallow waters protective structures. depends on the position of the structureand also will need to be raised two meters to perform FOR REEF ENVIRONMENTS affects its bathymetry. as well in terms of wave overtopping (Sergeant AND Related ecosystems. et al., 2010). In addition, the structures will be Despite these difficulties, studies on the subject to a significant increase in stress. Thus, The main parameters to be taken into account consequences of these expected changes to maintain the same stability, the mass of the are rising sea levels and the likely increase havealready begun in France. The Discobole blocks protecting a structure in shallow waters in the intensity of cyclones and hence o in project is analysing the significant increase in will have to be at least doubled to cope with the coastal erosion and degradation, or even the water depth in the vicinity of a test dam due future rise in sea level and increase in swells. to rising sea levels and evolving sea surges (Lebreton and Timal, 2009). This increase in In parallel, studies were conducted on scale depth creates difficult sea conditions near the models to confirm initial results. In general, three structures which, in turn, damage rockfill layers, ways emerged on how to adapt structures: and cause higher wave overtopping. Another • limit wave overtopping (e.g. by altering the wall test structure is being used to analyse possible crest); increases in offshore swells. • improve the stability of the main armour layer More general studies are being carried out (by adding an additional layer of riprap, making as part of the Sao Paulo IPCC program the slope steeper); (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) • reduce pressure (by building a new structure in and Theseus (Innovative technologies for safer front, by reloading sand). European coasts in a changing climate), funded by the European Union. As most coastal and These studies are still at the theoretical stage port structures in mainland France are in shallow and regional forecasts of the effects of future waters, i.e., in areas where surge and swell are climate change on current structures are not reasonably easy to assess, the structures are taken into account. adapted to these conditions. (Extract from the report: «France’s 21st These studies showed that rising sea level is century climate, Volume 3 – Rising sea levels more detrimental than increasing swells offshore - S. Planton et al. February 2012-Ministry of due to the likelihood of more intense storms. Ecology, Sustainable Development, Transport Based on a 0.6 to 1 metre rise in the average and Housing») water level in 2100, the bathymetric surge in coastal areas will be close to the structures, which, in turn, will cause stronger swells to hit the coast. In the end, the pressure will be more severe and result in unstable rockfill dyke Cyclonic sea surges on Reunion Island’s coasts. Photo: © AFP

56 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones / 57 2.4.4. RECOMMENDATIONS reefs, etc.) as they play an important role in • specific Risk Prevention Plans (RPP) underlines that no documents have been FOR TECHNICAL ADAPTATION reducing wave energy thereby limiting the documents on flooding and flood risks have published on coastal risks and that the location impact of coastal erosion on activities and been drawn up and are, being implemented or of the structures at risk is not specified, nor is assets. are planned. a description of the risks provided. In fact the The recommendations apply to different areas of focus of the analysis is on risks faced by low- decision making. • as part of the French national climate change adaptation plan (NAPCC), studies have recently lying areas: buildings, transport infrastructure, CAREFUL CHOICE been conducted to assess actions already industrial plants, and natural protected areas. LAND PLANNING OF COASTAL PROTECTION undertaken concerning management of the STRUCTURES coast and its vulnerability to climate change TECHNICAL RECOMMENDATIONS As this guide focuses on coastal infrastructure, and a national integrated coastal management FOR EXISTING STRUCTURES Coastal protection cannot be done on an ad hoc land planning approach is only mentioned in planning policy has been drafted. AND FOR THE DESIGN OF FUTURE connection with our technical recommendations basis because such developments all have an STRUCTURES impact on neighbouring areas. A comprehensive below: The broad guidelines in the French We refer to the following documents: national Strategy for Integrated Coastal coherent view of coastal development for Old structures were designed empirically, based the entire region is thus a precondition, which Management include: National documents: on experience and local knowledge. is then broken down into homogeneous 1. drawing up a spatial plan of physical • «Coastline management» (QUAE Editions geomorphologistic zones: a bay, a large sandy The design of contemporary structures takes hazards, planning urbanisation and choosing coastline, a lagoon area, a wetland, an area 2010); developments; into account the average sea level (relatively with mangroves, etc. Each zone should then • «National integrated coastal management constant over a given period) and wave height 2. drawing up 10, 40 and 90 year plans that be considered jointly with the neighbouring and planning strategy «(Ministry of Ecology, over a statistical period (e.g. centennial). take into account future changes in physical any functional interactions should be taken into Sustainable Development, Transport and phenomena and weighing up the possible account. The offshore sedimentological and Housing-2012). This is a roadmap urging Several parameters that account for hypothetical relocation of activities and assets as an hydrodynamic functions of this coastal zone the State and local communities to acquire future developments of a structure calculation alternative to stabilising the coastline in the must also be taken into consideration. knowledge and develop local strategies that need to be calculated: medium and long-term, based on cost- incorporate coastal erosion in public policies. benefit analyses; It sets out common principles and makes • the average water level, ane the likely rise; 3. setting up a joint territorial management unit POST ACTION EVALUATION recommendations for strategic integrated • the maximum wave height for a specified to cope with the risks of coastal erosion and coastal management. period, the increase in height will be partly Planning tools for coastal zones exist at the sea submersion, including a leader who will due to rising water level, and partly due to national level: be in charge of drawing up a development More specifically, we refer to the following on temporary surges; plan for the territory and who will monitor its • Marine Strategic Framework Directive (MSFD); French overseas territories: • the return period of surges should be shorter, implementation by other actors selected for • Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM); • CETMEF-CETE – West CETE (September not only due to the above point, but also their different skills; 2012) - «France’s vulnerability to coastal risks because of a possible increase in severe • coastal planning schemes (SMVM); 4. conducting cost-benefit and multi¬criteria in her overseas territories » CETMEF/DI report; weather conditions; • coastal section of Regional Development analyses to justify the choices made in the • And «Overseas territories facing the challenges • the direction of the surge in relation to the Plans (SAR) and Management and sustainable operational coastal plan; of climate change» the 2012 ONERC report shore, which is likely to evolve with rising water development plans (PADD) 5. protection projects that destroy the natural the Prime Minister and Parliament. level. coastline should only be considered only in • Grenelle Environment Forum tools; densely inhabited zones or areas of national • urban planning documents including (Territorial Ahanlysis of these two documents showed that Project developers will need to review the strategic interest, or they should be designed Coherence Scheme (TCS) and Local Urban some Risk Prevention Plans (RPP) have been possible frequency of reoccurrence, the basic so that in the long¬ term the activities and Planning (LUP), where coastal protection drafted for sea submersion and multiple hazards design of the structure in question, and to assets can be relocated elsewhere; problems linked to climate change can be (flooding–submersion and landslides), but that monitor plans for developments that directly some overseas territories lag behind due to affect the coastline (especially embankments, adaptive coastal management techniques integrated. However, not all these documents 6. delays in urban planning control policies. Different earthworks, dredging) or the area close to it (risk should be applied in areas with average take such problems into account and do not integrated coastal management schemes exposure). population density (random urbanisation, necessarily apply in French overseas territories. exist or are planned, but none incorporate the etc.) or predominantly agricultural areas; However, planning documents are available for French Polynesia (integrated management «climate change» parameter. CETMEF published an important reference 7. protecting and restoring coastal ecosystems plans for lagoons). document (http: //www.eau-mer-fleuves. (wetlands, sand dunes, mangroves, coral The study on the vulnerability of the coastlines cerema.com/publications-and-phototheque-r6. in overseas territories coastlines highlights html), the following recommendations were the risks that every territory may run, but also taken from it:

58 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 59 «...existing structures must be consolidated, 9. calculating the cost of damage to the particular attention to the type of seabed • based on the diagnosis, awareness raising and/or reinforced, resized if their potential structure for each alternative; (coral, seagrass meadows, etc.) both when and training programmes should be organised overtopping is unacceptable, studies should 10. among the alternatives, selecting the most choosing the method of consolidation and for local residents; be based on statistical data, reliable data from economic with respect to the service life of during construction phase. • we suggest that structures that have a negative a detailed analytical method that can forecast the structure. effect on the coast should be dismantled coastal hazards...». FOR SMALL STRUCTURES and structures that are adapted to the site’s (usually built by individuals and coastal residents) conditions built to replace them by eliminating A study of surge conditions, i.e. wave breaking ANALYSIS OF EXISTING STRUCTURES, vertical and waterproof structures, and and «shoaling» makes it possible to calculate THEIR POTENTIAL REINFORCEMENT The following recommendations will have to promoting the use of ecological techniques the potential overtopping flow. The calculation AND/OR BUILDING NEW ONES be widely disseminated in view of the serious and replanting of vegetation; will always be higher than sea level. It will require problems we face. The following actions are • coastal protection legislation will need to be reliable data on surges and water levels as well as FOR MAJOR OR MEDIUM-SIZED recommended: periodic data such as incidents, reoccurrences; STRUCTURES (see sections on the different significantly strengthened by increasing fines types of infrastructure). • an inventory of all the coastal structures (walls, to deter offenders, especially for the following If these measures cannot be implemented, low walls, rockfill structures, artificial beaches) offenses: extreme weather conditions could require CETMEF is developing a method to conduct and planned developments that could have • destroying beach rock, a negative effect on the stability of the coast: planned strategic withdrawal and the destruction an inventory of existing structures and their • digging channels in the reef flat, artificial channels dug into reef flats to allow of the structure concerned. condition which can be consulted at http:// • collecting sand and coral, www.eau-mer-fleuves.cerema.fr/publications-et access for boats, destruction of beach-rock along the shoreline to facilitate access to the • destroying coastal vegetation (trees, bushes, NB: It should be noted here that an actual ten- phototheque-r6.html dune stabilising plants) year statistical V Episode could not possibly water by swimmers and small boats, removing • destroying mangroves. reoccur within a 10 year period. The diagnosis should take into account the sand from beaches, dunes or on the reef flat technical dimensions of the structure, but also and coral reef slopes; its environmental aspects: CHOICE OF A METHOD • analysis of the impact of a degraded structure OF REINFORCEMENT on sensitive neighbouring environments (coral reefs, seagrass meadows, coastal vegetation As part of the ongoing European THESEUS including mangroves). These observations project, in the 7th Framework Programme, of should be taken into account if the structure Hans Burcharth of Aalborg University (Denmark), is restored; a method was designed to identify the most economic reinforcement method. CETMEF is in • special attention should be paid to local charge of reinforcing structures in this project. pressures originating upstream in the watershed. The potential erosive accumulation The method involves ten steps: (land-sea) due to exisiting deposits from the watershed should be estimated and 1. identifying the structure’s service life; estimations should take future developments in 2. identifying the geometric and environmental these upstream areas into account. Reflection pressures; with watershed managers on hydrological 3. identifying both the future offshore swell and and urban implications will be required to highest water level statistics; avoid increasing the risk of flooding or of 4. determining the swell at the foot of the accumulating materials (blocks, terrigenous structure with respect to the offshore swell; particles being transported towards the coast), 5. identifying the criteria needed to evaluate the and if possible, these risks should be reduced;

performance of the reinforced structure; • recovering existing structures will probably Examples of dyke adaptation due to a rise in sea level 6. determining the structure’s weaknesses with be complex; the conclusions of the SAO (SAO POLO project) respect to the selected performance criteria; POLO study list the measures to be taken if 7. measuring the structure’s required a structure needs consolidating or new ones reinforcement; built (see diagram below). As these measures 8. calculating the cost of alternative types of will affect the seabed, it is important to pay reinforcement of the structure;

60 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 61 Legislation concerning the speed of boats actions in this category are: should also be strengthened; especially in some • planting vegetation to stabilize dunes and the busy lagoon areas (the action of waves from upper beach passing boats is particularly damaging to small protection structures in coastal zones). In areas • re-establishing a sedimentary system on that are highly sensitive to erosion, jet skiing and beaches by removing the structures that water skiing should be prohibited if necessary or obstruct it; routes laid down well away from these sensitive • building artificial beach rock by simulating areas. the natural one, in areas where it has been degraded; Generally, wherever possible ecological or Example of a concrete structure simulating a beach-rock in New Example of a concrete structure simulating a beach-rock in New innovative technologies should be used for Some examples of current techniques are Caledonia (source: M. Porcher) Caledonia (source: M. Porcher) medium¬ size to small structures. Possible shown below:

Below are examples of artificial detrital levees have been very successful in French Polynesian simulating natural ones (slope, outer detrital layer hotel complexes. and slope replanting). These types of structures

Photo Example of partly destroyed beach-rock and a basic diagram Photo Example of a protection put in place by a hotel in French of beach-rock reconstitution (source: M. Porcher) Polynesia (source: M. Porcher)

Project Overview (source: M. Porcher)

Natural detrital levee near the structure. (source : M. Porcher)

Diagram Example of a beach protection using mixed techniques: low slope re-profiling, laying mattress type gabions and sand filling;

Artificial detrital levee under construction (source: M. Porcher) Detrital levee after construction with vegetation (source: M. Porcher)

62 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 63 An example of artificial reefs that replicate natural Recommendations for research activities reefs as closely as possible with sub¬caves, should focus on optimisation: which enables rapid colonisation and in some • modelling local climate phenomena; cases, establishing local coral gardens (see example in Bora Bora): • simulating extreme hydraulic situations in the vicinity of infrastructure and of the structures themselves (hydrology and hydrogeology); • calculating flood risks coming from the watershed and from sea surges; • calculating possible swells in the vicinity of the the structure; • adapting the design of the defence infrastructure to be consolidated or built; • closely observing climate change phenomena in the vicinity of infrastructure (increasing the number of measuring devices in weather stations near the site, tide gauges);

The recommendations in the previous paragraph are in «checklist» format to enable the diagnosticians to draft a coherent final document for all the projects concerned.

Photos Massive concrete blocks simulating coral reefs with transplanted corals on the blocks (source: M. Porcher)

The protection of mangrove areas is an integral part of protecting the coastline. The most important recommendation is promoting restoration (replanting) of degraded areas and reinforcing mangroves that face serious problems in upstream areas. A necessary part of implementing or updating development plans in coastal zones, is preserving open spaces upstream from existing mangrove areas to enable them to expand, which will become possible with the ongoing rise in sea level. Upstream structures that prevent the growth of mangroves should be dismantled wherever possible.

Mangroves, Guadeloupe. Photo: © Franck Mazéas

64 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 65 chapTER 3

3/ KEY PUBLIC INFRASTRUCTUREs

This chapter deals with major transport infrastructure: airports, ports, roads and energy supply facilities.

3.1. AIRPORT tested and improved on a representative sample of airfields and a selected sample can be found INFRASTRUCTURE in subsection 8 of the report. It includes the following airports in tropical French overseas In 2013, the French Civil Aviation Service territories: prepared a document (in French) entitled «A Martinique-Aime-Caesar, TFFR/Guadeloupe study on airport vulnerability to climate change Phase 2: Airport infrastructure vulnerability Pole-Caribbean, FMEE/Reunion-Roland Garros, assessment methodology on the impacts of Mayotte: FMCZ/Dzaoudzi-Pamanzi, New climate change» Caledonia: NWWW/Noumea-Tontouta, and French Polynesia: NTTT/Tahiti Faa’a, NTTR/ The document is an evaluation tool which Raiatea, NTTH/Huahine, NTTM/Moorea, NTTP/ contains detailed information on airport Maupiti and NTTB/Bora Bora. infrastructure and airport vulnerability to climate change. It identifies the uncertainties of climate This is a useful refrence document, particularly change and its potential impacts on airport Appendix 1 which is a questionnaire for airport infrastructure and airport operations. It also operators. includes a method to calculate the likelihood of climatic hazards and The analysis below focuses on the vulnerable aspects of an airport that could affect the their impact on an airfield systems components, natural environment. and an evaluation guide. This method could be Aerial view of St François (Guadeloupe). Photo: © Franck Mazéas

66 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 67 Here we take a different approach from the The types of airport infrastructure will differ An airport usually has different aeronautical • a refuelling zone and fuel depot sometimes one recommended in the TCAS report, which depending on its uses, which may be zones: with an oil hydrant system; covers all the operations at an airport. The two commercial transport of passengers or military • a take-off and landing area with one or more • buildings used as garages or for maintenance approaches are complementary and airport activities. The terms used to distinguish the two runways bordered by flight lanes and runway of aircraft and storage of firefighting equipment. operators should use them together. are ‘airport’ and ‘air base’. When the airport is clearance zones, and maybe stopways; not only used for one of these activities, it can An airport consists of two main areas: be confusing, so we distinguish them by using • a manoeuvring area to get to the runway the terms «commercial aviation» and «general (taxiway); • a public area «land side»: this includes access 3.1.1. SUMMARY OF AIRPORT to the airport (road or maritime), car parks INFRASTRUCTURE aviation». • an apron where passegers board or disembark, load, or mail or cargo is unloaded, fuel tanks (passenger and freight), passenger and cargo Each civilian airfield has a four letter code issued are filled or emptied, planes are parked, and terminals, offices; An airport is an area where aircraft arrive and by .the International Civil Aviation Organisation maintained; • a restricted «air side» area, under the aviation depart, manoeuvre on the ground, and park. It (ICAO). authorities’ control. may include aircraft garages and/or maintenance • a set of light signals and navigational systems; facilities. Aviation company also usually have Each airport also has a three letter code issued • an air movement control system around the their offices at the same site. by the International Air Transport Association platform consisting of at least a signalling area (IATA) . and windsock;

Juan de nova. Photo: © Google Earth Mayotte airport. Photo: © www.mayottedepartement.fr

General view of an airport (plate from the: «TCAS Technical Note on the airport soil pollution issue; 2007» report)

Bora Bora Airport. Photo © Bora Bora Airport

68 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 69 Overview of an airport (source: “TCAS Technical 3.1.2. IMPACTS Seasonal pollution (does not apply to inter- Note on the airport soil pollution issues (2007)”) OF AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE tropical areas): due to de-icing runways, parking areas, and aircraft. When there is a need to accommodate a high ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT volume of traffic and heavy aircraft, flight lanes Accidental pollution: spills of large quantitites will be wider, longer and able to withstand heavy of fuel/oil and other hazardous materials during loads. The signalling system will be adapted for accidents. day and night use, in all types of weather, using light beacons. There is a control tower for the air These types of pollution are taken into account traffic controllers on the ground in the vicinity of by airport designers. Stormwater and runoff the airport. from aircraft parking areas are collected and channelled to oil separators or via retention Longitudinal «Satujo» type slot gutter The flight lanes and runways for takeoff and basins that can contain accidental and chronic landing are generally coated in asphalt concrete; pollution from airport operations. but may be made of concrete, grass, or coral materials (on small islands). They are identified Aerial view of Mayotte airport’s runway, bordered by a reef flat. Wastewater is treated by the city’s wastewater by a unique number which is its position in Photo © Michel Porcher treatment plant. However, there may be degrees with respect to magnetic north. Light residual pollution at the effluent outlets into the aircraft runways are generally 1000 m (B) to environment. 1500 m (C) long and 25 to 45 m wide. Runways at airports with commercial airline traffic (D) are normally 3000 m long and 45 to 60 m wide. Retention basin at Angers-Marce Airport Runways are usually bordered by grass clearance Photographs from the: Water and Environment / 2000 STBA report zones, where in the event of an overrun, the aircraft can manoeuvre without damage. The taxiways around the runway have sea defence protections if required. Pointe a Pitre Airport surrounded by a mangrove environment Dzaoudzi Airport (Mayotte): Drainage channel grate Consequently, it is not possible to dig ditches (DGAC report) next to a runway. Water is collected in «Satujo» Example: Mayotte Airport, diagram of stormwater concrete slot gutters, where necessary. The construction airport infrastructures has treatment system. an impact on the natural environment, as Airports can have several intersecting runways it does when the airport is the operating. so that aircraft can face the wind and avoid a Airport operations cause pollution that affects crosswind, or parallel runways to cope with high soils, vegetation, groundwater tables and any traffic; Except for old USAF runways on Bora sensitive environments in the vicinity (mangroves Bora no airports in French overseas territories and coral reefs in inter-tropical areas). An airport have several runways. is mainly made up of impermeable surfaces (runways, parking zones, etc.) and any run-off On small airfields, which are common in Overseas from these surfaces can cause the following territories, there is limited infrastructure and types of pollution: hardly any maintenance and industrial activity zones. Chronic pollution: this type of pollution is generally very low, but likely to accumulate over time. It is due to airport operations; aircraft and vehicle exhaust fumes, maintenance (cleaning, repairs), re-fuelling (fuel and oil), fire drills, and rubber marks from tyre wear,etc. Mayotte airport extension plan. Runway. (Direction de l’Equipment de Mayotte - ADPi and Mediterranean CETE, Sogreah)

70 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 71 Huahine Airport, French Polynesia. Photo © Rennboot / de.wikipedia

Maintenance operations and runway • other pollutants linked to airport operations rehabilitation can also cause pollution (rubber (rubber tyre marks, brake lining residues, removal, preparing and laying a new layer of products for the coinstruction or rehabilitation asphalt). The main pollutants that affect the soil, or construction of runways and taxiways (extracted from the of the TCAS report: water and consequently natural sensitive areas (concrete or tar based binders, solvents, «Technical Note on the issue of airport soil are: resins, ...); pollution, 2007») • aircraft and aircraft service vehicles, ground • products for managing green spaces equipment for handling hydrocarbons and (pesticides, fungicides, rodenticides, ...). reactor combustion products. Multiple sources of pollution are linked to servicing, storage and Usually, pollution is due to technical or human distribution; failures (extreme weather can worsen the • trace metals and heavy metals (lead, phenomena) copper, zinc, cadmium, chrome, etc.) are the main causes of pollution resulting from transportation (trucks, tractors, small trucks, mobile units, etc.) on the runways, or parking lots for machinery and assistance vehicles); • oils, greases, solvents, special liquids used for maintenance (maintenance of aircraft, vehicles and assistance machinery); • fire prevention products;

72 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 73 Soil pollution in aeronautical platforms (extracted from the of the TCAS report: «Technical Note on the issue of airport soil pollution, 2007») 3.1.3. AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE IN FRENCH OVERSEAS TERRITORIES

The simplified list of airport infrastructure below shows that most are located at low altitudes, particularly in French Polynesia:

Geomorphologic location Overseas Airports Z ≤ and environmental pressures: Territories / airfields 5m * = Low, ** = average, *** = high

1 airport Mangroves and near reefs *** Guadeloupe 1 2 airfields Coastal Plain Saint Barthélémy 1 airfield 0 Coastal Plain * Marie-Galante 1 airfield 1 Coastal Plain * La Désirade 1 airfield 1 Coastal Plain * Saintes 1 airfield 0 Coastal Plain * Martinique 1 airport 1 Mangrove *** Saint Martin 1 airfield 1 Coastal Plain and bordering lagoon *

1 airport 1 Bordering mangrove ** Guyana 7 airfields 1 Inland 1 airport Reunion island 0 Coastal Plain * 2 airfields Mayotte 1 airport 1 Bordering barrier reef flat***

Eparses Islands, 1 airfield 1 On coral island *** Europa, Tromelin, 1 airfield 1 On coral island *** Juan de Nova, 1 airfield 1 On coral island *** Glorieuse 1 airfield 1 On coral island ***

1 airport 1 The majority on fringing reef flats or barrier French Polynesia 47 airfields 43 reefs ***

1 airport 1 In mangroves and coastal wetlands *** New Caledonia 14 airfields 4 Most on plains and plateau*

1 airport 0 On a plateau Wallis & Futuna 1 airfield 1 Coastline with marine embankment ***

Table 4: Airports in overseas territories and their geomorphologic location.

A complete table of airports can be found in the appendix.

74 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 75 3.1.4. POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE In the cyclone season, when very strong swells occur (and the sea level rises due to the barometric depression) and occasional heavy rains, airport infrastructure can become VULNERABILITY TO CYCLONIC submersed and flooded with terrigenous SURGES AND RISING SEA LEVEL particles originating in the watershed upstream. These floods may be extensive and prolonged, A number of airports in French overseas in addition to which, the high sea level during territories are located either on a plateau or the period of extreme weather will slow down coastal plain exposed to sea, where there are Example of coral blocks that have been pulled off and dragged drainage from the watershed to the sea. onto a reef flat during a cyclone (photo: Samuel Etienne) no coral reefs. This is the case in Reunion Island, Guyana and some airfields in New Caledonia. The damage will affect: These airports are not concerned by this guide. VULNERABILITY DUE TO HIGHER • the protective structures of runways and TEMPERATURES AND INCREASING taxiways ( main armour layers made of riprap) However, airports where infrastructure was built RAINFALL for technical, functional and geomorphic reasons by potentially weakening or partially destroying them. In French Polynesia, a large number and that are concerned, are those in: The possible increase in rainfall (outside the of runways are built on reef flats at around 2 cyclone season) will vary depending on each • coastal plains near mangroves or in mangroves meters above the average sea level, the outer tropical region, like the expected increase in (in Martinique and Guadeloupe for example); layer of rocks on the protective structures can temperature. • or near coral reefs and even on them, as is the be dragged over the reef flats by the increased case in Mayotte and French Polynesia. swell, and cause functional destruction of Droughts or a general increase in rainfall could coral reefs. Similarly, the core materials of the affect the durability of the runway and its These facilities are directly concerned by the defence structures can be dispersed over the structure. The impact would not only be on its possible effects of global warming because they reef flats and asphyxiate coral formations. surface, but also on the soil due to a possible are located at low altitude (usually between 1 • buildings and infrastructure which may release rise in the water table, which can increase pore Flooded airport and debris: Faa’a Airport, Tahiti. and 5 m asl and are thus vulnerable to cyclonic (Tahiti Herald Tribune-March 2010) pollutants (particularly hydrocarbons: storage, pressure on base layers and on the foundation surges and rising sea level. depots and tanks); of the runway, thereby altering its structure. Damage to these infrastructures could then • the runway drainage system, if the airport has 3.1.5. TECHNICAL At some sites, increased rainfall could create have a direct negative impact on the most been submersed by the sea and floods. Drains RECOMMENDATIONS FOR or extend wetlands close to runways, which, sensitive areas in the vicinity, i.e., coral reefs and can be blocked by marine sediments projected in turn, will attract more birds to the area and ADAPTATION mangroves. by the waves onto the runways and terrigenous increase avian risks during takeoff and landing. particles originating from overflowing rivers Given the above remarks, we recommend a Major impacts would result from a combination in the watershed and possibly from settling While on the subject of higher temperatures, it diagnostic survey by the appropriate authorities of the following conditions: basins and flow control systems upstream of the airport infrastructure located on or near from the airport; will be advisable to check if the forecast increase • intensification of cyclones in all tropical in temperature could affect the durability or the coral reefs or mangroves, followed by technical • pollutants may be released from the retention regions, with stronger maximum wind speeds structure of the surface of the runway. adaptation to climate change, if necessary. and higher occasional rainfall; basins that are part of the airport’s sanitation system; • and rising sea level. Depending on the answers to these questions, • runways and parking lots that could leach runway maintenance and the management DIAGNOSTIC SURVEY The resulted of these combined effects is that after submersion, dispersing rubber and other of the areas in their vicinity could need to be OF EXISTING INFRASTRUCTURE the soil tends to subside under the weight. traces of pollutants into the reef environments; reviewed, and the necessary adjustments Should include: • runway coatings (outer asphalt layer); roadway made to the technical design of future runways. These phenomena are likely to be very violent, surfaces (crushed stone layers in particular) • the geomorphologic location of the primarily concerning runways located on atolls, which can lead to dispersal of these materials infrastructure with respect to coral or mangrove but also those located in coastal areas on high (which may be pollutants) and cause localised ecosystems and a general summary of the mountainous islands, i.e. those that have a high hyper-sedimentation in reef formations. context in the area, including the watershed, watershed due to steep slopes. existing hydro-geological and hydraulic management and current and potential

76 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 77 pressure on the site, including; on the watershed,must be taken into account and surface layer geometry) or the resistance is equipped with piers, wharves, and pontoons • the geometric characteristics of the runway by including pressure due to climate change. of certain structures (hydrocarbon reservoirs, and must have access to the sea; dredging may (longitudinal and transversal profiles and This should be done in collaboration with the etc.), or even the drainage system; be required to maintain the neccessary depth in altitude); appropriate state and local services. • additional studies to optimise models of local the access channel. A port has to be connected to other means of transport by road, rail and • all the other characteristics of each structure, climate phenomena, to simulate extreme hydraulic situations around and on the canal. Ports come in all sizes and serve just a in particular those likely to be a source of ANALYSIS OF PRESSURES few boats to thousands of vessels. Ports may pollution (depots, reservoirs, etc.); infrastructure (hydrology and hydrogeology, ON AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE calculating the risk of watershed floods and also contain commercial or industrial buildings • characteristics of the drainage and sanitation overtopping); calculating possible swells in the and may have different missions: trade, fishing, systems of runways and parking lots; The following questions should be addressed : vicinity of structures and optimising measures tourism, or military. Ports play a strategic, economic and military role and many combine • a summary of the structures’ management • Will existing protection of runway and airport to be taken in the design of future protection several activities, which are often separated protocols and incidents, especially during facilities against the sea (embankments, riprap infrastructure; geographically, for example, by different basins. exceptional weather conditions and any armour layers and end of runway wing walls) • optimising observational systems linked to measures taken; cope with future pressures from cyclones and climate change phenomena near the facilities Port facilities include basins of adequate depth, rising sea level? Should they be reinforced? • an analysis of current and potential problems (possibly additional measuring equipment in lined by docks that usually have defences and If yes, what type of additional protective in the design of the different structures; weather stations on site, tide gauges); secure embankments, handling equipment structures should be built; will it be necessary • research on optimising the design of (cranes, etc.), bunkering positions and a • a summary of potential projects to repair the to be move or abandon certain runways and future runways in coastal areas or in reef fresh water supply, jetties and breakwaters. different structures, build runway extensions or infrastructure in very exposed sites? new airport infrastructure. environments; The access channel has signage. Ports have • Are the runways and their structures (surface embankments on the land side. • taking the possible increase in avian risks layer and wearing course) able to withstand into account: changes in certain species and future pressures (higher temperatures, serve commercial ships, POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES increased migration, some species will be Commercial ports increased intensity of cyclones, occasional passenger ferries and cruise ships as well OF CLIMATE CHANGE attracted to expanding wetlands near runways. FOR THE DESIGN OF ADAPTATION heavy rains, flooding and in some areas, as deep water vessls, including cargo ships drought); transporting goods, large vessels particularly oil MEASURES, FOR THE MANAGEMENT The above recommendations are in «checklist» and ore carriers, but also container ships, and OF EXISTING STRUCTURES • Are the drainage systems of the runways format to enable diagnosticians to draft a freighters. OR THE CONSTRUCTION and parking lots designed to withstand coherent final document for all airport sites (see OF NEW INFRASTRUCTURE future pressures, or should they be adapted, tables in the appendix). reinforced, enlarged (review drain diamaters, Goods may be liquid (oil and chemical tankers) flow retention basins, hydrocarbon separators, and require dedicated tanks and pipes; in bulk ANALYSIS OF EXTERNAL PRESSURES ON etc.); (bulk carriers requiring silos or storage space) - AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE or packed, i.e mixed cargo requiring warehouses • Are the hydrocarbon storage facilities 3.2. PORT and cranes; or container ships with associated The pressures are mainly linked to the and reservoirs designed to withstand the INFRASTRUCTURE large storage spaces. Rolling cargoe (for ro- watershed. The risks are more frequent periods foreseeable intensification of cyclones and ro ships) need waiting areas, and maybe even of heavy rain, resulting in increased river flows flood risks? The same applies to aircraft and parking zones. and runoff which, in turn, lead to more flooding assistance machinery maintenance areas 3.2.1. SUMMARY where polluting products are stored. and terrigenous deposits in coastal plains. OF PORT INFRASTRUCTURE Docks and ports for hydrocarbons: these • Will the specifications in the maintenance docks are designed for oil and gas (methane, The following issues must be addressed: procedures for the runway drainage systems Another kind of port is located on a river, which butane and propane) tankers. They are often • Can the design of current water management have to be revised? is intended to serve boats. A port can perform in the immediate vicinity of the corresponding structures in the area cope with foreseeable several functions: provide shelter for vessels, storage facilities. climate changes? especially during loading and unloading and At some sites, unloading is done through pipes FURTHER RESEARCH WILL BE facilitate refuelling and maintenance. called «sea-lines» usually because there is a • Should the flood risk management plans lack of space and/or high investment costs (FRMP) be revised and drainage systems and REQUIRED ON CERTAIN ISSUES Anchorages and harbours are generally located for building a terminal; in this case, the ship is settling basins upstream from the airport be in bays protected from prevailing winds and moored on «dolphins» or anchored. adapted? The answers to a number of questions listed above will probably require the following: waves. A port will be protected by one or more dykes or breakwaters. A port can consist of These sites are particularly dangerous because When considering plans for the area,future • applied research, in particular on runway several docks, dry docks or floating docks. A port of the risk of explosion, fire and pollution by development projects and their possible impacts surfaces (choice of materials, composition

78 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 79 leaking products, and when tanks are emptied. Leisure ports and/or marinas serve sailing or vessels (depending on the time the tide comes However access to fixed moorings often disturbs They are classified as «ICPE» (Environmentally motor boats for either recreational purposes or in) also have an impact on waves and their corals because they are sealed; so to counteract Protected Facility) and «Seveso». The port of regattas. Most boats are small (less than 20 m action. the rising sea level a further disruption will be Papeete in Tahiti is a special case: all the fuel long) and berths are standardised via pontoons required to raise it. and gas facilities were built on the harbour and «cat-ways.» There is a harbour master’s wall, right in the axis of the runway of Faa’a office and different types of services are available: A port’s entrance must be visible by day and international airport; it is therefore a major risk refuelling, dry commissioning and maintenance, night and possible to locate by non-visual for the population and all the surrounding coral a fuel pump, and various services for crews. means when there is fog (radar, fog horns, etc.). reefs. Signage is based on natural landmarks, mooring Military ports (or naval bases) serve warships. buoys or beacons using lateral or cardinal lights Fishing ports are the most widespread, and are and lighthouse system. often smaller than other types of port. Their size The geographic position and the geometry of the varies depending on the boats they serve: deep docks and piers determine a port’s qualities and Port services sea trawlers which remain at sea for several have an influence on the following parameters: Marine piloting, towing, mooring, providing weeks require more dock space to unload their berths or anchorage, fuelling, safety. cargo than small day fishing boats which have Protection to unload quickly. Infrastructure in fishing ports A pier or breakwater in a port can provide natural Goods or artificial protection. The port’s geometry and Example of a multifunctional port: the port of Papeete. Photo: C. is simple: quays and/or pontoons, a fuelling and Blondy, 2005 satellite image; Google Earth, 2009. Handling, storage, security/guarding, and pre refuelling station, and an ice machine. its water masses are not the only factors that and post-shipment. influence waves. The size and speed of the Depth Passengers The available depth, which depends on the Ferry terminals, shopping centres, walkways, tides, determines the size of boats that can enter parking lots. based on their draft. In the case of large ports, depth is maintained by regular dredging of the An average sized port also has a number of bottom and/or access channels. A ship’s draft is service vessels of its own, these are not part of influenced by the sinking phenomenon caused the port’s traffic, but are used for different port by the harbour, channels and docks’ geometry, operations. but also by the size and speed of ships which affect the waves and their action, which in turn, • Different kinds of dredgers depending on the also depend on the tides. depth and coverage. The extracted materials are transported by barge. Signage Different kinds of signs are used in the marine • Pilot boats to bring pilots on board commercial zone including beacons, floating buoys at sea vessels arriving in the port. or fixed on shore to signal dangers for ships and • Harbour tugs used to help large ships to show the layout of the port’s access channels manoeuvre during mooring and turning and shelters. These signs can be buoys, operations. masonry turrets or poles and spars. • Mooring boats used to bring the mooring ropes to land. There are two types of signage on: • Refuelling boats: oil tankers to fill tanks, and • moorings; several refuelling barges when refuelling is not • masts fixed to rocks or flats. done ashore. Lighters are used to transport goods from the dock to the ship, but in fact While on the subject of buoys, precautions are are rarely used. necessary when moorings set up, but in fact, • Security vessels: fireboats in case of fire, it is easy to cope with the rising sea level by rescue canoes for sea rescues, patrol boats, lengthening the chain to the mooring. pilot boats, and port authority vessels.

