Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering A 2 (2013) 41-58 Formerly part of Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, ISSN 1934-8932 D DAVID PUBLISHING

Threats to Diversity in the North Eastern Part of (El-Jabal El-Akahdar and Plateau)

Yacoub Mohamad Mohamad El-Barasi1 and Manam Wafi Barrani Saaed2 1. Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Benghazi University (Previous Gar-Yunis University), Benghazi 25426, Libya 2. Range Department, High Institute of Agriculture Techniques, Al-Marj city 25426, Libya

Received: December 23, 2012 / Accepted: January 14, 2013 / Published: January 20, 2013.

Abstract: Little thought has been given to threats facing plant diversity in this area where many wild still exist in their refuge sites in valleys (wadis), the study area harboring most of the endemic species in the zone, and there are substantial maquis vegetation still remaining. Many plants species in this region have medicinal properties that give them scientific and commercial value. However, the wildlife species are gradually disappearing as a result of damaging and excessive resource exploitation the consistency of the irresponsible and inattentive activities, such as over grazing, ploughing, land reclamation, urbanization, mining, forest fires, over collecting and charcoal production cause damage to several habitats, communities disturbance as a result of that, hundreds of species are threatened with disappearance where many are at the brink of extinction. Also, the anthropogenic pressure accelerates Aeolian soil erosion and destroys the soil seed bank.

Key words: Biodiversity, human activities, El-Jabal El-Akhadar, Marmarica plateau.

1. Introduction vegetation, as a result life of the local inhabitants relied upon. The main activities throughout history Libya occupies an area of 1.75954 million km2. The were grazing, gathering wood for fuel, production of desert is spread over more than 95% of the country, bees honey, gathering medication species and wood except for a narrow coastal strip which contains most products. Many plant species were a source of food of the country’s inhabitants (6,310,434 inhabitants). for people, and at the same time, the natural The population density is about 1 inhabitant per km2 vegetation is a haven for many kinds of birds and wild in the southern region; meanwhile it is about 50 animals that are also a source of food and medication inhabitants per km2 in the coastal strip. for the inhabitants. The northern strip is characterized by a relative In fact, the study area is rich in many medicinal and abundance of rainfall and soil fertility that make it aromatic species such as Ceratonia siliqua, Zizphus suitable for the appearance of rich wildlife, thus lotus, Cistus sps., Thymus capitatus, Artemisia differing from the rest of the country. El-Jabal herba-alba, Globularia arabica, Teucrium polium, El-Akhadar and Marmarica plateau have a unique Juniperus phoenicea, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia relatively large biodiversity, particularly in valleys fruticosa, Chamomilia pubescens, Pituranthos and depressions that act as a haven for many species. tortuousus. El-Jabal El-Akhadar contains about 43 The background of the area shows that it was free endemic plant species, meanwhile Marmarica plateau of any natural resource, other than the natural contains about 12 endemic plant species. The human activities over the centuries have Corresponding author: Yacoub Mohamad Mohamad dramatically affected the biodiversity of this region. In El-Barasi, Ph.D., professor, main research field: ecology, plant ecology, phytosociology, seed ecology, range ecology and land recent decades, this effect has been intensified due to uses. E-mail: [email protected].

42 Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau) the increase in the population and the import of El-Akhadar extends from the city of Benghazi toward modern mechanization which has caused an increase east reaching Gulf of Bomba with a length of about (in both density and area) of the destructive effects of 350 km. human activities. Moreover, the eastern part of the study area known Although this region is one of the important areas as Marmarica plateau, a wide plateau which extends for wildlife in Libya, it suffers from extreme about 250 km from the Gulf of Bomba to reaches the biodiversity destruction and degradation and it is very Egyptian border, with an average height of 200 m important now to begin extensive environmental above sea level [1]. studies and conservation programs, including not only In fact, the study area is a part of the great soil and biodiversity conservation but also beauty sprawling plateau that forms the Libyan land, which conservation and attention to local inhabitants because descends gradually from the south of the country to they play an important role in the ecological systems the north, but rises, near the coast to consist the study throughout the whole area. area, which is an elevated land. The north of the area abruptly descends to form steep slopes towards the sea, 2. The Biophysical Environment and it descends gradually towards the south until we The study area lies on the Mediterranean coast in reach the desert. The study area is divided by a large north eastern Libya (), at coordinates 20° to number of valleys that vary in depth and length; they 25° east and 31°:30' to 33° north (Fig. 1), which are oriented towards the sea in the north, while many include El-Jabal El-Akhadar (The Green Mountain), a are oriented towards the south to end in the desert three terraces hill which rise up gradually, the highest (Sahara). terrace reaches about 880 m above sea level. El-Jabal Topography of the area has a great effect on the

Fig. 1 Location map of the study area (by the authors).

