Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning Spring 2005, pp. 5-24

Community Service Learning in the Face of : Rethinking Theory and Practice

Novella Zett Keith Temple University

Globalization is a multifaceted phenomenon that does not yield easy definitions. The author examines three of its interconnected faces—neoliberalism, time-space compression, and —to trace their implications for two principles of service-learning practice: reciprocity and meeting community needs. The article reconceptualizes these two principles, concluding that interdependence is a better fit with the values and practices of the field than reciprocity; conceptions of community should emphasize difference and intersection of public and private spaces; and community needs should be defined to support citi- zenship action, public work, and social justice.

We can’t resist this trend if we just stick to sciously and in accordance with alternative values education because all the most human aspects and agendas, rather than simply comply with agen- of our societies are being commercialized. It’s das defined by dominant actors in society. Theory a worldwide battle we have to wage against the can thus be very practical, helping determine when excesses of economic modernization. and how to align practice with these important “A controversial debate,” Education Today trends as well as when to act in ways that counter Newsletter, UNESCO, July-September 2003 their negative effects. In fact, this article was prompted by the desire to understand how service- Trends in global economics, technology, commu- learning might best advance the social justice agen- nications, and people’s movements, documented by da that is an Other face of globalization (see Falk, writings in the growing field of globalization, leave 1999) and stands in opposition to its currently dom- little doubt that a historic juncture is upon us, with inant face—neoliberalism. This agenda draws its attendant challenges and opportunities. Writers strength from the commitment of much of the ser- have examined many of the implications of these vice-learning field to ways of knowing that are multifaceted trends for educational institutions but, engaged and dialogical, and practices that bridge the with few exceptions, have yet to address the inter- borders of difference and hierarchy—a commitment section of globalization and community service that speaks as much of a movement as it does of a learning. Concerns for diversity, , type of practice (see O’Byrne, 2001; Stanton, Giles, youth empowerment, community development, and & Cruz, 1999). the like which can be theorized as aspects of global- ization, are evident in the field’s literature and prac- Globalization: An Overview tice, but have not been linked through a theoretical It would be impossible to review globalization in a framework that could help service-learning educa- single article. The point here is to open a window that tors consider the implications of globalization for provides a broader perspective on service-learning. our work.1 The view is from the North, that is, from my person- Beginning this task is the purpose of this article, al and social location as a faculty member in a uni- which is necessarily exploratory rather than exhaus- versity in the United States, which influences what tive. Theoretical development is needed to avoid emerges as important for service-learning theory and responding piecemeal only to those aspects of glob- practice. In globalization parlance, the North stands alization that emerge into one’s view, without clari- for those countries (also termed developed or First ty about the more complex whole.2 As a complex World) that are at the core of world power, mostly ex- phenomenon that does not proceed inevitably in colonizers. The South includes countries that were directions beyond reach, globalization includes colonized (also termed developing, Third World, or some trends that may not be in our immediate con- periphery). While Northern, my view also encom- trol and thus call for adaptation; but there are always passes the dispersed and displaced: I am one of the fields of action where it is possible to respond con- in-between people—an immigrant forced into dias-

5 Keith pora by economic compulsion, and a border crosser. direct service, especially in areas from which the Globalization is a complex, multifaceted phenom- state is withdrawing, rather than the action of enon that is theoretically contested and does not engaged citizens acting in common to advocate yield easy definitions (Kellner, 2000). It is generally alternative visions. Time-space compression agreed that the practices that constitute what is now involves a change in how people experience time termed globalization have been growing over a long and space that is due to the communications revolu- period of time and have accelerated in the last quar- tion. For instance, people are now able to maintain ter century through technological innovations, the far flung ties that support multiple identities and communication revolution, and—with the fall of the constructions of belonging, so that it is hardly possi- Soviet Union in 1989—the removal of the checks ble to speak of the local community, as such. For its that the Soviet bloc and its allies constituted for the turn, the culture industry promotes tendencies spread of capital and its related institutions. toward , while also generat- Although these trends can be seen as evolutionary, ing new cultures and politics of resistance. There are their combined and accelerated effects over this peri- implications here for the community needs to be met od make a qualitative difference in how we live and through service-learning, such as the need for people act in our lives. to come together, across differences, to address local One influential political scientist, , and global issues and develop more expansive com- proposes that globalization entails “the intensifica- munities. Finally, globalism (also termed “globaliza- tion of worldwide social relations which link distant tion from below”) involves an emerging system of localities in such a way that local happenings are values and the attendant political and social move- shaped by events occurring many miles away and ments that stress difference, dialogue, and an ethic vice versa” (cited in Morrow & Torres, 2000, p. 29). of collective responsibility for the world. These val- Others speak of a fundamental restructuring of econ- ues provide strong support for service-learning prac- omy, politics, and culture, emphasizing the impact tices that advocate for multicultural and global citi- of corporate decisions and technological innovation zenship, and economic and social justice. on long-developing historical trends. For instance, These aspects of globalization are not separate but the global economy heightens the ongoing fragmen- interact dialectically: they involve trends and coun- tation of production processes and services across tertrends that mutually influence one another but the globe, through advances in communications exist in tension, as a unity of opposites. For instance, technology and information processing. At the polit- the excesses of privatization that come with eco- ical level, there is a shift in the role and importance nomic neoliberalism engender resistance from peo- of the nation-state, as financial and corporate actors, ples’ movements, while the technology and commu- international institutions, and global social move- nication revolution that supports the worldwide ments step in with different visions of a new “order” spread of capital also makes excesses and corruption to fill the vacuum in . Culturally, more visible. New social movements emerge and there are processes leading to homogenization connect, spreading a new ethos that is about “a rad- alongside a renewal of interest in and struggle for the ical reclaiming of the commons” (Klein, 2001). As local and the indigenous. These factors must be seen these new voices of difference emerge, they are also as interacting rather than isolated, and responsive to accompanied by a different kind of reclaiming—the the interests and actions of different social agents, attempt to return “home” to fundamentalist religion, rather than the result of blind forces. family values, and singular worldviews. I will conceptualize globalization in terms of three These three aspects of globalization provide a interconnected phenomena: neoliberalism, time- framework through which I will examine and recon- space compression, and globalism.3 Anticipating the ceptualize two important service-learning principles discussion below, neoliberalism takes the central (Billig, 2000; Honnet & Poulsen, 1989) that my tenets of free market economics and makes them review suggests most closely intersect with global- into the general principle for creating the good life ization theory: reciprocity and meeting community and good society. This translates into a view of peo- needs. The elements of globalization also interact in ple as rational choosers who seek to maximize their multiple ways with these principles. For instance, self-interest, and a preference for private property time-space compression is for (1990) and market competition over the role of the state as the most important cultural change derived from protector of the public good. This trend is propelling neoliberal . Globalism, as a universities, schools, and communities toward priva- carrier of postmodern difference, must confront the tization, entrepreneurship, measurable forms of autonomous modern individual and instrumental accountability, and new forms of poverty. The pre- rationality of neoliberalism. The dialogue that hap- ferred approach to service-learning here involves pens when difference talks back to this autonomous

6 Community Service Learning in the Face of Globalization individual has implications for how to conceptualize freedom of modern individuals, who, as self-regulat- the relationship between the server and served, ing subjects and self-seeking profit maximizers, replacing reciprocity with interdependence. Time- make choices guided by rational calculation rather space compression and globalism both relate to than by so-called traditional prejudices. Tyrannical identity, community, and values and thus have impli- states or communal traditions that interfere with this cations for how to define and meet the needs of com- process are thus impediments to human and social munities, pulling toward global citizenship and development. Following this trend, theorists of social justice. Service-learning educators are already neoliberalism, including Nobel laureate Milton doing much that conforms with these reconceptual- Friedman, equate freedom of choice in the market izations, so the issue is more about clearly aligning with true democratic participation. As the free theory and practice than about pointing in entirely (unfettered, competitive) market is considered supe- new directions. rior in meeting all human needs, most regulatory and The rest of this section involves an extended dis- redistributive activities assumed over cussion of the selected aspects of globalization. The time to safeguard the commons, provide for basic next section focuses on the service-learning princi- needs, and support equity and equal opportunity ples, exploring how they are transformed through (including schools, prisons, health care, social wel- interaction with globalization, while the conclusion fare, and so on) should be privatized, becoming the suggests some additional implications for service- province of either for-profits or charitable and vol- learning theory and practice. Putting the newly unteer organizations. Further, as government regula- defined principles into practice should increase the tion interferes with the proper workings of free mar- relevance of service-learning for students and com- kets, the sphere of government must be strictly lim- munities. These themes and their implications for ser- ited except in one crucial area: intervening to sup- vice-learning are presented in Figure 1, which pro- port the freedom of economic actors from state inter- vides a schematic guide for the rest of the discussion. ference. In the age of globalization, this means sup- The section on neoliberalism focuses mostly on port for unhampered freedom of trade, now safe- political-economic factors, including the impact of guarded by the . neoliberal globalization on poverty: as service-learn- There are, however, major differences between ing is frequently implicated in alleviating poverty, historical liberalism and current neoliberalism. the new dynamics that create it must be understood. Historical liberalism was about freeing (and creat- Cultural, social, and psychological implications of ing) the individual subject from the tyranny of tradi- neoliberalism that relate to the other aspects of glob- tion and freeing state subjects from the tyranny of alization are discussed in the sections that follow. the state. I will discuss the first in the next subsec- tions and only confine my comments here to the role Neoliberalism of the state. For John Locke, Adam Smith, and early Neoliberalism has been called a potent discourse theorists of liberal and free-market eco- (Fitzsimons, 2000), because it is not limited to any nomics (or competitive capitalism) the tyranny of given sphere of activity (say, the economy) but the state stood for royal encroachment on property offers instead a comprehensive theory of society that rights, including its support for the mercantilist sys- invokes universal laws and includes a theory of tem of trade (Held, 1995). Neoliberalism returns to human nature, political philosophy, and theory of original principles and applies them to a present that governance. I do not agree with Fitzsimons that is quite different from this history. Rather than strug- neoliberalism is the theoretical underpinning of the gling against a powerful tyrannical state, we have current wave of globalization (also see Rizvi, 2000); powerful financial and corporate actors using eco- rather, it has been emerging as the dominant govern- nomic and state power to further extend a reach that ment philosophy and policy in the United States, is global as well as personal. , anoth- Britain, and other Organization for Economic er Nobel laureate who chafed as a member of the Cooperation and Development (OECD)4 countries neoliberal “Washington consensus” (he was chair- since the 1980s and has been the underpinning of the man of the Council of Economic Advisors and chief global governance regime since the 1970s, through economist of the World Bank under President the policies of the International Monetary Fund Clinton), adds his support for this view: (IMF) and World Bank with regard to economic The end of the Cold War opened up new development in the South and the policies opportunities to try to create a new, global eco- of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since its nomic order…that was based more on a set of inception in the mid-1990s. principles, on ideology, on ideas of social jus- Liberalism sees the marketplace, whether of tice. The world had the chance to set up a level goods, services, or ideas, as central to the exercise of playing field. We missed that opportunity. . . .