Schematic diagram of a seaport. Source: www.cours-genie-civil.com

80 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 81 IMPACTS OF PORT • aluminium and zinc salt from anodes used to Type 1 REunion island INFRASTRUCTURE ON THE NATURAL prevent corrosion of the hull (which are toxic Large ports: commercial ports and naval ENVIRONMENT for marine fauna and flora); bases LARGE PORts • spills of toxic products (commercial ports); These ports have major protective structures These are the industrial port of Le Port de la Naturally the construction of a port and its • sediment resuspension in port basins when (anti¬swell walls that are several meters high, Pointe des Galets, Port of Saint Gilles and the access roads and shipping channels will have large vessels manoeuver, dredging basins, or protections with very large riprap blocks or port of Sainte Marie (on the end of Gillot airport’s an impact on the environment, as will the port navigation channels. These sediments may be concrete blocks several cubic metres in size runway). when it is funtciong, these impacts are: loaded with toxic products (in particular heavy weighing from 1 ton to dozens of tons. metals) and pollute sensitive natural areas Commercial actvitiy and the size of the on protection structures: near the port or asphyxiate them by hyper- manoeuvring vessels can be a source of chronic • changes in the hydrodynamics and sediments sedimentation. pollution, especially due to accidents. around the structures and in the navigational The February 2012 Reform Law on ports in channels to that lead into the port can cause Furthermore, port infrastructure is often located the overseas territories’ ports was published in erosion at the base of the structure and/or at the mouths of rivers, streams or downstream October, 2012 and included five decrees. Since hyper-sedimentation, which alters the local from valleys and ditches, in which case port the 1st January 2013, France has built four new ecosystems (erosion leads to degradation basins are an outlet for stormwater loaded with major sea ports in overseas territories. These of the coral reef, while hyper-sedimentation suspended solids, various pollutants and macro- new public ports replace the independent port of results in asphyxiation of seagrass meadows); waste. Guadeloupe, and three French ports of national Reunion’s industrial port © Marie-Annick Lamy-Giner June 9, 2006 • positive effects: protection structures made interest previously run by local Chambers of It should be noted that most risks of pollution commerce and industry, at Fort-de-France of rockfill or concrete blocks form a new hard listed above has to be part an integral of port substrate for new species to fix onto, like coral, (Martinique), Degrade-des-Cannes (Guyana) management (stormwater and wastewater and Le Port (Reunion Island). thereby creating an artificial reef (many species purification systems), macro-waste like the shelter provided by the cavities in the management, through planned actions in the blocks). case of accidental pollution by hydrocarbons Type 2 or toxic products in port basins). on port basins, docks, technical zones and Medium to small ports: these comprise small fishing ports and marinas; small ore docks warehouses where polluting products used For more details on port pollution, its for port activites are stored: (New Caledonia) and various docks and management and impact on the natural small wharfs • hydrocarbons, used oil, heavy metals (chronic environment, please refer to documents cited pollution: bilge waters, exhaust fumes, and in the list of references in the appendix. These ports are very common. They are The port of Saint Gilles © Hotel-les-creoles.com accidental pollution by hydrocarbon spills at protected by medium-sized riprap weighing fuelling stations or depots where drainage oil several hundred kilos to 2-3 tons or by medium MEDIUM-SIZED STRUCTURES is stored; to low vertical or inclined walls. 3.2.2. PORT INFRASTRUCTURE Small fishing ports and marinas (in Saint Leu and • detergents (surfactants and phosphate Saint Pierre on the west and southwest coast compounds) in grey waters, left over after boat They are a source of pollution because IN FRENCH OVERSEAS in a reef environment, and ports in Sainte Rose washing. Detergents cause eutrophication unfortunately users often do not comply with TERRITORIES and Sainte Marie on the east coastn which is and can significantly degrade marine flora and regulations concerning pollutants and waste exposed to the sea). fauna; management. Boat maintenance and bunkering • wastewater (at mooring units) causes can be a source of mainly accidental pollution. The number and type of port structures vary bacteriological pollution, deposits of nitrate considerably from one overseas territory to and phosphates which cause eutrophication; Below we give give an overview of the type another depending on the size of the population, and size of port infrastructure in each overseas • stormwater (runoff from parking lots, container the coastal geomorphology and economic territory. For a complete list of infrastructures storage areas): hydrocarbons, deposits activities. and the type of protection, see the appendix. of metals and toxic products, floating and underwater marine litter; The port descriptions below were selected in • antifouling paints (containing toxic copper view of their activity and size. oxide), which affect marine fauna and flora,

Port of Saint-Leu on a reef flat, © Sea Seek.com

82 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 83 Guadeloupe Martinique LEEWARD ISLANDS

MAJOR STRUCTURES MAJOR STRUCTURES Tahiti Seven marinas and fishing ports, the largest TPoint a Pitre port and ferry terminal, the The industrial port of Fort de France located in marina is Tania Marina, located at Punaauia near industrial port zone of Jarry Baie Malhault (deep a mangrove environment. Papeete. water port) and a dock at Basse Terre port. A major project to expand Pointe a Pitre port is MEDIUM-SIZED STRUCTURES Moorea under study. The port of Vaiare with a dock for ferries, a They are dozens of ports or marinas. marina and a small fishing port in Papetoai. MEDIUM-SIZED STRUCTURES Port of Saint Pierre adjoining the reef flat Raiatea (Photo: Sea-Seek Nautical Guide) There are dozens around the island and on its Guyana The port of Uturoa, three large marinas and two dependencies). The facilities are mainly fishing small docks in a reef environment. The layout ports and marinas, some moorings with a dock Mayotte MAJOR STRUCTURES of the cruise ship dock and ferry terminal has protected by riprap and some small commercial meant that the whole former port area and ports in its dependencies. Sea ports: MAJOR STRUCTURES Uturoa market had to be restructured. • Degrad des Cannes port, near Cayenne, on The commercial port of Longoni. The biggest of these structures are the marinas the River Mahury estuary consisting of one Tahaa in St. Francis, Bas du Fort in Pointe a Pitre, and container terminal with three berths measuring A marina (closed). Rivere Sense on the southern tip of Basse Terre. 500 m in length, one oil terminal, one ore terminal and one ro-ro terminal; Bora Bora The airport dock on the barrier reef and Vaitape Saint-Martin • Kourou - Pariacabo port serving the Space centre, it is located on the Kourou river estuary port on the high island and a small marina. The commercial port at Gallisbay and four large and consiss of one ro-ro terminal and jetty marinas. gangways; Huahine Fare port and five small marina type developments • the Larivot fishing port located on the River and fishing ports. Cayenne estuary. Saint-Barthélémy There is a river port in Saint Laurent du Maroni The port of Gustavia. Longoni port. © Google. with a 100 m long dock and the port of Cayenne, on the Guyana river, mainly used by artisanal The new port was commissioned in 1992. It is fisheries. located on the north coast of Grande-Terre on Saintes a rocky outcrop and partly on a fringing reef Three small ports. All these ports are located in a mangrove and small mangrove. It has a gas terminal and a environment. dock for tankers. Marie Galante MEDIUM-SIZED STRUCTURES FRENCH POLYNESIA Three small ports. Dzaoudzi port (a former commercial port, MAJOR STRUCTURES currently mainly used for cruise ships) and the port of Mamoudzou with a dock for the ferry The port of Papeete and Faratea on the DEsirade View of Uturoa and its marina, in the background the airport linking Grande-Terre and Petit-Terre islands. Taravao peninsula (second industrial port in runway on the reef flat, © Sea Seek.com The port of Beau Sejour (a fishing port and French Polynesia). marina on a reef flat); EPARSES ISLANDS MEDIUM-SIZED STRUCTURES TUAMOTU ARCHIPELAGO No port facilities. There are many medium and small ports or There are limited facilities with small docks at commercial docks and small fishing ports and Tikehau, Apataki, Ahe, Manihi, Fakarava, marinas. Kanehi, and Raraka. Rangiroa has two small

84 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 85 ports in Avatolu and Tiputa, a marina in Tiputa The construction of a coal power plant for the WALLIS & FUTUNA In addition, increased overtopping will have a and a dock at Hohotu. Hao: the former naval Nickel Company (SLN) will require a specialised direct impact on the boats moored in the basin base has many fuel depot terminals. The site dock. WALLIS and could destroy them, which in turn,could is being redeveloped. Moruroa: a big old naval • a new nickel ore processing plant in the south, mean the hydrocarbons, oil and toxic products Wallis has the following medium-sized structures: base. at the Bay of Prony, required a new port zone on board these boats are discharged into the for incoming supplies and outgoing products; • Mata-Utu Quay, on reef flats, serving 90 m marine environment. GAMBIER ARCHIPELAGO ships, accessed by a natural channel and • similarly, in the Northern Province, the new recently enlarged embankments; Increased overtopping will also affect A port both in Manga and Totogegie. Vavouto factory in Voh required an ore dock embankments on which various port activities • Halalo Dyke: a structure with a ramp access, and an oil terminal, which is supplied by sea take place: aside from a destructive effect it originally built for landing crafts (US Navy 1943), AUSTRAL ARCHIPELAGO lines. can lead to cause leaching in the facilities and it has been transformed into an oil terminal; A dock in Rimatara and two in Rurutu: Morerai parking lots and the release of pollutants (from Access to this site is by a channel dredged in the • a fishing port project is underway. port and a marina in Tubuai. the careening area, maintenance workshop lagoon itself. for vehicles and handling machines, refuelling FUTUNA MARQUESAS ISLANDS equipment, pipelines, etc.) and the dispersal of MEDIUM-SIZED STRUCTURES macro-waste. A timber pile wharf with a metal structure at The biggest facilities are Atuona port on the ON GRANDE TERRE Laeva. island of Hivaoa (a dock with a large wharf which The combination of strong swells and heavy can serve freighters), NukuHiva and Ua Pou. rains will increase the risk of flooding of the These are the most common and frequent type The table opposite lists the numbers of ports in There are a dozen other docks and small wharfs, embankments and of their operations. Under of structure in New Caledonia. However, their French overseas territories and their size, and sometimes protected by a small dyke. flood conditions, it is difficult for the water to density is low compared to the length of New location with respect to coral reefs and related evacuate seawards due to the cumulative effect Caledonia’s coastline, except in the Noumea ecosystems. urban area. The structures are marinas, small of a rise in sea level due to climate change and low pressure (the hydraulic slope of the NEW CALEDONIA fishing ports and ore docks. There are about ten LIGHTHOUSES AND BEACONS of them and, other than the port of Noumea, the stormwater drains running into the basins will be MAJOR STRUCTURES biggest are the ore ports of Nepoui, Thio and All the lighthouses at Venus Point in Tahiti, Enfant inadequate and drainage structures undersized). Prony, which have pontoons, conveyors and Perdu in Guyana, Fakarava in French Polynesia, • Noumea port, which is made up of several large embankment surface areas. and Amedee in New Caledonia, are located on The frequency of heavy rains will increase sites: coral islets. pollution in harbour basins that receive the • an ore zone, near the Le Nickel factory; outflow from upstream ditches, valleys or rivers. • commercial zone: containers, vehicles, bulk The pollutants then enter the marine environment carriers; 3.2.3. POSSIBLE IMPACTS along with macro-waste, suspended solids, and various pollutants from soil leaching • fishing zone with associated services and OF CLIMATE CHANGE or overflowing sewage treatment plants or processing facilities ; stormwater retention basins located upstream. • hydrocarbon zone; The direct impact of increases in temperature • three main zones for leisure boats. and/or droughts will be slight on this type of Port sites are usually exposed to a sea by the infrastructure. sea, which is why they are protected by special structures: natural and artificial riprap, groynes Nepoui ore port (New Caledonia) (by Hockers 19) However, the impacts of more intense storms and dykes. These structures will come under (especially during the cyclone season) and increasing pressure under predicted climate a rise in sea level will lead to more frequent ON LOYALTY ISLANDS change (see Chapter ?). overtopping of defence structures thereby putting them at risk of deterioration, especially Mare Under these circumstances, port sites will have riprap structures or concrete blocks. Riprap or Tadine Port. other specific problems: concrete blocks removed by string swells and dragged across the reef flats can destroy corals • If water levels rise, the current height of Lifou and seagrass meadows. The smaller particles in quaysides may be too low; elevating them is a Wé port, a pontoon and wharf. the dyke’s core can also smother the reef flats complex operation and each case will have to and seagrass meadows and asphyxiate them. be studied in detail; Noumea port (source: vinci.com) Pine Islands • all embankments behind the docks are relatively Kuto Pier.

86 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 87 NUMBER AND SIZE OF STRUCTURES flat, stormwater drainage is via pipe networks Access channels will need more frequent in coastal areas in French overseas Territories, with outlets into the sea. Several problems maintenance due to more violent rainfall which geomorphologic location and environmental pressures that are specific to these embankment areas results in higher flow rates and rougher waters should be taken into account: and stronger currents in the lagoons. Dredging • if the sea level rises, hydraulic slope of the or even expansion is likely to have a strong Number Environmental pressure Overseas Geomorphologic pipes will be reduced accordingly; impact on the neighbouring coral environments of different Zero: 0 - Low * Average: Territory location and strict precautions should be taken. structures ** - High *** • rainfall may become more violent and (according to type) evacuation more difficult; 2 exposed to sea 0 to * • under a high barometric depression, the Type 1: 3 1 reef environment ** water level will risewith a tidal or wind effect 3.2.4. TECHNICAL Reunion Island Type 2: 4 2 exposed to sea 0 to * on the lagoons. Finally, the waves could RECOMMENDATIONS FOR 2 reef environment ** overtop wharfs and flood embankments. ADAPTATION It is highly probable that these effects will In mangrove and reef Type 1: 1 ** to *** Mayotte environment accumulate; Given the above mentioned issues, we Type 2: 2 * to ** In reef environment • containers could topple over in high winds recommend a the appropriate authoriries conduct Eparses Islands: during the cyclone season, especially when a diagnostic survey of the port infrastructure Tromelin, Juan they are stacked (up to 5 containers when located on coral reefs or mangroves, or in their None Coral islets 0 de Nova, Europa, empty, 2 or 3 when full); vicinity, and technical measures for adaptation to Glorieuse • when difficult sea and wind conditions are climate change taken, if necessary. 1 in reef and mangrove combined, containers can drift away, leading environment to a high risk of pollution. Regulations stipulate Type 1: 2 ** to *** 1 exposed to sea that empty containers should be cleaned and THE DIAGNOSTICS ON EXISTING Guadeloupe Type 2: > 10 * Over half on a fringing reef INFRASTRUCTURE * to ** decontaminated, but this is often done without environment and the others taking sufficient precautions; exposed to sea Should include: • another risk is linked to the fact that ships need • the geomorphological location of the Lagoon environment, ballast: the main goods route is one-way and Saint Martin Type 2: 5 * to ** infrastructure with respect to coral or mangrove mangroves and reefs cargo ships return lighter. Then when ballast is ecosystems and a general summary of the emptied (except fuel tanks) waters from other Saint Barthélémy Type 2: 1 Reef environment ** context, of the area including the watershed, seas as well as the living beings they carry the level of hydro¬geological and hydraulic Marie Galante Type 2: 3 Reef environment *** (plankton, algae and animals) are discharged management and identification of current and without any precautions being taken. Desirade Type 2: 1 Reef environment *** potential pressures on the site; Saintes Type 2: 4 Reef environment * to ** If we refer to the results of a recent SAO POLO • the geometrical characteristics of the Exposed to sea and mangroves study (Adaptation Strategies for sea protection protective structures’ (peak altitude, Type 1: 1 Coastal dune areas, seagrass * to ** structures or coastal settlements in view of the cross-section, type of structure, see Chapter Martinique Type 2: > 10 meadows, mangroves, coral * to ** rising sea level and oceans), the risks linked to 2.4. on protection structures); reefs the foreseeable increase in overtopping have to • the characteristics of different structures Type 1: 4 be taken very seriously. linked to port activities and, particularly those Guyana Estuaries and mangroves * to ** Type 2: 1 that have specific sources of pollution (toxic In fact, the study cited in Chapter 2 on substances storage, hydrocarbon reservoirs, Reef flat ** to *** French Type 1: 2 coastal protection structures, shows that if fuelling and careening areas, maintenance Reef flat and some sites ** to *** Polynesia Type 2: > 50 the sea level rises by 1 metre, exceptional workshops, parking lots and machinery used exposed to sea (Marquesas) * overtopping flow rates could be very close in port activities’ maintenance areas...); New Caledonia, Near fringing reefs and to the annual return rate for 2100. This result Type 1: 5 • the characteristics of warehouse drainage Pine and Loyalty mangroves and some sites * to *** raises questions about future level of protection Type 2: > 30 systems, parking lots and specific sanitation islands exposed to sea of existing infrastructures’. This problem is systems (oil separators, decanters, etc.); critical for port infrastructure as its operational Wallis and Futuna Type 2: 3 Near or on fringing reef * to ** service life is relatively long (40 to 50 years). • a summary of management procedure and Table 5: The size of structures in coastal areas of French overseas territories, their geomorphologic location and environmental pressures previous incidents that affected the structure, environmental pressures: zero: 0, low: * average **, high: ***).

88 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 89 especially during exceptional weather The frequency of monitoring the status of 3.3. ROAD cover every other feature of an infrastructure’s conditions, and the measures taken; structures and the method for diagnosing functionality. The two approaches are • an analysis of current and potential problems them will need reviewing. Here we recommend INFRASTRUCTURE complementary and should be taken into in the design of the different structures; referring to COTEEF’s study on methods of account together by operators. diagnosis. The links are given in Chapter 2. • a summary of projects to repair structures, It is important to note that, within the framework extend embankments or construct new of the NAPCC Transport working group,two 3.3.1 SUMMARY OF ROAD infrastructure; documents are currently under validation: FURTHER RESEARCH INFRASTRUCTURE • analysis of risks in the container storage zone. NEEDED ON CERTAIN Containers are stacked five high when empty «Action 1: NAPCC infrastructure and ISSUES Like airports, road infrastructure will definitely be and two or three high when full. Despite being transport systems». This report is the result affected by climate change and could therefore interlocked, severe cyclonic winds can topple of a study that had three distinct objectives: The answers to some of the above questions will have a direct or indirect impact on the coastal them over and move them. This would be probably require: and marine environment. Potential problems not even easier when embankments are flooded. • further applied research, particularly on • to identify technical documents (repositories, only concern roads that run along the coastline, Depending on their contents, full containers embankment revetments (choice of materials, standards, legal texts) that will need to be but also those located in watershed zones, degrading in warehouse areas, or worse, falling composition and structure of revetment reviewed to take climate change into account; as their degradation could cause pollution into basins, represent a high risk of pollution layers) or the resistance of specific structures’ • to list the potential impacts of change climate to the coastline and the marine environment to the marine environment. Solutions must be (hydrocarbon tanks); on existing infrastructure and highlight a few downstream. found to avoid these types of risks in the future. • additional studies on optimising the models of points that require particular vigilence; Thoroughfares, roads and streets allow land On the subject of reinforcing protection local climate phenomena, simulating extreme • to identify climatic parameters to design, vehicles to move around. Intercity roads, rural structures or building new ones (see Chapter hydraulic situations on and around the operate or maintain transport infrastructure. roads, city streets, and forest tracks all have 2.4.on protection structures) infrastructure (hydrology and hydrogeology, a different administrative status: motorways,, calculating the risk of watershed floods and The report is divided into four parts. The first national roads, regional roads, local roads, Here we underline the importance of the SAO overtopping); calculating possible swells in the summarises the key climate changes expected country and/or rural roads. POLO Project’s findings - Procedure to define vicinity of structures and optimising measures by 2100, based on reports eby Jean Jouzel (2011 a structure’s consolidation and adaptation to be taken on defence infrastructures at the and 2012) and the three others corresponds to Roads usually belong to the public domain, but strategy- final report August 2012- IGCC No. design stage; the three objectives mentioned above. can also be private used by the public, or not. 09.000683 Sao Polo – Coordinator Philippe • optimising observational systems linked Sergent). to climate change phenomena near the Road authorities control rights of way that «Action 3: Risk analysis methodology on infrastructure (possibly setting up additional include dependent structures, ditches, sanitation The study highlights the important measures climate change for infrastructure and land, measuring equipment in weather stations on pipes, settling-retention basins and the base of that need to be taken. It shows that structures sea and air transportation systems.» site, tide gauges); the roadway, which is the area between land in shallow water are particularly at risk from entrances: sloping fill embankments and ridge flooding (which is the case of most ports ina • research on optimising the design of future This document provides detailed information on cut embankments. reef environment). A 1 m increase in the average protection structures. different types of infrastructure and a grid for the sea level would mean raising the structures by evaluation of their vulnerability to climate change. 1.5 to 2.5 m. to maintain the original level of The recommendations above are in «checklist» It makes it possible to identify hazards linked to protection against overtopping, and up to 3m for format to enable the diagnosticians to draft climate change and their potential impacts on waterproof structures. This would also require a a coherent final document for all port sites, different infrastructure and function. significant increase in riprap mass (double for a depending on the type of port (commercial, 4 m high structure). military, fishing, recreational). These documents are useful references as are other SETRA reports and guides (in The study also analyses the different French)available at: http://dtrf.setra.fr consolidation techniques possible for structures, suggests adaptation strategies and provides The analysis below focuses on the linear vulnerability of the infrastructure that could guidance on further research. Typical cross-section of a road. Source: fr.slideshare.net have an impact on the natural environment, and is therefore quite different from the NAPCC Transport working group’s reports which they

90 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 91 Cross-section of a fill embankment Cross-section of a cut embankment Cross-section with both cut and fill embankments

Different types of road profiles. Source: fr.slideshare.net A road structure (LCPC and SETRA, 1998)

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD • subgrade layer: this is the supporting base Road areas. They include shoulders, cut and fill A significant amount of discharge into the INFRASTRUCTURE which may be the ground itself, treated if embankments, recolonised ground coverages, environment occurs. Tetra ethyl lead is necessary with lime or cement or with filler medians, roundabouts, rest and service areas. prohibited, but leaching of the pavement still Cross sections materials (untreated crushed stone); When these areas have vegetation (green occurs due to rainfall: unburned hydrocarbons Roads at least ten metres wide and motorways • foundation layer: if the structure includes one spaces) they are regularly maintained by cutting, and oils, fine particles, rubber tyre marks, etc. and urban expressways can be up to several (hydrocarbon binder – crushed stone, hydraulic slashing, cleaning and chemical treatment. These discharges are sometimes collected dozen metres wide. binders - cement - various economic binders, Vertical and horizontal signs ensure road safety, in settling basins, particularly when the road slag, fly ash, lime etc.) as do various road protection structures (metal crosses a sensitive environment (drinking water or concrete barriers, pedestrian pathways, etc.). supply catchments). These impacts should be Cross sections provide the basis for freeing the • base layer: untreated crushed stone or taken into account when building new roads and ground coverage. treated with various binders as above, In low-lying road sections, all the road’s adapting existing causeways, if possible. • wearing course. This can be made of: Earthmoving operations require cutting and components are exposed to hazards. Roads --concrete or bituminous coatings (hot filling as function of the site topography; large are highly exposed in all types of sections: The following impacts should be mentioned: bitumen blends or cold emulsion and scale earth movements can have a major impact cut and fill embankments, sanitation, road gravel). Special coated moduli use • Chronic pollution: in general this is very low, on sensitive natural areas. structures, etc. elastomeric bitumens; but likely to accumulate over time. iI is due to road traffic (oil, fuel, heavy metals deposited on --surface coatings (bitumen layer or bitumen The type of embankment used must take into the road); account the risk of water infiltrating the road emulsion and gravel bilayers or tri-layers). • Pollution linked to managing green spaces: and the ground: the transport of crusher run • concrete roads (with hydraulic binders), 3.3.2 IMPACTS OF ROAD the use of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, stone from cuttings or neighbouring areas due hydraulic structures also use lime and fly ash; INFRASTRUCTURE ON THE growth¬limiting products. Compaction by to the project’s geotechnical pressures, road or • flexible structures are made of an untreated the maintenance machinesand the products demolition waste (with a check for pollutants). NATURAL ENVIRONMENT crushed stone as base layer, topped by a used pollute the natural environment by soil surface coating (bitumen) for the wearing infiltration and leaching in sensitive natural Road crossings The construction phase has an obvious impact course; areas; These are bridges, viaducts, tunnels for water, on the natural environment, but a road in service and possibly several other tiered causeways: • semi-flexible structuresand made of gravel also generates pollution that could have an • Accidental pollution: this occurs if a road other roads, pedestrian walkways, train tracks). with a hydraulic binder or bitumen as the base impact on soil, vegetation, groundwater tables accident involving heavy goods vehicles layer with bituminous concrete for the wearing and particularly sensitive environments in the causing large spills of fuel and/or dangerous Roadways course. vicinity (mangroves and coral reefs in inter- materials. Can be divided into the following categories: tropical zones). Sewerage facilities are vital; they can be earth These different types of pollution must be taken • dirt roads, tracks; ditches, open concrete or slit drains, optionally In addition to road pollution from vehicles, there into account by the authorities when designing • paved roads whose structure varies with the drains in the pavement, piped duct crossings, are many other complex direct and indirect road infrastructure: stormwater and runoff type of road (volume of traffic including HGV, retention and/or settling basins. They collect impacts. They vary with the context and are from embankments are collected and directed ground support, etc.). The road is made up runoff from cut and fill embankments and either mitigated or amplified depending on how towards hydrocarbon separators or retention of different layers of materials on top of the the roadway; drainage removes water which the roadway is positioned, built, managed, basins that can contain chronic and possibly ground support (see SETRA catalogue of the mayotherwise back up in the embankments maintained, and, of course its secondary accidental pollution. different types of road structures): and road structure or permeate through the impacts. Land fragmentation by roads is one of revetment. the leading causes of biodiversity loss.

92 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 93 Platform’s sewerage facilities (Extracted from SETRA - GTAR Bordeaux on 27/01/09) Source and ways pollutants disperse. (Extracted from CETE – Road pollutants and DCE - Polluants routiers et DCE - Annecy October 22, 2010)

• Pollution in sensitive environments caused 3.3.3. ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE IN by hyper-sedimentation during periods of FRENCH OVERSEAS TERRITORIES heavy tropical rains or cyclones, for example landslides from cut or fill embankments. The French tropical overseas territories have a toal deterioriation of these structuresn can then of around 10,000 km of roads. Each overseas trigger turbid water plumes and deposits of territory’s geomorphology and economic terrigenous particles in lagoons, which in turn, development is different, leading to contrasting can damage coral formations and seagrass situations in terms of their surface area, types of meadows. roads and traffic. Roadway maintenance and repair can also pollute. This kind of pollution occurs primarily due to technical or human failures or during REUNION ISLAND extreme weather conditions. Reunion island has over 1,000 km of roads, including 370 km of national roads; most of which run along the coast, and 750 km of regional roads. There are 103 km of 4 lane expressways. On the one hand, the island has recent large scale infrastructure on its slopes: expressways including major structures (viaducts crossing deep gullies, bridges over large rivers with torrential flow rates in cyclone seasons) and on the other hand more traditional roads, including Polluants routiers et pollutants and DCE - Annecy October 22, 2010 coastal ones.

94 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 95 The New Coastal Road project (in progress) will SAINT MARTIN GUYANA roads. There are no expressways. However, entail large scale offshore infrastructure with the there is heavy traffic on some roads, for construction of embankments and viaducts. Saint Martin differs from the other small Guyana has 1,400 km of roads: 450 km of example, between the ports of Longoni and Caribbean islands. It has major sections national roads, including the main trunk road Mamoudzou and south of Mamoudzou to at Given the economic activity on Reunion Island, of coastal roads along low-lying sensitive between Saint Georges de l’Oyapock - Cayenne least Passamainty and Petite Terre, between the there is considerable road traffic plus dense wetlands; it is divided between two countries – Kourou – and Saint Laurent du Maroni, a 6 km barge dock and the airport and these roads are traffic of heavy goods vehicles on its trunk (France and the Netherlands). Concerning expressway around Cayenne, 387 km of regional congested at rush hour. Heavy goods vehicles routes, some of which transport hazardous and its geomorphology: Simpson Bay is a large roads, 495 km country lanes and 500 km of transport dangerous polluting materials, polluting materials. natural pool (a sheltered area during cyclones, forest tracks (managed by The French National especially between the port of Longoni and suitable for anchorage) which has resulted in Forestry Department). In addition, there are 3 the industrial area of Kaweni. Some sections of Environmental pressures range from low to very considerable development of polluting artisanal 582 km of dirt tracks that have no administrative the roads are located in low-lying coastal areas high depending on the site and the infrastructure. activities, especially recreational boat activities. staus. Long bridges cross the rivers including and go through mangroves or close to fringing Natural pressures (risk of landslides, mudslides, Road traffic is relatively light, but polluting goods the Cayenne (1 300 m), Kourou, Aprouague coral reefs, and thus have a strong impact on massive terrigenous additions in coastal plains) are transported by road. However Saint Martin and Oyapock. All the roadways are subject to the environment. Finally, given its geological and could contribute to degradation of the marine has only 15 km of national roads. deterioration during the rainy season, and road geomorphologic characteristics, the island is environment. However, the most sensitive areas maintenance is consequently problematic. Many already subject to massive terrigenous deposits are coral reefs, which lie along about 20 km of structures are subject to marine pressures and in periods of heavy rainfall, which could increase its coastline (in the National Marine Reserve MARTINIQUE the maintenance and monitoring standards are due to climate change, especially on cut and fill located on the west coast between Cape La higher than in mainland France. road embankments and river crossings. Houssaye and Etang-Sale). Martinique has a very dense 2,000 km road network: a 7 km motorway through Fort de Road infrastructures have a significant impact France, 254 km of national roads, 369 km of on the terrestrial environment, ecosystems FRENCH POLYNESIA GUADELOUPE regional roads and 1,494 km of local roads. are cut off by these linear infrastructures and Traffic is congested, especially in the Fort forests need clearing, or at least the trees need Tahiti is different from the other high mountainous Guadeloupe’s economic development is de France region and towards the south (Le topping to stop them falling over and blocking islands and atolls. similar to that of Reunion Island so it also has Lamentin, Ducos) despite the construction of the road. However, the coastal and marine expressways with dense traffic (both private expressways. Traffic is also congested after ecosystems suffer little impact. Guyana has Tahiti cars and heavy goods vehicles). There is an Schoelcher in the north along a winding coastal no coral formations, but there are a number of Papeete and its surrounding towns are the extensive road network with a larger number road to Saint Pierre. mangroves. However, compared to deposits economic centre of French Polynesia and 70% of side roads than in Reunion Island, for from large rivers and huge coastal sedimentary of the population lives in this area. geomorphological reasons. There are 416 km Like Guadeloupe, Martinique, suffers from movements (like in the Amazon), the impact of of national roads and 619 km of regional roads frequent difficult weather conditions during the deposits caused by deterioration of roads is Due to the island’s morphology (very steep and 500 bridges. There are only a few low cyclone season with heavy rains which flood minimal. The chronic pollution caused by the landscape and narrow coastal plains), a ring coastal roads but some go through sensitive the roads, cause embankments to collapse, roads also has a relatively small impact on the road goes all the way round the island on the areas such as mangroves (Grand Cul de Sac landslides and mudslides, cause damage to marine environment, compared to agricultural coastal plain (113 km). This road is connected to Marin). Extreme weather conditions (especially protection structures along the coastal roads pollutants and effluents from urban areas. a small secondary road network giving access heavy cyclonic rains) cause considerable which are already destabilised by strong swells, Furthermore, as there are no lagoons, there is an to the lower part of a few wide valleys and to flooding of road infrastructure in Pointe a Pitre and damage to other structures. «open sea» effect and extensive hydrodynamic residential areas on slopes close to the coastal and destroy bridges and road protection barriers and sedimentological movements along the plain. The ring road runs along the edge of the on the coast, particularly on the east Caribbean Compared to the density of the whole road coast of Guyana. Finally, except between lagoon or at least close to it. coast. network, there are relatively few low-lying coastal Cayenne and Kourou, where traffic is dense, roads. The problem is, they go through sensitive relatively few sections of the road are close to In the Papeete area, traffic is dense and is areas: bordering mangroves (Jennipa), the Bay the coast,. congested at rush hour in the direction of the Saint Barthelemy, Marie Galante, of Fort de France, north-east coast, and the neighbouring towns of Faaa and Punaauia Dominica, Desirade west coast towards Robert. Their deterioration to the west, but also to Pirae and Arue to the and leaching during heavy rains and during the MAYOTTE north east. There is a 15 km 4-lane expressway These islands have little road infrastructure and cyclone season causes serious pollution and between Papeete (West Clearance Road) and traffic, the environmental impacts are likely to be degradation to mangroves, seagrass meadows Mayotte is very different from Reunion Island and Punaauia (Plains Road). limited. and coral reefs. because economic development is limoted. Mayotte has 225 km of roads, including 88 All the other roads are 2-way traffic (the roadway km of national roads and 137 km of regional is 7 m wide).

