KHELOBEDU CULTURAL EVOLUTION THROUGH ORAL TRADITION by MOYAHABO ROSINAH MOHALE submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of MASTERS OF ARTS in the subject AFRICAN LANGUAGES at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: DR P PHAAHLA FEBRUARY 2014 i STUDENT NO: 44542356 DECLARATION I Moyahabo Rosinah Mohale declare that KHELOBEDU CULTURAL EVOLUTION THROUGH ORAL TRADITION is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. ________________________ _______________________ Signature Date M.R Mohale ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to extend my sincere gratitude, first and foremost to Almighty God through Jesus Christ, whose guidance, mercy and compassion made the completion of this research possible. I also gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness and wholehearted appreciation to my Supervisor Dr Pinkie Phaahla for her keen commitment, encouragement, suggestions and tolerance throughout the course of this research. Very special thanks to my sister Agnes Mohale for her valuable contributions, support, motivation and encouragement which helped for the success of this research project. I would like to give a special thanks to my mother Anah Mohale and my brother Patrick for enduring my pain when I was hurting and supporting me in my journey throughout the research process. I would also like to thank Dagma Mamanyoha for being there for me when I needed his assistance. I wish to express my gratitude to Thamaga for his endless efforts in typing the draft of this research. Special thanks to my son Lethabo, my nephews and my nieces Tšhireletšo, Thamaga, Tšhegofatšo and Lesego for being patience with me when I could not attend to their needs during these hard times. I would also like to thank Sarah (Malapane) Mabulana who encouraged me to succeed in this endeavour. I also wish to express my gratitude to my friends and co-workers who encouraged and supported me throughout the research process. iii ABSTRACT This study set out to investigate Khelobedu cultural evolution through oral tradition. The purpose of this study was to investigate and interpret the nature, direction and magnitude of cultural evolution in relation to the Khelobedu culture. The study was qualitative in nature and a case study research design drawing on ethnographic methods was used. Data-gathering techniques included semi-structured and unstructured in-depth interviews, observations, field notes and focus group discussions. Theories of culture were used as the theoretical framework of this study. Data was analysed by means of content analysis. A number of findings emanated from this research project. First, Khelobedu culture has evolved substantively. Second, contact with other indigenous South African cultures also influenced the perceptions of the Balobedu people. Third, Christianity is one of the major factors that propelled the evolution of Khelobedu culture. Most of the participants described themselves as Christians and they demonstrated lack of interest in traditional practices. Fourth, appreciation of western culture has increased among the members of Balobedu. It was highlighted that the wide spread of technology and mass media makes western culture easily accessible and more appealing. Fifth, politics brought a change on how the Balobedu people conducted their legal and communal affairs. However there was also an indication that some of the values and practices were still valued by members of the tribe. For example language, value of respect and so forth. iv CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Background information about the Balobedu tribe 1 1.3 The genealogy of the rain queens 6 1.4 Statement of the research problem 10 1.5 Rationale for the research 11 1.6 Research aims and objectives 12 1.7 Research design and methodology 12 1.7.1 The research design 12 1.7.2 The method of researching 13 1.8 The data collection techniques 14 1.8.1 Interviews 14 1.8.2 Observations 15 1.8.3 Document analysis 15 1.9 Sampling 15 1.10 Ethical consideration 16 1.10.1 Securing access 16 1.10.2 Informed consent 16 1.10.3 Confidentiality and the right to privacy 17 1.11 Chapter breakdown 17 1.12 Summary 17 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 What is culture? 