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau) 43

distribution of natural vegetation because the low land El-Akhadar is about 17 °C and in Marmarica plateau receives more water through runoff after rainfall, and and parts of southern El-Jabal El-Akhadar it is 20 °C it has more prevention against wind and human [5]. activities, hence many valleys act as havens for many 3. Natural Vegetation wildlife species that have disappeared completely from other parts in the region. According to Brullo and Furnari [6], the vegetation The soil in El-Jabal El-Akhadar area is of this area represents in most of its aspects a characterized by the presence of red clay soil (Terra pronounced autonomy, although there is less evidence Rosa), it tends to be neutral or slightly alkaline (pH to connect the west and east Mediterranean areas. 7-8), the value of TDS (total dissolved salt) ranged There are three main habitats that can be between 190-624 ppm, O.M% (organic matter distinguished in the study area: The coastal zone is percentage) ranged between 1%-9% [2]. characterized by halophytic vegetation, the piedmont On the other hand, the soil in southern parts of and mountain zone prevail with Mediterranean El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica plateau is mainly vegetation (Fig. 2) and the predesert south El-Jabal dry soil sediment over parent calcareous rocks, (mountain) zone is characterized by thermo-xerophilic characterized by sandy loam texture and tends to be vegetation. South El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica alkaline (pH 8-9), the value of TDS ranged between plateau are floristically and ecologically considered to 208-5,311 ppm, O.M% ranged between 0.30%-1.10% be as a pasture zone (Fig. 5). [3]. The flora of El-Jabal El-Akhadar is constituted of In some coastal depressions and at the ends of some more than 1,350 species. About 70% of the total valleys, there are salt-marshes (sabkha) that have a number of Libyan flora and the endemic species are high value of TDS which ranged between about 43. While in Marmarica plateau, the flora is 6,769-14,471 ppm, and have a high value of alkalinity constituted of 407 species with about 12 endemic due to the accumulation of alkaline salt. Where the species. The total endemic plant species in the study value of pH reached up to 10.6, it was occupied by area is estimated at 55 species which consists of about Halophyte plant species [4]. 78% of the endemic species in Libyan flora. El-Jabal El-Akhadar Mountain receives the greatest According to Le Houerou [7], this zone (surrounded amount of rainfall in all Libya, where it has an by Sahara desert) with monomodal rainfall regime is average annual rainfall of about 400 mm/year, in considered to be one of the main centers rich in Cyrene city area it is up to 600 mm/year. The rate of endemic species. precipitation decreases as we head south, east or west, Areas, like El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica where as it is up to 270 mm/year in some areas south plateau, with species concentration of endemism and of El-Jabal El-Akhadar, and about 180 mm/year in unique habitats, that are facing risks, are considered to Marmarica plateau, and it is about 270 mm/year in be hotspots. Benghazi plain. This rate will continue decreasing as As a matter of fact, in order to escape drought and we head south to reach the desert areas that receive survive, most of the vegetation exist where the rates of less than 50 mm/year. prerequisite of life are available, such as in wadis About 75% of the rainfall falls during the winter (valleys) which harbour many wild species especially season starting from October to February, while the endemic and rare species. In these habitats, the dry period of the year starts from April to September. spectrum of life is constituted of: therophytes 52.65%, The average annual temperature in El-Jabal phanerophytes 12%, chamaeophytes 7.5%,