96 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 97 The effects of climate change will increase the NEW CALEDONIA WALLIS AND FUTUNA These phenomena will probably be very violent deterioration of these roads during heavy rains in and have an impact on road networks, particularly the cyclone season, causing damage to cut and New Caledonia has by far the largest road Wallis and Futuna are small and economic those on the coastline or with embankments fill embankments, landslides, and mudslides, network of all the French overseas territories, activity is limited. The road network reflects this constructed on marine wetlands (mangroves, which, in turn will lead to pollution and with over 5,000 km of roads in the following sitiuation: mudflats) or fringing coral reefs: degradation of the reef areas which surround categories: • Wallis has 63 km of local roads, 50 km of • deterioration of road embankments by the whole island, with hyper¬sedimentation, and • 575 km of territorial roads (equivalent to which are asphalted, destabilisiation of the riprap armour layer, pollutants leached from the road. In addition, national roads in mainland France) managed displacement of natural or manufactured riprap with the rising sea level, roads located along • Futuna has 37 km of local roads (the ring by the Infrastructure, Topography and Land blocks over reef flats causing serious damage the lagoon will flood more frequently and suffer road and airport access), of which 25 km are Transport Directorate (French acronym DITT) in to coral formationss; serious damage due to more intense cyclonic asphalted. collaboration with the Provinces; swells. These weather phenomena will have an • followed by destabilisation of the core of indirect effect on the reef environment, with coral • 779 km of provincial roads (equivalent to Some roads on Wallis runclose to the coastline the embankment and dispersion of fine suffering from hyper-sedimentation and from regional roads in mainland France) managed and the lagoon and could be affected by materials over the reef flat leading to localised pollutants leched from the road; coral reefs may by the Provinces, 450 km of which are in the ccidental pollution and hyper-sedimentation asyphxiation of coral formations and seagrass be destroyed by riprap blocks dragged from the Northern Province, 285 km in the Southern during periods of low pressure and cyclones. meadows; road embankment by cyclonic swells. Province and 44 km on the Loyalty islands; • dispersion of the surface layers and asphalt • 3,376 km of municipal and urban roads from the road, possibly causing local pollution managed by the municipalities; EPARSES ISLANDS of sensitive environments; The Leeward Islands • 892 km of rural roads managed by the • destruction of drainage structures and settling The morphology of Moorea, Raiatea, Tahaa, Bora TROMELIN, JUAN DE NOVA, municipalities. ponds, leaching of pollutants that have Bora, and Huahine is similar to that of Tahiti and EUROPE, GLORIEUSE accumulated in these road structures and most have a ring road on the coastal plain, some The Southern Province has expressways: 20 occasional pollution of sensitive marine areas also have roads criss-crossing the island. But km of 4-lane clearance roads west of Noumea, These islands all have very small road networks (mangroves, mudflats, reef zones); road traffic is light compared to Tahiti, and there and 18.5 km of 4-land clearance roads east of and light traffic so environmental pressures from • roads will be more frequently submersed by are few chronic pollution problems. Possible Noumea. Only a relatively small proportion of the road infrastructure can be considered marginal. floods, accelerating the deterioration of both future problems linked to climate change could roads in the network run along the coast; but the embankments and the roads and reducing be destruction of road embankments along these may be close to very near sensitive zones, their durability; the lagoons, which would affect the reef flats, i.e.,mangroves and coral reefs. The impact on plus hyper¬sedimentation due to the collapse these environments can be due to chronic or 3.3.4. POSSIBLE IMPACTS • more frequent leaching of the structures, of sections of the road that act as local dykes, accidental pollution. OF CLIMATE CHANGE resulting in pollutants from road traffic being especially in areas where roads cross the valley. dispersed in sensitive marine areas. Traffic is very dense (private and heavy goods ON ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE In distant high islands (Marquesas, Gambier and vehicles) on sections of roads near Noumea IN INTERTROPICAL ZONES Such deterioration downstream from outfalls the Austral Islands) problems will be marginal, and around the northern and southern nickel AND THE CONSEQUENCES may then cause pollution and damage to factories; there is also a lot of traffic between given the small road network and light traffic. FOR REEF ENVIRONMENTS sensitive marine areas due to massive additions Noumea and La Tontouta Airport, 40 km away of terrigenous particles, turbid plumes in lagoons (there is an extension project planned for VDO). AND THEIR ECOSYSTEMS and deposits of road-¬related pollutants The atolls also have small road networks and The nature of the soil and the cut and fill leaching from the road and settlement basin. limited traffic, and so (except for illegal discharge embankment sections means there are higher The following photographs show some recent of oil), the problem of pollution of the lagoons risks of rockslides, landslides and mudslides in Here we refer back to chapter 1 and the IPCC examples of damage to structures during the will be marginal. On the other hand, as all the periods of heavy rains and these can occasionally predictions for inter-tropical zones. The major cyclone season. roads are low (maximum a few metres above have an impact on fringing reef environments. implications for road infrastructure are the sea level) they are vulnerable to deterioration or following combined effects: The increase in rainfall (except during the cyclone destruction which will functionally damage reef Some roads are already old and the increase in traffic, especially heavy goods vehicles, due to • intensification of cyclones in all tropical regions; season) and in temperature could differ in each formations due to the accumulation of riprap or tropical region. gravel from the destroyed road embankments. major development projects has caused serious • higher overall and/or occasional rainfall; damage to some of them as their structure is • permanent rise in the sea level (higher inadequate and requires frequent maintenance. Rising temperatures, more intense sunshine temperatures) and temporary rises (winds and and more rainfall can affect the durability of road As existing roads are already in short supply, lagoon bagging). structure, resulting from deterioration of the the effects of climate change are expected to asphalt due to the impacts of water and UV rays. increase their deterioration. 98 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 99 The overall increase in rainfall could also affect 7 years) should at least partially compensate for the durability of road infrastructure by causing a the rising sea level. rise in in the level of the aquifer which can create pore pressure in base layers and foundations, Maintenance procedures for road infrastructure altering their structure, particularly if the sewage and the management of watershed hydraulics and drainage systems are damaged. should be reviewed along with the design of future roads ( the use of resistant drainable Normal maintenance of the coatings of low- materials, road structure, better quality asphalt, lying sections of the roads, (theoretically every etc.).

Cyclone Dumille January 2013 Reunion. Dock destroyed by cyclonic waves. Photo © M. Allenbach Road destruction (source Reunion 1ere)

3.3.5. TECHNICAL weather conditions, and measures already RECOMMENDATIONS taken; FOR ADAPTATION • an analysis of current and potential problems in the design of various structures; In light of the above remarks, we recommend • a summary of projects to repair various a diagnostic survey of all road infrastructure structures, or build new road infrastructure. which may have an impact on sensitive marine areas (or sensitive coastal areas, but also on the watershed upstream) by the appropriate PROPOSALS FOR TECHNICAL services. The resutling diagnosis must be ADAPTATION MEASURES TO CLIMATE uploaded into «Road Data Banks» and «Road CHANGE structure Data Banks», and if necessary, used to define technical measures for adaptation to These will be the result of a reflection on the climate change. possible consequences of climate change and will be taken into account when adapting the management of existing infrastructure and Damage after a cyclone in New Caledonia, March 1996. M. Photo: © M. Allenbach DIAGNOSIS building new infrastructure. They will include: OF EXISTING STRUCTURES • an analysis of external pressures on Should include: road infrastructure; these are mainly in the • the eomorphologic location of the upstream watershed: risks of increasing infrastructures in relation to mangrove and periods of heavy rains resulting in stronger river coral ecosystems and a general presentation flows and runoff and, consequently, an increase the context, including the watershed, in floods and deposits of terrigenous particles hydrogeological and hydraulic management in coastal plains and in the marine environment. and current and potential pressures on the site; Are the current water management structures in the area adequate in the face of the possible • the geometric characteristics of the effects of climate change? Does the flood risk road management plan (FRMP) in the area need • (longitudinal, cross-section and altitude reviewing or do the drainage and settling profiles); systems upstream from the road infrastructure • characteristics of other structures, in particular, need changing? Reflection on planning in the those prone to pollution (rest areas, green area should take future development projects spaces, stormwater and pollution management and their possible impacts on the watershed systems etc.); into account, and i include the pressures from climate change. This work must be carried • a summary of management procedures out in collaboration with the different State Cyclone Dumille January 2013. Photo: © Réunion 1ere.fr and incidents, especially during exceptional departments and appropriate local services;

100 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 101 • an analysis of pressure on road • the creation of a catalogue of standard Martinique, Mayotte, Wallis and Futuna, and FOSSIL FUEL RELATED infrastructure. For existing infrastructure. structures, specifically for roads in French Polynesia, except Tahiti, INFRASTRUCTURE • Questions which need answering are: overseas territories and for specific climates • 85% in New Caledonia, (based on the European model for frost- The following infrastructure is found in Frnech • Will current coastal road sea defence structures shattered roads); • 66% in Reunion Island, overseas territories: resist the combined pressure of cyclones and • 62% in Tahiti, • port infrastructure for offloading different rising sea level? Should they be consolidated? • additional studies to optimise the models of kinds of fuel (heavy fuel oil, gas and coal for If so, how what additional protective structures local climate phenomena, simulating extreme • 44% in Guyana. electricity production) and motor fuels (petrol, should be put in place? Is it necessary to hydraulic situations on and around the diesel and kerosene). These terminals are consider relocating some particularly exposed infrastructure (hydrology and hydrogeology, The remaining percentages correspond located in industrial port areas and require an road sections? calculating watershed flood risks and to different forms of renewable energy overtopping); calculating possible swells (hydroelectricity, wind, bagasse, photovoltaic, access channel and deep draft basins. They • Will the structure of exisiting roads (sub-layers in the vicinity of structures and optimising geothermal, biomass, biogas, marine renewable consist of: and wearing course) resist future pressure potential redesign measures to be taken on energy). Most of these renewable energies • docks able to receive tankers, LNG tankers (increased temperatures, intensity of cyclones, defence infrastructure with respect to road represent less than 4% per type of energy), and cargo ships (for coal); occasional rain and flooding)? infrastructure; except: • mooring dolphins; • Are the road drainage systems and their • optimising observation systems linked • hydroelectricity (dams), which is significant in • sea lines; surrounding areas correctly designed to cope to climate change phenomena near road Tahiti (38%), Reunion Island (20%) and New • embankments equipped with pipeline with future pressure, or should they be altered, infrastructure (possibly setting up additional Caledonia (12%); systems connecting platforms and storage consolidated, enlarged (possibly review the size tanks; measuring equipment in weather stations on • bagasse (10% in Reunion) and photovoltaic of ditches, retention basins; flow regulators, site, tide gauges); • coal depot areas equipped with mobile hydrocarbon separators)? power (8% in Mayotte). • research on optimising the design of future cranes with grabs and equipment for moving • Will the specifications for the maintenance of roads and road crossing structures in coastal «The development of more energy-efficient coal (cranes, conveyor belts). roads and their drainage systems need to be areas. economic models is an adaptation solution • thermal power stations which produce reviewed? taken without regret for Overseas territories, not electricity from the combustion of fuel, gas or • Roads in the watershed zones: will the cut and The above recommendations abave are in only to cope with the direct impacts of climate coal. They use steam and/or diesel turbines; fill embankments be sufficiently stable if there «checklist» format to enable the diagnosticians change on production and consumption, but coal power stations also bagasse, a side is an increase in heavy rainfall and should they to draft a coherent final document for all the also to manage rising costs of imported fossil product in sugar factories. be consolidated now? major roads concerned. fuels». • Will the structures crossing rivers (bridges, (source: Overseas territories facing the challenge of climate change - Report to the Prime Minister and Parliament-ONERC –French inverts) resist higher flow rates?(see Chapter 2) documentation IEDOM 2012 and 2011).

• Questions concerning future developments • Do studies take the pressures from climate 3.4. ENERGY-RELATED 3.4.1. SUMMARY OF ENERGY- change into account? Should the standards, INFRASTRUCTURE RELATED INFRASTRUCTURE recommendations, pilot documents, etc., on the characteristics of the materials, road All energy-related infrastructure, fossil and structures, the size of hydraulic structures, and Most French overseas territories have no fossil renewable fuels, on land and at sea are mentioned embankment stability, be reviewed? fuels and therefore depend on hydrocarbons here. However, special attention is paid to marine and to a lesser extent on coal and gas imported renewable energies, even though they are still Thermal power station in Le Port, Reunion Island (source EDF) by sea. This energy dependence ranges from underdeveloped in overseas territories, because FURTHER RESEARCH WILL BE 87% to 97%, depending on the territory. This is despite their great and diverse potential, they will REQUIRED ON CERTAIN ISSUES all the more worrying as the number of cars and have a direct impact on sensitive marine habitats RENEWABLE ENERGY RELATED the consumption of electric power continues to (coral reefs and related ecosystems), the focus TO INFRASTRUCTURE The answers to a number of the above questions increase (IEOM 2011). of this book. will probably require: Faced with the challenge of climate change, Statistics concerning the share of energy • further applied research, particularly onthe developing renewable energy infrastructure fossils used in producing electricity in overseas structure of roads (choice of materials, is an opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas territories can be broken down as follows: composition and the geometry of the layers emissions, but also to compensate for the high that make up the road); • > 90% for Guadeloupe and its dependencies, cost of producing electricity.

102 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 103 Such facilities are being developed in the resources. By exploiting these resources, France Fixed offshore wind towers: the different types of foundations. Source: SAIPEM overseas territories. would achieve 3% of its objective by 2020: 23% LAND BASED INFRASTRUCTURE of renewable energy. • wind turbines: which transform wind energy into electrical energy. A wind turbine consists These energies are particularly important for of a tower, a gondola that houses the overseas territories firstly because they are mechanical components, tyres, and electrical favourable sites for implementing some of these and electronic components, and a rotor with technologies and, secondly, they would achieve several blades of variable size. Electricity is energy self-sufficiency. then transferred by cables; Although these new forms of energy are still • photovoltaic panels are made up of rare in France and overseas territories, they are photovoltaic cells which transform solar energy strategic issues for the energy sector in France into electricity. Photovoltaic farms often occupy and in Europe and will therefore have to grow several hectares. Electricity is transferred to rapidly. the power grid by cables; • hydroelectric dams enable the transformation Currently, the infrastructure needed to produce of the potential and kinetic energies of water ocean energy is still scarce in the overseas behind the damto drive a turbine downstream, territories. The only systems in place use ocean Figure 1: Mono pile, North Sea Figure 2: Gravity, Cotentin and Figure 3: Space frame, Brittany Mediterranean with a generator to produce electrical energy; thermal energy. Two facilities that serve hotels: the «Intercontinental» on Bora Bora since 2006 • geothermal energy uses calories in the and the Hotel «Brando» on Tetiaroa atoll exist in ground. These calories are used directly and/ French Polynesia. or converted into electricity; • sea water temperature: thermal gradient CURRENT ENERGY between water at the surface and near the • bagasse is the fibrous residue of sugarcane AND TIDAL STREAMS The information on the different technologies seabed, or using the cold seabed layer for the once the juices have been extracted. It is and their potential impacts on the environment production of cold; TIDAL POWER PLANTS mainly the cellulose part of the plant and is below comes from some of the key documents used as bioenergy in rum and sugar production • marine biomass: using marine plants and below: These exploit the energy of the tide by using the factories. Efficient installations mean some microalgae; • Marine renewable energy –a forecast up to difference in level between two bodies of water. factories are self-sufficient in energy; bagasse 2030 (IFREMER 2008) (In French); • osmotic pressure from waters with different Tidal energy makes use of the kinectic energy can also be used in coal-fired power stations; degrees of salinity. of moving water to drive turbines. Such power • Marine renewable energy - Methodological • biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion. It plants are still rare because of acceptability study on environmental and socio-economic is the result of fermentation of plant or animal issues as well as cost. The Rance Tidal Power impacts (MEDDE 2012) (In French); organic matter in an oxygen free environment WIND ENERGY Plant is the first large-scale infrastructure of this (anaerobic). Biogas is primarily methane (CO4) • report on a fact-finding mission on Marine type in France. (from 50% to 70%) and carbon dioxide (CO2). renewable energy submitted to the Ministry of Offshore wind turbine towers are either fixed to As the two gases are combustible, burning productive rehabilitation, Ministry of Ecology, the sea bed or floating. They are called wind TIDAL TURBINES them produces heat and/or electricity. Methane Energy and Sustainable Development, Ministry parks or wind farms and are located about 20 is obtained from waste such as sludge from in charge of transport, sea and fishing in March km from the coast, in water that is less than 20 Tidal turbines, which use ocean currents or sewage treatment plants, livestock manure, 2013 (In French); m deep. tidal streams as one of the components, can be classified in the following categories: effluents generated by the food industry and • IUCN France (2014) Development of Marine discharge from household waste incinerators. renewable energy and Biodiversity preservation • axial drive systems. These are similar to – Summary report for decision-makers. (In underwater turbines, the rotor blades convert French); the linear energy of the marine current into MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGIES electricity by means of a rotating generator. Turbines may have a horizontal or vertical axis; The ocean has extraordinary diverse energy Resources that could be harnessed for the potential based on the wind, currents, waves, production of marine renewable energy are: • hydrofoil systems: this device consists of thermal gradients, biomass, and osmotic • wind: production of electricity by offshore wind underwater «paddles» which drive a hydraulic pressure. France has over 11 million km2 of turbines; system. The paddles oscillate with the currents Fixed offshore wind towers - Alpha Ventus thereby compressing hydraulic fluid. This marine waters under its jurisdiction and hence • mass movement of ocean waters: currents, park in Germany. Source: Areva Wind pressure is used to produce electricity; significant potential to use its marine energy waves and tides; 104 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 105 • «Venturi effect» systems: this device exploits WAVE ENERGY • submerged systems: they can be oscillated the acceleration of fluid passing through a (a component oscillating in both directions via constricted section of a pipe. In this case, energy from the surface motion wave action) or operate a hydraulic cylinder of waves is used to drive a turbine to produce piston pump. Around 50 concepts have been developed electricity. There are four main technical principles: based on these three principles. OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY • overtopping: Waves breaking on a slope are collected in a high basin and on returning to The ocean is thermally stratified, the upper sea, the water drives a turbine; layers can reach high temperatures particularly in tropical zones (over 24 °C and up to 30 °C), • oscillating water column: The surface of the and low temperatures in its depths (about 5 °C sea water acts as a piston to push air in a pipe Schematic diagram of a SWAC «blower hole»; in turn, the air drives a turbine at a depth of 1,000 m). One can thus use: which can work in both directions. This type of • either the high temperatures in the upper pump, heat exchanger and turbine generator device can be installed at sea or onshore; layers for heating; to produce electricity. This device depends on a fluid which transforms liquid to vapour when • floats at the surface: these devices form an • or the cold temperatures in deep waters: for it comes into contact with hot water (the sea articulated floating structure perpendicular to cooling “Sea Water Air Conditioning” (SWAC) surface water). The pressure produced by the the waves. They are steel pipes or pontoons for cooling. vapour passes through a turbo generator and connected by hinges containing hydraulic drives a turbine. After losing pressure, the gas pumps. Wave action pushes hydraulic liquid There are currently only two functioning sea passes through a capacitor and is transformed which then drives a turbine; water air conditioning systems in French back into liquid when it comes into contact with Polynesia; cold water pumped from the seabed. Residual Axial drive systems: horizontal and vertical • Thermal Energy Seas (TES) or Ocean water has a wide range of complementary Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) located uses linked or not to the TES, particularly in air at the point where the temperature differs packaging and cooling. between surface water and the sea bed layer: this system uses a surface-to-bottom

Hydrofoil System

Oscillating column: http://www.daedalus.gr/OWCsimulation2html «Venturi effect» system. Methodological study of the environmental and socio-economic impacts of renewable energies. MEDDE 2012 version.

Schematic diagram of a SWAC © ARER (Reunion Island Regional Energy Agency) Floats at the surface 106 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 107 Martinique will be the first French territory to have transferred from oil tankers to storage tanks or • they are equipped with new generation diesel • hydroelectric dams. These facilities are a pilot Thermal Energy Sea plant which may be a shipping accident when a petroleum tanker engines with optimised yield and reduced CO2 generally located in a mountainous environment commissioned in 2016. is on its way to distribution terminals or to emissions; and far from sensitive marine areas. Their major other users. Technical control measures in oil • waste heat recovery boilers will optimise fuel impact is that they form an ecological barrier for MARINE BIOMASS terminals normally help avoid risks of accidental consumption, thus reducing CO2 emissions; the terrestrial environment and the waterway. oil spills (SOPEP which quickly neutralises an The marine environment would be significantly Compared to terrestrial oleaginous species oil spill in a port or at sea (floating dams, etc.). • the facilities can use environmentally friendly affected in the case of a breach, overflow and/ microalgae have many beneficial characteristics, fuels which can be converted into natural gas, or malfunction in the infrastructure, meaning • Gas. The main risks are due to security when appropriate; such as producing fatty acids which can be used problems on site and in the vicinity when there the lagoons would suffer from a sudden to produce algo-fuel. Their main advantages is a fire or an explosion. • include protective measures against climate intake of water heavily loaded with terrigenous are that their biomass yield is 10 times that of hazards (e.g. dykes against floods and particles resulting in degradation of the coral terrestrial biomass and there is no conflict for the • Bulk unloading sites (coal). The risk tsunamis). due to hyper-sedimentation and high turbidity; use of freshwater for agriculture. All that remains of pollution arises during unloading and transport (chronic and accidental pollution by • geothermal energy. Here the impact on is to be done is identify the areas that could be The thermal energy plant at East Port in Reunion the natural environment is very low or zero. made available and try to reduce costs. hydrocarbons, oils and other toxic products, island is modular designed to gradually adapt including heavy metals, solvents used for However the noise, vibration, appearance of to the state of development of the island’s these infrastructures can disturb residents ; equipment maintenance, and leaching in renewable energies (marine energy, STEP). SALINITY GRADIENT ENERGY (OSMOTIC depot areas and parking lots), as well as dust. • bagasse power plants: Bagasse/coal power PRESSURE) • For port infrastructure, please refer to stations release gases into the atmosphere. As IMPACTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY bagasse is a plant product, it is considered a When two bodies of water with different salinity Chapter 3.2. on ports where the impacts of INFRASTRUCTURE levels come into contact, the freshwater port activities are listed. renewable resource and direct emissions from molecules naturally pass from the less the burning process are considered void, similar • Thermal power stations: LAND BASED INFRASTRUCTURE compressed side to the more compressed side to other organic compounds, such as wood. • the most important impacts are emissions to restore the balance. This is called osmotic • Wind turbines. The main impact is on the And the fact is, the carbon released during the of pollutants into the atmosphere (sulphur pressure. landscape, in the form of noise and avian risks. combustion of a plant-based product is offset oxides SOx, nitrogen NOx, carbon dioxide Their impact on the marine environment is zero by the carbon the plant sequestered during its CO2) and dust; If a concentrated saltwater and freshwater body or very low; growth, so the net impact is zero; • effects of the discharge of cooling water are separated by a semi-permeable membrane, • biogas. The impacts on the natural (both the thermal impact and polluting • photovoltaic panels. Their main impact is their the freshwater will naturally cross this membrane environment are low to zero (same as bagasse residues) when effluents are untreated; surface area and appearance. They require and the resulting pressure is the equivalent of a a lot of space and can thus have an impact for CO2 emissions). Potential impacts on local • ash, which still contains toxic residues 240 m water column, which can be used to drive on other activities, particularly agriculture. residents could be the smell if existing technical and should be processed and buried in a hydroelectric turbine. Salinity energy plants They may have an indirect impact on the measures to limit it are respected; appropriate sites; should be located next to estuaries, where large marine environment in the case of deposits of • household solid waste incinerators. Their • security related risks: explosions, fires and freshwater and saltwater bodies are available, terrigenous particles during periods of heavy major impact is the emission of pollutants into oil spills into the natural environment (in the thus reducing investment and civil engineering rain, land erosion of sites where photovoltaic the atmosphere as a result of incineration.. case of oil powered plants), especially during costs. panels are installed and of land located Possible side effects could be macro-waste extreme phenomena such as earthquakes, downstream. The two other problems are that being deposited in sensitive environments by tsunamis. Research is still required to reduced the costs the panels form a large waterproofed surface high winds and heavy rains when the facilities which generates significant runoff and their are located near the coastline and precautions These sites also have a significant impact on anti-seismic fixation requires soil compaction, have not been taken to manage the waste land and the landscape. 3.4.2. IMPACTS OF ENERGY which seals the soil. However, some solar efficiently. RELATED INFRASTRUCTURE ON farm managers in overseas territories (in The French electric power company EDF is Reunion Island in particular) are trying to THE ENVIRONMENT currently renovating all its thermal power stations, optimise the land by planting crops between MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGIES (MRE) particularly those in the overseas territories. the panels. These measures are taken for IMPACTS OF FOSSIL FUEL The objective is to replace their thermal power economic reasons, but also help stabilise Today, very little infrastructure of this type exists INFRASTRUCTURE stations with equipment incorporating the the soil, and should limit or even eliminate in overseas territories except offshore wind latest technological advances. The industrial the risk of transferring fine sediments to the farms and some sea water air conditioning). performance of the new facilities is better and • Oil terminals. The main risk for the marine marine environment during heavy rains thereby So its impact on the natural environment is not are more environmentally friendly, see details environment is from oil spills when fuel is being avoiding degradation of coral reefs located yet available. However, the following risks are below: downstream from solar farms; possible.

108 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 109 During heavy cyclonic swells, offshore wind 3.4.3. ENERGY RELATED Some projects are under study: a sea water air Guyana. Hydrocarbons are loaded and unloaded farms using current and wave energy systems INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE conditioning plant (SWAC) for the hospital in using pumps, and transported by pipelines to and ocean thermal energy structures could be Basse Terre and a marine STEP station (energy the SARA Refinery located in Lamentin. This at risk from: OVERSEAS TERRITORIES transfer by pumping)for use in peak consumption refinery is located near mangroves in the bay of • deteriorating anchorage of the underwater hours) developed by EDF SEI. to compensate Fort de France. for intermittent outputs of renewable energy electricity cable network, as well as submersed Guadeloupe convertors. This could cause functional such as solar and wind power, to limit the impact FOSSIL FUELS damage to coral formations; (93% dependent on fossil fuel energy) of fluctuating production on electrical grids and enable more than 30% of their instantaneous Thermal power comes from two diesel power • damage to facilities in the landing area and FOSSIL FUELS power in the mix. A 50 MW STEP storing 0.6 stations and six combustion turbines: shifting of their components in sensitive Fossil fuels provide almost 91% of the electricity GWh could be adapted to the system in at Petit • Pointe des Carrieres diesel power station environments (riprap or concrete blocks, Canal, Guadeloupe. operated by EDF (81 MW); cables, anchoring systems etc.) causing local supply, despite a huge natural potential for functional damage to reef flats along the coast renewable energy: geothermal resources could • Bellefontaine diesel power station operated and/or mangroves; be used to produce electricity, and the large by EDF (199 MW) is being renovated, the new quantities of bagasse left over from sugar cane one (220 MW) is part of the renovation and • dispersion of toxic refrigerant products from pocessing could also be exploited. Diesel power environmental improvement programme of all damaged cooling systems in sea water air stations are located in: EDF thermal power stations; conditioning plants; • Jarry North diesel (167.2 MW) and Jarry Sud • two combustion turbines (4.8 MW each), • collision between vessels and surface turbine combustion (102 MW), these will located in Lamentin that belong to the SARA structures (wind farms and wave energy be replaced by a a new diesel power plant, refinery supply the company’s oil refinery, facilities, offshore ocean thermal energy plants). diesel (220 MW)at Pointe Jarry ,which started excess electricity is sent to the EDF network; operating in stages in 2014:; • oil spills; dispersion of toxic products and • two combustion turbines at Pointe des macro-waste in reef flats and mangroves. • Folle Anse (Marie Galante): EDF diesel back¬up Carrieres power stations 2 and 3 (20 MW each). plant (7.1 MW); A new one (27 MW) brings btotal production When algo-fuels are produced from marine • La Desirade: EDF diesel back-up plant (0.9 Marine STEP Project (pumping energy transfer station by, © EDF up to 66 MW; biomass, the risks are: SEI) MW); • Bellefontaine A power station is also equipped • deterioration of marine biomass production with a combustion turbine producing 23 MW; areas due to rising sea level and strong • Les Saintes: EDF diesel back-up plant (2 MW); cyclonic swells, with impacts on neighbouring • Saint-Martin: two facilities, one is EDF (39 MW) • Galion power station, operated by Galion reef environments (hyper-sedimentation and and the other EDF EN (14.3 MW). Cogeneration Company, which is part of the asphyxiation, functional destruction by dyke La Martinique Albioma group, has a combustion turbine (40 components beibg dragged across reef flats In addition, there is the industrial port MW). or in mangroves); infrastructure at Pointe Jarry, where the SARA LAND BASED RENEWABLE ENERGY • disruption of the production of microalgae, refinery unloads and stores its hydrocarbons, due to changes in the quality of the water in where gas is filled and stored (RUBIS) and coal Since Martinique is not particularly suited to this the production areas due to heavy tropical is also stored. type of energy production, it remaines largely rains and rising water temperature. If these undeveloped. Efforts are underway to include basins overflow into nearby relatively confined MIXED AND RENEWABLE ENERGIES more renewable energies in the mix in the future. coral areas, there will be a significant risk of • Moule thermal power station: bagasse and The Regional Council has set itself the target of eutrophication, which may lead to coralline coal (64 MW); producing 50% of its energy using renewable algal blooms. • Bouillante geothermal power station (15 MW) resources by 2020. These include: SARA refinery in a mangrove area in Fort de France Bay. on the west coast of Basse-Terre; © lemarin.fr • incineration of solid household waste, which is Salinity gradient energy systems (osmotic • three EDF hydroelectric power stations: Le the only source of constant renewable energy pressure and reverse electrodialysis) are still at Carbet (4.6 MW), Canal St Louis, and Bananier on the island (4 MW) and produces 2% of (97% dependent on fossil fuel energy) the experimental stage. (3 MW); electricity. It is operated by Martiniquaise for CACEM; • twelve wind farms (total power: 27 MW). All The remaining 3% are supplied by incineration the wind turbines are foldable during cyclones. of household waste, and wind and solar power. • wind energy is limited to a small area in the They are located in Anse Bertrand, Petit Canal, There is an oil terminal in the port of Fort de France upper part of Basse-Pointe because the Saint Francois, Capes Marie Galante, La and a refinery which supplies Guadeloupe and coastal area is densely populated making it Desirade, Terre de Bas.

110 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 111 difficult to operate there. Local wind energy is conditioning plant project and several cold and (2 MW); that they combine two functions in one facility: only produced by the Aerowatt wind farm at heat network projects are under study in the • small solar power stations in Saul and Kaw; firstly, they are the sugar factory’s boiler, where Vauclin (1.1 MW); suburbs of Fort de France (source EDF SEI). the bagasse is burned with low pollution, and • solar energy: despite representing such a GUYANA A river turbine (about 50 kilowatts) is being tested secondly, it is an electric power grid, with the same reliability and availability characteristics and small share of the energy mix on the islands, (over 81% dependent on fossil fuel energy) by EDF on the Oyapok river. This electricity solar energy is the one being developed in production in a rural area would replace the which, in addition, complies with antipollution measures. Martinique as it has the greatest potential (60 Fossil fuels supply 44% of electrical energy, current 100% reliance on diesel generators. MW end of March 2013). hydroelectric dams 54%, wood 0.6%, and An industrial port site (Le Port) has the necessary photovoltaics the rest. MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGIES port infrastructure to unload fuel and coal for its Many renewable energy projects are planned in Thermal power stations and hydroelectric dams Biomass, hydraulic, wind, solar, diesel projects diesel and coal power stations. The La Baie and Martinique: provide around 50% of total electricity in Guyana. are under study to diversify and complement Le Port power stations are operated by EDF

• a biomass power plant in Galion in 2015, with Guyana’s electric power mix. and Bois Rouge and Gol by Sechilienne Sidec, a capacity of 34 MW; FOSSIL FUELS renamed Albioma in June 2013. • increasing the production capacity of the The French Electricity Company, EDF, manages household solid waste incinerator; three diesel power stations: REUNION ISLAND RENEWABLE ENERGIES • Reunion Island produces 550,000 • creating a biogas recovery unit in Trompeuse; • Degrad des Cannes power station (112 MW) in Bagasse: Reunion Island uses several categories of tons of bagasse annually, which are almost • building new wind farms equipped with Remire-Montjoly, which supplies the Cayenne electricity production: firstly fossil fuel thermal electrical energy storage devices; network; power stations (87% energy dependent), followed • a geothermal project; • Kourou thermal power station (22 MW turbine by renewable energy, and hydroelectricity, • building a biomass furnace at CACEM; combustion); bagasse, biogas, wind, and solar energy. • small diesel generators in St. Laurent- • building mini-hydraulic production units on the The island has set itself the target of electrical Lorrain, Case Navire and Lezarde rivers; du¬Maroni and inland villages (Regina, Kaw, Grand¬Santi, Apatou, Papaïchton, autonomy by 2030, focused on the use of • setting up an ocean thermal energy prototype Maripasoula, Saint-Georges, Camopi and bagasse and marine energies. production unit; Ouanary). The French Electricity company EDF is currently • reflecting on designing fuel cells and ethanol Gol coal-bagasse thermal power station. Source: ©Arer Mayotte experimenting with the largest European cell report 2011 fuel; Ports which receive hydrocarbons are: (NaS cell) which will provide high-tech energy • finally, Martinique has launched a project to • Degrad Cannes, equipped with an oil terminal storage. A NaS sodium-sulphur cell, with a 1 entirely used by the two thermal power stations import gas; Bellefontaine’s new fuel power to receie oil in bulk. The hydrocarbons are then MW power capacity was built in Saint Andre in at Gol and Bois Rouge. In 2010, bagasse was plant can be adapted to this gas. transported by pipeline to the SARA depot; November 2009. used to produce 10% of electricity (see § • the fishing port of Larivot in Cayenne also has above bagasse/coal power stations), MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGY a SARA depot to supply fishing vessels; FOSSIL FUELS • Five hydroelectric power s t a t i o n s The directorate of French naval shipbuilding • Pariacabo port near Kourou has an oil terminal Fossil fuels represent 66% of electric power produce electricity: «Sainte-Rose» hydroelectric (French acronym DCNS) is studying two ocean and a fuel hydrant system which supplies the production. Four thermal power stations power station on Riviere de l’Est (91 MW), thermal energy (OTE) plant projects. The SARA depot in Kourou; currently operate on Reunion Island: «Takamaka 1» and «Takamaka 2» (43.4 MW), principle of ocean thermal energy is a constant «Bras de la Plaine» (4.6 MW), «Langevin» (3.6 • inland regions and villages are powered by • «Le Port» (East), diesel engines (220 MW energy baseline, which could replace the coal MW) and Bras des Lianes (2.2 MW). They generators and small solar installations. power capacity) commissioned in 2013; and oil-fired power plants in Martinique. are maintained and operated by EDF, except • «La Baie», with two combustion turbines with Bras des Lianes which is run by the Regional An «onshore» thermal marine energy plant is RENEWABLE ENERGIES 80 MW power capacity; Council; under consideration in Martinique - (source These are represented by several different • «Bois Rouge», bagasse and coal system, with • biogas is represented by the biogas power DCNS Akuo). It is a 4 MW onshore pilot ocean systems: thermal energy power plant connected to the 100 MW power capacity; station at Riviere Saint ¬Etienne, which has electricity grid, as a forerunner of a series of • Petit-Saut dam (115 MW), which supplies two • «Gol», bagasse and coal system, with 111 MW been in service since 2008. It transforms waste ocean thermal energy power stations (10 MW thirds of electricity production. power capacity. into biogas which is then used to produce offshore); construction is planned at Bellefontaine • Saut Maripa hydropower plant (1.3 MW), electricity; it is operated by Veolia and has a on EDF owned land in 2016. which supplies St-Georges-de-l’Oyapock; The bagasse-coal power stations, designed by capacity of 2 MW; Sechilienne SIDEC Company, are innovative in • wind and solar: over the last five years, wind Schoelcher is studying a sea water air • An EDF biomass plant called Voltalia in Kourou