7 Keith Figure 1 Three Aspects of Globalization with Implications for Service-Learning

NEOLIBERALISM TIME-SPACE GLOBALISM COMPRESSION

KEY POINTS ¥ People as interest-seeking ¥ Communications/ ¥ Grounded in difference profit maximizers and technology revolution ¥ Globalization from below rational choosers changes experience of time ¥ Postmodern philosophical ¥ Intensified privatization of and space perspective, decentered and state functions and ¥ Hypermobility of goods and multivocal deregulation in economy capital ¥ Acknowledges ¥ Democracy as freedom of ¥ Dissemination of cultural interconnectedness, choice in competitive private forms and information. interdependence, and markets ¥ Hypertransience struggles of Other. ¥ Tyrannical corporations, not ¥ Problematic social ¥ Dense network of global state solidarity and thin organizations and social ¥ Independent North (Self) community movements vs. dependent South (Other) ¥ Neoliberalism appropriates ¥ Values global ethics and to further own project social justice ¥ Facilitates emergence of globalism

EXPRESSIONS ¥ Disappearance of the ¥ Orientation to consumption ¥ Shift from independence- political (volunteer and and ready-made goods dependence to consumer, not citizen) (including community) interdependence ¥ Dual economy and ¥ Culture industry and ¥ Awareness of peripheralization of core colonization of lifeworld interconnection of local and ¥ Intensification of inequality, ¥ Disembedding from local global inequity, social divisions ¥ Increased need for ¥ New, decentralized ¥ Increased migration to connections democratic practices escape poverty ¥ Multiplicity and choice of ¥ Importance of dialogue and • Sharing of “bads” communities and identities surfacing/ addressing ¥ Race to bottom in North ¥ Supports both dialogue and conflicts and South flight into fundamentalisms ¥ Diversity as strength ¥ Deepening crises and global ¥ Potential for violence as disintegration resistance to new values practices

IMPLICATIONS ¥ Principles of reciprocity ¥ Community must be ¥ Service as public work for FOR SERVICE- and meeting community problematized social justice LEARNING needs are based on liberal/ ¥ Strengthen local community ¥ Conflicts and process of neoliberal view of people and ¥ Culture as resource for struggle as opportunities for society (rational, calculable community building learning across difference exchange) ¥ Need inward-oriented and ¥ Address power asymmetries ¥ Charity and service outward-oriented projects through communicative orientations fit well into that support identities and practices neoliberal agenda communities ¥ Create spaces for ¥ Need to resist ¥ Develop play and relational communicative democracy transformation of citizens dimensions of projects ¥ Recognize and develop all into consumers ¥ Honor and respect partners’ resources, assets, ¥ Need bridging social capital marginalized and capacities ¥ Need to reconstruct spaces ¥ Support dialogical and for citizen work communicative approaches to ¥ Need projects that address community problem solving new poverty

8 Community Service Learning in the Face of Globalization Most people . . . did not have a clear enough include , environmental restraints, and the vision of what we wanted or what should have like. Yet, neoliberal ideology does not countenance been created. But the commercial and financial such arrangements. interests did . . . . They wanted to seize this There is overwhelming evidence that neoliberal new opportunity to expand—to create a world economic policies foisted on the South through that would open up new markets for them- global governance and on the North through current selves, for the corporations of the advanced industrial countries. And they used the U.S. government policies vastly exacerbate inequities and government to advance that perspective. social divisions. Countries in the South that were (Stiglitz, n.d.) caught in the so-called debt trap and were con- strained to engage the global economy following the With the vast expansion of the capitalist system, neoliberal dictates of the IMF, termed structural supported by institutions of global governance, “the adjustment, did not fare well, with negative results market” becomes capable of tyranny, while the state, especially notable for the poorest. As Hans-Peter dwarfed by the corporation, turns into a willing ally Martin and Harold Schumann tell it, we are becom- and appendage of global capitalism. As David ing a “20-80 percent society—one where the great Korten remarks in his book, When Corporations majority, the 80 percent, live in poverty and with Rule the World, “we are ruled by an oppressive mar- hardly any decision-making power over conditions ket, not an oppressive state. . . . Market tyranny may affecting their lives, while the 20 percent live in be more subtle than state tyranny, but it is no less abundance, are always short of time, and make far- effective in enslaving the many to the interests of the reaching decisions affecting everyone” (in Brock- few” (Korten, 1995, pp. 157-158). Korten is not anti- Utne, 2000, p. 132). As neoliberal governance gains business but simply wants economic interests to be strength, even the Asian miracles experience nega- removed from the center of human existence, so they tive effects with regard to equity: between 1997 and can be reinserted into the nexus of community life 2001, poverty increased by 50 percent in Singapore and human values. The ideology central to the sys- and doubled in South Korea (Goldsmith, 2001).6 In tem of global governance, however, enshrines finan- spite of the negative effects, structural adjustment cial and market considerations above all else: as an regimes remain in effect, behaving in ways that are example, the IMF and WTO always put concerns charitably described as neocolonial and paternalis- about inflation and trade regulations above unem- tic: they see the world as a progressive and indepen- ployment and reduced quality of life (Stiglitz, 2002). dent North whose ways a backward and dependent These organizations are not open to public scrutiny, South must imitate by modernizing and explain however, and have no institutionalized channels for wealth and poverty through theories of personal, democratic action. cultural, and societal merit and deficit. What can be expected from neoliberal global gov- And yet, as Princeton-educated Philippine activist ernance? The experiences of the South can be infor- Walden Bello remarks, “people in industrialized mative because much of it has been operating under nations are being ‘structurally adjusted’ too” (in its influence for at least the past 30 years.5 Ainger, 2002, p. 343). As neoliberalism comes home Neoliberal development organizations often support to the North, people become one world through their practices with reference to the so-called “Asian application of neocolonial mantra: reduce public miracle” that includes Singapore, Taiwan, Hong expenditure, privatize functions previously carried Kong, and South Korea, which were at a low stage out by public bodies (including education), collect of economic development after the second world fees for services, deregulate economic and financial war but grew subsequently into wealthy industrial- activities, and abandon protection for local indus- ized economies. The evidence, however, is that they tries, labor, and the environment. Not unexpectedly, did so because activist states controlled the terms on there is now the phenomena of the new working which they engaged the global economy, spending poor, refugees of deindustrialization whose jobs no heavily on research and development, education, longer provide living wages; mass movements of human services, and regulating financial markets legal and illegal migrants, escaping an increasingly (Greider, 1997; Stiglitz, 2002). These interventions crushing poverty in the South; the growth of the mitigated the inherently uneven nature of capitalist permanently marginalized and unemployed; the development, maintaining high employment and reappearance of the sweatshop in the North; not to creating a strong middle class. Amartya Sen, anoth- mention the global magnitude of environmental dev- er Nobel laureate, sees a close relationship between astation. Noted sociologist (1998) “the injustices that characterize the world . . . [and] refers to the attendant intensification of inequality as various omissions that need to be addressed, partic- the peripheralization of the core. This means that ularly in institutional arrangements” (2002). These concepts such as the hourglass economy and dual