44 Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau) cryptophytes 27.6% and hemicryptophytes 0.25%, species in the region. with rainfall ranging between 63-576 mm/year, Beside topography, rain water controls vegetation favoured by the monomodal rainfall regime. Important distribution in the region as follow: canopy species are met like: Arbutus pavarii, Olea (1) At isohyets 50-200 mm/year: This zone europea, Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia lentiscus, represents south Al-Jabal Al-Akhadar and the whole Juniperus phoenicea, lycioides, Pinus of Marmarica plateau zone, and many species are halpensis, Cistus parviflorus, , Rhus distributed there such as: Artemisia herba-alba, tripartita and others met like: Sarcopoterium Pituranthos tortuousus, Thymus capitatus, Anabasis spinosum, Asphodelus ramosus, Nicotiana glauca, articulata, Haloxylon scoparium, hirsuta, Arisarum vulgare, Rosmarinus officinalis, Micromeria Zilla spinosa. At wadis beds, we encounter species nervosa, Bellis sylvestris, Androcymbium graminium, like: Rhus tripartita, Retama raetam, Ziziphus lotus, Trifolium tomemtosum, Silene Cyrenaica, etc.. While europaeum, Atriplex halimus, but in coastal in the drier predesertic southward zone, the salt marshes and wet lands, many species are existing, therophytes constituted 56.75%, the phanerophytes such as: Mesembryanthemum sps., Silene succulenta, 9.3%, chamaephytes 27.2%, cryptophytes 6.5% and Arthrocnemum sps., Atriplex mollis, Salsola kali, hemicryptophytes 0.25%. Some of the species Juncus maritimus, Arundo donax, Tamarix aphylla, encountered in this area are Ceratonia siliqua, Nitraria retusa, Zygophyllum album, Suaeda vera, Asphodulus ramosus, Sarcopoterium spinosum, most of these areas are subjected to degradation and Haloxylon scoparium, Thymeleae hirsuta, Artemisia desertification particularly those which are on the herba-alba, Artemisia campestris, Thymus capitatus, fringe of the Sahara; Polygonum equisetiforme, Ononis reclinata, Onyza (2) At isohyets 200-300 mm/year: It is located north aegyptica, Emex spinosus, Nonea viviani, Pallenis of the previous zones, and many species are spinosa, Anthemis taubertii, Noea mucronata, distributed there such as: Centaurea alexandrina, Plantago notata, Carduus argentatus, Atractylic Carthamus lanatus, Sarcopoterium spinosum, Ballota serratuloides, Malva sylvestris, Hordeum morinum, pseudo dictamnus, Marrubium alysson, Phlomis etc. The rainfall in these habitats ranged between floccose, Eryngium compestre, moreover Juniperus 25-200 mm/year. The increased percentage of communs is found, but in small pockets on the coast Therophytes reveals the effect of aridity in both zones due to degradation of an ancient open forest; causing the fragility and high sensitivity of these (3) At isohyets 300-450 mm/year: This zone ecosystems. represents the whole part of El-Jabal El-Akhadar. The The area suffers from retrogressive succession and main distributed species are: Juniperus phoenicea, the driving forces for this are: cutting of wood, over Arbutus pavarii, Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia lentiscus, collection, fire, overstocking, clearing (the main Quercus coccifera, , Olea europaea, anthropogenic pressure) and droughts. Vegetation of Rosmarinus officinalis and Rhamnus oleoides; the area is very heterogeneous in distribution and (4) At isohyets 450-600 mm/year: This is closely associated with landscape features, geological represented by small areas in some wadis in parts of formation and topography which control water Cyrene city area and Wadi El-Kouf near El-Bayda city, availability. Ephemeral waves of short-lived plant in places considered being the last refugial sites for: growth appear during spells of rain and last as long as Cupressus sempervirens. water is available. However, water availability is still The main endangered species in the study area are: the main factor affecting the distribution of plant Juniperus phoenicea, Juniperus communs, Myrtus

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau) 45 communis, Cupressus sempervirens, Rosmarinus in dam’s soil ranged between 1,800-25,200 seeds/m2, officinalis, Salvia officinalis, Ziziphus lotus, Thymus in south El-Jabal El-Akhadar it ranged between capitatus, Olea europea, Artemisia herba alba, 1800-10,800 seeds/m2, and in the areas north of Ceratonia siliqua, Arbutus pavarii and Urgenea El-Jabal El-Akhadar it ranged between 1200-6,600 marittima. seeds/m2 [3, 8]. Marmarica and south El-Jabal El-Akhadar receive 4. Soil Seed Bank less amounts of rainfall compared with north El-Jabal Climatic factors play an important role in forming El-Akhadar, but consisted of larger soil seed banks soil seed banks in these zones, which are mainly than north El-Jabal El-Akhadar. This may be composed of ephemeral and annual seeds (therophytes) explained by the fact that most of the vegetation in the forming the transient soil seed bank. They have the former areas is xerophylous and composed mainly of ability to complete their life cycle, producing annual species, which produces a large number of considerable quantities of seeds, in just a few weeks in seeds. the rainy season. In general, during autumn the higher At north and south El-Jabal El-Akhadar, the density of transient and permanent seed banks are greatest proportion of soil seed banks belongs to available in the soils. On the other hand, there is a Poaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Bracssicaceae reduction in soil seeds bank in spring, due to the respectively, while in Marmarica plateau, the greatest depletion by germination. proportion of soil seed banks are composed of However, the density of soil seeds increased under Brassicaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Fabaceae and the canopy of trees and . In contrast, the density Asteraceae respectively. decreased, away from the sources of seed production The proportion of soil seed banks of Fabaceae, in places with low cover or devoid of vegetation. which is an important species in rangeland, In Marmarica plateau soil seed density ranged constituted about 1% of the isolated soil seeds in the between 600-6,000 seeds/m2, in south of El-Jabal areas of south El-Jabal El-Akhadar, 2% around the El-Akhadar it ranged between 1,200-50,520 seeds/m2, agricultural areas in north El-Jabal El-Akhadar, but in while in north El-Jabal El-Akhadar it ranged between some areas of El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica 2,400-60,000 seeds/m2. In places dominated by plateau it reached up to 10%. However, in Mesus threatened species such as: Juniperous phoenicea and rangeland (south Benghazi) seeds of Fabaceae reached Rhamnus lycioedes in their last stands at altitudes of 510 31%, where species like Medicago polymorha, m the soil seed bank reached 18,530 seed/m2 [3, 8, 9]. Medicago coronata, Astragulus spinosus, Medicago This zone is mainly dependent on seasonal rainfall, turbinata and Trifolium campestre are able to the presence of great number of valleys sloping in establish considerable soil seed banks, besides their different directions carrying large quantities of water, seed characteristics, this enhanced fraction of seeds is dams and rocky dykes are present along their course mainly attributed to the reseeding programs of these in different places preventing soil erosion, thus grazing areas by the agriculture authority. enhancing the increment of soil profile and the storing 5. Anthropogenic Pressure of more soil seed bank by accumulating seeds behind them. This must be considered to be an effective Global climate change, coupled with increased factor in enriching diversity. This activity in these human activities in the study area is likely to affect the zones has been carried out since long ago. ecosystems and pose significant threats to biodiversity In Marmarica plateau, the density of soil seed bank especially to rare and endemic species. The important