112 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 113 and solar power undergone considerable developed by PWP, a Scottish company), coastal road (a 6 km dyke), or in marine forerunner for a series of ocean thermal energy development on the island. There are a number with efficient energy storage (oleo strut) wharf projects (Saint Andre and Saint- power stations (25 MW), 9 km offshore from Le of small: privately owned and company run for islands with an overall 30 MW power Louis) currently under discussion by the Port, at a depth of 1,500 m. wind or solar power units, including «La capacity (Saint-Pierre/Pointe du Diable Reunion Regional Energy Agency. Perriere» (8.5 MW) wind farm run by Aerowatt with anchorage at depths of 75 to 150 m); and «Sainte Rose «(9 MW) solar farm run by --a wave power project based on CETO- The following should also be mentioned: EDF, EDF EN technology: electricity production • the onshore ocean thermal energy (OTE) • several marine renewable energy projects by submerged wave energy converters. prototype project (PAT OTE) and the Directorate are currently under development: The project consists of buoys (activators) of French Naval Shipbuilding (DCNS). The • Ocean Thermal Energy Projects: a sea water laid on the seabed which are set in motion aim is to use the difference in temperature air conditioning (SWAC) project is underway by wave energy. The wave energy is then between the sea’s surface waters and deep in Saint-Denis and Sainte Marie (a GDF- transferred to a pump which puts fluid waters to produce electricity (IUT in Saint Suez/CDC project); which should reduce under pressure. The fluid is transferred via Pierre, Reunion Island). The PAT OTE project power consumption by 80%, compared an underground steel pipe network to a set up a model OTE test bench to validate to a standard cold production system (the turbine connected to a generator which numerical models developed by the French SWAC sea outfall: Saint-Denis / Jamaica, transforms the energy into electricity naval industrial group DCNS for an electricity MARINE STEP Storage facility © EDF-SEI air conditioning network in the Saint-Denis/ (offshore at Pierrefonds, Saint-Pierre). power system. The aim is also to demonstrate Sainte-Marie urban coastal area and certain The challenge for Reunion Island is an the feasibility of implementing OTE technology IDENTIFIED CHALLENGES buildings: hospitals, the airport, the university, industrial consolidation at home and and to define an optimal energy system before FOR REUNION island’S ELECTRICITY Sainte Marie business park). abroad (in the Northern Hemisphere), studies are underway to peepare the PRODUCTION • other studies are underway to use deep water way for this prototype stqge. Once in the biotechnology: another SWAC project is industrial stage the project should have • Reunion’s Regional STARTER project: up to planned for southern Reunion Island hospital 15 to 20 MW power capacity. 100 MW power capacity by 2030, SRCAE group in Saint Pierre. This is an ADEME- (in progress); unknown potential by 2020; EDF project to introduce marine powered --a project for an onshore wave energy estimated potential 25-100 MW power air conditioning in its buildings. The objective converter at Saint-Philippe, taking capacity in 2030; is to reduce electricity consumption for air advantage of the planned construction of conditioning by over 50%. a dyke and adding a structure capable of • the OTE principle would ensure that a basic using wave energy, which is very powerful • Three wave power converter projects are energy supply is constantly available, and at this location (~ 20 kW/m), of converting under study, two in Saint-Pierre, one in Saint © DCNS would replace coal power plants (an OTE it into electricity (Saint-Philippe slipway, Philippe. demonstration/feasibility study was conducted pilot phase in Saint-Philippe (≈ 600 incorporating it into a marine power station; in 2009, work is underway to overcome risks, --A wave power project based on Pelamis- kilowatts)). There are other possible ways new thermodynamic cycles, with other heat and the first steps will be taken to connect to Seawatt technology: power production of using this technology at other sites transfer fluids, and other materials could also an offshore power station before 2020); by a wave power converter farm (a in Reunion Island, including the future be tested (new heat exchangers, etc.). 2nd generation PELAMIS technology • Sainte-Rose’s pilot osmotic energy electricity • the offshore OTE power station run by Reunion production project, using the difference in Island and the DCNS: The aim is to build a pilot salinity between seawater and freshwater offshore ocean thermal energy power station from the Riviere de l’Est’s hydroelectric plant (7 MW) connected to the power grid, as a to produce electricity. The technical and economic feasibility of this type of project has not yet been demonstrated as there is only one industrial scale project in operation, in Tofte (Norway) since October 2009; • the MARINE STEP Storage facility (energy pumping station) to develop intermittent marine renewable energies (MRE), operated

A wave energy converter project based on CETO-EDF-EN technology in Onshore wave power converter project in Saint by EDF (source EDF - SEI); this project aims to Saint Pierre, Reunion. Philippe (source EAR) store energy to overcome peak consumption periods, particularly in the island’s southern region. Levelling intermittent renewable energy © DCNS production, such as solar and wind power,

114 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 115 could limit the impact of their fluctuating 1 by 20 small dams. several New Caledonian lagoon reef areas which production on the electrical grids. A 50MW are classified as World Heritage sites for their STEP storing 0.75 GWh seems to be possible Solar and wind energy is increasing in the atolls. exceptional biodiversity. in «Matouta» near Saint Joseph. Mayotte MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGIES LAND BASED RENEWABLE ENERGY (Over 92% dependent on fossil fuel energy) Two SWAC (sea water air conditioning sytems) • Hydropower is the most developed with dams have already been operating at Bora-Bora on the Yate, Thu and Neaoua rivers; Ninety-one percent of all electricity is produced Hotel Intercontinental hotel since 2006 and «The • wind power, most wind farms are located in by two diesel thermal power stations: One, Brando» Hotel on Tetiaroa Atoll since 2014, the southern part of Grande Terre; Badamier power station (38.1 MW) is located on others are under study including one for the • photovoltaic power is currently being Petite Terre and has been in service since 1987, hospital in Papeete. developed (farms are planned). and the other, Longoni power station (40 MW) is French Polynesia has set itself a target of on Grande Terre and has been in service since producing half its electricity from renewable 2 MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGIES 2009. The use of renewable energies is limited to sources by 2020 and 100% by 2030. photovoltaic cells. Academic reflection and prelilinary -studies are underway, but they are lagging behind compared A 2011 study entitled «Renewable Energy NEW CALEDONIA to other French overseas territories, which are Scenarios to meet Mayotte’s energy needs by similar in size and have similar economies. 2030» was led by the Reunion Island Regional (96%dependent on fossil fuel energy) Energy Agency. Technological, financial, This dependency is the result of high demand regulatory feasibility scenarios were built based from the transport and industrial (metallurgical WALLIS AND FUTUNA on combining SWAC-UBC2E (Bio Cogeneration and mining) sectors and lack of primary energy (More than 97% dependent on fossil fuel energy) Unit for Electricity and Drinking water) to meet resources. Fossil energy supplies 85% of the demand for electricity, drinking water and air electricity, renewables 15%, of which 12% FOSSIL FUELS conditioning. In this scenario, the cold generated hydropower and wind power and 3% solarpower; by sea water air conditioning and the heat from 3 Ninety-nine percent of electricity production the thermal plant are used to distil the sea water. FOSSIL FUELS relies on fossil fuel. Wallis has an oil and gas unloading terminal at Halalo and a depot area, Electricity production is mainly ensured by and Futuna has a petroleum unloading terminal FRENCH POLYNESIA thermal power stations fuelled by: and a depot area. (89% dependent on fossil fuel energy) • heavy fuel oil: Doniambo and Nepoui; • diesel: Pine Islands, Loyalty Islands, Pouebo, Both Wallis and Futuna Islands have a diesel Papeete’s port has oil and butane gas unloading Poum, power station. terminals and oil and gas depot areas. The main • coal: Prony Energies, KNS-North plant. problem for the population and for local activities LAND BASED RENEWABLE ENERGY is its proximity to Papeete’s urban centre, in the In 2009, the Prony energy power station They are only four small photovoltaic production case of a fire or an explosion. The neighbouring (Mont-Dore region) introduced coal into New units and Futuna has a small hydroelectric unit. coral environment is at risk. This site also services Caledonia’s energy mix. The SLN processing The possibility of establishing others is being the archipelagos. company in Noumea needed to replace its explored. aging oil powered station and opted for a new In Tahiti, fossil fuels represent 62% of electricity coal power station. The northern SLN plant, MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGIES production in thermal power stations operated which is responsible for economic growth in the by Tahiti Electricity company (French acronym developing Voh-Kon e-Pouembout (VKP) area, A reflection process is still underway on using EDT). The main one is in the Punaru’u valley also chose coal as its energy source., Three wave energy in access channels to the lagoons (Punaauia IZ). The remaining 38% is produced coal power plants have been built in less than in Wallis. 10 years, ranking New Caledonia at the top of the list of the worst greenhouse gas emittors among French overseas territories. What is

1: aerial view of Tetiaroa atoll and its pipe installation, more, the power stations are located close to 2: view of the underwater pipeline and its fixations, 3: aerial view of pipeline installation on the reef flat.

116 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 117 masses of turbid water, loaded with fine and following risks: • For port infrastructure receiving coarse sediment and all types of rubble for the • artificial lagoon wave energy convertors: hydrocarbons and for refineries, risks are coral reefs; the risk that the dykes protecting lagoons linked to the increasing intensity of cyclones 3.4.4. POSSIBLE IMPACTS • biogas: no major pressures; are destroyed and deterioration of buildings and submersion due to the rise in sea level OF CLIMATE CHANGE (particularly on the offshore side in the case of (see chapter 3.2 Port infrastructure). As there • geothermal energy: no major pressures. are major risks to residents and the natural ON ENERGY RELATED systems set up on motus [islets]). Destruction of the dykes would functionally damage environment near a refinery in a coastal area MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGIES INFRASTRUCTURE coral formations and neighbouring coastal (SARA refinery in Martinique, for example), this type of infrastructure falls within the AND THE CONSEQUENCES The major impact of climate change will be vegetation by dispersing rocks or terrigenous SEVESO¬type installation framework and the FOR REEF ENVIRONMENTS the need to reinforce the structures in view of particles and deteriorated buildings could future risks linked to climate change must more intense cyclones (winds and swells). cause accidental pollution (low risk) linked to AND THEIR ECOSYSTEMS be taken into account: reinforcing protection The deterioration or even destruction of motorised machinery or to polluting products IN INTERTROPICAL ZONES structures against extreme sea conditions and infrastructures is also a risk. used for the maintenance of the facilities’; flooding, consolidating structures that could • Anchorage in shallow waters (wind turbines, • Structures linked to algo-fuel production, be subject to high winds, reinforcing structures the risks are: FOSSIL FUELS tidal turbines, wave energy convertors and and enlarging stormwater collection and submersed cables linked to machinery; sea • whether the marine biomass production treatment systems, including pollutants from Risks for port infrastructure receiving water air conditioning pipe fixations, can basins will survive a rise in sea level and such incidents in these facilities; implementing hydrocarbons, for oil refineries and thermal cause functional damage to coral formations strong cyclonic swells; rapid response measures when major incidents diesel power plants are the increasing intensity and seagrass meadows near or next to the • microalgae production conditions could be occur and in the case of risks of environmental of cyclones and submersion due to the rising sea fixations, cables and pipes, especially to the disrupted by changes in the basins’ water pollution (POLMAR SEA plan); level (see Chapter 3.2. on «Port infrastructure»). outer slopes which are generally teeming with quality due to heavy tropical rains and an • Thermal power stations, the risks of more Risks from deteriorating infrastructures can be life. increase in water temperature; intense cyclones are the same and power serious for sensitive environments (mangroves • Floating structures (wave energy convertors • deterioration of rhe basins could then cause stations along the coast could flood during and coral reefs), especially if certain parts and offshore ocean thermal energy platforms): functional damage to reef formations and cyclones and due to the rising sea level. These of the facilities (pipelines, storage tanks) are some of the components of these structures coastal vegetation in the vicinity, including risks have already been taken into account damaged. These are major risks for a refinery. could drift and risk colliding with boats, as well mangroves. There could be biological by EDF in the renovation of its thermal power In addition, leaching in parking lots and depot as causing local functional damage to reef flats. implications for neighbouring ecosystems stations (for example in the Le Port power and maintenance areas will pollute reef flats Boat collisions can cause injury to humans and if production basins spill out water loaded station on Reunion Island, protective dykes (heavy metals, hydrocarbons, macro-waste). material losses, but can also pollute reefs or with microalgae through breaches in the have been raised to cope with the risk of Bagasse-coal power plants appear to less risky mangroves if they involve an accidental spill of dykes, especially in confined environments tsunamis). All the other structures located on for sensitive marine areas. oil or of the contaminants contained in various (eutrophication, plankton bloom, algal the coast or nearby that face the same risks will products stored onboard the destroyed or proliferation that alters the ecosystem). have to be checked. The risk of deteriorarion RENEWABLE ENERGIES drifting vessels. of bagasse-coal power stations needs to • Land based wind farms: in the event of • Landfall or coastal structures (wave energy be checked to ensure the durability of the a deterioration of these structures due to oscillating column system, aboveground 3.4.5. TECHNICAL structures. The risks to marine sensitive areas climate change, the impacts on the marine ocean thermal energy structures, substations, RECOMMENDATIONS FOR are likely to be very low. environment will be low to non-existant; pumping stations), these infrastructures could ADAPTATION • solar farms: the risks will be low for the marine deteriorate due to strong swells and high LAND BASED RENEWABLE environment, except during heavy rainfall in winds; the predicted rise in sea level increases Given the above mentioned remarks, we ENERGY INFRASTRUCTURE the cyclone season, as they can cause land the risk of submersion. This can then result in recommend actions that are appropriate to each • Land based wind turbines: no particular erosion between the photovoltaic panels and the functional degradation of sensitive marine type of major infrastructure are carried by the problems. lead to high terrigenous deposits in the sea, and coastal ecosystems located nearby relevant services and private operators involved • Solar farms: the main risk is terrigenous especially in coral reefs; (coral reefs, mangroves, coastal vegetation) in the projects. and accidental pollution when pollutants leak deposits in lagoons during heavy rains, the risk • hydroelectric dams: the risks will be due to from the facilities (refrigerants in sea water air of erosion of the land on which solar farms are increased intensity of heavy tropical rainfall FOSSIL FUEL RELATED conditioning systems, for example). located and areas downstream, depending which may cause overflowing or destroy the INFRASTRUCTURE on their geomorphology (landscape, soil structures. In addition, for the population Both marine renewable energy recovery systems types, slopes) and their proximity to coral living downstream, the risks are linked to the FOSSIL FUEL (artificial lagoon wave energy convertors and environments. The land between the panels durability of the structure and water supply; RELATED INFRASTRUCTURE algo-fuel production) will be affected by the should be stabilised by planting crops and the and the consequences of sudden large 118 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 119 panels’ rainwater collection system optimised. site’s current and potential pressures; conditioning and possibly hotel facilities adapted? If so, what additional protective • Hydroelectric dams: the quality of existing • the characteristics of the structures, of their as these may affect SWAC facilities during structures should be put in place? Will it be structures and their ability to support higher pipelines and the geometry of their anchorage; cyclonic swells, coastal flooding, high winds necessary to consider moving or abandoning and very heavy rains; certain projects in some very exposed sites? flow rates due to climate change will need to • the characteristics of technical buildings and be checked if such measures are not already those of polluting structures (refrigerants, • a possible review of the maintenance • Are the fixation systems of underwater pipes planned. Special attention should be paid to equipment, and maintenance products); procedures for these structures: regular and and cables designed to withstand future more the capacity of the flood spillways. more frequent inspections of pipe fixations, intense cyclones? • the characteristics of any hotel infrastructure their condition, possible weak points in the • Biogas: no particular problems. linked to sea water air conditioning systems, as • Does the design of dykes protecting tidal landfall zone, building maintenance and system basins (artificial lagoons) and biomass • Geothermal energy: no particular problems. they could have an impact in extreme weather technical cooling infrastructure. conditions; production basins take into account the predicted rise in sea level and the increased INFRASTRUCTURE RELATED • a summary of the management procedures of FUTURE STRUCTURES intensity of cyclonic swells? TO MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGY the structures and possible incidents, especially during exceptional weather conditions and the Analysis of external pressures on marine • Do the specifications for maintenance EXISTING STRUCTURES measures that need to be taken; renewable energy infrastructure procedures need to be reviewed?

Currently, there are only two facilities in operation, • an analysis of current and possible future The pressures on infrastructures built in coastal Further research required on certain issues they are both sea water air conditioning systems problems in the design of structures; areas are linked to the corresponding watershed: located in French Polynesia. We recommend: The answer to a number of questions mentioned • a summary of projects to repair, extend or risk of more frequent heavy rains increasing river above will probably require: adapt various structures; flows and runoff and consequently, increased The diagnosis of existing structures should risk of flooding and deposits of terrigenous • additional studies to optimise models of local include: Technical recommendations based on the particles in the coastal plains. climate phenomena, to simulate extreme • the infrastructure’s geomorphologic location diagnosis of existing structures: hydraulic situations on and around the with respect to coral ecosystems and a general • reinforcing pipe fixations and anti-cyclone The issues to be addressed are: infrastructure (hydrology and hydrogeology, to description of the context that highlights the defences on buildings with sea water air calculate the risk of flooding in the watershed • Are the area’s current water management and overtopping); to calculate possible swells structures adequately designed for the in the vicinity of structures and optimise foreseeable effects of climate change? Should measures to be taken regarding defence the area’s flood risk management plans be infrastructure; reviewed and drainage structures and settling ponds upstream from a marine renewable • to optimise observational systems linked to energy power station adapted? climate change phenomena near infrastructure (possibly additional measuring equipment in • Reflection on planning in the area must take weather stations on site, tide gauges); future development projects and their possible impacts on watershed zones into account by The above recommendations are in «checklist» including pressure due to climate change. This format to enable the diagnosticians to draft a should be carried out in collaboration with coherent final document for all facilities related to the appropriate State departments and local energy, as a function of the type of infrastructure. services.

ANALYSIS OF PRESSURES ON MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGY RELATED INFRASTRUCTURE

The issues to be addressed are: • Will the sea defence protections of marine renewable energy buildings in landfall zones be able cope with the effect of future cyclones and rising sea level? Should their design be

Offshore OTE power station in Martinique. Photo: © DCNS

120 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 121 chapTER 4

4 / INFRASTRUCTURE LINKED TO COASTAL ACTIVITIES

This infrastructure is located on land or on embankments along the shoreline, on slopes near the coast, and sometimes even in the marine environment. They include tourist facilities, artisanal or industrial areas, urban areas (businesses and collective and individual housing), fisheries, aquaculture, oyster pearl farming and agricultural activities.

4.1. TOURIST 4.1.1. SUMMARY INFRASTRUCTURE OF TOURIST INFRASTRUCTURE AND ITS IMPACT ON THE NATURAL Climate change will affect tourist infrastructure ENVIRONMENT and how it functions in inter-tropical coastal areas, and will require changes in leisure activities. Significant transformations can thus OVERVIEW be expected. The facilities discussed here are mainly linked to the hotel industry whose infrastructure can have a significant impact on the natural environment. Others, such as marinas have been dealt with in Chapter 3.2. Port Infrastructure.

Hotel facilities on the coast in French overseas territories in inter-tropical zones can be classified Hotel complex in Bora Bora, French Polynesia. Photo Maria Michelle

122 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 123 in four major categories according to their size, and breakwaters, large groynes, the creation the soil and leaching during periods of heavy smaller hotels consist of bungalows near the the type of infrastructure, and their potential of artificial islands and lagoons, small marinas rainfall, when the pollutants are transported to beach or on nearby slopes. impact on the natural environment. or anchorage areas for the hotel’s water sport sensitive natural areas, including lagoons; activities, these may be included in both type 3 • accidental pollution and deterioration, both of Type 1: and 4 infrastructures above. which usually occur after technical or human EPARSES ISLANDS Lightweight structures composed of accidents or during exceptional weather bungalows for accommodation and hotel The facilities, structures and equipment which conditions: There is no hotel infrastructure on these islands; activities (management, maintenance, can have a negative impact on sensitive natural tourism is limited to irregular visits by the «Marion • accidents during handling of polluting restaurants, bars) and facilities for beach environments include: Dufresne», a ship which supplies the islands and products (tank spills or damaged pollutant activities and water sports. is also used for scientific missions. • buildings (especially workshops for the storage equipment); Some luxury campsites may be in this category. maintenance of the equipment required to Such structures are sometimes on the public • malfunctions in a water treatment plant manage green spaces, and waste management or stormwater management system, for maritime domain within the 50 metre geometric areas); WEST INDIES limit; if this is the case, theoretically, structures example as a result of extreme weather can be dismantled. Above and beyond their • sewage treatment plants and possibly their conditions. GUADELOUPE biological barrier effect, these developments do outlets; These different types of pollution risks are AND ITS DEPENDENCIES not have an impact on the actual site. • hydraulic structures for the management of generally taken into account in the design of new stormwater; There are a number of large hotel resorts (e.g. in hotel infrastructure and the hotel staff are trained Type 2: Gosier, Sainte Anne, Saint-Francois), especially • reinforced cut and fill or replanted in the management of these risks. Concrete buildings in a landscaped park embankments; along the west coast of Grande Terre because located on the shoreline comprising a few of its fringing reefs. The resorts have a number structures which alter the geomorphology of • protective structures: walls, rockfill of different structures: buildings in landscaped the site. embankments, breakwaters; parks, land protection structures, beaches and These facilities required small-scale coastal plain • pontoons, bungalows on stilts; 4.1.2. OVERSEAS swimming areas, as well as small moorings for backfilling, dune reprofiling or terraced slopes, • motorboats. TERRITORIES HOTEL boats belonging to the hotel used for water but there are no artificial structures on the beach INFRASTRUCTURE activities and which are protected by walls, or in the marine environment. rockfill embankments, small dykes, breakwaters, or groynes. Some beaches were reprofiled and Type 3: IMPACTS OF HOTEL INFRASTRUCTURE ON THE NATURAL The impacts of tourist infrastructure on sensitive some small artificial beaches have been created. Concrete buildings in a landscaped park natural environments vary with the territory. These structures are located both on the which required substantial earthworks and/ ENVIRONMENT coastline (coastal plains, dunes, slopes) and on or the construction of specific structures on small cliffs and coastal protection structures in These facilities had a significant impact on the land. Such structures are located on slopes REunion ISLAND the marine environment. (requiring backfill or embankments) and/or on natural environment during their construction, but this is also true when they are up and filled coastal plains, such as: There are also large hotel resorts along the coast running as their activities may pollute the soil, Most coastal tourist infrastructure is on the west in Saint Martin. Some were built on sand dunes, • Land protection structures (to stabilise slopes) the vegetation, the groundwater table and any coast, where the marine reserve is located. others on artificial islands, particularly near placed at the base of embankments, bordering sensitive environments in their vicinity (particularly The infrastructure consists of hotels (buildings Marigot, on embankments. A few have artificial the shoreline (e.g. walls, rockfill embankments); the mangroves and coral reefs found in French and landscaped parks), bars along the upper channels leading to a small marina (e.g. in Anse • Beach reprofiling, sand filling, creating artificial overseas territories in inter-tropical areas). beaches and public recreational areas (picnic Marcel). beaches (raised or alveolar beaches), building areas) on the dunes, under the filaos trees. small groynes. The main problems are: The structures are located in different types of • chronic pollution due to oil, fuel, heavy metals sensitive environments: sand dunes, coral reefs, Type 4: MAYOTTE deposited on land and at sea by motor mangroves, wetlands and lagoons (especially Large hotel resorts consisting of concrete vehicles. The level of pollution is usually very the large lagoon which provides a very sheltered buildings in a landscaped park requiring Tourism is undeveloped and mainly consists limited, but accumulates over time; anchorage area). substantial earthmoving and the construction of diving and watching whales and dolphins in of specific structures on land or in the marine • pollution of the landscaped parks due to the use the lagoons. There are a few hotel complexes There are many hotel complexes in Saint environment: of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides and anti- with small-scale infrastructure: some hotels are Barthelemy, but most are on slopes and only a Sea bed reprofiling (in reefs or mangroves) to mosquito treatments. Both the maintenance located in landscaped grounds on the shoreline few affect the marine environment directly. create swimming areas, navigation channels, the machines and the products used pollute the and on nearby slopes, but none have coastal building of pontoons, bungalows on stilts, dams natural environment through infiltration into protection structures or artificial beaches. The

124 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 125 MARTINIQUE Caledonia is made up of a very long island, The different types Grande Terre, and a few medium-sized islands of hotel amenities in coastal areas Martinique has a number of big hotel resorts, (Ile des Pins and the Loyalty Islands: Mare, Lifou in the Overseas territories most of which are located in Les Trois-Ilets, and Ouvea). New Caledonia was awarded World across the bay from Fort-de-France, in the Heritage status for its diverse reef geomorphology south-west around the Bays of Sainte Anne and and exceptional conservation. All the different Environmental Sainte Luce, and in the south-east and east in Types of hotel types of reefs can be found there: fringing reef Name of complexes Geomorphological pressure: Vauclin, and Robert. Like in Guadeloupe, these flats, coral pinnacles, and reef barriers. territory (for definition the location * = Low, ** = average, hotel complexes are built in landscaped grounds, types, see below) *** = high sometimes with artificial and alveolar beaches Its lagoon is the largest in the world and is and coastal protection structures: walls, rockfill Dune, coastal plain, near fringing very deep; its hydrodynamics are like an inland Reunion island 1 and 2 * to ** embankments, small dykes, breakwaters, sea. After Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, the reefs groynes and small marinas that belong to the New Caledonian barrier reefs are the second Coastal plain, slopes, near fringing Mayotte 1 and 2 * resort. largest in the world, they are discontinuous reefs and mangroves and partly submerged. The island’s coastline is SOUTH PACIFIC consequently less well protected than in French Eparses Islands, Europa, Polynesia because these passages are open FRENCH POLYNESIA Tromelin, 0 Coral islets 0 to sea. In the other hand, New Caledonia has Juan de Nova, large mangroves, whereas French Polynesia has Of all the French overseas territories, tourism Glorieuse practically none. is most developed in French Polynesia 1 to 3 Coastal plain, slopes, near fringing thanks to its vastness, many islands, and Guadeloupe ** Tourism is less developed in New Caledonia many type 4 reefs and mangroves beautiful landscapes that are the result of its than in French Polynesia. The main resorts are geomorphological characteristics. The hotel Dune and coastal plain bordering located around Noumea, on Ile des Pin, a few on Saint Martin 1 to 4 lagoon, fringing reefs and nearby * to *** complexes in the many resorts are very varied, the Loyalty Islands and in the Northern Province. wetlands thanks to the protection provided by the reefs. Coastal plain, slopes, near fringing The hotel complexes are on: Saint Barthélémy 1 to 2 * to ** The hotels around Noumea mostly consist of reefs and wetlands • high, mountainous islands bordered by large buildings in a landscaped park on the shoreline. reef formations consisting of fringing reefs, The beaches are usually reprofiled, artificial Marie-Galante 1 to 2 Coastal plain, near fringing reefs * deep lagoon channels giving access to great and protected by groynes. The hotel grounds Dominique 1 Coastal plain, near fringing reefs * barrier reefs, with small islands dotted around are occasionally made up of embankments, the lagoon and shallow reefs; protected by walls or rockfill embankments. Only Desirade 1 Coastal plain, near fringing reefs * • atolls protected by a reef crown with many one hotel on an islet has a few bungalows on Saintes 1 Coastal plain, near fringing reefs * to ** islets (motus). stilts. Dune, coastal plain, near mangroves, 1 to 3 Martinique fringing reefs and large seagrass * to ** Tourism developed mainly between 1985 and many type 4 meadows 2010. WALLIS AND FUTUNA Coastal plain, slopes, near or on Although these islands have a beautiful reef Large hotel complexes were created with the French all types, fringing reefs and barrier reef flats, * to *** complex with islets on barrier reefs, tourism is still same infrastructure as the territories listed Polynesia many type 4 ring of reefs around an atoll and islet numerous *** undeveloped due to their remoteness and size. above, but in addition, in French Polynesia, (motus) There are only a few small hotels located in the they include bungalows on stilts, artificial islands, New Caledonia, coastal plain and they have no infrastructure that 1 to 3 Dune, coastal plain, near fringing reef reprofiling to create swimming areas, and Ile des Pins and * to ** affects the coastline or the marine environment. many type 4 reefs and mangroves navigation channels. On Bora Bora in particular, Loyalty Islands Some small walls protect the land, especially in on the on motus, there are artificial lagoons filled Wallis and the periphery of Wallis. 1 to 2 Coastal fringe * by the ocean, and real lagoons. Futuna Table 6 lists the main types of hotel complexes in each overseas territory, their geomorphologic Table 6: Different types of hotel complexes in the coastal areas of French overseas territories and collectivities, geomorphological NEW CALEDONIA location and environmental pressures. (Type of hotel complex: Type 1: Lightweight structures consisting of bungalows, Type 2: location and the level of pressure on the Concrete buildings in a landscaped park; Type 3: Concrete buildings in landscaped grounds with a lot of structures; Type 4: Large hotel The geomorphology of New Caledonia is very environment caused by the infrastructure: complexes. Please refer to Chapter 3.1.1 for the full definition of the different types of complexes). different from that of French Polynesia. New

126 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 127 4.1.3. POSSIBLE IMPACTS both asphyxiation and degradation of coral reef OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON HOTEL flats. French overseas territories are vulnerable to these phenomena because their excavated, INFRASTRUCTURE AND THEIR terraced slopes are usually made up of ferralitic CONSEQUENCES FOR THE REEF alterite soils. ENVIRONMENT AND RELATED ECOSYSTEMS The following types of pollution can be added to the above degradation problems: • leaching in sealed off areas (hydrocarbons, The key impacts on hotel complexes will be maintenance products); caused by the combined effects of: • potential malfunctions in stormwater and • the intensification of cyclones with higher wastewater drainage systems and pollutant maximum winds and heavier occasional rainfall processes (undersized structures causing pollutants to overflow into sensitive areas); • the rising sea level. • more intense cyclones and a rising sea level will These phenomena are likely to have a very cause coastal flooding which will destabilise violent impact on hotel infrastructure built on beaches and coastal protection structures, atolls, but also on hotels located in coastal areas and land or backfill degradation upstream. of high mountainous islands because they will also be affected by the upstream watershed with These phenomena and the issues described steep slopes. above will transport terrigenous particles into lagoons, remove blocks and rubble from damaged backfill embankments and coastal INFRASTRUCTURE ON THE COASTAL protection structures, pollutants and possibly FRINGES OF HIGH MOUNTAINOUS various macro-wastes. These additions to the ISLANDS seabed will damage reef habitats and seagrass meadows, by both asphyxiation and large rocks The effects of climate change on complexes being dragged across shallow reef flats). Macro- located near coral reefs may include erosion waste and fine sediments will accumulate on of the slopes under heavy rains, destabilisation the seabed in confined areas (at the bottom of cut and fill embankments, mudslides and/ of artificial swimming areas built on the reef, in or landslides transporting terrigenous particles navigation channels, in artificial lagoons, and in and turbid waters to the lagoons. This will cause the angle along the base of coastal protection structures (groynes, dykes, small marinas).

Examples of beach erosion and coastal destabilisation after heavy storms on the left in Hienghene. Photo: Michel Porcher St Martin, Guadeloupe. Photo: © Franck Mazéas On the right: Loss of sand around filaos trees in Reunion Island. Photo: ©BRGM

128 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 129 HOTEL COMPLEXES ON ATOLLS PHENOMENA IN THE CORAL consequences, as white coral sand deposits environments: pollutant and waste storage ENVIRONMENT AND THEIR are becoming rare and their exploitation raises areas, sewage treatment plants and sea The increasing intensity of cyclones, and hence IMPLICATIONS FOR TOURIST serious problems for sensitive environments, outlets, stormwater management systems, of cyclonic swells, will result in serious flooding in ACTIVITIES AND HOTEL BEACH particularly in coastal plains or lagoon maintenance areas for motor boats, stabilising hotel complexes, deteriorating or even destroying PROTECTION STRUCTURES environments. structures for cut and fill embankments, buildings and hotel facilities, especially those coastal protection structures, artificial beaches, These pressures require a review of resort pontoons, bungalows on stilts; located on the coastline. The combination of Coral formations are likely to suffer seriously development strategies and the choice of low depressions, swells and rising sea level will from climate change, mainly from the predicted • a summary of management procedures possible activities in the medium to long term cause flooding and thusland degradation and rise in sea temperature which can cause and previous incidents, especially those at least, depending on the development of the leaching. This will result in hyper-sedimentation coral bleaching and lead to their mortality. In that occurred during exceptional weather sites. phenomena and inputs of pollutants and macro- addition, the predicted increase in acidification conditions, and the measures taken; waste in coral environments on the lagoon of the oceans would reduce coral growth rate (a • an analysis of current and potential problems side. Fine sediments, pollutants and macro- chemical phenomenon that reduces the growth waste will accumulate in confined areas in the in the design of various structures, including of scleractinian polyps calcium carbonate 4.1.4. TECHNICAL managing terrigenous deposits during heavy lagoon in resorts located in coastal plains on skeletons). high mountainous islands due to the geometry RECOMMENDATIONS FOR rainfall events, coastal erosion (beaches) and of certain coastal and marine hotel complexes. ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE deterioration of structures during heavy storms and cyclones, damage caused by flooding; Given the above mentioned remarks, we • a summary of plans to repair existing structures, SPECIFIC REMARKS CONCERNING recommend a diagnosis of hotel infrastructure or to build new infrastructure. BUNGALOWS ON STILTS in coastal areas by the appropriate overseas territory services (Department of Environment The stilts and floors of these distinctive buildings, and Tourism) and hotel operators (managers REFLECTION ON THE POSSIBLE which are mainly found in French Polynesia, could and architects). This diagnosis should be on the CONSEQUENCES OF CLIMATE deteriorate significantly (cracked stilts, bridges effects of climate change on accommodation, CHANGE, TAKING THEM INTO and pontoons destroyed, roofs damaged) in the activities, sensitive coastal and marine ACCOUNT WHEN DRAWING UP cyclone season if high winds and swells intensify. environments. It could culminate in proposals ADAPTATION MEASURES, IN This has already happened in recent cyclones. for technical measures for adaptation to climate change for existing infrastructures, if required, MANAGING EXISTING STRUCTURES and guidelines for adapting future projects over OR BUILDING NEW INFRASTRUCTURE SOME EXAMPLES OF DETERIORATION the short, medium and long term. ANALYSIS OF EXTERNAL PRESSURES ON OF STRUCTURES IN THE CYCLONE HOTEL INFRASTRUCTURE SEASON Photo An example of white coral sand being removed from a lagoon to re-fill a resort’s beaches. Photo: © Jean Pellissier DIAGNOSTIC SURVEY OF EXISTING These pressures originate in the upstream INFRASTRUCTURE However, on reef environments, the impacts watershed, they take the form of more frequent will be limited to occasional deposits of macro- These effects will eventually damage the coral periods of heavy rains, resulting in increased river This should include: waste. reefs, which will have two major consequences flow and runoff, and consequently, an increase for tourist activities and resorts: • the geomorphological location of the in flooding and terrigenous deposits in coastal At these sites in the medium and long term, the • less attractive diving conditions, especially infrastructure with respect to coral and plains and in the marine environment. bungalows on stilts will have to be altered, rebuilt with snorkel and mask on the reef flats located mangrove ecosystems and a brief description or even removed due to the rising sea level, right in front of the hotel; of the context, including the watershed zone, The following points require evaluation: environmental pressures, and the likely increase hydrogeological and hydraulic management, • can the current design of water management in the intensity of extreme weather conditions. • the beaches will be less protected and and identification of current and possible future structures in the area cope with foreseeable therefore, more likely to erode. Coral reefs pressures on the infrastructure; Given the relatively short service life of such play an important role in reducing wave energy climate changes? Should the area’s flood risk structures (a few dozen of years) and the amount onshore (approximately 80% of the offshore • a description of the main features of the hotel management plans (FRMP) be reviewed, and of maintenance work they require , adaptation swell is reduced by shallow coral reefs). This complex (types of buildings, dimensions, do the drainage systems and settling basins techniques should be adopted progressively issue will not only increasingly inconvenience distance to the coast); located upstream from the hotel need to be over time, according to field observations of how beach activities but the beaches themselves • a description of specific amenities and adapted? climate change affects pressures. will also need re-filling more often. This will structures prone to deterioration that would • any general reflection on planning in the area have financial, technical, and environmental cause pollution or damage to sensitive natural needs to account for future development