9 Keith labor market are no longer sufficient to explain the commodifying just about everything. While the tech- dynamics and depth of segmentation and marginal- nology and communications revolution facilitates the ization experienced across and inside core countries dissemination of cultural forms and communication (the North) as well as the periphery (the South).7 To among people, neoliberal globalization uses it to fur- speak, instead, of the peripheralization of the core ther fragment the production of goods and services means that social conditions thought to have disap- and escape any national controls, especially those peared from the North and only occurring in “poor” over financial markets (Greider, 1997). Thus a bud- countries, are reappearing. Neoliberal globalization ding and diverse global culture is threatened with seems to be taking segments of people across the takeover by the global culture industry and the fun- globe into a . damentalist resistance that is its counterpart (Barber, The advance of neoliberalism thus carries with it 1995). Time-space compression is the creature of a deepening crises, which generate resistance and technological revolution that neoliberalism appropri- opposition not only from those it marginalizes but ates for its own project, but it also facilitates the alter- also from within the ranks of capitalists and erst- native project of globalism. It is important to see while supporters of the system. The movement that political decisions here, rather than the blind and is termed globalization from below, to be discussed unstoppable march of technology. under globalism, emerges from a growing recogni- Beyond its immediate economic and political tion of these commonalities: we, in the North, are aspects, time-space compression is implicated in not independent entities, not immune from the cor- transforming the ways people experience and live in porate excesses and the cycle of greed that is their physical and emotional spaces, and thus their enveloping the planet. As old certainties that provid- sense of community and of themselves. Whereas the ed living wages, health care, pensions, and comfort- traditional concept of community is linked to a able lives for the many are undermined, we begin to place, the global village changes this geography, realize that we are them. Replacing the non-relation- enabling people to construct identities and commu- ship of independence-dependence (independent nities by interacting with those who share a common North and dependent South) with the idea of a language, ethnic identity, or other orientations, meaningful interdependence emerges in part from memories, and histories, regardless of their location the recognition that we are similarly affected by the in space (Held, 1995). The global village thus global reach of corporate priorities, including rearticulates cultural spaces, constituting multiple through sharing the growing bads they produce, imagined communities that crisscross and at times such as the pollution that spoiled even the Asian mir- overlap, but are disembedded from the places where acles (see Keith, 1999). As George Soros, who people live. Disembedding occurs when technology gained his vast wealth from neoliberal globalization such as the Internet and cell and video phones inten- comments, “I cannot see the global system surviv- sifies interactions that allow people to maintain rela- ing... In my opinion, we have entered a period of tionships across distance, creating alternatives to global disintegration only we are not yet aware of it” networks of relationships that are embedded in a cir- (in Greider, 1997, p. 248). cumscribed geographic locality (Beck, Giddens, & Lash, 1994). A group of researchers studying the Time-Space Compression construction of community in the East End of Marshall McLuhan’s (1964) metaphor of the glob- London describes this process: al village is a useful starting point for thinking about The knowledge which is used in these con- some of the socio-cultural implications of globaliza- structions of belonging is produced and trans- tion. Though it has by now become a cliché, mitted through telephone conversations, reli- McLuhan’s original understanding was that the com- gious ceremonies, newspaper accounts, televi- munications revolution and mass media were impli- sion and radio programmes and videos and cated in dismantling the barriers that time and space music recordings, through a global network of created for human communication. In the 1960s, it social and technological linkages. Visits to was not yet clear the extent to which the exponential friends and relatives, interactions with col- growth in the commercial uses of technology, leagues at work and other forms of ‘communi- increasingly under neoliberal governance, would ty’ involvement employ this global network to produce ‘locality.’ (Albrow, Eade, conspire to transform the “village” into a mega shop- Durrschmidt, & Washbourne, 1997, p. 24) ping mall. The new technology enables the hyper- mobility of all kinds of goods and capital—human, Community here becomes linked with the process informational, financial—and creates the opportunity of identity formation. Tied to the imaginary and to for corporate and financial interests to further the choice, it is constructed to suit one’s chosen identi- neoliberal project to which the epigraph alludes— ties, or subjectivities, and varies in ways that are not

10 Community Service Learning in the Face of Globalization visible but require understanding of people’s inner of the job as human capital. Neoliberalism’s empha- horizon. People become not individuals but many as, sis on the commercialization of all spheres of life, through interaction between their own and others’ which is destructive of all collectivities (Bourdieu, subjective understandings and experiences of the 1998), leaves the unencumbered citizen-turned-con- world (that is, intersubjectivity), they discover new sumer and person-turned-into-capital open to the fur- and marginalized parts of themselves and so create ther encroachment of the system, as the lifeworld is multiple selves, in relationship to different commu- now penetrated at its deepest emotional levels nities. As people must find who and what they are through market persuaders that manufacture reality through dialogue with others, the need for connect- in the quest for market share.9 This is the deeply per- edness increases, supporting emerging identities on sonal side of neoliberal globalization. the basis of the struggle against particular modes of As the Other inside us and facing us talks back, oppression that target race, sexual preference, gen- the world opens up and singular views and identities der, and the like. For instance, in the above passage, give way to dialogue and multiplicity, but these dis- the immigrant who would eventually have assimilat- cursive spaces are fragile, because the openness, ed into the dominant culture may now assume, uncertainty, and even destructiveness of this new instead, a diasporic identity, connected to a real or freedom, especially given the context of political- imaginary “home” place and community, or a hybrid economic neoliberalism, may also bring into the identity that is located in an in-between place, a bor- open fears and conflict, and the refusal of dialogue. derland that is neither the homeland nor the new (2001) argues that the “ties that place. bind” many of these new forms of community can The life circumstances of this new, postmodern be quite thin, as they are based on hyper-transience subject are quite different from those that gave rise to that signifies the illusory freedom to opt out at the the rational, modern individual that is the centerpiece first sign of conflict, difficulty, or boredom. In fact, of neoliberalism. When liberalism emerged as a a characteristic of consumerist society that time- political philosophy, people were enmeshed in a sys- space compression heightens is the sense that all tem of traditions, both communal and institutional, things come to us ready-made. Totally severed from that largely regulated life and from which, as it was production processes that are increasingly fragment- thought, the self-legislating subject should be res- ed through the global division of labor and as the cued. The emergence of the modern individual did visible economy shifts from production into distrib- not signify the complete rule of reason, because cus- utive and service activities, people are also severed tom remained hale and well and thus freedom from from the experience that building anything, includ- tradition was relative: the nonrational and noncalcu- ing community, takes time. Other values are influ- lable were simply demoted and relegated to the pri- enced in turn—for instance, freedom to consume vate sphere, chiefly familial relations, where they becomes the highest freedom. Less willing to strug- became the province of women, servants, and other gle together, people become instead choosers and marginalized Others. Note that this is a starting point consumers of community. for critique, as the bracketing of the nonrational from The resulting associational field, as many the rational becomes an oppressive binarism (to be observers have noted, can become empty indeed, further discussed under globalism and the section on leaving people’s very inner being open to coloniza- meeting community needs). tion by the culture industry and its manufacture of As long as the marketplace and public places exist- images, meanings, and desires. When old certainties ed alongside a realm of customary relations and are experienced as comforting rather than oppres- habits that retained their vitality, the importance of sive, dialogue ends in the refusal of discursive space these relations in sustaining what Habermas (via that is one definition of fundamentalism: indeed, Husserl) terms the lifeworld was hardly recog- calls for the neo-traditionalism of family values and nized—liberal theory simply does not account for it.8 fundamentalist forms of religion, nationalism, and The lifeworld is the sphere of cultural habits and tra- politics thus become local and inner expressions of ditions that provide meaning for one’s life and which globalization, as do problematic relationships, grow- is diminished to the extent that it is penetrated or col- ing rates of depression, increasing senseless vio- onized by the system. This is the technical-instru- lence, exclusivist identities and extremist move- mental sphere of efficient organizations, corpora- ments, including ultra right racist movements tions, science, and experts that neoliberalism prizes (Giddens, 1994). The Southern Poverty Law Center, and that creates tensions and distortions, reducing all an organization dedicated to promoting tolerance, of life to rational, means-ends calculations—for reports that “hate activity among kids has probably instance, college as a means to a job, the worth of a never been more widespread, or more violent” job in terms of its monetary value, and the possessor (Anon, 2004, p. 1).