46 Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau) of this lie in the fact that the study zone (Cyrenaica towns, villages and ports, as well as dykes and cisterns and Marmarica) is holding more than 1,350 plant in order to harvest run-off water, and developed species which consist about 70% of Libyan flora [6]. irrigation canals and organized water consumption Human activities have the most severe impact on (Figs. 3 and 4). They removed vegetation and turned retrogressive succession. Degradation caused by forest areas to farmland in order to grow barley, wheat, human activities is not unprecedented, this destruction fruit trees and vegetables. has been going on throughout the ages, but what is They also introduced many plant species, now new is that the pace of this decline accelerated included in the natural vegetation of the region, such significantly in recent decades. as trees, still today the remnants of olive oil The major degradation causes of ecosystems in the mills are present in the region, carved in the rocks, study areas are: the increase in population, scattered in many valleys and hills of El-Jabal overgrazing, uprooting of woody species for use as El-Akhadar area, as an evidence of the expansion of fuel or for medical uses, ploughing land for cereal olive tree cultivation at that time. production, infrastructure development, disposal of The archaeological inscriptions found in Cyrene solid and liquid wastes, mining and mismanagement showed that Cyrenaica granted more than 800,000 of natural resources. Medmni (Medmni is an old measuring unite equivalent to about 43.5 L) of wheat to more than 40 5.1 Historical Background in the Area Greek cities during the famine period (330-326 BC). From historical evidence, it is known that this Cyrenaica was also famous for the production of region used to be flourishing, especially in Roman era, barley, fodder, , legumes, fruits and other possibly with a large population and more prosperous foodstuffs as well as various types of wine, olive oil, cultivation of olives, figs, vines and cereals as it was honey and various famous perfumes derived from in the Mediterranean basin [10]. Throughout history, wild [14]. the natural vegetation was the sole resource upon During the Roman era (96 BC-643 AD), the which the inhabitants lean on in this region. development of irrigation systems and cisterns Historical records indicate that the eastern region of continued, with the expansion in land reclamation and Libya (Cyrenaica) was a populated region as well as an cultivation at the expense of natural vegetation. important pasture zone. Inscriptions on walls of temples Cyrenaica was considered as the yield store of Rome. of ancient recorded that the zone was inhabited The pressure on the region’s natural resources by tribes and herders that supplied Egypt with livestock continued as well during the middle ages. The region [11, 12]. Some of them described that oxen, donkeys, exported grains, fruits, tree tar, wine, fruits of sheep and a special type of oil as well were all exported Juniperous phonicea, honey, wool, cotton, cow hides, from the region to ancient Egypt [13]. sheep and wood of pine trees particularly to Egypt. During the Greek era (631-96 BC), many Even during the Arab era, these zones were wealthy agricultural colonies were built. This induced with a lot of agricultural activities at the expense of Herodotus to point out that the reason of the plant diversity in the regions. agricultural settlements was mainly attributed to the During the Arab era at the 7th and 8th centuries, grazing activities and the presence of great number of remarkable changes in land use were introduced, and grazing animals specially caprins (the fourth book of they encouraged the return of pastoral life and nomad Herodotus). livestock. That led to the abandonment of many Moreover, ancient Greeks constructed several irrigation constructions and disappearance of old