130 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 131 projects and their possible impacts on the • Can the premises used to store toxic products, 4.2. INDUSTRIAL with recycled materials (corrugated iron sheets, watershed zone, by including pressure due to hydrocarbons, or maintenance machinery concrete blocks, etc.). These houses have no climate change. withstand cyclones or severe flooding with no AND ARTISANAL direct access to drinking water, sanitation is risk of pollution of groundwater, mangroves ACTIVITIES non-existent, and there is no structured waste This analysis should be carried out in collaboration and lagoons, or should the measures to secure management system. with the appropriate State and local services. them be reviewed? The impacts of industrial and artisanal activities COLLECTIVE HOUSING were discussed in previous chapters, for details This consists of apartment buildings with one ANALYSIS OF ISSUES CONCERNING THE ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED on wastewater management, please refer to or several floors. These apartment buildings are HOTEL INFRASTRUCTURE IN FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS Chapter 2.2. located in major cities, but are also often found in housing developments outside cities. This is The questions concerning existing infrastructure When choosing sites, all possible pressures especially the case on island slopes with a dense that need to be addressed are: caused by climate change should be taken into 4.3. HOUSING urban population, most of whom live along the • Will embankment stabilisation structures account. The pressures should also be taken AND URBANISATION coast. These homes are connected to a drinking (cut and fill) still be sufficiently stable if rainfall into account in all studies: should a structure’s water supply and semi-collective or collective becomes heavier or should they be reinforced height be optimised? should the standards of sanitation system. Waste is managed at waste now? construction materials be reviewed? How will management centres with a collection system. the choice and size of different structures e 4.3.1. DESCRIPTION AND IMPACT • Will the bridges and fords crossing rivers or affected? ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT streams in the resorts withstand higher water IMPACTS OF HOUSING ON THE flows? HOUSING INCLUDES • Will current structures built for protection NATURAL ENVIRONMENT DURING FURTHER RESEARCH THE CONSTRUCTION STAGE against marine erosion and submersion ON CERTAIN ISSUES INDIVIDUAL HOUSING (embankments, walls, rockfills, groynes, • On the one hand, traditional, even ancestral The main impacts are deforestation and soil breakwaters, small dykes) cope with more Projects for hotels should take into account the or conventional (houses, carbets) housing, destabilisation caused by excavation, especially intense cyclones and rising sea level? Should results of additional studies proposed for large are still built with traditional, local materials. on steep slopes in Tahiti for example, where they be consolidated? If yes, what type of infrastructures (see Chapters 1 and 2). additional protective structures should be These homes are scattered on coastal plains, many individual houses required extensive cut built? Will it be necessary to consider moving • Additional studies should be carried out to on islands and islets (motus), in valleys, slopes and fill work. back some particularly exposed sites, or optimise models of local climate phenomena, and forests. Their impact on the environment phasing out that particular tourist activity? to simulate extreme hydraulic situations around is insignificant. When the houses are grouped This kind of work rarely complies with standards. and on the infrastructure (hydrology and in small villages, their impact increases slightly, Thus, the most common problems encountered • Are the stormwater drainage and wastewater hydrogeology, the risk of watershed flooding mainly due to the clearing or deforestation are: treatment systems designed to cope with and overtopping should be calculated, along required to create the village and to the future pressures, or should they be adapted, • cutting the slopes at too steep an angle, with possible swells in the vicinity of the waste produced by this small population. The reinforced, enlarged (check the size of gutters, inadequate stormwater drainage systems, structures and optimisation measures to be inhabitants usually obtain water from wells or settling basins, flow rate controls, hydrocarbon or no drainage system at all, no fast growing taken to improve defence infrastructure; rainwater storage tanks. separators)? vegetation planted after construction ended, no • Observation systems linked to climate change • On the other hand, «modern» housing, are management of terrigenous particles resulting • Do the specifications in the maintenance phenomena near the infrastructure may built with conventional building materials from cutting the banks during the construction procedures for stormwater drainage and need to be optimised (additional measuring (concrete, blocks, prefabricated components, phase and heavy rains. Sometimes surplus wastewater treatment systems need to be equipment may be required for on-site weather wood or metal structures, sheet roofing, tiles). terrigenous materials are pushed by bulldozers reviewed? stations, tide gauges); Such houses are scattered in natural areas, or into talwegs, but when the first heavy rains • Are buildings or certain marine structures concentrated in villages and large towns. They occur, these materials run into valley bottoms adapted to the likely increases in the intensity of The recommendations above are in «checklist» generally have a well or a drinking water supply and lagoons; cyclones (higher wind speeds, stronger swells format to enable the diagnosticians to draft system and either semi-collective or collective • backfilling (often illegal) to extend the area and submersion phenomena), particularly their a coherent final document with respect to all sanitation systems. Waste management varies of a property on the coast and in the inner foundations, dimensions (resistance of their relevant hotel developments. depending on the site. part of fringing reef flats. Backfilling during roofs, bungalow stilts, floors and pontoon construction destroys the sea bed due to characteristics, floating dock anchorage and TEMPORARY HOUSING terrigenous deposits and indirectly affects sea outlets)? These are temporary homes or shantytowns on neighbouring areas. The backfill is usually the outskirts of major cities. The buildings are built then stabilised by a vertical concrete wall or

132 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 133 rockfill which has a very negative effect on the plains, which may be very narrow (a few dozen degradation or even the destruction of buildings, in other words, there is a need for a policy for coastline and on the stability of the beach (see to a few hundred meters wide in Polynesian with an effect on coastal and insular economy strategic retreat inland; Chapter 2: Coastal protection structures and islands). In Guyana, most of the population lives and higher costs of protection or even relocation • design a comprehensive global management Chapter 4.1. Tourist infrastructure). along the coast because of the Amazon forest. in the most affected areas. Communities are plan for exposed assets that cannot be already facing this kind of situation today relocated; Dense urbanisation in coastal plains has resulted including some tribes on the Loyalty Islands IMPACTS OF HOUSING ON THE in its gradual spread into valleys and slopes (Ouvea) and in the Northern Province of New • draw up a comprehensive policy to reinforce NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AFTER when these are accessible, which is the case in Caledonia. Taking all the overseas territories good practices; CONSTRUCTION Reunion Island and Tahiti. together, 25 000 buildings, covering 516 hectares • continue to control urban planning with are located below sea level. The consequences risk prevention plans, but also take into There are many impacts, including: The following statistics underline the situation: for the marine environment and particularly coral account and mention natural risks in planning reefs are the likely increase in the different forms documents, and prevent construction in areas • soil sealing by buildings, car parks and access • Guyana: Cayenne (the capital) contains 69% of of pollution linked to housing. which are exposed to hazards; roads which result in increased runoff during all buildings and hosts 54% of the population; the rainy season and increase the risk of • Guadeloupe: Pointe a Pitre and Basse-Terre • promote demographic and economic erosion, slope destabilisation and flooding in are the main developed areas; 4.3.4. TECHNICAL rebalance on mid-slope terrain through large- valley bottoms and coastal areas; RECOMMENDATIONS FOR scale housing developments; • Martinique: urbanisation is mainly around Fort • household pollution, litter and bulky waste de France; ADAPTATION • preserve the protective ecosystems; is left on the ground in some valleys, and • Reunion Island: 20% of the island’s housing • assess and map vulnerability and increase depending on their nature, may pollute both It will be necessary to: developments are located in Saint-Denis, 16% monitoring; soil and water, but also block the passage of in Saint Paul and Le Port and 19% in Saint- • reduce current susceptibility (i.e. through • develop a risk management system. water thus causing flooding during heavy rains Pierre and Le Tampon. Furthermore, 15% of strategic retreat and risk prevention) and and deterioration of stormwater management housing on the island is shantytowns; future vulnerability (i.e. through urban zoning). For technical recommendations, please refer to systems. Some of this macro-waste ends Human exposure to hazards must be reduced previous chapters on Stormwater (2.2.1) and up on reef flats or in mangroves, thereby • Mayotte: 43% of housing is shantytowns; and activities strategically relocated, housing Wastewater (2.2.2), Infrastructure (3). contributing to the pollution of these sensitive • French Polynesia: 69% of the population is and infrastructure threatened by destruction, environments; located in Tahiti and in the urban area around Papeete. There are no other large cities; the • pollution of rivers, of the water table and Photo: Etang Sale lagoon, Reunion Island. © Alexandre Haffner ultimately of the marine environment due to few villages have between 1,000 and 3,000 illegal discharge of wastewater (see Chapter 2: inhabitants; Stormwater and Wastewater). • New Caledonia: 66% of the population lives in Grand Noumea; • Wallis and Futuna: about 10 000 inhabitants 4.3.2. HOUSING AND on Wallis (Uvea) and 5,000 on Futuna, most URBANISATION IN OVERSEAS live in individual contemporary houses. TERRITORIES Populations in coastal areas will continue to grow, following the global trend. Very similar urbanisation trends are underway in all French overseas territories but pressures can vary considerably depending on the territory 4.3.3. POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF concerned; for example, the situation in Reunion Island is not the same as in New Caledonia CLIMATE CHANGE ON HOUSING and the size of the settlements affects the AND CONSEQUENCES FOR REEF phenomena. The populations of these remote ENVIRONMENTS AND RELATED regions usually live along the coast for different ECOSYSTEMS reasons, but mainly to have access to the outside world via the sea. The major impacts are increased risks of In very steep mountainous islands, geomorphic flooding, landslides, coastal erosion, and fewer constraints led populations to group in coastal available resources. These impacts may cause

134 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 135 4.4. FISHERIES, AQUACULTURE technical equipment and highly qualified personnel. A permanent supply of water is AQUACULTURE Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms essential to remove waste and to ensure the AND PEARL OYSTER such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic water is well oxygenated; plants. In the sea, aquaculture is called marine FARMING fish farming, but rivers and ponds can also be The main challenges these farms face are used. controlling water temperature and salinity as well Climate change will affect these activities. as pests and diseases at each growth stage. However, its impact and the consequences for Different types of infrastructure are required, sensitive natural environments vary depending depending on the type of farming and techniques FISH FARMING on the techniques used and the specificities and used: Blue Lagoon Farm, may 2004 NC © Y. Harache, Ifremer 2004 differences in each overseas territory. • shellfish production (including shrimp farming); change the water in the ponds and bring food Fish farming can be carried out in fresh, brackish to shrimps; or salt waters. There are two main types: • fish farming; 4.4.1. SUMMARY OF • semi-extensive farming, covering a surface • pond production in a natural pond, where • oyster farming for pearl production; the fish feed completely or partially on the INFRASTRUCTURE LINKED TO area of two to 30 hectares; pumps are used • seaweed farming; to change the water and specific foods are environment’s biological production ; FISHERIES, AQUACULTURE AND • sea cucumber farming provided; good oxygenation of the water is a • intensive production in artificial ponds or cages THEIR IMPACT ON THE NATURAL prerequisite; where fish only feed on food provided by the ENVIRONMENT • intensive farms cover a smaller area (0.1 to farmer. SHRIMP FARMING 1.5 hectares) and require more sophisticated

FISHERIES For information on infrastructure linked to deep- sea and coastal fishing ports, please refer to Chapter 2.2.

On shore areas of port have dedicated facilities to: • unloading; • conservation; Mara Hatchery May 2004 NC © Y. Harache, Ifremer 2004 • sales, which can include the following activities: • sorting fish complying with European or Shrimp are raised in ponds located in coastal foreign standards, or to export zones like areas. Producing shrimp involved three stages: Japan, for example; • a hatchery comprising small often circular • auctioning lots to wholesalers and covered ponds where nauplii and post-larvae fishmongers; are produced; • filleting, packing, shipping, and sometimes • nurseries, composed of shallow ponds for processing fish. raising post-larvae; Infrastructure linked to these activities includes: • grow-out ponds, larger ponds (measuring from a few hectares to more than 100 hectares) in • fish unloading docks and facilities for their which juvenile shrimps develop to marketable immediate sale; size. • refrigerated warehouses; • large-scale structures: buildings for filleting, The different types of shrimp farming are: packaging, shipping and sometimes • extensive farming, which accounts for 50 to processing fish. These are often located near 60% of farms worldwide. Extensive shrimp the docks. farms occupy large areas and use the tide to Example of fish production: Fish aggregating devices (Source : FAO)

136 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 137 down collectors gives them the appropriate support to obtain a spat (larva). The spat is then placed in structures adapted to the species (bags for oysters, for example) or are scattered. Hatcheries can ensure the production of spat by controlling some of the reproductive stages of the species. The species bred are gastropod grazers or filter feeding bivalves. In the natural environment, the bivalves food is provided by the first link in the food chain: phytoplankton. Oyster pearl farm in Tuamotu One example of fish production: sea cages (Source : FAO)

Intensive fish farming is conducted in fully or partially enclosed spaces (natural, concrete or plastic ponds, giant floating pots or cages, etc.), in freshwater or at sea depending on the species. Food is almost entirely provided by the farmer. Water is constantly renewed by the current in the case of cages. In ponds, water enters via a waterway or in closed circuit farming, the water Photo © jedecouvrelafrance.com Source (the lagoon road WIX website) is recycled, the water is renewed is to ensure it is rich in oxygen and to reduce ammonia. Oxygen Diagram of a FAD. Source: Marine and Mining Resources The different stages of pearl oyster farming are can be a limiting factor, mechanical ventilators or Directorate, Pu Fa’ahotu Moana. the following: pure oxygen injection systems based on liquid oxygen are also often used. Fish aggregating devices (FADs) are natural, COLLECTION floating systems or systems built by man, Pearl oyster farms obtain their supply using an Possible problems include: which attract pelagic fish at certain points in the original larvae capturing technique. All the farms • due to the concentration of fish in a restricted ocean (artificial reefs are not classified as FADs). collect spats from just a few atolls. Collectors space the risk of epidemics is greatly increased. They can improve fishing or scientific surface are made from pieces of polypropylene (used as This is a major problem in cages and ponds, observation of fish ecosystems. The most basic shade in agriculture), which are strung on a thin but is rarer in lakes; built devices consist of a mooring (several dozen Mussel growing in Chausey © Thomas Abiven rope and produce a support with many crevices, to several hundred meters of lines, anchors and an ideal site for the development of spats intio • high fish density, a fish farming characteristic, juveniles. is also a source of marine (or freshwater) floats). These FADs are usually set up near the Other types of shellfish farming produce a sub- coast. product; this is the case of pearl oysters and pollution downstream from ponds or floating GROWING OUT cages due to fish faeces, leftover food that is the aquaculture of decorative shells, which are used to decorate aquariums when they are alive An essential stage in pearl production is growing washed away. In France, breeding is strictly out the ‘pintadines’. In fact, an oyster can only regulated. SHELLFISH FARMING (clams) or to embellish collections when dead (Source IFREMER). be grafted once it has reached a minimum size Shellfish farming refers mainly to crustacean or and some organs have developed. To grow shellfish and is primarily mariculture. It is also them out, oyster pearls are placed in baskets or a food business, mainly in Asia. The following PEARL OYSTER FARMING drilled and suspended on strings or in strands. species are grown: Ostreidae (oysters), Mytilidae (mussels), Pectinidae (scallops) and Veneridae This involves the cultivation of pearl oysters by IMPLANTATION (clams). growing them and then grafting them to obtain The principle is implanting a pearl ball called the quality pearls. nucleus and mantle tissue into a section of the This activity is closely linked to the molluscs’ life pearl oyster with few vital organs, after which the cycle; most farmed species rely on a supply of Polynesia’s oysters, the Pinctada margaritifera pearl oyster secretes layers of mother of pearl. juveniles captured in the natural environment. variety, produce «Black Tahitian Pearls». Today, Immediately after implantation, pearl oysters are Fish aggregating devices. Source IRD Larvae undergo a metamorphosis, and at this pearl oyster farming is an important economic placed in baskets for 45 days in order to check stage, they need to be fixed to something. Putting activity in French Polynesia. the graft success rate. Those that have kept the

138 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 139 nucleus are drilled and attached with a nylon structures (e.g. raceway ponds) or in closed gear, which are ejected during cleaning or cord to a string of 20 oysters. The pearl oyster’s photo-bioreactors. Some macro-algae are also maintenance of the machinery. These pollutants growth begins. grown in raceway ponds under mechanical can cause eutrophication of the water in confined agitation or intense low pressure bubbling. areas in the harbour and affect sensitive natural environments near fishing ports. SEAWEED FARMING OPEN PONDS The main advantages of open ponds are that Fisheries’ commercial activities on or near the This refers to the mass cultivation of algae they are easy to build, rapidly operational and docks and harbour can lead to macro-waste for industrial and commercial purposes. This productive. However, it is difficult to control and pollutants spread on the harbour by high activity uses both microalgae (phytoplankton) the cultivation of algae, as they depend on the winds and heavy rains. The pollutants are then and macro-algae. This type of aquaculture atmospheric concentration of CO2 and natural leached from these areas into the sea. aims to produce food (for humans or as algae brightness. In the absence of mixing, they are Source Mons University (sea cucumber farming in Madagascar- Madagascar Holothurie SA (MH SA). fodder), food supplements, veterinary and not very productive in the long term and are These different types of pollution could be pharmaceutical products, cosmetics, bio- easily contaminated by external parasites or scabra, making it possible to obtain a regular avoided if port regulations were respected and plastics, fertilisers and even renewable or predators. supply of juveniles. Production based on waste taken to storage facilities available in port phytoremediation energy sources (algae fuel, juveniles comprises: activity zones. biogas). Recently, algae have been used in PHOTO-BIOREACTORS • growing to market size either in enclosed nano-biotechnology and genetic engineering. Photo-bioreactors are expensive to build and spaces onshore or in pens at sea (sea ranching Not all algae species can be cultivated so far, more complex to set up, but cultivation can be aquaculture pens); so some macro-algae are still collected at sea or controlled and they thus enable more sustainable The impacts of aquaculture vary greatly from natural deposits on the foreshore. Others production over time. There are three main • growing to market size in the open sea; depending on the type of activity. are farmed in «marine fields». types: vertical, tubular and flat-plate bioreactors. • restocking depleted areas to replenish adult stocks, which can then be caught a few years FERMENTORS later. SHRIMP FARMING Some micro-algae can be grown heterotrophically Of all types of aquaculture, shrimp farming in the dark, using organic substrates as nutrients. IFREMER (French Research Institute for probably has the highest impact on neighbouring This method of cultivation is used to produce Exploitation of the Sea) is currently studying joint natural environments, especially if the farms are compounds for the pharmaceutical industry. shrimp and sea cucumber farming. located in or near mangroves and/or coral reefs, which is the case in New Caledonia, where, shrimp farming has the following impacts: SEA CUCUMBER FARMING 4.4.2. IMPACTS OF FISHERIES AND • when the farms are under construction, their Sea cucumbers are collected on shallow AQUACULTURE ON THE NATURAL size (which can be more than 100 hectares) Aigue Marine June 2006. Photp © J. Patrois, Ifremer 2006 sea beds and exported in large quantities to ENVIRONMENT leads to the destruction of coastal and marine Asia (including New Caledonia). Exporting ecosystems within and in the vicinity of the sea cucumbers may be an essential part of structures; developing aquaculture. FISHERIES • when the farms are up and running, very fine sediments from the ponds are transported At sea, the main impacts of the fishing industry downstream where they can lead to hyper- on the marine environments is overfishing, sedimentation of any sensitive environments which alters the balance of the ecosystem, and located nearby. In addition, organic matter damage caused by fishing equipment, which in the form of food and faeces produced by can destroy the sea bed and some benthic the farms are excess nutrients in the marine species. In addition, fishing vessels pollute the environment and cause eutrophication. The water with hydrocarbons. possible risks of marine parasites or diseases should also be mentioned; In port, accidental discharges of pollutants from • when cyclones bring heavy rains, the dykes Source ULB (Free University of Brussels) docks and traffic in the harbour also pollute the Photo-bioreactors. ©IFREMER water. The main pollutants are hydrocarbons, around the ponds may be destroyed and/ or flooded by overtopping, which can cause The sea cucumber’s reproductive cycle can now followed by macro-waste resulting from fishing Micro-algae can be mass grown in open ponds hyper-sedimentation of sensitive marine be controlled, in particular that of Holothuria and organic matter in the form of fish waste (lakes, lagoons, natural ponds or artificial and marine organisms trapped in the fishing environments. 140 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 141 FISH FARMING • during production: cleaning, collecting, 4.4.3. FISHERIES AND Total production (all fisheries): around 10,000 growing, hatching, harvesting, implanting. AQUACULTURE ACTIVITIES, tons. The impacts described above also apply, but The cleaning and collecting stages have the to a lesser extent, to coastal fish farming using biggest negative impact on the environment; AND THEIR INFRASTRUCTURE Fishing ports in Reunion Island ponds, as these are much smaller. • impacts on native populations at the site during IN OVERSEAS TERRITORIES the construction of anchors for the farms; There is an international commercial port near The main impact of sea cages is discharge of This chapter makes a number of references and the town of Le Port on the Pointe des Galets organic materials (fish food and faeces) which • increasing the number of epibionts and their (except when stated otherwise) included figures peninsula, which is the largest fishing port on causes organic hyper-sedimentation under dispersal in the lagoon (via cleaning) and/or taken from a report to the French Economic the island. Due to the expansion of fisheries, a the cages and eutrophication in confined to other atolls (during the transfer of oyster and Social council by the rapporteur Gerard new industrial dock was built which can unload environments. pearls). Some epibionts (especially anemones) d’Aboville entitled «La pêche et l’aquaculuture three large fishing vessels and four long-line may have negative effects not only on the en outre-mer” 2007». (in French) fishing vessels simultaneously, plus five moored The spread of diseases or parasites from caged development of the oysters, but also on the large fishing and fishery monitoring vessels and species can infect wild fish. natural environment; 24 moored long-line fishing vessels. The main • during the lifespan of the farm including the REunioN ISLAND facilities and activities include: During heavy storms and cyclones, wave energy construction of farm facilities, sanitation, can drag cages or destroy them and their • unloading and storage warehouses, which waste, occupation of the lagoon, scattered FISHERIES comply with European standards; anchors, causing functional damage to shallow settlements. The construction of a farm ecosystems, especially in reef flats near the can introduce plant pests (on construction Reunion Island’s fishing industry has traditional • processing plants next to the unloading docks; farms. machinery and during clearing) or animals (rats and artisanal origins and began with small- • skilled floating ship maintenance and repair and cats). The most visible impacts are weeds scale coastal fishing, but in the early 1990s, it workers. Individuals may escape into the natural and a reduction in the sea bird population (due diversified and established a long-line fishing environment when a cage is damaged or an to a reduction in the number of breeding sites); fleet for pelagic fish around the Indian Ocean. The other fishing ports are at Saint-Gilles, Saint- error is committed when handling the species, Fisheries in this ocean still have the potential for • a significant increase in ciguatera risks. Pierre, Saint-Leu, Saint-Philippe, the dock thus threatening local diversity. further development, even though the sector at Langevin in Saint-Joseph and a marina in has grown rapidly in the last decade; jobs have Sainte-Rose. Finally, depending on their location, which SEAWEED FARMING doubled, processing and export activities have is usually in a lagoon environment, some The impacts are linked to the size of the ponds recently been created and exports from fisheries AQUACULTURE aquaculture facilities can alter the local and the spread of algae, particularly micro- now take second place after the sugar cane hydrodynamics. algae, in the natural environment in the case of a industry. Freshwater fish farms (trout, carp and tilapia) technical breakdown, or destruction of the pond have been operating since 1997. Methods for SHELLFISH FARMING and/or of the facilities including tanks being Small-scale fishing boats go to sea for less than breeding red drum at sea have been used since 24 hours and small scale fishing has the largest The impacts of shellfish farming are relatively damaged during severe cyclones (very high 1999. There are 10 fish farms, but only one winds, flooding, submersion). These incidents fleet and the most jobs. Their catch supplies the at sea, in the bay of St. Paul, which currently low as these farms are located in the open sea local market. where currents are usually strong. Pond shellfish can cause eutrophication, especially in confined produces 30 tons of red drum. The hatchery lagoon environments, and enable the expanion is located to the west of Le Port. In 2012, the farms in French overseas territories are usually Number of vessels in 2005: 245. small. of invasive species, which can cover coral total aquaculture output was 122 tons (source: formations. Association for the Development of Aquaculture Offshore fisheries: coastal and offshore fishing PEARL OYSTER FARMING in Reunion Island (French acronym ARDA). SEA CUCUMBER FARMING is well developed in Reunion Island which is However, this activity recently stopped, at least Oyster pearl farms are a special case, for two located at the heart of the Indian Ocean’s tuna for the time being, due to attacks by bulldog Pearl oyster farms are a particular case as they No particular comments can be made on their and swordfish zones; the fleet consists of surface sharks in the sector. are located in lagoons in French Polynesia. negative effects, since at the time of writing there long-liners, in addition to small fishing vessels. Lagoons are marine public domain, the many only a few farms in French overseas territories. requests for permits submitted for this type of However, when combined with shrimp farms, Number of vessels in 2005: 25. MAYOTTE business, i.e. to collect oysters, to built and this activity could have positive impacts Commercial fishing: Reunion Island also serves exploit infrastructure, has put significant pressure (i.e. bioremediation), as sea cucumbers are FISHERIES on lagoons. The impacts of oyster farms are scavengers (ongoing studies by IFREMER). as a base for toothfish and lobster fishing vessels listed below in descending order of importance in the Southern Territories and French Antarctic. Fishing is still largely an artisanal activity with the (source Pae Tai – Pae Uta, PTPU, 2003): catch destined for household consumption, and Number of units in 2005: 10. traditional methods are still used. There are three types of fishing activities in Mayotte:

142 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 143 • octopus and shellfish fishing from the shore; meters in length. These go to sea for three- MARTINIQUE • deep-sea fishing (grouper); week campaigns off the coast of Guyana. In 2010 deep-sea fishing yielded around 1,000 There are around six of these vessels. FISHERIES tons and coastal fisheries around 1,700 tons. • pelagic fishery (tuna, bonitos) by artisanal fishermen, and commercial fishing by French There are two different types of fishing activities: Fishing ports and infrastructure: the port of and Spanish tuna purse seiners. • artisanal fishing with skiffs measuring under Larivot is specialised in shrimp fishing. 8 m, equipped with outboard motors, often The fleet comprises around 1,000 wooden around FADs; canoes for lagoon fishing, around 250 polyester AQUACULTURE boats for offshore fishing around fish aggregating • offshore fishing, with five vessels measuring 16 devices (FADs) and 18 modern vessels. There is to 25 m, which mainly catch snapper on the Currently, no aquaculture is practised in no port infrastructure dedicated to fishing. plateau off the coast of Guyana. There is no Guyana, and a study by the ‘Regional Project for organised commercial industry in Martinique. Aquaculture Development in Guyana’ in 2012 Production: in 2010, commercial fisheries concluded that with current techniques, there produced 4,300 tons, and artisanal fisheries Annual production is 5,000 tons. Fishing ports are no possible sites for aquaculture in Guyana. 1,500-2000 tons. Sorting fish. Photo: © ML Licari are scattered around Martinique: There is no organised fishing industry in • eight departmental fishing ports with facilities AQUACULTURE Guadeloupe. In 2005, total production (all for refuelling, maintenance, repair, storage and FRENCH POLYNESIA marketing fish at Anse d’Arlet, Case-Pilote, Aquaculture only began recent in 1999 and is fisheries combined) was 10,000 tons. There Port du Diamant, Francois, Grand-Riviere, FISHERIES still expanding, it is focused on breeding red are 23 main ports, the largest are Beausejour in Desirade and Saint Francois on Grande-Terre. Marin, Trinite and Vauclin; drum. Mayotte is the biggest producer of fish- There are three types of fishing: lagoon, coastal farm fish in French overseas territories, and its • 16 departmental fishing facilities (French and deep-sea. Fishing ranks third in exports. four producers produce between 150 and 200 AQUACULTURE acronym APID) with bilge emptying facilities, In 2013,total production was 12,700 tons of small buildings and lighting; tons per year. Currently, three species are bred in Guadeloupe: which lagoon fishing accounted for 4,300 tons, two freshwater species: Ouasssous (shrimps) • 54 departmental docks. deep-sea fishing for 5,700 tons (mainly tuna) and Creole mullet (a red tilapia) and a marine and coastal fishing for 2,700 tons, particularly EPARSES ISLANDS species: ocelli drum fish. All the fish farms in AQUACULTURE around fish aggregating devices (FADs ). Guadeloupe are supplied by the Pointe Noire • Lagoon fishing, is basically a subsistence Aquaculture is currently expanding. Freshwater Tuna is the most common species to be caught hatchery. There are nine aquaculture production activity. A number of traditional fishing prawns are being produced and offshore ocelli in the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of the sites, grouped mainly around Goyava, Sainte- techniques are used (rods, nets, bottom lines, drum fish and cobia. In 2012, there were four Eparses Islands. There are around 20 French Rose, Lamentin, Sainte Claude and Pointe Noire. pots, spear fishing); tuna seiners and 30 Spanish ones. hatcheries and 21 fisheries in protected bays Production fluctuates between 12 and 20 tons around the coast at Robert, Francois, Vauclin, • coastal fishing is carried out by a fleet of60 per year. Sainte-Anne, Anse d’Arlet, Case-Pilote, Belle bonitiers (10-12 m long) and about 200 poti GUADELOUPE Fontaine and Carbet. marara (3 to 6 m long), which are very easy After total loss of OCEAN farm’s stock at to manoeuvre and thus only need one person Pointe Noire during the OMAR cyclone in 2008, (spear fishing, trolling or bottom lines), and FISHERIES Production = 89 tons (source SRDAM Martinique Guadeloupe created a pilot structure comprising 2012) mainly work around FADs. In 2007, there Fishing is almost exclusively carried out by offshore submersible cages adapted to artisanal were about 400 FADs scattered around all the artisanal companies. There are three types of methods to protect fish stock and structures archipelagos; during cyclones. This is the only prototype of it’s fishing activities: GUYANA • deep-sea fishing (long-lines) began in the early type in the world, and is now up and running • coastal fishing using saintoises boats, typical 1990s. The main resource is tuna, which are (source: Guadeloupe Union of Aquaculture Guadaloupian fishing vessels (measuring less FISHERIES fished by 70 tuna vessels. Producers [French acronym]). than 9 m) with outboard motors. There are After the space industry and gold extraction, Port infrastructure: the port of Papeete includes about 2,000 of these boats; fishing is Guyana’s third economic activity. a big fishing port with facilities for bunkering • offshore fishing using vessels measuring from But it is currently facing serious problems and ships (ice, bait), storage and marketing fish. 9 to 12 m long which go to sea for a few days, production has fallen sharply over the last 10 The new Port of Faratea (in Taravao, on Tahiti’s and mainly fish around FADs. There are around years. The main resources are shrimp, snapper peninsula) has a logistics platform (surface area: 60 of these vessels;, and white fish. One hundred and forty fishing 50 hectares for local and international fishing vessels work all year round, of which 51 are • deep-sea fishing requires boats more than 12 vessels). Submersible cage adapted to cyclonic conditions (source shrimp trawlers. Sypagua) 144 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 145 AQUACULTURE or trolling. However, trochus are harvested to Examples of farms: make buttons and jewellery) and sea cucumber Freshwater and deep-water shrimp, tropical for export; bass, tilapia and some lagoon fish species (mainly trevally and picots) are farmed. Yields • coastal fishing is done by versatile vessels vary with the species and are small (in 2005, which can go outside the lagoon and up to 60 tons of shrimp were produced, along with 12 miles from the reef (fishing for snapper and 6.4 tons of tropical bass). There are three farms pelagic fish); about 200 vessels are used for and one hatchery in all. Most aquaculture takes lagoon and coastal fishing; place in Tahiti, Moorea and Bora Bora. • deep-sea fishing is done using long-lines to catch tuna. The fleet has 13 vessels under French Polynesia pioneered the eco-aquarium 20 m in length and 14 ships of over 20 m. industry (larvae collection and breeding Production is 2,500 tons per year. techniques). The industry’s objectives are aquarium breeding, ecotourism and managing Port infrastructure is located at Nouville fishing Blue Lagoon Farm May 2004 © Y. Harache, Ifremer 2004 Montagne Blanche May 2004 © Y. Harache, Ifremer 2004 its resources, in 2004 this activity exported over port in Noumea, which serves 20 long-liners. 50 tons (mainly to the United States). Cold storage units and fish processing and Examples of hatcheries: packaging facilities are located behind the PEARL OYSTER FARMING docks.