11 Keith Understanding these developments will deepen if First I address the philosophical component. globalization is seen in terms not of single factors, Globalism announces and intensifies the sense that such as culture, technology or economics, but of we are interconnected and potentially a global com- their dialectical interaction: that is, globalization munity, a realization to which we are led by what is brings into play forces that are connected but also termed the dissolution of the Center. In North-South have opposite tendencies; the resultant tensions cre- relations, including those between colonizer and col- ate crises that also include possibilities for generat- onized, this refers, for instance, to the shift men- ing new solutions to social problems. Bauman’s tioned above, from independence/dependence to (2001) and others’ analyses that stress a problematic interdependence, as the North can no longer avoid social solidarity, manufactured identities, and like the political, social, and ecological consequences of negative phenomena explain some of the cultural its practices given that bads and risk become shared effects of globalization but provide only a partial by all. Anticolonial and postcolonial movements, lens. Moving past the limitations of traditional and movements to assert rights and identities by cause-effect ways of thinking, we need to consider Others, all speak to a shift from the asymmetrical the ways that time-space compression heightens and union of Self-Other toward a nonhierarchical con- magnifies the crises that are present in the system, nection grounded in difference; that is, the binary and thus give rise to opposite phenomena than those thinking that creates opposites, where one is privi- that are immediately visible. This is the subject of leged and superior (Self—Western, male, White, the next section. reason, technology) and the other is subordinate or Globalism its shadow (Other—colonial, female, Black, emo- tion, earth) comes increasingly to be replaced by a Globalism here refers to an emerging framework recognition of the authenticity of the claims of the that stands in dialectical opposition to neoliberalism Other. As the modernist paradigm can no longer and also benefits from the technological revolution control or address these claims, the Self is displaced discussed under time-space compression. as the autonomous center and is seen increasingly Globalism is not a comprehensive, strong theory in for what it is—one of a multiplicity of interacting the same way as neoliberalism, not only because of worlds of experience, or subjectivities. Rather than its counterpoint status, but also because it is ground- systems of dominance and privilege that feature ed in difference and as such does not strive to some actors who consider themselves independent achieve the status of a grand narrative. I will discuss and singular while others are made dependent, glob- it in terms of three interrelated moments. First, it is alism entails the recognition that we are truly inter- a philosophical perspective and view of reality that dependent (Taylor, 2004). The point is not that the is essentially postmodern, that is, it is dialogical and values of globalism are achieving dominance; multivocal, asserting difference and multiplicity indeed, implying this would mean freezing a dialec- over singular worldviews. Second, it draws from tical process. But there is no question that we are and acts on values that acknowledge the signifi- some way from the easy assurance of the privileged cance and struggles of Others—postcolonials, who sent “their best” to take up Rudyard Kipling’s women, people of color, gays—and shows aware- (1899) White Man’s Burden to go and civilize “new- ness of the world’s interconnectedness, along with a caught sullen peoples, Half devil and half child.” sense of collective responsibility for the well-being At a second and more concrete level, we can thus of the earth and its creatures and support for global think of globalism as emerging through the process equity, peace, and justice. Third, it is an increasing- of resistance, struggle, and dialogue that begins ly dense network of global organizations and a when groups that were suppressed and silenced developing global . The growth of come to voice and bring to the table different per- third sector or nongovernment organizations spectives and understandings of history and experi- (NGOs) that see their sphere of action as global is ence, which members of dominant groups are called part of this moment, as is a more activist strain that upon to recognize. Recognition, of course, is far is expressly opposed to neoliberal globalization and from a given. Struggles for power and voice are met that networks a large number of diverse groups by violence and repression, as privilege does not under an umbrella slogan proclaiming that “another yield easily. Nonetheless, the world is changed by world is possible.” Expressions of globalism go by the struggles of oppressed people, as new knowl- many names, including global ethics, global civil edge and understandings that cannot be easily society, global citizenship, and various modifiers to excised seep into everyday awareness and take globalization that announce an alternative agenda: social forms. Theorizing about Self-Other and dif- , grass-roots globalization, ference would not be possible without the historical and globalization from below. experiences through which the Other has burst onto

12 Community Service Learning in the Face of Globalization the scene and declared her presence. Globalism is Globalization and Community part of a deep crisis that is forcing a reevaluation of Service Learning the values, positions, and interests of all sides. Post- colonials come “home” and make the colonizer’s It is time to bring this discussion back home: how world aware of its oppressive absences: as Paul does globalization relate to service-learning or, more Gilroy (1991) articulated it, “There Ain’t No Black specifically, what are the implications of its three in the Union Jack.” Global, post-colonial, and dias- interconnected faces for two important principles of poric movements that cross borders make us increas- good practice, reciprocity and meeting community ingly aware that problems are not local but are in needs? Recalling that one of the characteristics of fact interconnected. This adds to the loss of certain- globalization is its unevenness, globalization theory ty and rootlessness brought on by economics, and to should be seen not as a set of universally valid potential ethnic conflicts that emerge in resistance to tenets, but as a framework for interrogating policy Others and that feed into ultranationalisms and par- and practice and acting through the particulars of a ticularly virulent forms of racism, including ethnic site. The two principles are discussed in separate cleansing. subsections below. In each case, I consider first the At the third level are the rise of globally-oriented perspective of the field, which entails asking how the non-government organizations and activist social principle is defined and put into practice and what actual or implied purposes it serves. The discussion movements driven by concerns for the environment, then becomes more critical, asking how well the peace, human rights, people’s rights, sustainable principle meets these purposes. Finally, I bring the development, and human survival, and that are cre- perspective and contributions of globalization into ating what is generally referred to as a global civil the discussion. I find that both principles have their society. As world order theorist Richard Falk roots in exchange theory and suggest reconceptual- remarks, this activist strain of globalism is “an izations that move us away from liberal and neolib- expression of the spirit of ‘democracy without fron- eral notions of contractual relations among indepen- tiers,’ [which]…is seeking to extend ideas of moral, dent and self-interested individuals and toward legal, and environmental accountability to those now approaches that consider human interconnectedness acting on behalf of state, market, and media” (1993, and global ethics. I am not proposing that the current p. 40). Transnational activism has a long history that principles be entirely abandoned, but that in using includes Pan Africanism and international labor and them to inform practice that links the global and the solidarity movements, but it achieved new promi- local, we become more aware of their implications. nence starting in the 1980s, with the growth of orga- I do maintain however that, given the historic dimen- nizations like Amnesty International, Greenpeace, sions of globalization, it is important to consider our Doctors Without Borders, new social movements practice and principles in its light. working in solidarity with Black people in South Africa, and indigenous people and women else- Reciprocity where. The more activist strains now gathered under This section develops two main themes. The first the umbrella of the came into is that there has always been, at best, only a partial view in the 1990s, its origins imputed alternatively fit between the concept of reciprocity and the prac- to a 1992 Conference on tice it is called upon to foster. This argument leads to Environment and Development, the first interconti- the second, which proposes that the concept of inter- nental meeting of people against neoliberal global- dependence is a closer fit with the aims of the field ization, organized by the Zapatistas of Mexico in and is also more in line with the social justice and 1996, or the first large-scale demonstrations against global citizenship agenda that constitutes the emer- the WTO, which took place in Seattle in 1999.10 A gent project of globalization as globalism. global ethics that uses diversity as a strength and is The principle of reciprocity in service-learning driven, to an extent, by the imperative of solidarity in emerges from the need to address a recurring nega- the face of monumental global problems seems to be tive tendency in the server-served relationship. As replacing, at least in some quarters, a politics of nar- Jane Kendall explains, “problems with paternalism, row self-interests. Using the Internet and other unequal relationships between the parties involved, media generated by the so-called third technological and a tendency to focus only on charity—’doing for’ revolution (Stefanik, 1993), these movements are or ‘helping’ others—rather than on supporting oth- developing new democratic practices that undercut ers to meet their own needs all became gaping pit- media control, support greater citizen involvement, falls” (in Rhoads, 1997, p. 137). While a moral and facilitate collective work by diverse and decen- imperative seems to take center stage here, it is inte- tralized actors. grally joined to a pedagogical one: the issue is how to

13 Keith support relationships that are not only not exploita- Gouldner’s (1960) reciprocity turns out to be sim- tive, but contribute something of value to all partici- ilar to Sahlins’ (1972) balanced reciprocity, where pants, understanding that these kinds of relationships there is mutuality of interests, the exchange is equi- and their attendant experiences are also responsible table, and parties are willing to accept a relatively for a deeper kind of learning. For Kendall, reciproci- short delay between giving and receiving. The abili- ty means an “exchange of both giving and receiving ty to forgo immediacy depends on the kinds of rela- between the server and the person or group being tionships that exist between the parties, since it is the served” (in Rhoads, p. 137), one in which all parties history of people’s past behaviors toward each other, are learners and all are involved in determining what rather than their standardized social roles, that sus- will be learned (also see Honnet & Poulsen, 1989). tains norms of reciprocity. What obtains is a social Other influential writers support this position. In a obligation, often tinged with moral duty, to recipro- text that Campus Compact cites in its glossary, cate to people with whom one has an ongoing, non- Barbara Jacoby asserts that reciprocity is needed to family-like relationship (close family and clan rela- develop a community of learners in which “those tionships fall under a different type, generalized rec- serving and those being served [are] indistinguish- iprocity, which shades into altruism). Failure to rec- able in principle, if not in practice” (in Campus iprocate, such as accepting, but not returning a col- Compact, n.d.). Barbara Holland (2002) adds the league’s dinner invitations, will strain the relation- goals of “respect for different sources of knowledge, ship. This means that exchange relationships are eas- different contributions of each participant, a fair ily sustained, absent some kind of compulsion, only exchange of value, and the assurance of benefits to all between people who can and will reciprocate; it participants” (p. 2). A key issue is “balancing the dif- means, further, that except in the case of strangers ferent perspectives that make up [service-learning] engaging in barter, where reciprocity is immediate partnerships” (p. 2). It is this act of balancing service because there is no trust (Sahlins’ negative reciproc- and learning and benefits to students and to the com- ity), those who engage in the exchange relationship munity that constitutes high quality SERVICE- are relying on a larger group’s norms of reciprocity, LEARNING in Robert Sigmon’s typology of the which also include the ability to sanction deviance continuums of service and learning (Furco, 1996). through such means as shame, guilt, or expulsion How well does reciprocity, as a concept, serve from the community. The classic example comes to these goals? One of its important meanings is con- mind of diamond dealers engaging bags of uncount- veyed by its Latin counterpart (still used in the law), ed diamonds among one another, building and rely- do ut des, literally, “I give so that you will give.” ing on networks of trust (see Putnam, 1993). Much as in a barter or market transaction, this What does all this mean for reciprocity in the con- reminds us that reciprocity is rooted in exchange text of service-learning? It seems fairly easy to con- theory, which looks at social networks in terms of clude that reciprocity, as here defined, is beyond the the exchanges (material, social, psychic, political, reach of typical service-learning relationships. Take, and so on) involved in them. With its focus on cal- for instance, an extreme case of a type to which culable transactions among self-interested individu- Kendall (in Rhoads, 1997) alluded, direct service to als, exchange can be seen as the sister of neoliberal- people of lower social status and in needy circum- ism. Reciprocity is a particular kind of exchange, stances, as in a soup kitchen: even if powerful criti- which, when taken beyond personal relationships to cal reflection deepens the students’ understanding of the societal level, is linked to trust and solidarity in the structural causes of hunger, and even if people social groups, and is thus considered an important who need them get nutritious meals that are respect- factor in overall social integration—the glue that fully served, there is exchange, but not reciprocity, in holds society together. But only certain kinds of either Gouldner’s (1960) or Sahlins’ (1972)—or, exchanges are reciprocal. In a seminal article that indeed, Kendall’s— terms. It seems that norms of attempted to unpack the concept, sociologist Alvin charitable giving and responsibility to one’s fellow Gouldner (1960) argues that exchanges involve human beings would need to be invoked to sustain rights and obligations—the obligation to give and involvement here, rather than reciprocity, which may right to receive—and that reciprocity connotes a also go some way toward explaining why charity specific kind of complementarity, in which both par- orientations keep recurring. ties have the obligation to give and right to receive. However, as the earlier discussion of globalization Cultural anthropologist Marshall Sahlins adds to our suggests, twin problems arise with this orientation. understanding through a well-known typology based First, it is likely to be an instantiation of univocality, on the interests behind the exchange, its immediacy where the server, as the dominant pole of the rela- (that is, time lapsed between giving and receiving), tionship enacts the Self, the independent one who and its equivalence. knows and who helps a dependent Other. This is also