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau) 47 villages, and the cultivated areas were again taken pheonicea, Arbutus pavarii, Ceratonia siliqua, over by natural steppic vegetation found today as Phoenix dictalyfera, Myrtus communis, Phlomis Artemisia herba-alba, Thymelae hirsuta and Anabasis floccosa and many others. articulata. During the Italian occupation (1911-1941), a big In the 9th century, the famous sea port of Ptolemais effort in the agricultural sector was undertaken, large located 30 km north the ancient prosperous city of areas were cleared and changed to farms, with the Barce (the old city of El-Marj) situated 100 km east of introduction of several types of plant species and Benghazi in northern Cyrenaica was famous by its cultivars, imported from abroad like, Nerium oleander, natural resources and the richness of its surrounding Eucalyptus sp, Acacia sp and many fruit trees and villages and farms, however it imported textiles and other agricultural crops. cotton linen, and exported tar, honey, barley, wheat During the second half of the 20th century, more and sulfur, which constituted the products of the efforts were made in agricultural development with agricultural activities of the zone indicating the extensive use of machineries at the expense of significance of these human activities. environment, especially in El-Jabal El-Akhadar which All the chronologers who visited the area after the is still targeted heavily for the establishment of 9th century describe a dramatic change to poverty and agricultural projects, urbanization and demographic a cute deficiency in natural recourses. expansion. During the Ottoman era (1554-1911), a culture of 5.2 The Most Important Anthropogenic Factors Which cave dwellers (Troglodytes) developed in several Threaten the Biodiversity in the Region Are wadis in Cyrenaica and in , due to the spread of tribe wars and famine, and their main 5.2.1 Overpopulation requirements were based on the vegetation. Plant The Libyan population has increased significantly species affected at El-Jabal El-Akhadar were: Olea over the last 50 years, more than six-fold. The europea, Ballotta andreuziana, Pinus sps., Juniperous country’s population was less than one million in the

Fig. 2 The north front slopes of El-Jabal El-Akhadar near the sea coast (authors camera, 2012).

48 Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)

Fig. 3 Big cistern from the Roman era for collecting runoff water. In old Ptolemais city (old sea port of Barce) north El-Jabal El-Akhadar at the sea coast (author’s camera, 2013).

Fig. 4 The old hydraulic-engineering system in old Ptolemais city for collecting and distributing water from springs and Roman cisterns (author’s camera, 2013).

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau) 49

Fig. 5 Xerophytic species dominated in Marmarica plateau (author’s camera, 2012).

Table 1 Number of grazig animals in the area. Area Sheep Goat Cattle Camel Marmarica area 206,258 59,171 2,516 9,250 Derna 147,542 52,879 6,492 3,923 El-Jabal El-Bayda 178,978 63,020 18,004 3,938 El-Akhadar area El-Marj 354,538 64,817 19,023 3,622 Benghazi 138,322 18,575 1,835 2,392 Total 1,025,638 258,462 47,870 23,125 1355,095 Source: general authority for information [16].

1954 census and in 2006 it was about 6,310,434. The population in these regions is involved in this activity, population of the study area of about 1,579,978 people and the number of grazing animals in the area is about consists 21.48% of Libya’s population [15]. 1,355,095 head (Table 1). This significant increment caused a substantial The range lands in the study area are estimated to increase in the volume of the environmental damage be about 5,284,000 hectares, accounting for about caused by pressure on the region’s natural resources. 40% of the grazing area in Libya, of which about 5.2.2 Pastoralism 2,475,000 hectares (47%) receives a rainfall rate less Nomadic pastoralism is a traditional habit in the than 100 mm/year, about 1,768,000 hectares (33%) whole zone, it depends mainly upon natural vegetation, have a rainfall rate between 100-150 mm/year, about and because Mediterranean winters are generally more 1,041,000 hectares (20%) have a rate between or less mild, vegetation is not protected against 150-400 mm/year [17]. grazing during this season. About 30% of the The movement of herds within the region is