Despite the current crisis, black pearls are one AQUACULTURE of the key sectors of the Polynesian economy,. Most pearl oyster farms are located in the In New Caledonia, fish farming is mainly shrimp Tuamotu atolls and the Gambier archipelago, farming (2,000 tonnes). It is the second export and more recently in the Leeward Islands. activity after nickel, but is much smaller. The experimental stage began in 1970, but the In 2007, the pearl oyster farming involved 830 shrimp farms only reached industrial scale in businesses (collection, farms, and breeding 1988 with their first exports. In 2005, 2,400 tons areas) covering a total area of 10,874 ha, of of shrimp were produced. At that time, 18 out which 712 in Tuamotu, 118 in Gambier, and 60 of today’s 19 private farms were in operation, North Hatchery, May 2004 © Y. Harache, Ifremer 2004 Mara Hatchery, May 2004 © Y. Harache, Ifremer 2004 in the Leeward Islands. covering a total area of 674 hectares. The farms vary from 11 ha (family-based farms) to 132 ha programme, the HOBICAL project is working sector in New Caledonia, whose target markets The shells of nacreous molluscs are used for (large farms) in size. Four hatcheries produce on the technical feasibility and environmental could start with animal feed and human food jewellery and cabinet making. In 2006, 2410 larvae for all the farms. consequences of alternating the culture of L. and proceed to biofuel, as well as algae for the tons of nacreous shells, , 100 tons of trochus, stylirostris and H. scabra, where the latter are cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. CTMA and 2.5 tons of Burgau were produced. Production dropped to 2,000 tons in 2008. raised in the effluent zone of shrimp farms. has a laboratory, (LEMA), based in Noumea and The results of this study will improve our an application and transfer laboratory, (LTMA), Clam breeding experiments are ongoing, All the farms are all located on the west coast understanding in: whose construction is underway in Kone. When particularly for the purpose of replenishing of Grand Terre, most in the Southern Province. • potential bioremediating environments; the LEMA lab started in May 2013, its first stocks. Two packaging facilities and two food factories task was to select local seaweeds based on are also in operation. IFREMER actively supports • H. scabra nutrition in the natural environment their growth potential, and put them in «photo- the development of shrimp farming through vs. in a breeding farm; bioreactors». NEW CALEDONIA research and support programmes (source: B. • the future of contrasting ecosystems (Source Soulard - IFREMER). IFREMER). FISHERIES New Caledonia wants to diversify its aquaculture, SEAWEED FARMING Fishing plays a minor role both economically and which today is based on breeding L. stylirostris as a food supply. In 2013, total production was shrimp. Farming the H. scabra sea cucumber A Microalgae Technology Centre (CTMA), is only 700 tons. is attracting interest for two reasons: it has being developed as part of one of the Pole Marin There are three types of fishing: a high export value and breeding farms can flagship projects. It is called the ‘AMICAL’ project, • lagoon fishing (boats less than 10 m long) is conduct bioremediation of existing aquaculture is run in partnership with IFREMER, and aims for household consumption, using nets, lines, environments. As part of the ZONECO to create an innovative micro-algae production Photo-bioreactors. ©Ifremer - Olivier Dugornay 146 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 147 Wallis and Futuna territories, leading to a functional imbalance in the sediments originating from shrimp farms of the sea due to climate change, particularly in these ecosystems (habitat functional will also cause eutrophication (algal bloom) in temperature and Ph, will affect pearl oysters’ FISHERIES degradation of the habitat by fishing equipment, relatively confined environments, which can growth. Scientific studies are underway to and an imbalance in some fish populations). degrade coral zones. Finally, farmed species evaluate these risks and to optimise future farm Currently, artisanal fishing is only practised in the escaping into the sea could alter biological management. The main impacts on breeding and lagoon for household consumption (production The following activities will no doubt have to balances in nearby sites and possibly introduce infrastructure in lagoon and reef environments of around 1,000 tons per year). In 2005, a adapt: parasites or diseases; are: launching ramp was built north of Futuna. FADs • deep-sea fishing: stock management and • in some regions, the rising sea temperatures • the rising sea level means the floor heights of were put in place. Deep-sea fishing is mainly monitoring will have to be reinforced, other and increased heavy rains will alter the farms on stilts will have to be altered or the by foreign vessels who catch around 168 tons. fishing sites identified, and fishing techniques characteristics of the water in the shrimp farms even dismantled and rebuilt. Given the A deep-sea fisheries development project is adapted; ponds and could affect their growth, if their large number of farms, the reconstruction work currently under study, along with a project for water replenishing systems are under-sized, will cause significant damage at sea and along a fishing port in Halalo. The first tuna long-liner • coastal fishing: there will be a need to reinforce overflowing ponds would supply nutrient inputs the coast: turbid plumes and noise during the was commissioned in 2010 in Wallis and has the protection of coastal environments against to nearby coral reefs leading to eutrophication. construction phase, the risk of pollution by caught 39 tons so far. The target is 90 tons/year. pollution, to optimise stock management, strengthen the technical adaptive capacity hydrocarbons or oils, and the accumulation of FISH FARMING macro-waste on the sea bed; aquaculture of artisanal fishermen, develop FADs, shift coastal fishing towards deep-sea fishing and The same impacts as those mentioned above • intensified cyclones may cause partial or total Prawn aquaculture experiments are underway in aquaculture, or even other activities. on shrimp farming will affect onshore fish farming destruction of farms, the accumulation of Futuna. ponds, but to a lesser degree given their smaller macro-waste on the sea bed and along the Finally, the rise in sea level and the increase in size. Freshwater farms will probably have a low coastline, and detached parts of structures cyclone intensity probably means that fishing impact because they are located farther from drifting towards sensitive reef zones causing port infrastructure will need to be adapted, the coast and thus also from sensitive marine local functional damage. 4.4.4. POSSIBLE IMPACTS and protective structures and buildings linked environments, but they can add to impacts OF CLIMATE CHANGE to fishing will need strengthening. For further from other sources like watersheds (particularly SEAWEED FARMING ON DIFFERENT TYPES details, please refer to chapter «2.2 Port terrigenous deposits in heavy rains). infrastructure». The main risks are linked to the cultivation of OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE micro-algae and the destruction of ponds or Offshore: floating cages will mainly subject to the AND CONSEQUENCES FOR REEF The main impacts will be from more intense tanks by more intense cyclones, which would risk of deterioration and drifting caused by more result in the sudden massive addition of micro- ENVIRONMENTS AND RELATED cyclones, which may snap anchor and leave intense cyclones. These cyclones can cause: FADs adrift. algae to sensitive environments, particularly ECOSYSTEMS • local functional degradation of coral reefs by if these are in confined areas. Eutrophication This will have a limited impact on reef ecosystems beached cages and anchors drifting along the could then asphyxiate coral formations growing and mangroves, although if drifting FADs land, sea bed; near the affected site. FISHERIES this could cause local functional degradation • a possible imbalance in the ecosystem due to The increase in sea surface temperature, of reef flats, of the outer slope, or of coral farmed species escaping into nearby sensitive in salinity, and in primary productivity (even formations by anchors being dragged along the environments. currents) will be combined with an increase sea bed. (However, the risk is low in view of the 4.4.5. TECHNICAL in acidification, resulting in a decrease in depth of the anchors). SHELLFISH FARMING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR productivity. This will affect global stocks and Normally, shellfish farming will have no major ADAPTATION cause significant migration, thereby spatially impact on sensitive coral environments or redistributing resources. These impacts will AQUACULTURE mangroves, as it has less infrastructure and can Given the above mentioned problems, we affect both deep-sea and coastal fishing. recommend that the actions listed below are SHRIMP FARMING be easily adapted to changes in the environment caused by climate change. carried out by the appropriate services and Coastal fishing will be affected by degradation private operators involved in these projects: of marine ecosystems and of the coast due The major impacts will be linked to: SEA CUCUMBER FARMING to climate change, particularly the predicted • the rise in sea level and intensified cyclones impacts on coral reefs and mangroves in the which could cause flooding, or destroy pond The impacts are the same as on shellfish farming. FISHERIES AND PORT tropical zone. Many coastal species spawn dykes: deposits of terrigenous particles from INFRASTRUCTURE and breed in these ecosystems. The problems the dykes and muddy sediments in the ponds PEARL OYSTER FARMING faced by coastal fishing will probably lead to an could cause hyper-sedimentation, especially to The rising sea level and cyclone intensification The changing physical-chemical parameters increase in overfishing in lagoon areas in some coral reefs in the vicinity. The organic material will no doubt mean that fishing port infrastructure 148 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 149 will have to be adapted by strengthening defence Our technical recommendations are the • Will pond dykes be able to cope with future Further research will be required on a number structures and altering buildings. For details, following: pressures from cyclonic swells and the rising of issues. The answers to the questions above please refer to Chapter 2.2. Port infrastructure. sea level? will probably require: Depending on the results of the diagnostic • Should we review their design? If yes, what • additional studies to optimise models of local survey of existing infrastructure: defence structures are required? Will some climate phenomena, to simulate extreme FADs • possible reinforcement of dykes and a change projects in highly exposed sites have to be hydraulic situations on and around the structure The intensification of cyclones may require in the size of the ponds’ drainage systems relocated or even abandoned? (hydrology and hydrogeology, calculation of the strengthening anchors to prevent them (pipe diameters, gradient, outlet dimensions, • the size of sea pumping and pond drainage risk of watershed flooding and overtopping); snapping and drifting. If due to climate change, strengthening pipe fixations, reinforcing systems must account for the risk of more calculation of possible swells in the vicinity the migratory paths of certain species change, buildings and anti-cyclone protections of intense cyclones and rising sea level: the of the structure and measures to improve FADs may have to be moved. key infrastructure (storage and maintenance choice of water pumping points will have to be defence infrastructure; areas); optimised, as will the pipes’ gradient, diameter, • optimising observational systems linked to • possibly review structure maintenance and choice of materials and fixations. climate change phenomena near the structure AQUACULTURE procedures and add more regular monitoring • the design of operational buildings must take (possibly additional measuring equipment in of: into account the probability of more violent on-site weather stations, tide gauges); SHRIMP FARMING • dykes and their stability; cyclones (risk of flooding and high winds). • the status of pipe fixations and landfall The above recommendations are in «checklist» The major impacts on neighbouring sensitive • the specifications in the maintenance sensitive connection points; format to enable the diagnosticians to draft areas are the risks of flooding and pond procedures for the different structures will need • the condition of buildings and technical a coherent final document for each type of destruction caused by the rise in sea level, more to be reviewed. infrastructure. infrastructure and for all the facilities. intense cyclones and heavy rains, the following recommendations focus on: When planning future infrastructure, ensure the most appropriate sites are selected, studies First and foremost, a diagnostic survey existing must be undertaken to analyse external pressures structures. This should include: on aquaculture infrastructure. Pressure on the • the geomorphologic location of the watershed due to the risk of increased periods infrastructure with respect to coral ecosystems of heavy rains can result in increased river flows and a general presentation of the context of the and runoff and consequently increased flooding area identifying the site’s current and potential and risks of pond destruction downstream. pressures; • the geometric characteristics of the ponds The following questions should be asked: (dykes, pumping and water evacuation • Are existing water management structures systems); in the area designed to stand up to the • the specifications of technical buildings and foreseeable effects of climate change? structures that may cause pollution (e.g. • Should we review the area’s flood risk handling equipment, maintenance and storage management plans (French acronym FRMP) areas for food products); and adapt drainage structures and settling • specifications for access to infrastructure on ponds located upstream from an aquaculture the site; project? • a summary of management procedures Reflection on planning in the area must take its and possible incidents, especially during future development projects and their possible exceptional weather conditions and measures impacts on watershed zones into account by that need to be taken; including pressures caused by climate change. • analysis of current and potential problems in The reflection should be undertaken with the design of different types of structures; the appropriate State departments and local • a summary of planned projects to repair, services. extend or adapt structures; In general, analysis of the pressure on aquaculture infrastructure should cover the following points: Pearl oyster farming: Workers at a farm in Rangiroa (Source Wikipédia)

150 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 151 FISH FARMING • for future farms, optimise infrastructure by 4.5. AGRICULTURE AND taking future pressures into account: Most of the data in this chapter Here we describe operations that use onshore • rising sea level (calculate the necessary floor FORESTRY is extracted from the ONERC ponds and offshore floating cages. heights); (Observatoire National sur les Effets Fish farming with onshore ponds, the • increasing swells and cyclonic wind intensity. du Réchauffement Climatique) recommendations are the same as for shrimp Optimise the anchors and the dimensions of Here the context here is very different from that of report : «Overseas territories facing farming above. the superstructures, reinforce buildings and most of the activities discussed above. The risks the challenges of climate change», areas where polluting products used on the for reef environments and related ecosystems (in English) addressed to the Prime The main impacts of offshore fish farming farm are stored, optimise management of caused by agriculture are mainly due to damage Minister and Parliament (2012) and the using floating cages on sensitive neighbouring macro-waste on farms on stilts and on land. to crops, and very little or none caused by «General agricultural census, 2002; environments (coral reefs) are: deterioration of infrastructure (buildings, work IEDOM, 2011; ISPF, 2011a». • protect the terrestrial and lagoon • local functional degradation of coral if the tools). environment during construction (both on Some of the data on French Polynesia anchors of the cages are destroyed and the land and in the lagoon). cages drift in strong cyclonic swells; Moreover, agricultural activities - particularly come from a report entitled «The mono crop farming such as sugar cane and status of the environment in French • a change in the ecological balance of the banana - have been obliged to diversify to adapt Polynesia, 2006» by Catherine Gabrie environment if farmed species escape when to international market constraint. and Heloise You in collaboration with their cages are destroyed. P. Farget. Finally, ongoing reflections by the state services Our recommendations focus on strengthening For more details, please refer to the concerned on adaptation to climate change will anchoring systems (chains and anchors) for documents mentioned above and to probably recommend crop diversification, with existing infrastructure, and setting up submersible the Institut d’émission d’Outre-Mer the cultivation of crops that are better adapted floating cages like those recently developed (IEDOM) annual reports (Central Bank to climate change, which will mean changing in Guadeloupe (see the SYPAGUA website: for French Overseas Departments) certain agricultural practices. The consequences http://www.sypagua.com.basicwebreport. and IEOM (Central Bank for French for the natural environment depend on these net/ in English) when planning future projects. Overseas Collectivities) for the French future choices and are difficult to assess at the Studies of potential new sites should obviously Pacific Overseas Collectivities. time of writing. However, the new agricultural take pressures created by foreseeable climate strategies should have a positive impact on changes into account. the natural environment because their key Pearls, Tahiti. Photo © wikipedia challenges are soil preservation, and the fight SHELLFISH AND SEA CUCUMBER FARMING against erosion, flooding, and rising salinity. 4.5.1. AGRICULTURE SEAWEED FARMING The impacts on reef areas will probably be lilited, given their small-scale infrastructure and the fact The main risk concerning the cultivation of For these reasons, here we only provide a brief Agriculture will be seriously affected by climate that these activities will probably remain small micro-algae is the destruction of facilities by description of: change: foreseeable water shortages in some in French overseas territories . Consequently, submersion during strong cyclonic swells, high Caribbean Islands and Tuamotus; more intense • agricultural and forestry in French overseas cyclones and violent tropical rains which can specific recommendations do not appear to be winds and floods. Sudden massive addition territories; necessary. of micro-algae in sensitive areas will lead to devastate crops, and cause erosion and • their impact on the natural environment; eutrophication in confined areas. mudslides; the rising sea level can submerge PEARL OYSTER FARMING • possible impacts of climate change. crops in coastal areas and cause salinisation of Our recommendations focus on strengthening the soil and groundwater table. In addition to the specific impacts of climate the protection structures of these facilities, After which, we will list our main recommendations change on breeding (studies are ongoing), ponds and superstructures, and are the same as to limit the possible impacts of damaged crops AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES IN possible impacts on the lagoon environment those recommended for shrimp and fish farms, and forests on coastal and sensitive marine FRENCH OVERSEAS TERRITORIES would be during works to adapt infrastructure to on both existing facilities and future farms, see areas. the rise in sea level and to rebuild farms on stilts above. The importance and type of agricultural activity damaged by high winds and cyclonic swells. For more details on sugar cane processing/rum differ considerably from one overseas territory to production chains, please refer to the chapters another depending on: The recommendations would be: on Stormwater 2.1. and Wastewater 2.2. • their physical conditions: landscape, soil • for existing farms, check the strength of the composition, water resources (rainfall and structure (stilts, floors and roofs) and reinforce groundwater), the intensity and frequency of weak points where necessary; cyclones;

152 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 153 • socio-economic conditions (export-oriented • food crops: cassava, yams, pineapples, but also for human health (e.g. chlordecone in Certain crops intensify erosion including: crops and/or food self-sufficiency and bananas, sweet potatoes, maize; Martinique). • pineapple when grown on steep slopes like in traditional crops). • commercial products: rice, pig and cattle Moorea in Polynesia; farming. Agricultural activities include exports of mono- Chlordecone • bananas, due to its method of cultivation cropping systems: sugar cane, bananas in which requires frequent replanting; MAYOTTE the Caribbean and Reunion Island, rice in This is an organochlorine insecticide • some large goat, sheep and cattle farms have Guyana, coconut (copra and derived products) • 20,243 ha of UAA, accounting for 54% of the which was widely used in the 1980s a major impact due to trampling and intense in French Polynesia, Ylang-Ylang in Mayotte, island; to control the banana weevil. It was grazing of vegetation; vanilla, tropical fruits and derived products in commercially banned in 1990, but its • main products: bananas, coconuts, cassava, • fires due to poorly controlled slash-and- all overseas territories, and food crops and/or continued presence in the soil has beans, beef; burn: repeated burning prevents vegetation self-sufficiency (market gardening) and livestock been measured for decades, and the • commercial products: market gardening, cash regrowth; farming (cattle, pigs, chickens). Livestock are molecule has been found in some crops including ylang-ylang and vanilla. widespread in New Caledonia, and require a animal and plant food products as • construction of roads and access roads to directly linked large-scale activity: the cultivation well as in water and in the food chain. agricultural land is also a source of erosion of forage crops. NEW CALEDONIA In Martinique, 56% of rivers are when the slopes are not stabilised, and • • 247,878 ha of UAA, accounting for 13.4% of contaminated and the animals (fish drainage systems are undersized or non- Below is an overview of the main agricultural the islands. and shellfish) in 70% of its streams existent. activities and their extent in each overseas are contaminated. Fishing or selling territory. • • main products: pasture: 97% of the UAA, cattle farming; any fish and shellfish caught in rivers Generally speaking, the lack of land stabilisation is prohibited. and/or the absence of settling basins REUNION ISLAND • • secondary products: coconuts, fruit and downstream from agricultural land is a source • 45,035 ha of UAA (utilised agricultural area) vegetables, orchards, maize, vanilla. of sometimes massive additions of sediments to accounting for 17.9% of the island; Fertilisers supply nitrates and phosphates to lagoons. FRENCH POLYNESIA • main product: sugar cane 59% of UAA; the aquatic environment where they cause • 18,534 ha of UAA, accounting for 5.3% of the New rational crop strategies such as crop • secondary products: vegetables, fruit eutrophication in lagoons. islands; rotation and anti-erosion measures are being (pineapples, bananas, citrus fruits), livestock • main products: fruit, copra, nono, vegetables; The impact of pesticides on coral reefs is still not developed to limit these pollution problems and breeding (chickens, pigs), pasture and forage land degradation. crops, vanilla. livestock farming (pigs, cattle, goats and well understood; however, herbicides are clearly poultry); very dangerous due to their effect on seagrass meadows and symbiotic algae in the hermatypic SPECIFIC REMARKS MARTINIQUE • secondary products: food crops, vanilla, corals which form coral reefs. ON THE CULTIVATION • 31,269 ha of UAA, accounting for 28.4% of coffee, exotic hardwood. OF SUGAR CANE the island; These pollutants are particularly widespread in • main products: bananas 27% of UAA, sugar banana mono-crop systems as the crop suffers Sugar cane is a perennial with a well-developed THE IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURAL cane 9.3% of UAA; particularly from soil parasites (nematodes and root network that tends to reduce soil erosion. ACTIVITIES ON THE NATURAL weevils) requiring extensive use of pesticides Rainfall has limited impacts due to its large leaf • secondary products: pig and cattle farming, ENVIRONMENT and frequent replanting. surface area and thick layer of dry leaves on the fruit and vegetables. ground, which also reduces rainwater runoff. Besides deforestation which causes biodiversity HYPER-SEDIMENTATION It has deep roots, which stabilise the soil and GUADELOUPE loss and has a cut-off effect on ecosystems, the PHENOMENA improve soil structure. The environment in sugar • 43,535 ha of UAA, accounting for 25.4% of main impacts of all agricultural activities on the cane plantations also stimulates micro-flora. the island; environment listed below. This phenomenon is linked to soil erosion. Its prevalence depends on the topography, type of • main products: sugar cane 33% of UAA, Sugar cane consumes a lot of water and soil, methods of cultivation and specific climatic bananas 5% UAA; POLLUTION BY FERTILISERS nutrients, but is nevertheless able to grow in AND PESTICIDES conditions (cyclones and heavy rains) in tropical poor or very acidic soils. It is usually planted on • secondary products: vegetables 6.7% of UAA, zones. The addition of terrigenous particles large mechanised farms located in flat areas. As fruit 1.3% of UAA, livestock farming. The pollutants penetrate the soil or are to the marine environment originating from it has beneficial influences on the soil it is used transported in runoff to streams, and eventually agricultural erosion or earthworks on slopes are in many countries - particularly in South America GUYANA to the marine environment. Overuse of these a major cause of destruction of the fauna found – where sugar cane is grown on slopes that are • 25,000 ha of UAA, accounting for 0.3% of the pollutants is a serious problem worldwide. Some in fringing coral reefs. not suitable for most other crops. island; are very dangerous not only for marine species,

154 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 155 The commercial cultivation of sugar cane also • More diseases and parasites: particularly Only a brief list of the possible major Precise detailed technical descriptions can be has some negative impacts on the environment. in crops which are already affected, such as recommendations is given below, as a lot of found in the different documents mentioned The demand for sugar and ethanol resulted banana. Market gardening and plantations of work has already been done in the agricultural above. in an increase in sugar cane monoculture, other fruit are also threatened as they are very domain and it is preferable to refer directly to leading to extensive deforestation in the sensitive to parasites and diseases, especially the documents: useful guidelines on agricultural Amazon, for example. Elsewhere, wetlands in Reunion Island and the West Indies. Possible adaptation in the National Adaptation Plan 4.5.2. FORESTRY that were considered unproductive were overuse of pesticides to control parasites will to Change Climate (NAPCC) and Rural drained and irrigated to grow sugar cane fields, affect the natural environment. Development Programme (RDP) reports written This paragraph, like the previous one, is thereby destroying these fragile environments • Agricultural production will be affected in the framework of the European Agricultural based largely on the above-mentioned report: and polluting the water with pesticides and by extreme weather conditions (cyclones, Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) for the «Overseas territories facing the challenge of fungicides. heavy rains, droughts): if these weather overseas territories, available on the «agriculture. climate change» report. Whole paragraphs are conditions become more frequent this could gouv.fr» website. These documents provide a list quoted from this document. increase agricultural losses, especially in of recommendations on how to optimise crops POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE the West Indies and Reunion Island and, to and protect the environment, in each French Forests depend on climate, so the expected CHANGE ON DIFFERENT TYPES a lesser extent in French Polynesia where overseas territory. increases in rainfall, temperature, air humidity OF CROPS AND THE CONSEQUENCES cyclones are rarer. In New Caledonia, the rising and solar radiation will affect their distribution, FOR REEF ENVIRONMENTS temperatures and lower rainfall could cause THE MOST IMPORTANT composition, structure and health. Loss of AND RELATED ECOSYSTEMS more bushfires. RECOMMENDATIONS ARE : biodiversity and resources is expected along with a decrease in the climatic (CO2 storage) • Destruction of crops by soil salinization Technical solutions and environmental (soil and coastal protection) THE MAIN IMPACTS ARE: or sea submersion and erosion: These To get round the risk of water shortage, it will services they provide. • Increased water shortage and droughts: specific coastal phenomena could accumulate be essential to increase the volumes of water and gradually damage some farms located available using a range of technological methods this is a risk in all the overseas territories, The impacts of climate change on forests will in coastal plains on atolls (market gardening, (catchments, dams, harvesting stormwater) and but will be exacerbated in areas with higher thus have a significant negative impact on the melons, coconuts, tarot, yams) and even to increase storage (reservoirs) and supply (pipe temperatures and lower rainfall (West Indies, marine environment, particularly on sensitive destroy them during the cyclone seasons, for networks). Reunion Island, New Caledonia). It will be areas such as coral reefs. Soil degradation example. worst where there is an increase in intra and will cause massive erosion and consequently • Degraded coral reefs and mangroves and These methods will require major construction inter-annual rainfall variability. This will become the addition of large quantities of terrigenous the resulting decrease in protection against works including earthworks with major risks of an economic issue for crops which require a lot sediment to reef flats. of water like sugar cane, bananas or melons. wave energy, will increase risks for crops terrigenous particles ending up in the marine Droughts could also affect livestock farming located on the shoreline. environment (for recommendations, please refer to Chapter 2 on Stormwater management). Here, we only mention terrestrial forests, as and food crops, especially in New Caledonia, • In Guyana, the possible increase in erosion mangroves were discussed in the introduction the West Indies and Guyana. The impact on will continue the destruction of coastal rice to this document. coral reefs will be due to the degradation fields. To fight against soil erosion, a number of of certain crops resulting in unstable soils techniques can be used depending on the type of crop: mulching, maintaining or developing followed by the restructuring of damaged crop BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FORESTS fields. This could require earthworks, which TECHNICAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR anti-erosion devices in steep terrain (hedges, facines, walls, etc.); reducing soil preparation IN OVERSEAS TERRITORIES are likely to result in terrigenous particles being ADAPTATION transported downstream and eventually into to preserve organic matter, which decomposes The extent of primary forests varies depending lagoons. rapidly in the tropics. A set of technical, agronomic, organisational on the physical conditions (landscape, climate, and institutional actions would address some of • increased soil erosion: on the one hand, Agronomic solutions soils) and anthropogenic pressures. The largest the structural problems the agricultural sector is due to droughts which reduce soil quality in It will be important to facilitate the transition natural forests in French overseas territories currently facing in French overseas territories, deforested areas (New Caledonia, Mayotte) to more suitable agronomic systems able to are found in Guyana and mountainous tropical which would reduce its intrinsic vulnerability and on the other hand, due to an increase cope with climate changes; to promote more islands where, in general, they cover larger and facilitate its adaptation to climate change in heavier rains (French Polynesian islands, environmentally friendly agricultural and livestock surface areas than reforested ones. pressures. These solutions fall in the categories for example) or in the intensity of cyclones farming practices that reduce soil erosion and “sustainable agriculture” or “smart agriculture” in the West Indies. These risks will increase pollution. IN OVERSEAS TERRITORY DEPARTMENTS hyper-sedimentation phenomena in marine (FAO 2010), whose aim is to support productivity and crop resilience (Angeon, 2011), and soil Table 7, on the next page, lists the characteristics environments and coral reef degradation, N.B. Organisational and institutional solutions conservation. of forests in French overseas departments. particularly in fringing reefs. are not taken into account in this document.

156 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 157 «Guyana’s forests are threatened by CURRENT THREATS TO FORESTS Total surface % of natural Public Private fragmentation from roads (RN2), illegal gold area of forest forests and Forestry AND THEIR IMPACT ON SENSITIVE Overseas management management mining developments (mercury pollution), (in ha main types production MARINE ENVIRONMENTS territory (ONF) in ha in ha and as as a % of in overseas (m3) poaching and strong demographic pressure. and as a % a % the territory) territories On islands, primary forests globally cover a Overall, the above data reveals a significant limited surface area, but this is variable (see loss of natural forest, despite protection and 72.000 m3 table below). On some archipelagos, they have 8.000.000 ha 95 % of - 8.000.000 ha reforestation efforts. There are several reasons Guyana <1% Limited to a virtually disappeared (Mayotte, Austral Islands 95% equatorial forest >99% for this loss: coastal strip in French Polynesia) and some dry forests and lowland semi-arid forests are threatened. A • anthropogenic pressure: urbanisation, road 26 % building, agriculture, livestock farming, mining 47.000 ha hygrophilous, 15.741 ha 31.023 ha 2.136 m3 decline in total forest area can be observed and Martinique (in New Caledonia), logging; 43% mesophilic and 33% 67% natural forests in particular, when compared to xerophytic forests forestry perimeters. Reforestation projects are • fires; not compensating land clearance. Forest loss 69.000 ha 38.223 ha 31.000 ha • invasive species. Guadeloupe / has induced their degradation because roads 40% 55% 45% and trails have been built which have encouraged 39 %,Semi-arid, the spread of invasive species». 120.000 ha hygrophilous, 100.515 ha 20.000 ha Reunion 4.298m3 48% mesophilic and 83% 17% IN THE FRENCH PACIFIC ISLANDS ericoide «Deforestation has condemned most forests 3 %, Public and facilitated the spread of invasive species. 1.120 ha hygrophilous, dry Mayotte ONF-CEL New Caledonia’s rainforests and dry forests 3% thickets have been replaced by savannah which now covers 40% of the island. In dry years, these Table 7: Data from the ONF and National Forest Inventory 2007-2011. are threatened by fires, like in 2002-2003 where 48,000 ha of rainforest was destroyed. However, the savannah is similar to forests in that it plays a role in protecting against soil erosion, but it is Padza in Mayotte (source: Carole and Guillaume) threatened by overgrazing and fires». Yet, forests provide major services in the form • On Wallis and Futuna, primary forests cover of soil protection, regulating the flow of rivers, only 10% of the land area and continue to be carbon storage, maintaining groundwater tables, threatened by anthropogenic pressures and wood production, and agricultural resources. invasive species. • In French Polynesia, the natural forest covers Their impact on sensitive marine environments, 140,500 ha (40% of the land area), forest particularly coral reefs, is mainly soil erosion which plantations cover 9,500 ha (2.7% of the land causes degradation and hyper-sedimentation area) over 62% of which is Caribbean pine, in lagoon environments due to leaching of the 4.3% is protected hardwood, 4% is exotic soil, particularly from excavated steep slopes, hardwood and 50,000 ha (14.2% of land area) of alterite ferralitic type. The significant impact are coconut plantations. One of the initial of the erosion of padza and a high silt level in objectives of plantations in this territory was its lagoon and certain fringing reef flats is visible protecting the soil against natural erosion. in Mayotte and New Caledonia faces the same Protected hardwoods (3,500 ha) are mainly problems. found in the Leeward and Austral Islands planted to reduce the erosion on their steep Although forest exploitation is limited, it can have slopes. Caribbean pine was also planted to a major impact on the environment through its protect some areas of the Marquesas. mills where sawn wood is treated against mould, rot, termites and other wood-eating insects. The treatment involves soaking with insecticides- fungicides, and hazardous products (chromium, Cane fields and houses in Petite-Ile, Reunion Island (Source : Wikipédia)

158 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 159 copper, arsenic) whose use requires special Human pressures on certain forest areas will precautions are used in the vacuum pressure accelerate and more intense cyclones will treatment, particularly the treatment of residues encourage the spread of invasive species. These in the tank bottoms. However, this type of species will reduce the forest’s capacity to adapt pollution can be avoided if handling and product as well as forest biodiversity. management procedures are respected. Forest degradation will affect the soils making them more fragile and easily erodable thus THE POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE increasing terrigenous additions to lagoons and CHANGE ON THE DIFFERENT consequently causing hyper-sedimentation and FORESTS AND CONSEQUENCES FOR asphyxia in sensitive environments (coral reefs REEF ENVIRONMENTS AND RELATED and seagrass beds). ECOSYSTEMS Added to existing pressures, changing climate TECHNICAL RECOMMENDATIONS parameters will have a significant impact on the FOR ADAPTATION distribution, composition, structure and health PROTECTING A FOREST’S GOOD of forests in the inter-tropical zone. A reduction ECOLOGICAL STATUS. A balance must be in the extent of forests and biodiversity loss is found between protecting and sustainably expected, both of which will diminish ecological managing the forest resource. Mango harvest on a plantation in Reunion Island. (Source : Wikipédia) services provided by the forest. «In the island territories, it is urgent to protect First, rising temperatures will result in a shift of threatened forests that are currently open to the forest from threats and anthropogenic REDUCE THE RISK OF FOREST FIRES bio-climates and their forests to higher land. anthropogenic pressures, but also to improve pressures. Maintaining a forest’s good ecological AND ENHANCE FOREST RESPONSE the management of protected forests as they status is the NAPCC (National Adaptation Plan CAPACITY Forests that are unable to find refuge in the are deteriorating from the spread of invasive to Climate Change (for the Overseas territories) highlands due to anthropogenic pressures, species or human activities. The challenges aim». IMPROVE KNOWLEDGE ON ADAPTIVE and rain and cloud forests on summits will be are to protect not only threatened or potentially FOREST MANAGEMENT in danger of disappearing, with a high risk of threatened plant formations, but also the soils, Particular attention needs to be paid to forests The need for knowledge has already been biodiversity loss. whose erosion is likely to be accelerated by located on steep slopes, as their degradation identified by NAPCC forest actions. In view of climate change. in periods of heavy rain can have a significant current uncertainties on the impacts of climate Second, droughts, fires and deforestation impact (landslides, mudslides) on property and change on forest ecosystems, it is important to destroy forests which are then replaced by Different management strategies can be put in populations located downstream. This in turn, reinforce monitoring of climate and ecosystem savannah, particularly forest edges. place from creating wilderness areas to setting will affect the marine environment through hyper- changes, particularly to identify which species up collaborative management projects to protect sedimentation, deposits of blocks and rubble are the most resistant to rising temperatures and and of macro-wastes on fringing reef flats. An water shortage. The scientific community also inventory should be made of forest areas at recommends further studies on the vulnerability risk, including a diagnosis of the measures that of forest systems to today’s pressures to improve should be carried out or reinforced, particularly our knowledge of forest functioning. This is a FRMPs, along with concrete recommendations precondition for more accurate modelling of for the protection and stabilisation of these sites. regional and local climate change (Ohlson et al., 2005). MAINTAINING OR ESTABLISHING PROTECTED AREAS FOR FOREST The development and implementation of FORMATIONS AND ENDANGERED SPECIES adaptive management of forest ecosystems is Critical areas of forest which require protection crucial; today’s uncertainties should not delay need to be identified and we recommend action. creating ecological corridors, particularly for mountain forests. INCREASE THE COMMERCIAL PROFITABILITY OF FORESTRY SECTORS This will not only help by providing wood, but also protect soils. Sugar cane and banana fields in Martinique. (Source : Wikipédia)

160 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 161 chapTER 5

5 / CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The aim of this guide was to review all major infrastructures and activities along the coasts of French overseas territories, to analyse their risk of degradation due to current and future climate change, and to deduce the impacts these changes could have on neighbouring sensitive natural coastal and marine environments, such as coral reefs and mangroves.

The aim of our analysis was to make recommendations to limit the risk of degradation in order to preserve these ecosystems, not only for their intrinsic wealth but also for the services they provide in protecting coastal areas.

The table below summarises the main impacts of climate change on infrastructures and their effect on coral reefs and related ecosystems.

162 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 163 Table 8: Major impacts of climate change on infrastructures and their effect on coral reefs and For each type of infrastructure, the table below related ecosystems. ‘Low rate’ Climate change lists the necessary components of a diagnosis on of continuous and permanent ‘high rate’ of violent existing infrastructure and adaptation measures climate change periods required to limit the deterioration of existing and future infrastructures.

DIAGNOSIS of EXISTING INFRASTRUCTURES Impacts of CC on infrastructures : o: zero Documents to be Facts to be taken Graphic +: low provided and issues to into account documentation ++: medium be addressed +++: potentially high • Technical specification Possible consequences of the Focus only on structures likely to have sheet Technical report on the impact of climate change on coastal an impact on coral reefs and their • Map of the area including infrastructure concerned infrastructures for coral reefs and ecosystems the watershed zone (scale Exceptional tides

related ecosystems Ocean acidification 1:25 000) Rise in temperature °C Rise in temperature

: high risk of consequences, rise in sea level Average Increase in annual rainfall Increase • Geomorphological map : medium risk of consequences High rainfall in certain periods Information on the watershed:

High winds and associated waves of the the watershed and : low risk of consequences & cyclone frequency Low pressure hydrological and hydrogeological

CO and CO2 concentrations in the sea Geomorphological the marine environment conditions, wetlands including description of the site (including lagoons) mangroves and coral reefs in the vicinity • Hydrological and of the infrastructure hydrogeological maps Sea protection structures o +++ o o o +++ o +++ ++ Coastal Management Plan, Water Any plans that apply Development and Management Appropriate maps Stormwater management structures o ++ + o o +++ +++ + + to the area concerned Master Plan, General Plan, Flood Risk Management Plan, ... Wastewater treatment structures o ++ ++ o o +++ +++ ++ + • Geometric characteristics and nature • Plans and longitudinal Information on the area of materials Drinking water supply structures o ++ o o o + ++ o + and cross sections directly linked to the • Characteristics of potentially polluting highlighting low-lying areas infrastructure: description structures (depots, workshop reservoirs, • Plans and sections Airport infrastructure o +++ + o o +++ ++ +++ + of the different structures etc.) of structures present • Characteristics of drainage and Port infrastructure o +++ o o o +++ o +++ + sanitation systems

Road infrastructure + + o o o +++ ++ ++ ++ Summary of management and maintenance Description of maintenance operations procedures for the above and their frequency Energy related infrastructure o o o o o ++ ++ ++ + structures

Tourist infrastructure + + o o o +++ +++ +++ ++ • Description of weather conditions during the event: rainfall, swells, wind, Analysis of any previous etc. Industrial/artisanal infrastructure o ++ o o o +++ ++ ++ + incidents: pollution, • Description of the resulting flooding, sea submersion, phenomena: flooding, accumulation of Maps of the events, graphic, Housing + + + o o +++ + + + deterioration of the sediments, deterioration of structures, diagrams, photographs structure due to extreme dispersal of pollutants. Fisheries, aquaculture, pearl oyster weather conditions Description of measures implemented + + + o o +++ + +++ ++ farming • Overview of incidents and feedback/ conclusions. Agriculture ++ o + o o ++ ++ ++ ++ Table 9: Components of a diagnostic survey of existing infrastructure, adaptation measures to limit deterioration of existing infrastructure and to prevent damage to planned future structures.

164 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 165 Areas concerned Possible impacts Adaptation measures and stakeholders

Zone affected by • Analysis of the risk of Measures the infrastructure more floods and/or sea • Reinforcement of the network of Analysis of the submersion and their weather, hydrological and hydrogeological likely effects of impacts: observatories on site and in the vicinity climate change on •Deterioration of protection (piezometers, weather stations, infrastructure in structures; tide gauges, ... collaboration with the • Analysis of the risk • Reflection on the current design of team responsible for of pollution of sensitive protection structures and possible measures the management of environments (coral reefs, to reinforce or modify the structures. the infrastructure mangroves) by leaching in • Strategic analysis of the need to abandon sealed zones and settling sites or relocate infrastructures. ponds and/or malfunctioning • Rank key sites to be maintained and drainage and sewage protected in the French overseas community. structures. • Review the status of embankments and • Analysis of the impact roads taking the possibility of extreme Wooden dugout canoe on Longoni beach. Photo: © B.M. of intensification of weather conditions, rising temperatures and cyclones on infrastructures, more heavy rainfall into account. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CLIMATE particularly in areas where • Analyse current stormwater drainage and toxic products are stored. sewerage structures with a view to resizing. CHANGE ADAPTATION MEASURES • Analyse the status of structures used to store oil and warehouses containing pollutants and with a view to reinforcing them if required; • Check the drainage system and Areas concerned Possible impacts Adaptation measures maintenance procedures and stakeholders

Areas located At the scale of the • Planning documents must include the outside the watershed possible impacts of climate change (select perimeter of the • Analysis of the risk of development scenarios that limit impacts on infrastructure more intense cyclones infrastructure and on the environment in the • Analysis of (higher winds and heavier upstream watershed, the coastal plain and in pressures followed rains), to foresee possible the marine environment). by discussions with impacts: erosion, falling • Check planning documents and include the appropriate local rocks, landslides, mudslides, possible pressure on infrastructure. services: transport of terrigenous • Make technical recommendations for the Analysis of the area For example, avian risks Identify measures to limit increasing avian • Equipment particles, flooding management of flood risks, the prevention of neighbouring the Analysis of risks involved risks: e.g. draining the site; alter surveillance • Urban planning, terrigenous deposits, pollution; structure in the in expanding wetlands or protocols. Environment At the coastal scale Analyse existing systems and the possible case of specific of the appearance of new • Analysis of the risk of need for resizing structures that control river problems, in wetlands near runways, sea submersion and the flows and sediment loads in the watershed collaboration with linked to heavier rainfall and cumulative effects of zone, Measure dimensions of stormwater and the team responsible as a result, a higher risk of flooding originating either sewage systems. for the management the presence of birds near from the watershed or sea of the infrastructure runways submersion and environmental • Include in the analysis specialists planned future development and test different scenarios.