14 Community Service Learning in the Face of Globalization the orientation and nonrelationship that leads stu- assets of those without access to institutionally con- dents so often to reflect on how lucky they are, in trolled resources comes about when institutional comparison to those they served, how thankful to power allows one to define the situation, determine their families and their support, in comparison to the needs, and impute value to whatever assets (knowl- families and lack of support of those they served— edge, skills, resources) parties bring to the table. reflections that let us know, as educators and com- What is at work here is a privileging process that is munity partners, that we have failed in some impor- normative in both elitist and meritocratic social sys- tant respect. Second, as multivocality erupts into the tems, as hegemonic assumptions accord moral supe- open and demands to be heard, the response of the riority to the socially superior, through privilege cre- Other to the helper’s efforts may be, as it well ated by class, race, gender, morality, civilization, and should, other than what univocality would expect. In the like.11 Again, recall the North-South, Self-Other a different example, the hapless university students interaction discussed above. Can youth service be who stumble into a community meeting in an inner- expected to help change these hegemonic assump- city neighborhood may realize for the first time that tions, and if so, what principles shall be invoked to they and the university are seen less as saviors than support practice oriented to this project? as self-serving intruders (Keith & Hafiz, 2002). The This discussion brings home the fact that the prin- tensions that follow must be addressed, but reciproc- ciple of reciprocity is meant to be counternormative ity is not equal to the task. What is needed is a dif- and even, potentially, counterhegemonic, as it pro- ferent kind of interaction, one that emphasizes poses alternative ways of being and working with respectful listening of perspectives and histories, those who are, and are constructed as, underre- together with community building and possibly sourced with respect to oneself, which are meant to advocacy in an environment that acknowledges and redress these asymmetries and foster more equitable addresses the difficult emotions and political choic- exchanges, relationships, and communities—includ- es that accompany these tensions, on both sides. The ing the exchange of knowledge. The issue is how to important issue here, which I discuss further in the surface, make visible, further develop, and equitably next section, is how to help these would-be partners reassess the value of the resources of these “lesser” come to dialogue and social action. groups. This seems to be what Kendall, Jacoby, The ideas of exchange and reciprocal exchange Holland (2002) and others have in mind, but this is have been further developed through the concept of also where reciprocity finds its limits. Shifting from social capital, and what is termed bridging social paternalism and charity to this version of exchange capital is especially relevant for service-learning, as theory does not provide a solid enough grounding it refers to dense networks of exchanges and rela- for the equitable and respectful relationships across tionships that support and extend trust (or general- social borders that characterize high quality service- ized reciprocity) horizontally across different groups learning. In an important sense reciprocity and its and so helps develop a sense of solidarity (and thus related concepts remain rooted in a (market) accu- a kind of community) even with strangers. Youth mulation process, which presses people into giving service, as Putnam suggests, is an important way to and receiving and ultimately creating social net- develop this kind of social capital (Putnam & works as a way of having more. But, as multivocal- Feldstein, 2003; Siisiäinen, 2000). Returning to the ity emerges from the dissolution of the Center, it examples of the soup kitchen and community meet- calls on us to find new ways of being together, as ing, the key would seem to be to promote multiple interdependent global citizens and members of and ongoing interactions between students and par- expanding communities. Reciprocity also falls short, ticipants in these other community-based activities, therefore, because it addresses only one part of our so that over time trust and generalized reciprocity selves, the part that stresses the rational, instrumen- can develop. This notion supports the importance of tal and calculable, that recalls Habermas’ (1984) sustainable service-learning partnerships and has system. Globalism reminds us of the parts of our some merit, but omits important points. Kendall (in selves that speak of our interconnectedness and Rhoads, 1997) is right that the absence of reciproci- interdependence, and need to be reinserted into the ty is especially problematic in the context of asym- fabric of our lives.12 metrical power relations, which easily result in Service-learning must thus involve more than con- deficit conceptualizations of persons of lower sta- tractual relationships, calling for dialogue not only tus—the recipients of service, in the context of the as an exchange of ideas but as an encounter between served-server relationship and the students, in the fellow human beings. Service-learning educators context of the student-faculty relationship. need to promote the interdependence of partners Overvaluing of one’s assets and a corresponding rather than reciprocity between server and served. In devaluing, often to the point of invisibility, of the support of this orientation, I propose refraining (and

15 Keith will do so for the rest of the article) from using the of service-learning in the context of globalization. terms server and served, referring instead to the ser- The above does not represent a consensus, how- vice-learning relationship as a partnership (I will ever. When uncritically applied, as is often the case return to this topic in the section on meeting com- (Musil, 2003), the principle also lends support to munity needs). As used in the literature, partnerships practices anchored to service provision and even involve more than exchange based on self- and charity: the community may be construed simply as mutual interests, and nurturing their relational aspect a service provider or the people in a geographic is an essential part of sustainability. Paulo Freire locality, who identify needs for which they have a captured well the importance of dialogical encoun- client base, and whose mediation is not questioned. ters when he wrote, “I do not authentically think This definition of community needs is not arbitrary unless others think. I simply cannot think for oth- but derived from one of two root words for commu- ers…or without others” (1995, p. 116). We should nity: com-unis and com-munis (Corlett, 1993). The add, “I cannot know myself and the world except in first means “united as one” and is the root of the dialogue with others.” In this context, the reaction to concept embraced by communitarians, which service that says, “I am so lucky” speaks of failure emphasizes shared meanings, bonds, and a sense of because it assumes independence and separation: the belonging. Needs here emerge through a process other has nothing to do with me. Were a relationship that seeks to identify the common good. The second, of interdependence established, we may hear which recalls the everyday sense of the term (as in instead, “I was born with certain privileges and I “university-community partnership”) means “united now understand that the other side of privilege is through service.”13 This is a minimalist community oppression. Because I recognize myself in the other, whose members are linked through reciprocal duties I cannot stand by and allow the inequity continue.” and obligations involving services such as those pro- This is not the obligation to do for others known as vided by a municipality. The needs that emerge as noblesse oblige. Rather, intersubjectivity presses us important in such a community are derived by toward interdependence because it is through others aggregating private interests, which are then and in relationship with them that we come to know advanced through the process of interest-based poli- and fulfill a more complete sense of ourselves and tics. As the language suggests, this is the preferred the world. conceptualization of liberalism. Following Corlett, I Meeting Community Needs will use communion for the first and remunity for the second.14 The previous discussion has already introduced I have already alluded to the problems that emerge most of the concepts needed to explore the principle from the liberal parentage of both principles under of meeting community needs. This principle high- discussion. Globalization compounds the problem, lights the perspective of community partners, say- since in its context certain needs become crucial and ing, in effect, that the partner who is seen as bring- make it imperative to develop stronger versions of ing valued resources to the table will not dictate the community that help to move from the language and uses to which these resources are put. As was the assumptions underlying exchange and service provi- case for reciprocity, the principle is thus a corrective sion, toward the language of interdependence, social for power asymmetries: self-determination by the justice, and global, multi-ethnic citizenship. less powerful is a path to interrupting domination Communion is also not problem-free, however, and univocality that favor the Self. This is an impor- given the importance of multivocality to service- tant point as, according to Young (2000), self-deter- learning partnerships. There are also different defin- mination is one of the markers of a social justice itions of citizenship here, and the one adopted agenda. That this agenda is central to significant seg- should foster dialogical relationships, support com- ments of the field is evident through the use of asset- municative democracy and advance the capacity of based approaches to identifying community projects all partners across social divisions to contribute their (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993), concerns about the knowledge and resources toward public work.15 An service-politics split (references) and, especially, alternative is needed that escapes this binarism. I new citizenship approaches that see service-learning will temporarily postpone this discussion, since it as a vehicle for promoting democratic participation needs to be informed by a prior accounting of the and public engagement (Barber, 1998; Boyte & implications of globalization for the principle of Kari, 1996). Emphases on voice and empowerment meeting community needs. (for students as well as the community) in the defin- Globalization, communities and their needs. ition of needs can also be placed under this umbrel- Based on the earlier discussion, it is not difficult to la. I will return to these orientations below, as they consider the implications of globalization for how to provide some seeds for thinking about the purposes understand the communities with whom and for