50 Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau) according to the rainfall and rangeland conditions. The tortuousus, Rhus tripartita and many other species improvement in transportation in last few decades has have been replaced by less/or unpalatable species, helped the herds to be always moved to other grazing such as: Euphorbia dendroides, Thymelaea hirsuta, areas. In addition, the continuous increase in the Haloxylon scoparium, Asphodelus ramosus, number of dug wells has made the herds more Sarcopoterium spinosum, , Phlomis attracted to the area around those water sources. These floccosa, Marrubium alysson and Ballota pseudo entire activities act together to facilitate over grazing. dictamnus that have invaded many areas. In general, the movement of herds is towards the In the past, traditional herders of rangelands in this south of Marmarica and the south of El-Jabal area had learned to exploit ecosystem cycles El-Akhadar areas during winter and spring, where sustainably through mobility and unwitting regulation they depend on annuals plants. While in summer and because they were nomads. Recently that has been autumn, they head north towards the coastal areas in changed towards the centralization of the pastoralists Marmarica and toward El-Jabal El-Akhadar bushes, in fixed area and the provision of supplemental animal where they depend on perennial shrubs and sub-shrubs fodder, and they nowadays focus more on economic and the remains of rain-fed crops that are often left sustainability and increase the pressure on ecosystems without harvesting after bad seasons to feed the by allowing the herds for long or continuous stays in grazing animals (the farms of wheat and barley). Also, the same area. the owners provide fodder to compensate the 5.2.3 Agriculture Expansion deficiency in pasture production, especially in the dry Due to the lack of permanent water sources such as season of the year or in dry years. Camels graze in rivers or freshwater lakes, this region suffers from a areas adjacent to the deserts southern of Marmarica deficiency of water, so rain-fed agriculture has and El-Jabal El-Akhadar Mountain. prevailed in the region since ancient times. The crops It is very clear that the number of animals is more which are most cultivated are wheat, barley, lentils, than the grazing capacity of the rangelands in the area, chickpeas and beans, in addition to the cultivation of according to Census 2006 they represent about 600% fruit trees which well adapted to such harsh climate as of the grazing load of Marmarica [3], which has led to fig trees, grapes, olives and palm trees. natural vegetation deteriorating causing the However, the availability of modern machineries disappearance of many palatable species. during the past few decades has given the inhabitants In addition to the devastating effects on vegetation, the ability to expand the rain-fed agriculture area the movement of livestock caused trampling, towards the rangelands. The new lands have been especially around wells and water sources, where cleared from perennial species such as Lycium herds’ ranging around water sources in circles was europaeum, Rhamnus oleoides, Ziziphus lotus, Suaeda estimated nearly 10 km in diameter [18]. vermiculata, Salsola sps., Haloxylon scoparium, The rangelands degradation, especially by Atriplex halimus, Anabasis articulata, Rhus tripartita, overgrazing and soil trampling, has resulted in the Junipeorus phoenicea, Pinus halepensis, Pistacia disappearance of perennial grasses, which in turn has lentiscus, Olea europaea, Ceratonia siliqua, Querecus increased pasture shortage. As a result of that and in coccifera, Rosmarinus officinalis, Arbutus pavarii, the absence of range management, the more palatable Calicotome villosa and many others. When the species such as Retama raetam, Atriplex halimus, farmers leave the ploughed areas due to the drought, Artemisia herba-alba, Avena fatua, Vicia sps., the above species are replaced by less productive Medicago sps., Periploca angustifolia, Pituranthos annual species such as Polypogon monspeliensis,

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau) 51

Papaver rhoeas, Avena fatua, Malva sylvestris, source of fuel throughout the ages. Firewood Chenopodium murale, Echium angustifolium, collection has in the past led to the removal of large Convolvulus sps., Achillea santolina, Cyperus kalli areas of natural vegetation (woody perennial), and Chrysanthemum carinatum. Under the particularly around cities and urbanization centers. environmental conditions of this area, the Firewood collection in this area is a selective re-generation of natural vegetation cover after process on a certain species particularly trees and successive ploughing is a very slow process. woody shrubs and sub-shrubs. In the past, the average There is also a widespread trend towards the daily consumption of wood for every family was expansion of irrigated crops, especially in areas of about 10 kg per day; it increased and decreased El-Jabal El-Akhadar by drilling underground wells, depending on the number of family members and and the establishment of agricultural projects that whether the season was warm or cold. There were sweep towards areas of forests which are replaced by markets for selling wood in all cities and villages; fruit trees and vegetable farms and the establishment nowadays firewood collection in the region has of greenhouses. dropped considerably due to the availability of During the last 30 years, the state implemented alternative energy sources. projects in El-Jabal El-Akhadar in an area of about Charcoal production in the areas of El-Jabal 315,200 hectares, in places receiving higher rain-fall El-Akhadar is still one of the good economic activities amount, having good soil and dense vegetation. After for the local nomads. It is applied in an intensive and clearing them from vegetation they replaced with selective way on woody species such as Rhus cereal crops. tripartita, Pinus halepensis, Juniperus phoenicea, There is a widespread trend from the local land Pistacia lentiscus, Olea europaea, Ceratonia siliqua, owners to shift to irrigated crops, where data have Querecus coccifera and Arbutus pavarii. The charcoal shown that 50% of farmers in the areas of El-Jabal productivity of El-Jabal El-Akhadar is estimated at El-Akhadar switched to irrigated agriculture by more than 4,575 bags (weighing 25 kg) per year. The drilling wells and deforested their lands (the area of exposed area for charcoal production is estimated private land that has been deforested and converted to annually at about 111 hectares [20]. irrigated farms is non-estimated yet) which introduce 5.2.5 Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Species a considerable income for the owners of those lands The region is rich in species having medicinal uses. [19]. It is well known in folkloric medicine that it depends Most of the farmers in the region do not practice mainly on the use of the property from the parent plant. crop rotation due to a low education (53% illiterate) They are collected in large quantities and are sold in and they tend to apply chemicals in irrigated special stores (herbalist), which are widely found in agriculture where 76.8% are using chemical control all Libyan cities. Many of these species have not been against pests. The levels of knowledge about studied yet. pesticides and fertilizers are very low (1.3% are Plant species used in folk medicine are Peganum familiar with) and there is no accuracy in the practice harmala, Ziziphus lotus, Thymus capitatus, Teucrium of pesticides and fertilizers (0.7% of them are accurate) polium, Alhagi graecorum, Chenopodium murale, but the big story is that 93.9% of the farmers were not Chamomilla pubescens, Artemisia herba-alba, familiar with the environmental pollution effects [19]. Pituranthos tortuousus, Olea europaea, Ceratonia 5.2.4 Firewood Collection and Charcoal Production siliqua, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, The natural vegetation in this region was the only Ricinus communis and many others.