166 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 167 The main points of the technical analysis should SDAU Master Plan for Urban Development be easy to adapt. The statutory thresholds, Given the extent of the coral areas in French enable each overseas territory to define its (French acronym SDAU), Territorial Coherence limits and building conditions concerning these overseas territories and the importance of this own strategy and an adaptation plan to ensure Scheme (French acronym SCOT), Land Use structures will need to be defined according to ecosystem in the subsistence economy for most all the infrastructure concerned will be able to Plan (French acronym POS), (Local Urban the land law. inhabitants, it is crucial to raise their awareness withstand the effects of climate change: Planning Scheme (French acronym LUP), Risk of the risks implied by current climate dynamics. • define priority actions; Preparedness Plan other than «flooding» (French To achieve this objective, we must rely on people acronym PPRx), but also on the State’s Public identified as referents in these communities, • prioritise actions and estimate construction Maritime Domain concept and on water and 5.2. IMPORTANCE especially traditional authorities and by educating costs; coastal laws when planning and implementing OF RAISING AWARENESS their children who are the best disseminators of • draw up a work schedule; protective and adaptive measures for coral information to parents. ecosystems. ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE • create a local group to monitor the progress of the action plan and its technical and scientific Certain impacts of change climate, such as rising aspects in collaboration with the appropriate New Caledonia: sea levels, are hardly visible to people and many The situation in New Caledonia is not the same, Studies on human geography (S. Bantos) and central technical departments (particularly to policy makers are more concerned with short- as the power of the French State is gradually coastal anthropology (E. Worliczek) in the Pacific monitor changes in climate parameters and term issues than with implementing policies to being handed over because of their organic revealed that indigenous people in Oceania to analyse feedback from extreme weather address impacts in the coming decades. At the land law and Noumea agreements. One can do not believe they are directly concerned by conditions). very least, they need to be made aware of the rely on the Territorial Coherence Scheme, Land the impacts of climate change. Only a very risks, so they take measures to avoid making Use Plan and Local Urban Planning Scheme small proportion of the population believes the many mistakes (e.g., extracting beach if these are available, but the Public Maritime the information provided by scientists and the aggregates or destroying fringing reef flats) Domain is provincial. French national water media. Most people believe the changes in the which amplify the natural trends that are already 5.1. TERRITORIAL and coastal laws do not apply, which hinders environment they can see are part of the natural weakening the coral ecosystem. PLANNING IN BROADER effective management. Certain documents cycle and not a climate disruption, while for have been drawn up for Risk Preparedness many, if the climate is going to change, it will be TERMS Plans (particularly for slope issues), but at the elsewhere and not at home. time of writing they are not enforceable as Risk Preparedness Plans because mainland France’s These plans, as well as adaptation plans to official documents have not yet been approved climate change, are obviously the main reference by the New Caledonian Territorial Congress. documents and they should include reflection on how to protect coral ecosystems faced with In French Polynesia: probable climate change. The General Planning Scheme, General Development Plan and Detailed Development The progress of such plans varies considerably Plan are territorial plans. There is a Public Maritime depending on the statutory specificity of each Domain which is respected to varying degrees French overseas territory or collectivity. Indeed depending on the archipelago concerned, but enforceable «land law» (and development French water and coastal laws do not apply in documents) vary considerably depending on French Polynesia. the local authorities in each overseas territory and range from an almost complete lack of In Wallis and Futuna: reflection and formal planning (the situation in There is no land registry; no urban planning Wallis and Futuna) to restrictions similar to those documents and only traditional laws apply. in mainland France for communities in overseas Departments. Since each territory has its own specificities, which can change considerably over time, The list of existing documents (in French) below after preliminary studies on developments is not exhaustive, as the situation is constantly in coastal areas, we recommend selecting evolving): existing structures that can be adapted, existing structures that cannot be adapted and need In French overseas territories that are to be relocated, rebuilt, or demolished, and Departments (DOM) one can rely on the former new structures which require adaptation or will A ninth grade survey in Sada, Mayotte, April 2008. Photo: © M. Allenbach

168 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 169 Fakarava. Photo: © Franck Mazéas 5.3. IMPORTANCE 5.5. QUALITY APPROACH OF MONITORING CLIMATE TO SUSTAINABLE CHANGE INDICATORS DEVELOPMENT

Environmental risks are now a key parameter It is crucial to dispose of validated data on that should be incorporated when identifying the impact of climate change on the coral the most suitable approach for planning ecosystem. development projects, whether for infrastructure, an activity, or housing. Environmental risks must This is why, as part of its national action plans, be identified and analysed and become an IFRECOR set up climate change observatories integral part of project management, in terms to ensure the same approach to protecting coral of sustainable development and three other ecosystems is used by all the French overseas major axes: environmental, economic and territories concerned. This study, which was social implications. If the project involves an conducted in collaboration with the French overseas territory in which this fragile ecosystem National Observatory on the effects of climate is present, the impacts of the project on the change (French acronym ONERC) identified eight particularly sensitive coral ecosystem should key indicators: surface sea temperature, status naturally be included in the quality process. of reefs, changing coastline, ocean acidification, changes in the sea level, extreme weather Project holders and contractors must be able to phenomena, changes in coastal vegetation, understand the overall risks and take them into coastal aquifers and saltwater intrusions. The account in a broader approach under a project’s data we collected will help understand, quantify, quality assurance. These risks should therefore and qualify the facts. be integrated when drawing up Schemes for Quality Assurance Organisation Plans (French The data will also help disseminate precise acronym SOPAC), and then in the Quality information to populations and decision- Assurance Plans themselves. makers on what is happening throughout their territories and not just give a general picture. International certification Unquestionably, ongoing climate changes will • Leadership in energy and environnemental have a long-term impact on coastal ecosystems, design (LEED) www.usgbc.org especially on the coral ecosystem, as it is very sensitive and particularly endangered. This • Building Research Establishment particular ecosystem thus needs to be closely Environnemental Assessment Methodologie monitored to minimise expected impacts as far (BREEAM), www.breeam.org as possible, to foresee the measures that will need to be taken, as and when warnings are Interactions with, and the influences and impacts issued by the observatories. of any project on the environment have to be strictly controlled. These parameters must be Up to date information from these observatories checked at each stage of the project construction, can be found at http://servlet.univ-nc.n/series/ maintenance and operation, rehabilitation and IFRECOR renovation and finally, demolition at the end of its service life.

170 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 171 Lagoon, New Caledonia. Photo: © Franck Mazéas APPENDICES

SUMMARY

Appendix 1 p. 174 Appendix 1.1: Background on climate p. 174 Appendix 2 p. 176 Appendix 2.1: Centre for marine and fluvial technical studies p. 176 - method for the construction of protection structures. Appendix 3 p. 185 Appendix 3.1: Airports in French overseas territories p. 185 Appendix 3.2: Airport vulnerability to climate change p. 189 Appendix 3.3: Vulnerability of airports in French overseas territories p. 195 to climate change Appendix 3.4: Construction of major seaports in French overseas territories p. 196

Appendix 4 p.197 Appendix 4.1: List of Abbreviations and Acronyms p. 197 Appendix 4.2: List of Tables p. 199 Appendix 4.3: Glossary p. 200 Appendix 4.4: Ministries and Departments p. 204 Appendix 4.5: Bibliography p. 206

172 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 173 CO2 is the most important all the human The most comprehensive studies use information based greenhouse gases because of its higher drawn from observations to attribute recent concentration and long atmospheric lifetime: climate changes to different sources. They are APPENDIX 1 about 20% of CO2 emitted today will still be in mainly based on variations in temperature, space the atmosphere in a thousand years’ time. and solar radiation over time and knowledge gained on the climate system through climate Atmospheric concentrations of CO2 have also modelling. None of these studies show that solar varied greatly over the ages and have sometimes variability has played a significant role in global been much higher than today’s (for example, 60 warming since 1950. million years ago concentrations were perhaps 10 times higher than today and of course even Among the publications discussed in the IPCC 1.1 / BACKGROUND higher in the planet’s primitive atmosphere. report, the authors of one article concluded However, the average concentrations observed that climate models may underestimate the today (around 388 parts per million by volume) magnitude of the simulated response of climate ON CLIMATE have probably not been exceeded in the last to solar variability. But, despite this unconfirmed 650,000 years. hypothesis, the same authors concluded that climate change caused by greenhouse gas The beginning of global warming which emissions is the main indicator of the second Source: Meteo-France - Extracts use transformed the ice age into an interglacial half of the 20th century. intentionally simpler terms and/or are one preceded the increase in atmospheric concentrations of CO2 by several centuries. The first studies on this subject began 15 years paraphrased The transition to an interglacial period (the last ago. They were based on a comparison between occurred about 20,000 years ago) was due to observations and climate simulations that took changes in the the circular orbit of the Earth into account every possible source of climate around the sun and variations in the obliquity of changes over the course of the 20th century our planet’s rotational axis. (solar variability, volcanic activity, greenhouse For billions of years, climate has been changing climate changes since 1950, compared to gases and particle concentrations originating due to natural external factors, such as natural factors. However, this does not mean that there is from human activities). In recent years, these the distribution of land and ocean masses, no cause and effect link between changes studies have multiplied and incorporated a astronomical parameters, variability of solar In the decade 1999-2008, the planet’s average in the concentration of CO2 and changes in wider set of parameters. The IPCC experts’ radiation, volcanic activity, or because of factors air surface temperature increased and, according temperature. conclusions on the role human activities play in that are an integral part of climate systems, to the World Meteorological Organisation’s recent global warming are based on an analysis particularly interactions between its component estimates for 2009, the 2000-2009 period was Let’s take the example of one of the many of the scientific literature. parts (the atmosphere, the oceans, continental warmer than the previous decade, which was effects of the climate system: a cause, in this surfaces, the ice shelf, ice sheets, etc.). already warmer than the 1980s. However, it case global warming linked to the changes in the National Meteo-France climate data is available cannot be not excluded that the global average Earth’ orbital parameters, produces an increase on request for research and training purposes. But this should not be interpreted to mean that temperature (and indeed the temperature in in CO2, which in turn amplifies the initial warming Weather data is shared globally. Ninety-five most increases in global average temperatures mainland France) may decrease in the coming effect. Without this positive effect, it is impossible percent of the data used to study changes in observed since the middle of the 20th century are decade due to the natural variability of the to explain the scale of global warming between global temperatures is available in the «Global not due to higher concentrations of greenhouse climate system. the last glacial age 20,000 years ago and the Historical Climatology Network’s» database at gases resulting from human activities, primarily climate today (globally an average of 4 to 7 °C). the National Climatic Data Center in the USA. the use of fossil fuels. But this hypothesis does not call into question the reality of recent climate changes which will Regular neutron measurements in several But raw data cannot be used without preceding The IPCC report points out that over the past have to be analysed throughout the century. different sites around the world indirectly help scientific work. In fact, jn addition to regular 1,300 years, there have been warmer 50 year deduce that cosmic radiation, which varies checks to eliminate incorrect data (erroneous periods than the last 50 years of the 20th CO2 is not the only element that regulates according to the 11-year solar cycle, has not transcripts, a malfunctioning sensor), the century. These warmer periods were probably our climate, but does affect it by increasing significantly increased over the last 50 years. analysis of weather patterns requires the due to natural causes. But even if this is true, it the greenhouse effect, even though the main Even accepting the existence of a mechanism correction of measurement biases (linked to a does not exclude human activities as the main greenhouse gas is water vapour. Other factors that links cosmic rays to climate (not yet given observation method) and consistent long factor (over 9 chances out of 10) influencing also explain climate change. demonstrated), it does not explain variations in data series (to be able to identify and correct the average temperatures over the last half century. effect of changing the location of measurement sites, or changing sensors).

174 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 175 6. Use adaptive coastal management recent decades as part of coastal management techniques in areas with average density planning schemes, but beyond their final report, (random urbanisation) or predominantly they have not been exploited; this has led to the APPENDIX 2 agricultural areas. accumulation of insufficiently exploited data. 7. Protect and restore coastal ecosystems (wetlands, sand dunes, mangroves, coral reefs, etc.) as they play an important role in SUB-action 1.1 reducing wave energy and thus in limiting the A national network of coastline impact of coastal erosion on activities and observatories assets. Establishing a national network of coastline 2.1 / CENTRE FOR MARINE observatories is a necessary approach within the «Inspire 1» directive framework. This network AXIS A . DEVELOP will rely on ongoing initiatives and ensure the AND FLUVIAL TECHNICAL interoperability of future data and wider access COASTLINE OBSERVATIONS to these data and metadata. This action will: STUDIES METHODOLOGY AND IDENTIFY EROSION • establish a national observation and monitoring RISK AREAS IN ORDER network of coastal evolution relying on regional FOR THE PROTECTION TO PRIORITISE PUBLIC players; • establish national coastal erosion mapping OF STRUCTURES ACTION and identify erosion risk areas.

Action 1. ESTABLISH SUB-action 1.2 Strategic recommendations for the protection A NATIONAL NETWORK Update sedimentology catalogues of structures (2012) (©National Strategy for TO OBSERVE AND MONITOR THE COASTLINE RELYING ON Capitalising on existing data will enable an integrated costal management: towards overview of our knowledge of coasts. Referent relocating activities and assets: 2012- REGIONAL PLAYERS sedimentology catalogues were already 2015 Action Plan) and http: //webissimo. published in the 1980s and updated in 2015. developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/ Issues To implement these actions, several conditions have to be met: pdf/C_11-01_cle2a11a2.pdf are as follows: Observation and monitoring of the coastline implies establishing a network of players to • identify expertise at the appropriate level, at produce or receive data to ensure coherent data least at the regional administrative level; collection, frequency and interoperability. • ensure sustainable funding, particularly in the 1. Define a spatial scale for the diagnosis of charge of a territorial development plan who context of future State-Region 2014-2020 When several initiatives are undertaken by physical hazards, urban planning choices shall monitor its implementation by players projects and future European programmes; different organisations at different scales, there and operational planning. selected for their respective skills. will be a wealth of data covering long periods, • define and implement rules to share data and 2. Draw up 10, 40 and 90 year planning 4. Justify the choice of coastal operational but the data may be ignored or insufficiently metadata; schedules that take the evolution of physical planning by carrying out cost-benefit and exploited due to the lack of sharing, and of joint • develop new tools to access data; phenomena into account and, based on multi-criteria analyses. coordination of long-term initiatives. Moreover, • develop bathymetry and high resolution cost-benefit analysis, consider the possibility 5. Only in densely inhabited zones or areas the resulting data will not enable a regional and topography. of relocating activities and assets as an of national strategic interest, consider national overview of local actions and of their alternative to stabilising the coastline in the protection projects which change the natural results. medium and long-term. state of the coastline or design them so that 3. Set up a coherent joint territorial management in the long-term these activities and assets Many French coastal hydrology and unit to cope with risks of coastal erosion and can be relocated elsewhere. sedimentology studies have been conducted in sea submersion, and appoint a leader in

176 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 177 Action 2. START NATIONAL as well as local authorities in affected overseas for flood prevention (French acronym PAPI) and SUB-ACTION 4.1 COASTAL EROSION MAPPING territories. rapid submersion (French acronym RSP) action Develop shared guidelines plans to ensure coherent public policy. AND IDENTIFY AREAS AT RISK OF Action 3. DEFINE LOCAL The State and communities in overseas territory EROSION EROSION RISK STRATEGIES In the first half of 2012, a coastal programme must strive to develop a shared diagnosis was developed covering integrated coastal of physical changes in the phenomenon, to Issues IN AREAS AT RISK risk management (sea submersion and clarify related issues, as well as measures to estuary flooding, erosion, etc.). It incorporated be taken to cope with such changes. Clarifying No national mapping exists to identify areas Issues coastal rapid submersion action plans and the issues should be based on coastal erosion where there is both erosion and a high number recommendations as part of the national strategy and sea submersion maps. Where appropriate, of activities and assets using a common Identifying high erosion risk areas which are for integrated coastal management. these diagnosis and action guidelines can be methodology, despite the fact such mapping is also of real importance only makes sense if it incorporated in a local spatial planning and a precondition for prioritising public action. culminates in a shared and forward-looking perception of the issues and prioritises public sustainable development directive, depending on the scale of erosion or submersion phenomena, Neither does France have reliable national action in these areas, particularly in terms of Action 4. IMPROVING THE USE and if the area concerned is suitable. indicators to monitor the long-term evolution reflection, planning and operating facilities to OF URBAN PLANNING AND RISK of the coastline. Such indicators would make manage the coastline. PREVENTION TOOLS it possible to identify areas where erosion is SUB-ACTION 4.2 a problem and to prioritise public financial Under the «flooding2» directive, Local flood Issues commitment to planning and to future risk management strategies are developed in Incorporation in coherent territorial engineering works. National coastal erosion collaboration between the local authorities in Coastal management operations have, so far, schemes mapping could be carried out using the Eurosion the overseas territories concerned, the State, mainly been studied from an ad hoc and very (www.eurosion.org) consortium’s data and and local services, and are then approved by technical perspective, firstly, the actual physical This shared diagnosis must lead to selecting existing local data. prefectural decree. Even if the local strategies phenomenon itself at the scale of a sedimentary a number coastal operational facilities. These are not applicable in planning documents, they basin, and then at the scale of human activity options must be taken into account in existing provide concrete territorial projects adapted planning (urban planning documents of the or pending territorial coherence schemes SUB-action 2.1 to flood risks (including sea submersion) and SCOT and LUP type). The successful operation (French acronym SCOT). When the boundaries National coastal erosion indicators erosion. of the facilities depends on their inclusion in of sedimentary units extend over several SCOTs, planning and urban spatial planning documents it is essential to work in partnership to ensure and risk prevention plans. However, managing technical and geographical consistency in the A reliable national indicator will be defined to these policies falls under the responsibility of choice of operational developments in the two qualify coastal erosion, based on the average SuB-action 3.1 overseas territories and collectivities or under SCOTs concerned. speed of erosion, and known topography and Local erosion risk strategies the responsibility of the State, or in some bathymetry to distinguish high, medium or low cases, both. Reinforcing coherent, continuous erosion risk areas. This indicator should be used In erosion risk areas, it is important to ensure public action integrating spatial planning, urban to record coastal erosion in mainland France that coastal erosion is taken into account in SUB-ACTION 4.3 planning, and risk prevention (particularly coastal and in French overseas territories at a scale of local strategies, under the flooding directive, and Increase the 100 m coastal strip erosion risks), calls for a shared perception by 1/100 000. that they can also be applied in sectors where coastal erosion is the only problem. These local communities in overseas territories and the State. It must be possible to increase the 100 meters strategies will help establish guidelines and In this situation, the evolution of the coastline coastal strip through the local urban planning ensure coherent urban planning, conservation of and hence the physical phenomena involved in (LUP) scheme when sensitive environments SuB-action 2.2 coastal erosion have to be taken into account in Identifying erosion risk areas natural areas, management of the public natural or coastal erosion warrant it (Article L146-4 of maritime domain, risk prevention and facilities to the sustainable spatial planning of territories at the Urban Planning Code). This would make manage coastal erosion. different scales. The spatial and urban planning it possible to delimit areas that are potentially Data on land use will also be collected to identify documents should clearly address the subject subject to erosion for a specified time period erosion risk areas (dense urban centres, industrial and set out appropriate guidelines on the use as well as accounting for the impacts of climate and port activities whose proximity to the sea is (development/protection) of these territorial change. This additional zone must have the essential, transport infrastructure, etc.). SuB-action 3.2 Coherent erosion and submersion policy areas, and, if appropriate, provide relocation same restrictive building criteria as the 100 m options for certain activities. strip. At the least, the area facing a high risk of Achieving these two sub-actions by the end of erosion must be included in the additional strip 2013 will help to diagnose the level of sharing In erosion risk areas, it is important to ensure in the coastal risk prevention plans. and validation on a local scale, at the level of the that coastal erosion and general management government Prefect and senior Commissioners issues, are included in funding already available

178 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 179 SUB-ACTION 4.4 should implement and be responsible for his/her SUB-ACTION 5.3 AXIS b. MOVING TOWARDS Flood risk management plans actions, based on their skills and with the help of Dismantling structures other institutional players. A SPATIAL PLANNING The floods directive put in place flood risk Provision should be made to dismantle RECONSTRUCTION management plans and the latter should take obsolete sea defence structures, or structures coastal erosion into account. Action 5. DEVELOP that have adverse effects, once their public CONCEPT MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES maritime domain occupancy authorisation has Given the risk of erosion or sea submersion in FOR THE PUBLIC MARITIME expired, and to manage the associated financial SUB-ACTION 4.5 resources. an affected area, four coastline management Issuing building permits DOMAIN options are cited from the «Coastline For these three sub-actions, a circular Management» book (Quae Publishing, 2010): was drafted by the Ministry of Sustainable Building permits for projects likely to endanger Issues • monitoring natural evolution where no action public safety will be refused if there are no Development in 2012. is needed; Integrated coastal management goes hand in approved risk prevention plans (RPP), as they • limiting intervention by following natural hand with coherent management of the public are in high risk areas (article R 111-2 of the processes; Urban Planning Code). maritime domain. In practice, permission to ACTION 6. RAISING THE occupy the public maritime domain does • moving back existing buildings behind a new AWARENESS OF THE POPULATION natural or man-made line of defence; not necessarily take into account the overall ON COASTAL RISKS BY MEANS OF SUB-ACTION 4.6 impact of planning developments on the • leaving the coastline as it is. Multi-hazard prevention plans evolution of the coastline. As a result, the public AN INFORMATION CAMPAIGN maritime domain’s management terms need To develop a concept for coastline management Multi-hazard risk prevention plans (RPP) (sea to be implemented in line with the principles of Issues , the 4 above options could be combined into current national integrated coastal management submersion, estuary dynamics, coastal erosion) The format of information on coastal risks two strategic options: strategies. should also be drafted, under the current review respects their knowledge giving objective, but • Strategic Option A: leaving the coastline as of sea submersion RPPs. These should outline rarely targets the general public. It is essential it is. This option is possible in high risk areas local strategies for prevention, protection and to raise the populations’ awareness of these or of national strategic interest, as long as backup measures in planning developments. SUB-ACTION 5.1 risks more effectively by using more appropriate it agrees with this strategy’s principles and Evaluating occupancy authorisations communication tools. recommendations. It may be a temporary In high hazard areas, risk prevention plans should solution, as relocation is inevitable in the long take into account the coastline’s movement and It will be necessary to solve the issue of public Several ways to raise the populations’ awareness term. receding coastal phenomena during storms, in domain occupancy authorisations for sea of coastal risks will be developed: accordance with the revised national coastal defences by doing an impact study at the scale • Strategic Option B: prepare and implement RPP guidelines. By 2100, the impacts of change of a sedimentary cell, a cost-benefit analysis, in • the national sea and coastline observatory’s relocation of activities and assets. Depending climate must also be taken into account when compliance with local erosion risk management website is exclusively dedicated to coastal on the issues and the level of erosion, this drawing up guidelines for building infrastructure strategies under sub-Action 3.1 and, where area issues, which could be further developed option could be monitoring natural changes, and superstructure, and large urban planning applicable, implementing compensatory around coastal risks and adapted for the limiting interventions or moving back in the developments in order to limit their vulnerability measures. general public; short term. In any case, we must work with the in potentially affected areas. • Days dedicated to the sea, these are held coastline’s natural evolution by adapting land annually with celebrations in every French use to natural dynamics. SUB-ACTION 5.2 region; SUB-ACTION 4.7 Appropriate project holders • Communication campaigns should be ACTION 7. PREPARE Operational support for local players included in the rapid submersion plans; It will be necessary to solve the issue of TO RELOCATE ACTIVITIES Methodological support will be provided to authorisations to build sea defences to • Information campaigns should be implemented by local officials, as they are responsible for AND ASSETS AS PART OF clarify local players’ respective skills and help authorised trades union associations, public TERRITORIAL RECONSTRUCTION them select their operational developments for institutions, overseas territorial communities or informing their local populations. coastal management: operational files will be their associations. DYNAMICS drafted. The flooding and sea submersion cost- benefit analysis methodology will be finalised Issues and adapted to coastal erosion. Each player Relocating activities and assets means, in the

180 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 181 short or long term, moving them further inland and benefits, enhancing long-term benefits, replanting projects to protect inhabited coastal An amendment to this Law was passed on to a safer distance from the risks they incur from communication and dialogue, rehabilitating newly erosion areas, new eco-technological processes 21st June, 1865 stating that residents could the sea. released coastal areas, etc.). To complement to stabilise beaches or dunes or reduce the swell join syndicated associations to build defence this guide, it will be important to clarify the public effect onshore. works or to manage them. Therefore, any New coastline management measures have institutions property (EPF) mandate in order to waterfront owner is legally obliged to participate been tested in several European Union countries prepare the relocation of the activities, in the The expected projects were research in funding a sea defence structure. Ultimately, including in the United Kingdom, and in France. case of a public project holder (a community) demonstrators designed to test a specific the successive amendments to this legislation with the commitment to purchase the land for a technology in real operating conditions. The granted communities in overseas territories Case studies of these sites have underlined the development project: legally, EPF can only act in research demonstrator’s scale makes it possible financial aid for these types of works. Article L importance of cost-benefit analysis when the development operations under the urban code to move up from the laboratory scale to validating 211-7 of the Environment Code stipulates that: cost of a standard protection structure, made of (Article L 300-1). technologies at industrial scale. « communities in overseas territory and their riprap, by far exceeds the value of assets to be associations and mixed unions established protected in the long term (i.e. during the assets’ The list of winners is available on the Ministry under Article L 5721-2 of the Overseas territory service life). Thus, relocating these activities and ACTION 8. ECOLOGICAL of Sustainable Development website, under communities General Code are entitled to use assets can be a real budgetary opportunity in ENGINEERING INNOVATIONS Construction, urban planning, planning and articles L151-36 to L151-40 of the Rural Code the long term. natural resources / Water and Biodiversity / to carry out a study, to build and operate any Biodiversity / National Strategy for Biodiversity works, actions, structures or facilities that are Issues / Zoom on call for projects / call for projects of public interest or urgent, within the existing SUB-ACTION 7.1 results. spatial planning and water management scheme, Call for relocation projects In the framework of the new national biodiversity if there is one, and to [...] defend against flooding strategy (2011- 2020), objective 7 – including the and the sea; [...]». With the view to increasing the relocation of preservation of biodiversity in economic decisions activities and assets, experiments have been - and objective 8 - developing innovations for AXIS c. SPECIFY FINANCIAL Articles L 151-36 to L151-39 of the Rural Code conducted through call for projects to «relocate and through biodiversity - economic players in INTERVENTION TERMS allow a community project holder to pass the activities and assets exposed to coastal risks». the general ecological engineering sector are financial burden on to owners who need the The aim of this approach is to give support to directly concerned. Furthermore, the Grenelle work to be done. Agreement commits France to move towards local players, first and foremost communities Action 9. IDENTIFY FUNDING in overseas territories, and to prepare the an economy that is less dependent on fossil implementation of spatial reconstruction. Setting fuels, greener, and more economical with natural PRINCIPLES FOR INTEGRATED SUB-ACTION 9.1 up these types of territorial projects cannot be resources. This change highlights the importance COASTAL MANAGEMENt State’s funding priorities accomplished only at the municipal level; it must of a new «Green economy» which offers the opportunity to develop eco-technologies able be done inter-communally and in the end, by Issues The State shall define the conditions and criteria transposing them into SCOTs. to meet these requirements. In this context, governing its financial intervention. For sea the Ministry of Sustainable Development has Funding sea defences is the owners’ submersions, the framework is provided by the Alongside calls for projects, the financial terms launched a supportive approach for strategic responsibility. Article 33 of the Law on the drying rapid submersions plan. For coastal erosion, of implementing the relocation of activities and green economy sectors. One of the priorities out of marshes passed on 16th September State funding focuses on high risk erosion areas, assets were studied in 2012. is financing technological showcases and 1807 states that «when it comes to building those of major public interest and on technical, demonstrators in order to highlight the technical dykes to protect against the sea, or navigable flexible and reversible coastal management, nature of the sector and to reinforce its innovative or non-navigable rivers, streams or torrents, which could include the relocation of activities SUB-ACTION 7.2 capacity. Developing innovative techniques for the need will be initiated by the Government and assets in the medium to long term. In Writing a national methodology guide coastline management has been identified as a and the expenditure incurred by the private addition, the financial terms for their relocation key working axis. protected properties, as long as such works need to be clearly identified. A national guide will be drafted, based on the are in the public’s interest; except where the Government believes it is useful and just to grant knowledge acquired through the experimental Call for ecological engineering projects calls for projects, to provide conceptual aid out of public funds». This law gives owners of SUB-ACTION 9.2 elements (identifying situations where relocation A call for innovative projects in ecological waterfront property the responsibility of bearing Regional commission institutions is preferable, taking into account medium engineering of coastal and sea environments the cost of defence structures, but the State can intervene financially. The State makes the and long term prospects) and a methodology was launched in July 2011. One of the key Regional commissions will be established decisions concerning the need for works (gives (using existing legal tools, identifying funding aspects of these projects was to enhance directly linked with basin committees to together authorisation to do defence works), but the or compensation opportunities, stages of ecological engineering actions in the coastal study requests submitted as rapid submersion waterfront owners bear the financial burden. implementation, evaluating long-term costs strip, for example by proposing buffer zone plans, for PAPI (Program of Actions and

182 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 183 Preventions against Floods) and applying for NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS OF ELECTED coastal management funding from the Ministry of COASTAL REPRESENTATIVES Sustainable Development. (© National Strategy for integrated coastal management: towards the Socio-professional representatives APPENDIX 3 relocation of activities and assets: 2012-2015 • Permanent Assembly of the Chamber of action plan). Agriculture; http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/ • National Shellfish Committee; IMG/pdf/12004_Strategie-gestion-trait-de- • French Federation of Insurance Companies. cote-2012_DEF_18-06-12_light.pdf The State’s public institutions 3.1 / AIRPORTS IN FRENCH Key commission groups in mainland France: • Geology and Mining Research Institute (French acronym BRGM); PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATIVES • Coastal and Lake Shore Conservation OVERSEAS TERRITORIES Authority; Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable • National Forestry Office; Development and Energy • Naval Hydrographic and Oceanographic Altitude • General Directorate for Spatial Planning, Airport Town IATA ICAO Observations Service; in meters Housing and Nature Conservation (water • Brest, Caen, and Montpellier Universities. management and biodiversity); 971 Basse Terre Baillif Airport Basse-Terre BBR TFFB 18 Minimal use • Housing, Urban Planning and Landscape Management; 971 Grand-Bourg Airport Marie-Galante GBJ TFFM 5 • General Directorate for Risk Prevention; Grande Anse 971 La Desirade Grande Anse - Île de La DSD TFFA 2 Minimal use • Regional Environment Directorates, Spatial Airport Planning and Housing in Languedoc-Roussillon Désirade and the Pays de la Loire; 971 Les Saintes Terre de Haut Les Saintes LSS TFFS 7 Minimal use • Departmental Directorates of Charente- Airport Maritime’s territories and sea, English Channel 971 Guadeloupe Airport, Pôle Pointe-à-Pitre PTP TFFR 11 and Pas-de-Calais; Caraïbes

• Centre for marine and fluvial technical studies. 971 Saint-François Airport Saint-François SFC TFFC 3

972 Martinique Aimé Césaire Fort-de-France FDF TFFF 5 Ministry of Agriculture and Food International Airport - Le Lamentin • General Directorate for Agricultural policies, 973 Félix Éboué International Cayenne CAY SOCA 9 Food and Territories; Airport

• Delegation to Spatial Planning and Regional 973 Grand-Santi Airport Grand-Santi SOGS 56 Minimal use Attractiveness; 973 Kourou Airport Kourou SOOK 11 Minimal use

973 Maripasoula Airport Maripasoula MPY SOOA 114 Minimal use

973 Saint-Georges-de- Saint-Georges- OXP SOOG 11 Minimal use l’Oyapock Airport de-l’Oyapock 973 Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni Saint-Laurent- LDX SOOM 5 Airport du-Maroni

973 Régina Airport Régina REI SOOR 6 Minimal use

184 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 185 973 Saül Airport Saül XAU SOOS 224 Minimal use 987 Kauehi Airport Kauehi NTKA 2

974 Gillot Airport Saint-Denis RUN FMEE 20 987 Kaukura Airport Kaukura KKR NTGK 1

974 Pierrefonds Airport Saint-Pierre ZSE FMEP 18 987 Makemo Airport Makemo MKP NTGM 5

975 Saint-Pierre Airport - Saint-Pierre FSP LFVP 9 987 Manihi Airport Manihi XMH NTGI 3 Pointe-Blanche 987 Mataiva Airport Mataiva MVT NTGV 3 975 Miquelon Airport Miquelon MQC LFVM 3

976 Dzaoudzi-Pamandzi 987 Maupiti Airport Maupiti MAU NTTP 2 Dzaoudzi DZA FMCZ 18 Airport 987 Moorea Airport Moorea MOZ NTTM 4 977 Gustaf III Airport - Saint- Saint- SBH TFFJ 15 Minimal use Barthélemy Barthélemy 987 Napuka Airport Napuka NAU NTGN 4 978 Grand-Case Espérance Saint-Martin SFG TFFG 7 Airport 987 Niau Airport Niau NTKN 3 Leava - Futuna 986 Futuna Pointe Vele Airport FUT NLWF 6 987 Nuku Hiva Airport Nuku Hiva NHV NTMD 1 (île) Mata-Utu - 987 Nukutavake Airport Nukutavake NUK NTGW 4 986 Wallis Hihifo Airport WLS NLWW 24 Wallis (île) 987 Tahiti Faa’a International Papeete PPT NTAA 3 Mixed 987 Ahe Airport Ahe NTHE 2 Airport 987 Puka Puka Airport Puka Puka PKP NTGP 2 987 Anaa Airport Anaa AAA NTGA 3 987 Pukarua Airport Pukarua PUK NTGQ 6 987 Apataki Airport Apataki APK NTGD 2 987 Raiatea Airport Raiatea RFP NTTR 7 987 Aratika Nord Airport Aratika NTKK 5 987 Raivavae Airport Raivavae NTAV 2 987 Arutua Airport Arutua AGR NTGU 3 987 Rangiroa Airport Rangiroa RGI NTTG 2 987 Bora Bora Airport Bora Bora BOB NTTB 1 987 Reao Airport Reao REA NTGE 3 987 Faaite Airport Faaite NTKF 2 987 Rurutu Airport Rurutu RUR NTAR 4 987 Fakahina Airport Fakahina FHZ NTKH 0 987 Takapoto Airport Takapoto TKP NTGT 4 987 Fakarava Airport Fakarava FAV NTGF 0 987 Takaroa Airport Takaroa TKX NTKR 4 987 Fangatau Airport Fangatau FGU NTGB 3 987 Takume Airport Takume NTKM 2 987 Hao Airport Hao HOI NTTO 3 987 Tatakoto Airport Tatakoto TKV NTGO 4 987 Hikueru Airport Hikueru HHZ NTGH 2 987 Tetiaroa Airport Tetiaroa TTI NTTE 2 987 Atuona Airport Hiva Oa HIX NTMN 3 Minimal use 987 Tikehau Airport Tikehau TIH NTGC 4 987 Huahine Airport Huahine HUH NTTH 2 987 Mataura Airport Tubuai TUB NTAT 3 987 Katiu Airport Katiu NTKT 3 987 Tureia Airport Tureia ZTA NTGY 0

186 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 187 987 Ua Huka Airport Ua Huka UAH NTMU 0 Minimal use 3.2 / AIRPORT 987 Ua Pou Airport Ua Pou UAP NTMP 37 Minimal use

987 Vahitahi Airport Vahitahi VHZ NTUV 451 VULNERABILITY 987 Aratika Perles Airport Aratika NTGR 53 TO CLIMATE CHANGE 987 Totegegie Airport Totegegie GMR NTGJ 35

988 Tiga Airport Tiga TGJ NWWA 39

988 Poé Airport Bourail NWWB 2

988 Waala Airport Île Art BMY NWWC 93 Minimal use Technical Information from the Technical Civil 988 Koné Airport Koné KNQ NWWD 7 Aviation Service (TCAS), CS 30012 31 Avenue du Maréchal Leclerc – 94385 BONNEUIL- 988 Moué Airport Île des Pins ILP NWWE 97 SUR-MARNE CEDEX. In Toulouse: 9, avenue 988 Koumac Airport Koumac KOC NWWK 13 du Docteur Maurice Grynfogel - BP 53735 to 31037 TOULOUSE CEDEX 988 Lifou Wanaham Airport Lifou LIF NWWL 28

988 Nouméa Magenta Airport Nouméa GEA NWWM 3

988 Poum Malabou Airport Poum PUV NWWP 2

988 Maré La Roche Airport Maré MEE NWWR 42 ONE OF THE AXES CLIMATIC HAZARDS AND THEIR OF THE NATIONAL ADAPTATION IMPACT ON AIRPORTS 988 La Foa Oua Tom Airport La Foa NWWT 30 PLAN TO CLIMATE CHANGE Several climatic hazards were selected from 988 Touho Airport Touho TOU NWWU 3 The study entrusted to TCAS is part of the different sources (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, synthesis of climate scenarios, 988 Ouvéa Ouloup Airport Ouvéa UVE NWWV 7 National Adaptation Plan to Climate Change (NAPCC), whose aim is to prepare France to January 2011, led by J. JOUZEL under the 988 Nouméa La Tontouta NAPCC, Meteo-France data, etc.). Nouméa NOU NWWW 16 Mixed cope with the effects of global warming. The International Airport NAPCC includes a section on transport systems; The potential impacts of these climate hazards the French Directorate General for Civil Aviation were identified based on feedback from operators 988 Canala Airport Canala NWWX 2 is in charge of the air transport section. and from the status of existing structures.