16 Community Service Learning in the Face of Globalization whom we work, and the factors to consider in identi- are limits to service that prepares those at the bottom fying important community needs and in linking for jobs that continue to disappear; alternative direc- these needs to the interests of students and commu- tions must be considered, such as service-learning nity partners. Considering first the socio-political that supports sustainable communities and local eco- realm, rebuilding social connectedness and commu- nomic activities (see Shuman, 1998). Second, the nities that support the lifeworld is itself a community growing reach of private (i.e., corporate and, need. In this context, participants’ identity needs increasingly, religious) institutions versus public should be important considerations in service-learn- ones means people are looked upon more as cus- ing projects, beyond more visible material needs. tomers and volunteers than as citizens. This fact There is a need to rebuild discursive and public reasserts the need for service-learning that stresses spaces in local communities, which have been under- citizen-oriented action in public spaces, rather than mined through the combined effects of neoliberalism defining citizenship as character education and turn- and time-space compression. Also essential is the ing students into service providers in the name of need to sustain interaction and relationships across civic responsibility. It is quite laudable for college difference, promoting new democratic practices. The students to engage in such activities as tutoring call is for reconstructing participants as active citi- inner-city children in reading, but it should not be to zens rather than consumers, and as self-developing the detriment of change-oriented projects where stu- human beings who are members of communities. dents join others in advocating for equitable funding Here is the rationale for approaches to service-learn- for urban schools. Such action may also involve ing that are inward-oriented, meaning that their pur- what Young (2000) terms the process of struggle, pose is to support identity and community needs of that is, engagement in a politics that insists on rais- service-learning participants themselves, as well as ing issues even though those in differing social posi- outward-oriented—partnering with others to reach tions may feel threatened by them and would rather toward more inclusive and expansive communities. leave them unattended. Third, globalization influ- Second, with specific but not exclusive reference ences the ways poverty is defined and experienced. to the political-economic level, the goal of reinsert- Poverty here is not only a matter of the material and ing democracy and social justice into the social fab- social resources a person has or does not have, but ric is also deeply implicated in the project of redress- also of the capability to mobilize and use resources ing the excesses of the neoliberal corporate agenda. in ways that allow people to grow and act as they Social justice, as Young (2000) conceptualizes it, would wish to—again, the reference is to an expan- involves two requirements: promoting capacities for sive view of social justice, as defined above. For self-development and for self-determination.16 Self- instance, people who cannot mobilize global tech- development, which is the counter to oppression, nologies are at an added disadvantage, regardless of involves a set of capacities that just social institu- their absolute resources, as being marginalized from tions support when they “provide conditions for all the technological revolution creates a new kind of persons to learn and use satisfying and expansive poverty. The growing pressure on one’s time, as job skills in socially recognized settings, and enable responsibilities increase, creates another. In this con- them to play and communicate with others or text, service-learning for social justice would mean express their feelings and perspectives on social life supporting people’s ability to mobilize (materially, in contexts where others can listen” (Young, 2000, socially, politically, and so on) capabilities for self- pp. 31-32). Self-determination, again following development and self-determination. This adds to Young, “consists in being able to participate in the imperative of seeing service-learning work as determining one’s action and the condition of one’s simply meeting community needs but locating the action; its contrary is domination” (p. 32). I should principle squarely on the ground of global citizen- stress that in both instances the reference goes ship and social justice. beyond the personal and relational, addressing insti- Creating public spaces for global citizenship and tutions and social structures. social justice. It is time to return to the question of A nonexhaustive list of needs to be met through community: What sort of collectivity should service- service-learning that is consciously constructed as learning invoke, that overcomes the limits of both public and democratic work and as an option for remunity and communion, and affirmatively sup- social justice would include the following. First, as ports the project indicated by my subsection title? the communities that are served tend to include peo- The notion of partnership has some merit, although ple and organizations that are poor and under- it needs to be rescued from its usual referent, the pri- resourced, a focus on neoliberalism helps explain vate sphere, and be considered a public space, in the the systemic causes of poverty and loss of resources same way that family and home are now used by and identify possible solutions. For instance, there some as metaphors for intersecting the public and

17 Keith private—public homeplaces—in ways that blur ing the assets of the other and seeing difference itself these distinctions but ultimately support a more as an asset rather than a deficit. And it is only when democratic public life and public goals (see we accomplish this goal that we are able to combine Belenky, Bond, & Weinstock, 1997). Barbara the situated knowledge each of us has, creating Holland proposes that projects that join the universi- social knowledge that can be applied to our (public) ty and the community develop lasting, sustained work in common. Globalization greatly adds to the relationships, described as partnerships: need for public spaces for dialogue, as its multiple and vastly complex problems cannot be solved by effective partnerships operate as true learning experts but require the collective knowledge of dif- communities. In a learning community and a campus-community partnership that works, ferently positioned people. Recall, however, that every member is learning, teaching, contribut- these same people who should work together may ing and discovering. All forms of expertise are resolve identity and community problems as dis- valued, and we recognize that we have diver- cussed under time-space compression, by returning gent goals, but by combining our different to different kinds of fundamentalisms that essential- strengths, each of our needs will be met. (2002, ly entail the refusal of dialogue, as Self and Other p. 13) affirm oppositional (binary) constructs of the world This conceptualization overcomes the limits of remu- in terms of evil wrongdoers and innocent victims. nity and communion in that there is a sense of col- Understanding across difference is a central focus lectivity that goes beyond exchange—a community in Iris Marion Young’s (1997) book, Intersecting of learners who are joined in ways that encounter dif- Voices. Young argues that it is not possible or advis- ference as a resource and a strength. Rhoads puts able to follow the old metaphor of putting ourselves these emphases in terms of traditional versus post- in the other’s place when attempting to understand modern models of community: whereas a traditional- their perspective; instead, we should use the ist might ask “How do we overcome our differences metaphor of voice and communication: to create a common bond,” a postmodern under- The way I come to understand the other person standing of community would lead to the question, is by constructing identification and reversibil- “How do we build upon our differences to create ity between us, which means I am never really joint action?” (1997, pp. 86-87). Others conceptual- transcending my own experience. But we can ize the relationship as democratic communitarian- interpret understanding others as sometimes ism, situated community, and the like (Corlett, 1993; getting out of ourselves and learning some- Frazer & Lacey, 1993). In all instances, the issue thing new. Communication is sometimes a cre- becomes one of being able to connect and work ative process in which the other person offers a new expression, and I understand it not together across difference. This idea brings us close because I am looking for how it fits with given to Boyte’s (1996) notion of public work, which sug- paradigms, but because I am open and suspend gests a linking of the problematic of community and my assumptions in order to listen. (pp. 52-53) the problematic of the active, participatory citizen- ship of strong democracy. The question involves There is no need to start out with shared goals and forging ways to work together that respect each par- bonds. The bonds are created, rather, by sharing ticipant, support their capacities, and foster their con- one’s own gifts and telling and listening to the sto- tribution to joint action. There is a connectedness and ries that do connect us. Young adds: solidarity here. But what is involved in activating A condition of our communication is that we them in service-learning partnerships? acknowledge . . . that others drag behind them I believe the starting point, as both Corlett (1993) shadows and histories, scars and traces, that do and Young (2000) suggest, is in the notion of situat- not become present in our communication. . . . edness, which means recognizing that participants This implies that we have the moral humility to are entering the field as subjects with histories, expe- acknowledge that even though there may be riences, relationships, social positions, and that situ- much I do understand about the other person’s atedness creates the window through which people perspective through her communication to me look at the world and interact with others. I want to and through the constructions we have made look at the idea of situatedness and consider that a common between us, there is also always a remainder, much that I do not understand major task of service-learning is not forming bonds about the other person’s experience and per- of communion but reaching for understanding spective. (p. 53) across difference in ways that enable working together toward goals of social justice. It is this This means that practices that stress the rational understanding, I argue, that is necessary for valoriz- and the calculable, as is the case with democratic