19 2.3 The theoretical framework 20 2.3.1 Cultural evolution 21 2.3.2 Culture as an adaptive process 22 2.3.3 The role of preferences in culture change 23 2.3.4 The role of socialisation in culture change 24 2.4 The dynamics of the institution of marriage 25 2.4.1 Same sex marriage 25 v 2.4.2 Marriage of close relatives 27 2.4.3 The payment of bride price (magadi) and the practice of wives as gifts 30 2.5 The role of a man’s sister (khadi) 32 2.6 Initiation 34 2.6.1 Female initiation 35 2.6.2 Male circumcision 38 2.6.3 Initiation practices in the Tsonga tribe 41 2.7 Rain making rituals 42 2.8 Religious practices 48 2.9 The significance of beer 56 2.10 Summary 58 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction 60 3.2 Methodological paradigm 61 3.3 The research design 62 3.4 The data collection techniques 64 3.4.1 Interviews 64 3.4.1.1 Unstructured in-depth interviews 65 3.4.1.2 Semi-structured face-to-face interviews 66 3.4.1.3 Challenges of focus- group-Semi-structured interview 67 3.4.2 Observations 68 3.4.3 Field-notes 69 3.5 Sampling 71 3.6 Ethical considerations 72 3.6.1 Informed consent 73 3.6.2 Confidentiality and the right to privacy 74 3.7 Trustworthiness of the study 74 3.7.1 Confirmability 74 3.7.2 Transferability 75 3.7.3 Credibility 75 3.7.4 Dependability 75 vi 3.8 Limitations encountered during the research 76 3.9 Summary 76 CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF DATA 4.1 Introduction 77 4.2 Phase 1: Semi-structured interviews 77 4.2.1 Theme 1: The discourse of culture 77 4.2.2 Theme 2: Celebrations 94 4.2.3 Theme 3: Marriage 100 4.2.4 Theme 4: Initiations 105 4.2.5 Theme 5: The role of khadi 110 4.2.6 Theme 6: Rituals 115 4.3 Phase 2: Results from the focus group interviews 121 4.3.1 Focus group theme 1: Young people’s perceptions on the concept of culture 121 4.3.2 Focus group theme 2: The paradox behind the institution of marriage 122 4.3.3 Focus group theme 3: Initiations 125 4.3.4 Focus group theme 4: Rituals 126 4.3.5 Focus group theme 6: Politics 127 4.4 Summary 127 CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS AND CONTEXTUALIZATION OF RESULTS 5.1 Introduction 129 5.2 Findings on the issue of the discourse of culture 129 5.2.1 Findings on the reminiscence of the cultural bygones 129 5.2.2 Findings on a culture stained by contemporary fragilities 131 5.2.3 Findings on valued traits of Khelobedu culture 135 5.2.4 Results of the focus group: Young people’s perceptions on the concept of culture 135 5.3 Findings on celebrations 136 5.4 Findings on marriage 137 vii 5.4.1 Findings cross cousin 137 5.4.2 Findings on arranged marriage 138 5.4.3 Findings on same sex marriage 139 5.4.4 Findings on the payment of bride price (magadi) and the practice of wives as gifts 140 5.4.5 Results on the focus group participants: The paradox behind the institution of marriage 141 5.5 Findings on initiations 143 5.5.1 Findings on female initiation 143 5.5.2 Findings on male initiations 143 5.5.3 Results of focus group interviews on initiations 144 5.6 Findings on the role of khadi 145 5.6.1 Findings on the role of khadi as a priestess of the family 146 5.6.2 Findings on the role of khadi as a counsellor 147 5.6.3 Results of focus group participants: The role of Khadi 147 5.7 Findings on rituals 148 5.7.1 Results of focus group interviews: Rituals 149 5.8 Summary 150 5.9 Recommendations 153 5.10 Suggestions for further research 154 5.11 Conclusion 154 BIBLIOGRAPHY 157 Annexure A: Individual interviews transcripts Annexure B: Focus group discussion transcripts Annexure C: Original interview questions for semistructured interviews Annexure D: Original interview questions for focus group discussion viii LIST OF TABLES Table: 2.1 Model of cultures as adapted from Douglas (1982) as cited in Wildavisky (1987:6) 24 Table 2.2: Summary of Lobedu rainmaking ritual and agricultural calendar as adapted from Murimbika (2006:142) 47 Table 3.1: Outline of the research methodology and process 60 Table 3.2: Diversity within the sampled participants 71 Table 4.1: The discourse of culture 78 Table 4.2: Celebrations 94 Table 4.3: Marriage 100 Table 4.4: Initiations 105 Table 4.5: The role of khadi 110 Table 4.6: Rituals 115 Table 4.7: The paradox behind the institution of marriage 123 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4.1 The Sekgapa dance performed by the Balobedu women at the inauguration of a village headwoman 94 Figure 4.2 Young initiates on their graduation day 108 Figure 4.3 Khadi communicate with the ancestors on behalf of family members 111 Figure 4.4 Villagers and members of the royal family 115 Figure 4.5 Sacred cows waiting to partake in the rain ritual ceremony 117 Figure 4.6 The malopo dance 118 1 CHAPTER 1 ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction In this chapter the study of Khelobedu culture is outlined briefly.