52 Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)

It is noted that the collection of these plants for wildfires were recorded in El-Jabal El-Akhadar areas, medicinal purposes is concentrated in the El-Jabal which destroyed an area of about 161,533 hectares of El-Akhadar area, at a commercial scale. The plants are mixed forest of Arbutus pavarii, Pinus halepensis, collected in random, unregulated and uncontrolled Querecus coccifera, J. phoenicea, Olea europaea, ways. These species are uprooted and collected Querecus coccifera, Ceratonia siliqua and Pistacia without precautionary steps, which may lead to the lentiscus. From these about 463 wildfires were in pure extinction of many species. forests of J. phoenicea, with an estimated area of Despite the great activity in the collection of about 14,490 hectares, in which no regeneration of J. medicinal and aromatic species in the region, and the phoenicea has been recorded [20]. availability of these plants in herbalist in all Libyan The average annual number of fires in El-Jabal cities, there is still no accurate data concerning the El-Akhadar is about 111/year, and the average annual quantities and the areas of collection. area burned was about 8,975 ha/year. These rates far 5.2.6 Fires exceed the natural fire rates, and make wildfires one El-Jabal El-Akhadar is the richest area of natural of the main causes in decreasing natural vegetation vegetation in Libya. It is also the area most threatened and affecting the diversity of species. by fire, which is also in fact threatening the plant 5.2.7 Mining communities and changing the trend of succession, There are about 164 quarries in El-Jabal and causes major damage to the vegetation and soil. El-Akhadar and Marmarica areas, most of which More than 90% of fires in the region are due to produce sand and different types of aggregates for human causes which in turn cause the disappearance infrastructure works and other constructions, in of many species that are not able to regenerate after addition to the production of some material for fires, such as Juniperus phoenicea, which is one of the factories of clay bricks and cement plants. The total most important species in El-Jabal El-Akhadar and is area of these quarries is more than 1,600 hectares one of the climax species at the brink of extinction. spread all over the area at the expense of natural For more than 20 years, there have been no records of vegetation. For the purpose of constructions a huge regeneration of this species in the areas which suffered amount of sand from sea shore sand dunes are fire damage. removed and carried in an uncontrolled way causing Retrogressive succession is very clear in the areas changes in shore landscape and destroying habitats. of wildfire due to the disappearance of many canopy In addition to the damage that mining has caused to species such as: Juniperous phoenicea, Olea europaea, the surrounding environment in those areas, it has also Querecus coccifera, Ceratonia siliqua and Phillyrea severely damaged the natural bees pastures in the angustifolia, and the establishment of other shrubs southern region of El-Jabal El-Akhadar and and sub-shrubs such as Rhamnus oleoides, Cistus sps., Marmarica plateau, where they cause harmful impacts Sarcopoterium spinosum, Phlomis floccosa, Ballota on plant species such as: Ziziphus lotus, Phlomis pseudo dictamnus, Calicotome villosa and floccosa, Ballota pseudo dictamnus and Thymus Rosmarinus officinalis. It is worthy to note the capitatus, from which bees produce delicious kinds of spreading of certain species that have the ability to natural honey. regenerate after fires like Querecus coccifera, Mining in this region is undoubtedly very Rosmarinus officinalis, Arbutus pavarii and Pinus destructive by direct and indirect impacts on the halepensis. surroundings lands. First of all, it sweeps away natural During the period from 1986 to 2003, about 1,991 vegetation and soil, and secondly it cuts the rocks and