18 Community Service Learning in the Face of Globalization deliberation and the task- and goal-orientation that my students about this purpose and how one prevails in bureaucratic institutions and what encounters it? At first, I created a list. Then I thought Habermas (1984) calls systems, need to be comple- of two stories. mented with processes and narratives that support Situatedness and belonging. I stand in the hallway the lucid and relational sides of community building of the school, near the main entrance, waiting for our and create new supports for the lifeworld. Young high school partners, as I have done so many times (2000) discusses communicative democracy as before. A buzzer, an unpleasant ring, and the empty involving three modes of communication which, place is suddenly full of young people greeting, added to deliberation, support practices of inclusion: smiling, hugging, recognizing each other and being the greeting, rhetoric, and story telling. Narrative, in happy for it, forgetting that they are going about particular, “exhibits the situated knowledge avail- what we call changing classes. I stand outside the able from various social locations, and the combina- moment, separated from it in so many ways. And yet tion of narratives from different perspectives pro- I smile too, comfortable with the seeming chaos, the duces a collective social wisdom not available from life of it, as I did not when I first came. I will never any one position” (Young, p. 76). really belong here and the bonds of trust will always Clearly, it is not a matter of instituting new prac- need reweaving and repairing. But I have so many tices, as they already exist, but of giving subaltern stories to tell, good stories and hard stories, stories of and marginalized practices an honored, respected, learning. These traces, these memories that are not and legitimate public space alongside the dominant visible to the students who throng the halls, greeting, discourse modes that have traditionally looked on hugging, laughing, forming communities of which I them with suspicion, impatience, and disdain. This will never be a part—these memories are now part of will signal openness to multivocality and invite me. This space has become me through my experi- interactions that support people in communicating ence, and over time it has changed me and the sto- socially situated knowledge as a necessary contribu- ries I tell. I do not belong here, but long-term con- tion to collaborative involvement in community nections have made these spaces and the people in problem solving—an important aspect of global cit- them familiar and softened the feeling of strange- izenship.17 In this regard, the identification of needs ness. I care about this place and the people in it. should be dialogical and driven by the values of Learning for . This is not my person- social justice rather than univocal, as under the aegis al story but I did connect with it, in a strong sort of of “meeting community needs.” Power should not way. It is the story of a group of middle-school chil- fall back on the professionals and experts, but it is dren and the webs of connectedness they wove with essential that both local and expert knowledge be their questions and needs. As told through a new seen as equally valued contributions. film, Paperclip, it illustrates a developing global On the level of service-learning as (global) com- ethics and global community, facilitated by the new munity problem solving, this orientation supports media, and has implications for both the principles the sense of interdependence, since we become of interdependence and global justice. aware that alone on our own or with people we think Through an after school project in a small, White are like us, we create a vision of the world that does protestant town in rural Tennessee, teachers and stu- not work. Gated communities do not work; develop- dents embarked on trying to understand the enormity ment as the growth of the GNP and the “bads” does of the Holocaust (http://www.marionschools.org/ not work; univocality and the expert do not work, holocaust/index.htm). Learning through the Internet and neither does retreat into fundamentalism. What that Norwegians had pinned paperclips to their lapels is needed is multivocality and interdependence as a to symbolize their “binding together” in protest global ethic that is not based on idealistic, rose col- against the Nazis, the students decided to collect 6 ored glasses, but on the solid understanding of a million paperclips, one for each person killed in the reality that stands counterposed to the singular, par- Holocaust. Their Web site caught the attention of a tial, and dark colored glasses of neoliberalism. Holocaust survivor and German journalists in the Ultimately, I listen and engage in dialogue and sto- Washington area. As the project became known, oth- rytelling not because I want to be nice but because, ers got involved, and paperclips started pouring in, on so many levels, it answers my personal and our eventually from 49 states and 19 countries, each with collective needs. the name and story of a family member who had died Service-Learning in the Quest of Globalism in the camps or, less often, survived them. People in the town started talking, not only about the Listening for our own deep needs and hearing the Holocaust, but also about local and personal issues. reality of the others thus becomes a central goal of One told a story of a Black roommate in college, service-learning. What do I tell you, my readers, and regretting how he had treated him. A rail car like the

19 Keith ones that had carried Jews to the concentration camps Fitzsimons, 2000; Lipman, 2003; Spring, 1998). was transported to the town from Germany, becom- 4 The OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation ing the Children’s Holocaust Memorial, which hous- and Development) includes 30 powerful countries—most es 11 million of the paperclips collected (29 million of the North, plus Turkey, Mexico and some Central in all), and their stories (Milk, 2004). European, formerly socialist countries. One of its major A close reading of the story reveals that much giv- roles is to collect data for policy development. See ing and receiving happened in the course of the pro- http://www.oecd.org/home/. The IMF and World Bank ject, but my sense is that reciprocity would not help were created by the major world powers in the aftermath of II, to promote international trade and econom- understand what makes it so wonderful and cannot ic development, largely as defined by and in the interest of help consider how to construct similarly wonderful these Northern powers. The South is not represented on service-learning experiences. The students started these bodies. For overviews, see Isbister, 1998. collecting paperclips because they could not compre- 5 With its roots in a philosophy and politics that saw the hend the enormity of the Holocaust and asked, out of North as modern and civilized and the South as backward, their own need, for a way to experience it. What hap- savage, and needing to be modernized, neoliberal global- pened subsequently speaks of a desire to share who ization can be seen as part of a long trend of expansionism we are and of the powerful learning that comes when that includes voyages of exploration as well as colonial and we expand our understandings and our worlds by neocolonial exploits (see Blaut, 1993; Bodley, 1982). The reaching toward one another. Recognition of the ascendancy of neoliberalism as a specific economic theory other brings a deeper kind of learning that spreads that supports development (and modernization) through the outward and does create a larger sense of humanity, free market, however, dates to the 1970s. There is also a as only the poet can express it: “I am large. I contain history of resistance, the main forms of which involved multitudes” (Whitman, 1900). There is giving and delinking from the global capitalist system or attempting to negotiate dependence on it (for instance, dependency theo- receiving, but not as an exchange. Instead, relation- ry; African or democratic socialism. See Isbister, 1998). ships are forged that help us understand our reality as 6 connected to the reality of the other, that build com- Most benefits from free trade liberalization accrue to munities to sustain the lifeworld, and create memo- the already privileged in the top income brackets. In Mexico, for instance, the top 10 percent income groups ries and traces that remind us of the needs of the gained the most (Stiglitz, 2002). A study by the world and call on us, through struggle, to work to International Labour Office (ILO, 2004) found that young make another world possible. people (ages 15 to 24), who represent 25 percent of the world’s working population, constitute 47 percent of the Notes 186 million who are out of work. 7 1 This article was written with support from a Research The dual or segmented labor market refers to the and Study Leave Grant from Temple University. It also increasing gulf that separates those who retain well-paid draws from earlier research supported by a Spencer jobs with benefits, career ladders, and the like in the rela- Foundation Small Grant. An earlier version was delivered tively privileged sectors of the economy from the so-called at the International Service Learning Research Conference, flexible sectors whose part-time workers form a new Greenville, SC, October 2004. underclass that does not receive benefits, job security, or a living wage. See Beck, Giddens, & Lash, 1994. 2 On service-learning as relates to topics linked to glob- 8 alization, see Barber, 1998; Boyle-Baise, 2002; Claus & Different conceptions of the political subject as either Ogden, 1999; Harkavy, 2004; Hyatt, 2001; Rhoads, 1997; the rational, unencumbered individual or the embedded Westheimer & Kahne, 2002. On service-learning and glob- and embodied member of a community constitute a major alization, see Subotsky (1999a & b) on university-based debating point between liberals and communitarians. service-learning to counter negative effects of globalization Habermas’ contribution, by way of critical theory and dis- in South Africa; and Gillespie (2003) on designing part- course ethics, makes him, per Frazer & Lacey (1993), a nerships for international exchange programs based on “kind of communitarian.” genuine reciprocity. 9 This is linked to the technology revolution that is at the 3 For some sources on the commercialization of uni- core of time-space compression. The culture industry is versities (one effect of neoliberalism), see Enders, 2004; increasingly able to use communications media to produce Fusarelli & Boyd, 2004. For the more general topic of hyperreality, which evacuates cultural products of their globalization and education, see Burbules & Torres, 2000; meanings by using them in ways that reproduce only the Reynolds, Griffith, & Gunn, 2004. On specific aspects of empty appearances of an artificial reality. Market globalization and education, as relates to diversity, world researchers are known to use psychological tests in focus peace, language rights, immigration, and equitable partner- groups to determine which emotions attach to their prod- ships, see Banks, 2003; Gillespie, 2003; Suarez-Orozco, ucts, so as to better manipulate our buying habits. Some use 2001). On the spread of neoliberal reform policies that hypnosis to reach into participants’ deeper emotional states. emphasize privatization, decentralization, business partner- Frontline, National Public Radio, November 9, 2004. ships and increasing inequality, see Blackmore, 2000; 10 See Della Porta, 2003; Falk, 1993; Stefanik, 1993. For