The study was conducted in 3 stages Three «issues» were selected as they characterise which parts of an airport could suffer from • Stage 1: identifying key climatic hazards, their the impact of climate change: infrastructure potential impacts on airport infrastructure (manoeuvring area, access roads, parking lots, and specific technical references. etc.), buildings (terminals, control tower, etc.), • Stage 2: developing a methodology to and operations. evaluate airport vulnerability and to test it. • Stage 3: apply the method to representative platforms to assess their vulnerability. IMPACTS ON INFRASTRUCTURE • Take-off distances can be affected in some cases and runways need to be extended or an

188 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 189 aircraft’s take-off weight needs to be reduced; • temporary closures of runways or taxiways • accelerated wear of airport runways and due to flooding after periods of heavy rain; taxiways; • different bird species and wider distribution • weakened soil foundations, deterioration of areas, more birds in the vicinity of the airport manoeuvring zones, shrinking/swelling clay thereby increasing the risk of avian accidents. particles; • less demand for de-icing products, less pollution and resulting soil degradation; VUCLIM: A METHOD TO • in the case of flooding in manoeuvring zones, DIAGNOSE AN AIRPORT’S the construction of protections is required; EXPOSURE TO CLIMATE Assessment of vulnerability resembles a two- • collapsed coastal infrastructure; way table including on the one hand, the climate CHANGE hazards that are likely to have an impact on the • non optimal runway orientation due to a airport, and on the other, the different aspects of change in the direction of prevailing winds. the issues faced by the airport Methodology IMPACTS ON BUILDINGS The proposed method maps risks. Its main • higher temperatures inside terminals and advantage is that it summarises each stage control towers; of a vulnerability analysis and thus provides • less need for heating; a readable accessible end result. First, the approach consists of doing a detailed analysis • increased need for air conditioning; of the airport (or of the problem) to obtain • fire risks, closure of airports bordering forests; detailed information on the «transport» aspect • flooding, submersion of coastal terminals; (the issue, vulnerability to known malfunctions such as breakdowns, which are prerequisites • shrinking/swelling clay particles causing to solve the issue, and second, define climate cracks in buildings ; change scenarios in which a climate hazard • destruction of frangible or mobile elements is clearly identified and a specific scenario is (passenger boarding bridges); clarified. Analysis of future climate vulnerability is • partial and total destruction of buildings. complex because we need to grasp a situation that does not yet exist. This type of analysis IMPACTS ON OPERATIONS predicts the climatic aspects of the territory (average and extreme characteristics). Analysing • problems of visibility caused by smoke from past events and feedback are an important forest fires in the event of droughts and heat part of the approach, especially in grasping waves; extreme weather events, and is indispensable • inoperable runways due to more frequent, for vulnerability analysis. Comparing the two stronger crosswinds; analyses (airport and climatic hazard issues) • temporary runway closures due to FODs make it possible to look at it from two angles: the (Foreign Object on Debri) after storms or high probability of a hazard occurring versus the level winds; of impact of the climate hazard on the issue; the output is the actual risk. • airport closures due to cyclones, storm alerts or after a storm or cyclone, isolation of territories (including French overseas territories); • fewer air traffic interruptions and/or delays due to bad winter weather conditions; • more difficult working conditions on aprons, leading to absenteeism;

190 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 191 APPLYING THE METHODOLOGY to NICE COTE D’AZUR AIRPORT

CHARACTERISTICS: • Nice is the third biggest airport in France with over 11 million passengers in 2012 a total of 176,400 take offs and landings; • it covers a surface area of 370 ha, of which 200 ha are built in the sea; • two runways; • two terminals; • in 2010, 21% of flights were cancelled due to bad weather conditions.

Nice Côte d’Azur Airport’s vulnerability grid, Some sea swells disrupt airport operations by which was filled in in collaboration with the depositing stones on the runways, flooding operator, reveals its strengths (yellow and green some of the manoeuvring areas or preventing NICE COTE D’AZUR PREVENTION zones) and weaknesses (orange and red zones) the evacuation of runoff. The vulnerability of the in the face of climate change. airport to these phenomena will increase with VULNERABILITY DIAGNOSTIC DIAGNOSIS the predicted rise in sea level. MAPPING As Nice Airport’s runway system is partly built The projection of a vulnerability grid represents on the sea and is low-lying, it will be vulnerable the degree of vulnerability, here in blue. to overtopping in strong swells and this An airport’s vulnerability is high if the blue phenomenon will be more frequent due to the area is predominant. Most of Nice Airport’s rise in sea level. «Côte d’Azur Airports» has components are in the zero or low vulnerability conducted maintenance of the existing sea zone. Vulnerability is higher on two issues, dyke. Works to reinforce the riprap protecting the runway system and aircraft navigation the runways from overtopping on the airport’s equipment, and light beacons. In fact, if one seafront side, particularly runway entrances and refers to the vulnerability matrix, the vulnerability exits were undertaken between 2011 and 2013 of the runway system and aircraft navigation for a total cost of 10.4 million Euros. equipment and light beacons is average (orange) , the vulnerability of the «runway» is high (red).

192 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 193 References • http://infoterre.brgm.fr and www.argiles.fr identify geographical areas subject to low, • www.circeproject.eu European research medium or high risk of clay shrinkage/swelling 3.3 / VULNERABILITY project on climate change; phenomenon http://infoterre.brgm.fr; • http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ • http://imfrex.mediasfrance.org extreme climate-impacts-and-vulnerability-2012, OF AIRPORTS IN FRENCH phenomena, wind and rainfall (in French); European Environment Agency website, page dedicated to climate change; • Site http://imfrex.mediasfrance.org/web OVERSEAS TERRITORIES gives information on the frequency of wind, • http://onerc.org/ National Observatory on the temperature and rainfall extreme phenomena Effects of Global Warming; due to the impacts of anthropogenic changes; TO CLIMATE CHANGE • www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/ • http://pluiesextremes.meteo.fr site dedicated Scenarios-regionalises-janvier NAPCC to «extreme rainfall» which aims to advise on validated climate scenarios (in French); the frequency of such events and presents the • www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/ most important ones in France, from 1958 to pdf/UCC-ONERC-complet.pdf NAPCC 2009 (in French); related website (in French). • http://flood.firetree.net rising water simulator, • www.drias-climat.fr a website that aims to give developed by Google. Most airports in overseas territory are located regionalised (France) climate projections; on the coastal strip and are thus at very low • -www.prim.net Ministry for major risks website altitude; generally these structures are exposed (in French); and vulnerable. • http://www.cnrm-game.fr/spip. php?article531 National Weather Research Center, World Meteorological Organisation studies;

The following airport infrastructure should be • runways and airstrips likely to be covered with considered as sensitive: marine and other debris; • roadways: rapidly wear, weakening road • runways and airstrips likely to be partly structures and soil foundations that are more damaged by landslides; sensitive to water (particularly clay) when in • airstrips’ riprap protections; contact with groundwater tables, which can may necessitate the review of PCN; • aboveground equipment exposed to violent winds; • any building superficially built on soils that are sensitive to variations in moisture is likely to • runways may remain unusable for quite a long develop large or small cracks; time following a catastrophic situation requiring emergency relief services (on site storage); • runway flooding: total submersion and/or rising waters blocking sewage outlets, rendering the • under average climate changes, short runways situation described in the previous sentence will require altering: if the average temperature even worse; increases substantially, aircraft weight and the operating conditions will need changing • light beacons and electric navigation (i.e. the aircraft’s take-off weight), or a runway assistance systems can be disrupted by rising extension will be required, otherwise plan waters and rainfall; PORs; • terminals and other buildings whose floor • air conditioning in technical buildings housing levels are liable to flooding, submersion, sensitive electronic equipment (control especially operational buildings essential to systems) will need to be reinforced, possibly aircraft movement, including FOD (Foreign also in buildings that are open to the public; Object Damage); 194 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 195 • runway orientation: if the prevailing wind, which • airport visibility: average visibility, difficult in originally determined the orientation of the cloudy weather; runway, permanently changes direction, the • interrupted service during low depressions appendix 4 runway will have to be closed beyond a certain or cyclone alerts: airports may be closed as limit due to the many QFR risks. Rebuilding a precaution during these weather conditions could be considered, but often at another site and afterwards for repairs. (the case in narrow atolls); • light weight, fragile components (especially in aircraft accidents), mobile units, roofs etc., and airplanes (untimely departures) subject to violent winds; 4.1 / MEANING OF FRENCH AND INTERNATIONAL ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 3.4 / CONSTRUCTION • ADEME: Agency for Environment and Energy • ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization OF MAJOR PORTS IN Management. – an international organisation under the United • AEP: Drinking water supply. Nations’ authority. Its role is to participate in developing international aviation transport OVERSEAS TERRITORIES • AFD: French Development Agency. standards. • ANC: Non-Collective Sewerage system. • ICPE: Facilities subject to Environmental • ARDA: Reunion Island Association for the Protection Statutes- List of facilities subject Since 1st January 2013, France has four new Development of Aquaculture . to an authorisation or declaration by decree major ports in overseas territories. This was the whose exploitation presents severe hazards result of five law enforcement decrees on the • CC: Climate Change. or could inconvenience the neighbourhood, reform of ports in French overseas territories • CETMEF: Centre for Marine and Fluvial or health, safety, public safety, agriculture, the under the February 22, 2012 Law, published on Technical Studies. protection of nature and environment or the October 2, 2012. • DGAC : French Directorate General for conservation of sites and monuments (Act 76- 663 of 19/07/76). The new public ports replace Guadeloupe’s Civil Aviation. autonomous port, and three ports of national • DIG: Declaration of General Interest – An • IEDOM: Central Bank for French Overseas interest run by the local Chambers of Commerce operation is declared of public interest by territories. IEDOM ensures territorial monetary and Industry in Fort-de-France (Martinique), prefectural decree after a public inquiry. This continuity, delegated by France’s Central Bank, Degrad-des-Cannes (French Guyana) and Le declaration enables the use public funds for a in five of its Overseas departments. Port-Reunion (Reunion Island). recognised problem of general interest in the • IEOM: Central Bank for French Overseas private domain. Countries - It is the Central Bank for French • EEZ: Exclusive Economic Zone. Pacific Overseas communities (New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna). • FAD: Fish Aggregating Devices. • IFRECOR: French Initiative for Coral Reefs. • FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the Founded in 1999, to protect and sustainably United Nations manage coral reefs and related ecosystems • FRMP: Flood Risk Management Plan. (mangroves, seagrass meadows) in French • HWIP: Household Waste Incineration Plants. overseas territories and collectivities; it is made up of a national panel and a network of 8 local • IATA: International Air Transport Association. committees representing French authorities

196 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 197 that have coral reefs: Guadeloupe, Martinique, • Polmar Plan: Rapidly neutralises an oil spill in Reunion, Mayotte, Eparses islands, New a port or at sea. Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna and French • POS: Land Use Plan. 4.2 / LIST OF Polynesia. • PPNR: Plans for the Prevention of Natural • IFREMER: French Research Institute for Risks. TABLES Exploitation of the Sea. • RCP: Representative Concentration Pathways • IPCC: Intergovernment Panel on Climate - To improve our responsiveness, the Scientific Change. community has defined four representative • IUCN: International Union for the Conservation profiles of changes in greenhouse gas of Nature. concentrations. Table 1: Main characteristics of Representative Concentration Pathways p. 22 • LPRP: Coastal Risk Prevention Plan 1997. • RDP: Rural Development Programme. (Moss et al Nature 2010). • Taking into account the risk of sea • RPP: Risk Prevention Plan. submersion, the methodological framework • RSP: Rapid submersion plans. Table 2: Predicted temperature and rainfall between now and 2099. p. 22 dates from 1997, and should be updated Scenario A1B - IPCC 2007. The unpredictable ranges (quartiles 25/75%) and incorporate climate change; • SCOT: Territorial Coherence Scheme – a are in brackets (Extracted from: Petit J and Prudent G. 2008, Climate Change • Marine Strategy Framework Directive strategic urban planning document, for several and biodiversity in the EU Overseas territories. IUCN, Brussels. 196 pp). (MSFD); municipalities or groups of municipalities, • Integrated Coastal Zone Management which sets out the fundamental organisation Table 3: Importance of coastal protection structures in coastal zones of French p. 55 (ICZM); of the territory and changes in urban areas in overseas territories, geomorphologic locations and environmental pressures. • Coastal planning Schemes (SMVM); order to preserve a balance between urban and industrial areas, tourism, agricultural and Table 4: Airports in overseas territories and their geomorphologic location. p. 75 • Coastal Regional development plans (SAR) nature areas. Established by the Solidarity and and Sustainable development and planning Urban Renewal Act of December 13, 2000, it Table 5: The size of structures in coastal areas of French overseas territories, p. 88 plans (PADD). sets goals for various public housing policies, their geomorphologic location and environmental pressures • LUP: Local Urban Planning – a communal economic development, and urban mobility. environmental pressures: zero: 0, low: * average **, high: ***). planning document drafted by the Urban • SDAL: Master Plan for Coastal Management. Solidarity and Renewal (USR) law of 13th Table 6: Different types of hotel complexes in the coastal areas of French p. 127 December 2000. It replaces the Land Use Plan • SDAU: Urban Development Plan. overseas territories and collectivities, geomorphological location and environmental pressures. (Type of hotel complex: and sets out land use rules. It can also contain • SRDAM: Guyana’s Regional Marine Type 1: Lightweight structures consisting of bungalows, operational planning projects such as existing Aquaculture Development Plan. neighbourhood amenities or new public spaces Type 2: Concrete buildings in a landscaped park; • SRES: Special Report on Emission Scenarios or a town’s access roads, etc. The USR law is Type 3: Concrete buildings in landscaped grounds with a lot of structures; - Scenarios produced by the IPCC. Law No. 2000-1208 of 13th December 2000 Type 4: Large hotel complexes. Please refer to Chapter 3.1.1 for urban solidarity and renewal. • SS: Suspended solids. for the full definition of the different types of complexes). • MDP: Maritime Public Domain. • SWAC: Sea Water Air Conditioning, cooling Table 7: Data from the ONF and National Forest Inventory 2007-2011 p. 158 process using the ocean’s deep cold water. • MEDDE: Ministry of Ecology, Energy and Sustainable Development. • TAAF: Southern and Antarctic French Table 8: Major impacts of climate change on infrastructures and their effect p. 164 territories. on coral reefs and related ecosystems. • MRE: Marine renewable energies. • TAC: Combustion turbines. • NAPCC: National Adaptation Plan to Climate Table 9: Components of a diagnostic survey of existing infrastructure, p. 165 Change. • TCAS: Technical Civil Aviation Service. adaptation measures to limit deterioration of existing infrastructure and to prevent damage to planned future structures. • ONERC: French National Observatory of the • TME: Thermal marine energy. Effects of Climate Change. • UAA: Useful agricultural area. • PE: Population equivalent is a unit of measure • WMO: World Meteorological Organisation, defined as the organic biodegradable load United Nations’ authority on weather, climate requiring biological application oxygen in five and water. days (BOD5) 60 grams of oxygen per day. It makes it to easy to define the size of treatment • WWTP: Wastewater treatment plants. plants based on the polluting load.

198 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 199 • Clay: A mineral or rock consisting essentially SDAGE): This is a scheme for each large basin of clay minerals. They are characterized by the area. It was established by the 1992 Water Act. 4.3 / GLOSSARY small particle size, less than 3.9 um. • Matrix (silty or sandy): The encompassing • Evapotranspiration: The emission of water part of a rock made up of large elements, which vapour which results in two phenomena: can also be composed of smaller components evaporation, which is purely physical, and or an undifferentiated mass. plant transpiration. • Outfall : A place where water comes • Flow: Volume of water flowing through a river out of or can come out of an aquifer. cross-section per time unit. HYDROLOGY • Particle sizing: Study of the particle AND HYDROGEOLOGY • Hydrographical basin: Generally refers to a distribution of rocks according to size. The large catchment area. An area where all runoffs size categories are then defined based on a converge through a network of streams, rivers minimum and maximum diameter. • Alluvial deposits: River and lake sediment • Basin network: This network com- and, possibly lakes and flows into the sea via a consisting of small stones, gravel and sand priuses government departments and • Permeability: An environment’s ability to allow single river mouth, estuary or delta. often origination from lenticular deposits that agencies which provide or gather information a fluid (liquid or gas) to pass through it, typical vary depending on the regions they cross and on water and aquatic environments, at the of sandy or gritty land and cracked and karstic • Hydrometric stations: A hydrometric station on the strength of the current. The fine layers scale of a catchment. environments. is a structure built on a watercourse or a are clays and silts. water reservoir in order to measure its flow • Basket strainer: Perforated tube placed at • Piezometer: A device to measure fluid continuously. • Alterite: Superficial formation resulting from the bottom of a borehole, at the level of the pressure. In hydrology, this instrument is used on-site alteration and fragmentation of the rock aquifer. It acts as a filter by letting the water to measure the height of a water table at a • Inter-Service Organisation for Water base without noticeable transformation of the drain into the structure whilst giving support to given point in an aquifer system, indicating the (French acronym MISE): A departmental soil. the surrounding area. pressure at the point concerned. It indicates coordination structure for French State the level of free water or pressure. services (DDASS, DDAF, DDE, etc.) that aims • Aquifer: Permeable rock layer which allows a • Body of Water: A water boy is a stretch of to improve the legibility, effectiveness and significant flow of groundwater and captures water, a lake, pond, section of coastal waters, • Piezometric level: Water level measured in a coherence of administrative actions, primarily large quantities of water. An aquifer has that is part or all of one or several aquifers borehole by a piezometer. It characterises the in policing water in terms of managing water a saturated zone, but may also have an that are large enough to allow biological and pressure of the water table at a given point. It is and aquatic environments. unsaturated zone. physical-chemical processes to occur. It is measured against the mean sea level (0 MSL). homogeneous both in terms of quality and • Karstification: Process of dissolution of • Aquifer capacity: gravitating water from an quantity, justifying specific management. It • Plot survey: Survey to identify plots to be limestone by carbon dioxide charged meteoric aquifer, depending on its total volume (average is the method of analysis used to implement expropriated and their real estate rights. It gives waters. or maximum) of saturated rock and its storage WFD. rise to transferability by the city Commissioner. coefficient. It describes the functional capacity • Local Water Commission (CLE): A of an aquifer system. A capacitive aquifer when • Borehole: A well dug by a mechanical process • Porosity (interstitial porosity aquifers): Consultation Committee set up under the it can take a significant amount. (drill) in ground that is consolidated (or not), Porosity or the void fraction is a measure of the Water Law and established by the city for all purposes, except for reconnaissance spaces, interconnected or not, in a material or Commissioner, it is responsible for developing, • Aquifer Capture: capturing the aquifer for or observation structures , which is known as environment, and is a fraction of the volume reviewing and monitoring a water development water supply and whatever other use. sounding. of voids over the total volume. An aquifer in and management plan (SAGE). Its composition a porous environment is characterised by a is fixed by law and specified by a decree (half • Artesian: In broad terms, this refers to a well • Captive water table: Part of or a water table set of sedimentary materials like gravel, sand, are elected representatives, one quarter are or borehole in which the water rises higher with no open surface area, thus subject to silt, incorporating an area saturated in water user representatives, and one quarter are than its source level, or to wells in which water greater pressure than atmospheric pressure allowing water to pass or a water table to flow State representatives). The president must be emerges at the surface. In both cases, wells or and whose piezometric surface is larger than through the pores and capturing significant a member of the elected representatives and is boreholes use a captive water table. the top cover of the aquifer. quantities of water for different uses. This type elected by them. of aquifer is found in alluvial areas and coastal plains where sediments have accumulated • Master Plan for the Development and over geological time. Management of Water (French acronym

200 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 201 • Public Utility obligations: Administrative of 23rd October 2000). It was transposed into • The Eastern Pacific (off Central America and obligations annexed to the Local urban planning French law under Law No. 2004-338 of April around Hawaii) area is administered by the in Article L. 126-1 of the Town Planning Code. 21, 2004. Miami Hurricane Centre which uses the same A public utility obligation is the public’s safety terminology as in the Antilles and the USA - © and security; a heritage protection can be • Watershed: A land area supplying rivers or 2010 Meteo France. added to it, as can the use of certain resources lakes, similar to an outlet, where surface water • http://webissimo.developpement-durable. and equipment, and national defence. drains off or comes from under the surface and gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/C_1101_cle2a11a2.pdf flows into one place. • Recharge: Natural increase in hydraulic load: • GLIDE: Critical area of an aircraft’s landing the difference in pressure due to a rise in the • Well: Any excavation dug from the surface of descent course; water table within a specific timeframe. the ground • Helipad: A helipad is a helicopter landing area. • Saltwater intrusion: Part of a coastal aquifer This type of platform does not provide heliport invaded by saltwater from the aquifer’s base services such as fuel supplies or weather AIRPORT and a fresh/saltwater interface. This saltwater services, nor air traffic control; intrusion is usually the consequence of an • Hydrant system: A pipe network which overexploited aquifer. • CHEA: Procedures required for airport supplies fuel from the airport’s storage facilities operational approval regulations; to the tarmac; • Stage graph: Graphical representation of variations in the surveyed water level at a • Commercial Aviation: Commercial transport • IATA: International Air Transportation given point (wells, piezometer), registered of passengers or cargo on regular routes. The Association, a trade association for all the by a limnigraph or based on successive term «General Aviation» is used for all other world’s airlines; instantaneous readings. flights; • ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization • Sub-watersheds: Areas in which all runoff • Cyclone, low depression, hurricane: is under the authority of the United Nations. Its converges, through a series of streams, rivers • Global terminology: role is to participate in developing international and possibly lakes to a specific water body aviation transport standards; • In the French Antilles, the term cyclone was (normally a lake or a confluence). used for violent cyclones that reached the • Instrument landing system, which includes hurricane stage. It was important to harmonise ILS: • Water Development and Managing Scheme the landing course transmitter, the «localiser» terminology used throughout the region, (SAGE): This scheme is a tool for a local and descent course the «Glide path», and Miami’s Specialised Centre is the authority on water planning policies to ensure a coherent distance information; the matter. Since 1986, the term «hurricane» is hydrographical unit. It was established by the used to describe cyclones with intense winds. 1992 Water Act. • PAPI: Set of 4 red lights (2 for «APAPI») which • However, the Creole language continues to check the correct final altitude approach; • Water Distribution Zones (ZRE): Defined use the word «siclon» so the terms cyclone and under the April 29, 1994 Decree, these are hurricane are sometimes confusing. However, • Runway clearance zones: Zones to reduce areas where there are insufficient resources meteorologists identify the phenomenon using the risks of damage to aircraft if they come compared to needs, excluding exceptional its different intensities (tropical depression, off the runway, part of its surface is levelled in circumstances; the decree aims to reconcile tropical storm, hurricane). case they accidentally need to use it; the interests of different water users; the • In the Indian Ocean, we talk about tropical authorisation and declaration of nomenclature depressions, storms (moderate or strong • Runway unobstructed zones: These thresholds therein are binding. according to the wind’s strength) and cyclones, zones must remain free of obstacles, they the latter can be distinguished by the difference surround the clearance zones and are part • Water Framework Directive (WFD): The in intensity between intense and very intense. of the obstacle limitation surfaces «OLS» or Water Framework Directive is the European aeronautical clearance surfaces; • In the Western Pacific (China Seas, Japan, directive that establishes a framework for including Philippines and surrounding area), Community action in the water domain the term «typhoon» is used, if it is very intense (Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Council (super-typhoon) or not.

202 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 203 • IFP New energies: www.ifpenergiesnouvelles. INTER-REGIONAL fr/ 4.4 / MINISTRIES AND INTER-DEPARMENTAL • National Institute of Geographic Information DEPARTMENTS and Forestry (IGN): www.ign.fr/ AND departments • National Institute for Industrial Environment • 4 Inter-regional directorates for the sea (DIRM) and Risks (INERIS): www.ineris.fr/ in mainland France and 4 in regional overseas • French Institute of Science and Technology, territories transport, development and networks • 11 Inter-departmental directorates of roads (IFSTTAR): www.ifsttar.fr/ (DIR). • National Road Safety and Research Institute (INSERR): www.inserr.org/ MINISTRIES • Civil Aviation Safety (DSAC): http: //www. The inter-departmental directorates, particularly developpement-durable.gouv.fr/-Directions- for territories and the sea also work under their • Institute for Radiological Protection and de-la-Securite-de-l-.html respective ministries. Nuclear Safety (SNRIs): www.irsn.fr/ • Ministry of Ecology, Energy and Sustainable • Air Navigation Services (DSNA): http: //www. • Meteo-France: www.meteofrance.com/ Development: www.developpementdurable. This is also the case of the Directorate of gouv.fr/ developpementdurable.gouv.fr/-Navigation- • National Agency for Water and Aquatic aerienne-.html Equipment (DE) for communities in French • State Secretariat for Transport, Sea and overseas territories. environments (ONEMA): www.onema.fr/ Fisheries, attached to the Minister of Ecology, • Airport tax service (SGTA): http://lannuaire. • National Forestry Office (ONF): www.onf.fr/ Energy and Sustainable Development: service-public.fr/services_nationaux/service- MEDDE is a unique or shared directorate of the a-competence-nationale_432489.html • National Hunting and Wildlife Office (ONCFS): http://www.developpementdurable.gouv.fr/ following public institutions: www.oncfs.gouv.fr/ Transports,1310-.html • National airport engineering services (SNIA): • French Marine Protected Areas Agency • The seven major seaports • Ministry of French Overseas territories: http: // http: //www.rst.developpementdurable.gouv. (AMPA): www.aires-marines.fr/ www.Outremer.gouv.fr/ fr/snia-r75.html • The five autonomous ports: two in mainland • Agency for Environment and Energy France, and three in the overseas territories • Technical Civil aviation Service (TCAS): www. Management (ADEME): www.ademe.fr/ stac.aviation-civile.gouv.fr/ • Some urban planning agencies • Agency for Food, Environmental and • Electrical energy and large dams technical Occupational Health Safety (ANSES, which • Some public land institutions (EPF) DEPARTMENTS service (STEEGB): http: //lannuaire.service- has replaced AFSSET, formerly AFSSE): • Some public planning development institutions WITH NATIONAL public.fr/services_nationaux/Service-a- https://www.anses.fr/ (EPA) competence-nationale_179159.html JURISDICTION • National Housing Agency (ANAH): www.anah. • Environmental Training Institute (IFORE): www. fr/ ifore.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/ • Center for tunnel studies (CETu): www. cetu. • National Agency for Radioactive Waste Texts developpement-durable.gouv.fr/ Since 1st January 2014, the French organisations Management (ANDRA): www.andra.fr/ th • Center for engineering and IT services CERTU, CETMEF, SETRA and the 8 CETE • Geology and Mining Research Institute • Decree No. 2008-680 of 9 July 2008 on (CP2i): http://lannuaire.servicepublic.en/ are grouped together in a new public institution (BRGM): www.brgm.fr/ the structure and function of the Ministry of services_nationaux/service-a-competence- called CEREMA (Centre for Studies and Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development • Centre for Studies and expertise on Risks, the and Spatial Planning; national_185900.html Expertise on Risks, Environment, Mobility and Environment and Urban Mobility (CEREMA): th • DGAC information systems and modernisation Development). www.cerema.fr/ • Decree No. 2012-772 of 24 May 2012 on department: http: // lannuaire. service-public. the responsibilities of the Minister of Ecology, In French overseas territories, this service • Scientific Centre and Technical Building Energy and Sustainable Development’s fr/services_nationaux/service-a-competence- (CSTB): www.cstb.fr/ nationale_430478.html is called DEAL (Regional Department for powers; Environment, Planning and Housing) and has • Coastal Conservatory (CELRL): www. • Decree No. 2012-805 of June 9th, 2012 on the • Department for Human Resources only existed since 1st January 2011. conservatoire-du-littoral.fr/ Development (CMVRH): http://www. Minister’s authority to the Ministry of Ecology, developpement-durable.gouv.fr/ • Commission for Atomic and alternative energy Energy and Sustainable Development, in (CEA2): www.cea.fr/ charge of maritime transport and economy. • National Centre for Emergency Bridges (CNPS): www.cnps.developpement-durable. • French Research Institute for the Exploitation gouv.fr/ of the Sea (IFREMER): www.ifremer.fr/

204 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 205 Ferrario Filippo., Beck Michael W., Storlazzi temperatures: bleaching of outer reef slope Curt D., Micheli Fiorenza, Christine C., Shepard, communities in Moorea, French Polynesia ». Mar 4.5 / BIBLIOGRAPHY Airoldi Laura, «The effectiveness of coral reefs for EcolProgSer 121:181-190. coastal hazard risk reduction and adaptation», Nature Communications. Howes.E, Joos.F, Eakin.M, Gattuso.J.P., « The Oceans 2015 Initiative, Part I. An updated Gabrié C., You H., avec la collaboration de synthesis of the observed and projected impacts Farget.P, 2006, « L’État de l’Environnement en of climate change on physical and biological Polynésie française ». Rapport pour le Ministère processes in the oceans », STUDIES N°02/2015. du Développement et de l’Environnement de IDDRI, 2015. 52 P., Polynésie française. 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206 / Collection The impact of climate change on infrastructures in coastal and inter-tropical marine zones 207 Mondon.S., Imbert.M., 2013, « Découvrir Richez N.,2011, « Comment développer un Worliczek E., juin 2013, « Migrations et capacités For more information les nouveaux scénarios RCP et SSP utilisés assainissement durable dans les DOM », École d’adaptation des sociétés insulaires du Pacifique par le GIEC », Ministère de l’Écologie, du des Ponts-Paritech. face au changement climatique », Thèse de Some website and links: Développement Durable et de l’Énergie, 5éme doctorat Université de la Nouvelle-Calédonie. • IFRECOR website: http://www.ifrecor.com rapport du GIEC (2013-2014). STAC, 2007, « Note technique sur la problématique de la pollution des sols WWF, 2009, « Le triangle de corail face au • SIRECCO website (IFRECOR’s website with Petit J., Prudent G., 2008, « Changement aéroportuaires ». changement climatique, des écosystèmes, des resources on Climate change and Overseas climatique et biodiversité dans l’Outre-mer personnes et des sociétés fortement menacés », territories): http://portail-scientifique.univ-nc.nc européen », UICN, Bruxelles. 196p. Sergent P. (Coordinateur), 2012, SAO POLO The University of Queensland. • ONERC website (French National Observatory (Stratégies d’adaptation des ouvrages de for the effects of climate change): http://www. Planton S. et al., Février 2012, « Évolution du protection maritime ou des modes d’occupation developpement-durable.gouv.fr/-Impacts-et- niveau de la mer », Le climat de la France au du littoral, vis-à-vis de la montée du niveau adaptation-ONERC-.html XXIème siècle, Volume 3, Ministère de l’Écologie, de la mer et des océans), « Procédure pour • http://www.brgm.fr/projets/explore-2070- du Développement Durable, des Transports et la définition du renforcement des ouvrages et relever-defi-changement-climatique du Logement. stratégie d’adaptation », Rapport final Août -GICC N°09.000683 Sao Polo. • http://www.eau-mer-fleuves.cerema.fr/ OMMM, 2005, « Suivi de l’état de santé des récifs publications-et-phototheque-r6.html coralliens de Martinique, campagnes 2005 ». UICN France, 2014, « Développement des Énergies marines renouvelables et Préservation ONERC, 2012, « Les Outre-mer face au défi du de la Biodiversité », Synthèse à l’usage des changement climatique» , Rapport au Premier décideurs. ministre et au Parlement. Fish and coral reef, Guadeloupe. Photo: © Franck Mazéas Salvat B. et Lallemand D., 2009, « Acidification Ouzeau G.et al.,2014, « Le climat de la France et les récifs coralliens », CRISP. du XXIéme siècle, Scénarios régionalisés pour la métropole et les régions d’Outre-mer », Volume Valiela, I., Bowen, J.L., York, J.K., 2001. 4, édition 2014. « Mangrove forests: one of the world’s threatened major tropical environments », Bioscience 51, Rapports annuels de l’IEDOM (Institut 807–815. d’Émission des Départements d’Outre-mer) et de l’IEOM (Institut d’Émission d’Outre-mer) pour Virly S., Marchand C, Duke N,C, Laurent V. les collectivités d’Outre-mer du Pacifique. 2007, « Typologie et biodiversité des mangroves de Nouvelle-Calédonie ». Rapports ZONECO. Rapport de la mission d’étude sur les énergies marines renouvelables adressée en Mars 2013 Walsh, G.E., 1974. « Mangroves », areview, In au ministère du redressement productif, au Reimo. ministère de l’écologie, du développement durable et de l’énergie, au ministère chargé des Weatherdon.L., Rogers.A., Sumaila.R., transports, de la mer et de la pêche. Magnan.A., Cheung.W.L, 2015, « An updated understanding of the observed and projected Rapport UAG. Observatoire du milieu marin impacts of oceanwarming and acidification on martiniquais, 62 pages. marine and coastal socioeconomic activities/ sectors », The Oceans Initiative, Part II. Richer de Forge B., Garrigue C., 1997, « First observations of a major coral bleaching in New Wilkie M.L., Fortuna S., 2003, « Part 1: Global Caledonia (abstract), Marine Benthic Habitat and overview. In: Status and trends in mangrove their living resources: Monitoring, Management area extent worldwide », Forest Resources et applications to Pacific island nations », Assessment Working Paper No. 63. Forest Nouméa 10-16. Resources Division. FAO, Rome. Available via DIALOG.

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