20 Community Service Learning in the Face of Globalization a critical theory perspective on these new social move- with “understanding poverty and deprivation in terms of ments, see Kellner, 2000. For an accessible teaching-ori- lives people can actually lead and the freedoms they do ented publication, see Bigelow & Peterson, 2002; also actually have. The expansion of human capabilities fits http://www.rethinkingschools.org. directly into these basic considerations” (1999, p. 92). 11 Poverty and other markers of inequality are construct- “Income poverty” and “capability poverty” are related. ed as individual or cultural deficits rather than in terms of 17 A hugely important task here will involve surfacing oppression and structured social inequalities. Deficit con- and addressing fears and conflicts among participants. See structions are a more pronounced problem in direct or indi- Keith et al., 2003; Rojzman, 1999. rect service, and less so when service is constructed as advocacy. References 12 Other definitions of reciprocity have not been taken into account in this review. For instance, in psychoanalysis: Ainger, K. (2002). To open a crack in history; “‘Reciprocity’ is a condition of the ethical relationship, Movements for global justice in the 21st century. In B. whereby both self and other are obliged to transcend their Bigelow & B. Peterson (Eds.), Rethinking globaliza- narcissistic egoism. Mutual recognition of this obligation tion: Teaching for justice in an unjust world (pp. 342- includes searching for commonalities and points of differ- 345). Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools. ence, as well as the recognition of the other’s singularity.” Albrow, M., Eade, J., Durrschmidt, J., & Washbourne, N. See Wrye (1999). For a discussion of reciprocity that (1997). The impact of globalization on sociological focuses on the pedagogical relationship in service-learning, concepts: Community, culture and milieu. In J. Eade see Ramsdell (2004). (Ed.), Living the global city; Globalization as local 13 According to Ed Cohen (2003), “the root munis,from process (pp. 20-36). New York: Routledge. which we also derive our contemporary word municipal, Anonymous (2004, September). Hate among youth gestures toward responsibility for ‘shared duties, charges, becomes widespread. Southern Law Poverty Report, or services.’” In its original Roman usage, munis signified 34(3), 1. a range of possible social practices and obligations: ser- vice, function, duty, gift, favor, kindness, tax; public enter- Banks, J.A. (ed.) (2003). Diversity and citizenship educa- tainment, gladiatorial show, tribute (to the dead), rite, sac- tion: Global perspectives. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. rifice, public office. Munera were those specific practices Barber, B. R. (1995). Jihad vs. McWorld. New York: that defined the public burden of Roman citizens and there- Times Books. fore were incumbent upon them as citizens.” Barber, B. R. (1998). Democracy at risk. World Policy 14 Liberal theorists are also called “reciprocity theorists” Journal, 15(2), 29-42. (see Corlett, 1993). Remunity relates to the cost-benefit Bauman, Z. (2001). Community; Seeking safety in an calculus, as in remuneration. There is a huge literature on insecure world. Cambridge, MA: Polity. the liberal and communitarian approaches to community and an equally huge literature of critique and attempts to Beamer, G. (1998). Service-learning: What’s a political get beyond the binary opposites through which the two per- scientist doing in Yonkers? PS: Political Scientist & spectives are often constructed (i.e., individual freedom Politics, 31, 557-61. versus the bonds of belonging), by writers in the feminist, Beck, U., Giddens, A., & Lash, S. (1994). Reflexive mod- postmodern, and postcolonial vein. I have found interesting ernization; Politics, tradition, aesthetics in the modern insights especially in Corlett (1993), Frazer & Lacy (1993), social order. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. and Young (2000). Belenky, M.F., Bond, L.A., & Weinstock, J.S. (1999). A 15 The concept of public work was developed by Harry tradition that has no name: Nurturing the development Boyte (see Boyte & Kari, 1996). As defined in the Center of people, families and communities. New York: Basic. for Democracy and Citizenship, which Boyte co-directs, “Public work is sustained, visible, serious effort by a Bigelow, B. & Peterson, B. (Eds.) (2002). Rethinking diverse mix of ordinary people that creates things of lasting globalization: Teaching for justice in an unjust world civic or public significance... Public work is different than (pp. 342-345). Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools. citizenship as charity, or community service where the Billig, S. H. (2000). Research on K-12 school-based ser- emphasis is on helping the needy. It is also different than vice learning: The evidence builds. Phi Delta Kappan, protest politics, which demonizes an enemy. Public work 81(9), 658-664. interacts with the world to leave a leggy. It changes the Blackmore, J. (2000). Warning signals or dangerous community, the larger world, and the people involved.” opportunities? Globalization, gender, and educational www.publicwork.org/1_2_philosophy.html. policy shifts. Educational Theory, 50(4), 467-486. 16 Amartya Sen (1999), whose work informs Young’s, Blaut, J. M. (1993). The colonizer’s model of the world; argues that poverty should be measured not by lack of material possessions but in terms of “capability depriva- Geographical diffusionism and eurocentric history. tion,” that is, development should be about expanding the New York: Guilford. capability (freedom) of people to lead the kind of lives they Bodley, J. H. (1982). Victims of progress. Mountain View, value-and have reason to value” (1999, 18). This has to do CA: Mayfield.

21 Keith Bourdieu, P. (1998, December). Utopia of endless exploita- Fusarelli, B. C. & Boyd, W. L. (Eds.) (2004). Introduction: tion; The essence of neoliberalism. Le Monde One nation indivisible? An overview of the Yearbook. Diplomatique. Retrieved January 17, 1999, from Educational Policy, 18(1), 5-11. http://www.en.monde-diplomatique.fr/1998/12/08/bour- Giddens, A. (1994). Beyond left and right: The future of dieu.html radical politics. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Boyle-Baise, M. (2002). Multicultural service learning: Press. Educating teachers in diverse communities. New York: Gillespie, S. (2003, Winter). Toward “genuine reciproci- Teachers College Press. ty”; Reconceptualizing international liberal education Boyte, H.C. & Kari, N.N. (1996). Building America: The in the era of globalization. Liberal Education, 6-15. democratic promise of public work. Philadelphia: Gilroy, P. (1991). ‘There ain’t no black in the Union Jack’: Temple University Press. The cultural politics of race and nation. Chicago: Brock-Utne, B. (2000). Peace education in an era of University of Chicago Press. globalization. Peace Review, 12(1), 1313-138. Goldsmith, T. (2001). Poverty: The child of progress. Burbules, N.C. & Torres, C.A. (Eds.) (2000). The Ecologist, 31(6). Retrieved from http://www.the Globalization and education: Critical perspectives. ecologist.org/archive_article.html?article=107 New York: Routledge. (December 20, 2004). Campus Compact (n.d.). Glossary. Retrieved November 3, Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The Norm of reciprocity: A prelim- 2004, from http://www.compact.org/aboutcc/glossary/ inary statement. American Sociological Review 25: 161- glossary.html 178. Retrieved April 4, 2004, from http://www2.pfeif- Claus, J. & Ogden, C. (Eds.) (1999). Service learning for fer.edu/~lridener/courses/NORMRECP.HTML youth empowerment and social change. New York: Greider, W. (1997). One world, ready or not: The manic Peter Lang. logic of global capitalism. 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22 Community Service Learning in the Face of Globalization Isbister, J. (1998). Promises not kept; The betrayal of Putnam, R. D. (1993, Spring). The prosperous community: social change in the Third World. West Hartford, CT: Social capital and public life. The American Prospect, Kumarian. 13, http://epn.org/prospect/13/13putn.html. Keith, N. Z., Cavanaugh, C., Islam, S., Hafiz, F., Malandra, Putnam, R.D. & Feldstein, L.M. (2003). Better together: K., Mather, K., et al. (2003, March). Partnerships as new Restoring the American community. New York: Simon ground: Between private enterprise and democratic pos- & Schuster. sibilities. Practitioners’ keynote, Ethnography in Ramsdell, L. (2004, June). Reciprocity: The heart of service- Education Raesearch Forum, Center for Urban learning. Paper presented at the International Literacy and Ethnography, University of Pennsylvania. Education Research Network Conference, Havana, Cuba. Keith, N. Z., & Hafiz, F. (2002, October). 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23 Keith Suarez-Oroszco, M. (2001). Globalization, immigration, and education; The research agenda. Harvard Educational Review, 71(3), 345-365. Subotsky, G. (1999a). Alternatives to the entrepreneurial uni- versity; New modes of knowledge production in commu- nity service programs. Higher Education, 38, 401-440. Subotsky, G. (1999b). Beyond the entrepreneurial universi- ty: The potential role of South Africa’s historically disad- vantaged institutions in reconstruction and development. International Review of Education, 45(5/6), 507-527. Taylor, R. (Ed.) (2004). Interpreting global civil society. Hartford, CT: Kumarian. Walter, T. (2000). The service/politics split: Rethinking ser- vice to teach political engagement. PS: Political Science & Politics, September, http://www.apsanet.org/PS/ Sept00/robinson.cfm Westheimer, J. & Kahne, J. (2002). Educating the “good” citizen; The politics of school-based civic education pro- grams. Paper presented at the American Political Science Association, Boston, August 2002. Retrieved October 12, 2004, from http://apsaproceedings.cup.org/Site/papers/ 009/009001Westheimer.pdf Whitman, W. (1900). “Song of Myself,” 51. In Leaves of Grass. Retrieved February 15, 2005, from http://www.bartleby.com/142/14.html Wyre, H. K. (1999). Shadow of the Other; Intersubjectivity and gender in psychoanalysis, by Jessica Benjamin. Reviewed by Harriet Kimble Wyre. Book Review. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, Vol. 47. Online, Dallas Society for Psychoanalytic Psychology. Retrieved December 18, 2004, from http://www.dspp.com/reviews/wrye.htm Young, I. M. (1997). Intersecting voices: Dilemmas of gen- der, political philosophy, and policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Young, I. M. (2000). Inclusion and democracy. New York: Oxford University Press. Author NOVELLA ZETT KEITH is a sociologist whose work straddles Third World studies and urban edu- cation studies. She is a lead faculty for service-learn- ing in the College of Education at Temple University and secretary of an NGO, Edu-Tourism, which brings groups to Jamaica for international service learning that interfaces with local community devel- opment. She is interested in service-learning that supports democratic practices and building commu- nities of difference.

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