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau) 53 removes the ores causing land degradation and the It is quite clear that if human activities continue in destruction of habitats as well as damaging the the same way as they are now, it will lead to even aesthetic beauty of the landscape. more environmental degradation and severe loss in 5.2.8 Tourism biodiversity and continuous retrogressive succession. This area with its fascinating landscape, interesting 5.3 General Remarks geological formation, rich wildlife and numerous historical sites attracts naturalists, tourists and hunters. From the foregoing discussion, it is apparent that Tourists, scholars and practitioners as well as for both zones (El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica hunting, are continuously increasing, especially in the plateau) are subject to multi types of anthropogenic areas of south El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica pressure, although in some areas, valleys and plateau. depressions have deep strata with considerable soil El-Jabal El-Akhadar is more exposed to touristic seed banks, which offer great possibilities for the activities, especially internal tourism. A very large construction of plant cover, but adverse changes are number of local tourists from different regions of proceeding at such a fast rate and becoming Libya visit these areas regularly, particularly in spring increasingly severe that degradation of its vegetation and summer because of its mild climate in addition to may be irreversible. its growing forests, valleys and other natural places. Human activities in the form of construction of The main negative impacts of tourism are plant cisterns, dams and small rocky dykes, roads and cutting and uprooting, solid waste pollution, damaging tourist villages in areas with dense forest and other the wild beauty, fires, disappearance of many wild settlements cause landscape change and the spread of animals (especially birds and reptiles) and threaten of solid and liquid waste which pollute the soil of these rare and endemic species that still exist in the region. areas with copper, zinc, lead and other harmful heavy Cyrene, Ptolemais, Ras Al-Hilal and Apolonia are elements. Many exotic species were introduced in the most important archeological sites which suffer Libya from the beginning of the last century [25] like from damage and destruction as a result of intensive Nicotiana glauca started spreading and intermingling and non-regulated tourism activities. These sites are with natural vegetation in/and around the solid waste the most beautiful and rich in rare and endemic of workshops, restaurants, fuel stations, garbage, species. services buildings, roadsides and around other wastes. 5.2.9 Habitat Destruction Companion species of Nicotiana glauca are Developmental programs and urbanization of Sarcopoterium spinosus, Pallenis spinosa, Nerium natural vegetation areas have caused many harmful oleander, Artemisia herba-alba, Artemisia campestris, impacts on wildlife habitats of many important species Peganum harmala, Ecballium elaterium, Citrullus (flora and fauna). colocynthis and Datura strominiumin, in mountainous, Infrastructure development caused the disruption of hilly, coastal, semiarid and arid areas south and east the physical environment, altered the chemical wards. environment and accelerated the introduction of Agricultural activities especially shifting cultivation, invasive species [21-24]. which is intensively practiced in the region, caused There is no doubt that infrastructures in this area ploughed and denuded areas. These activities appear to play a major role in biodiversity losses encouraged the spreading of Thymelaea hirsuta in simply because it accelerates and facilitates human abandoned fields, while overstocking enhanced the access to scattered and patchy biodiversity hotspots. spreading of non palatable species such as

54 Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)

Sarcopoterium spinosus, Anabasis articulata, formation and development. Some zones, e.g., wadis Peganum harmala and Haloxylon scoparium. In the and depressions, have deep strata with considerable southern fringe of the region, which has more arid soil seed bank, which offer great possibilities of climate, it is apparent that the trend of succession is progressive succession. Degradation of the land toward retrogressive changes due to anthropogenic gradually makes species less common and rare, and pressure beside the fragility of ecosystems. We increasing the endangered. consider this trend to be an expression of secondary Measures of conservation are urgently needed in succession which resulted from the disturbance of these two zones (El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica normal succession (e.g., overgrazing) that destroys the plateau). According to Boulos [26], these regions have main species of an established community. In the richest number of species and contain the most degraded steppes around water sources, villages and endemic species in Libya. other settlements enriched the soils with nitrogen from The first step in any conservation program is to sewage and livesock wastes, Peganum harmala prevent the harmful impacts of human activities. formed associations with Pallenis spinosa, Nicotiana Another issue is the choice of priority, i.e., rare, glauca, Asphodelus ramosus, and other species. medicinal or endemic species have priority. Complete Still for unknown reasons collective deaths of protection may be imperative, if the objective is the several canopy species is spreading throughout the conservation of an ecosystem as a whole, there is whole of El-Jabal El-Akhadar region such as: more room for manoeuvre, but at the end we must Juniperous pheonicea, Pinus helepensis, Olea save both species and ecosystems. europea, but regeneration of this species is not A large proportion of the indigenous species, affected. It should be remarked that most of these especially with a high heritage, historical or species are densely covered by Lichens, more over for biogeographic value in the area, are only represented more than 40 years the whole zone has been suffering by small or very small populations, very often only a from increased aridity with an increase in temperature few individuals or in small area. and a decline in rain-fall. As it was said before, the study area is rich in its endemic taxa. Endemics are usually rare and restricted 6. Options of Conservation in the Area to rather small geographical regions or even in small The present status of plant diversity in the study pockets, so they deserve special attention for their areas is very critical. The region is characterized by conservation. They represent an important part of our the apparent variation in their habitats, where the high heritage and may provide us with important food, and opened lands are exposed to severe erosion by medicinal or other resources in the future. wind and water all year around, especially in the The most important step in conservation should be southern fringe. Wind sheeting erosion is most a general plan for all the regions and all their pronounced in Marmarica plateau and south El-Jabal components, focusing especially on soil, plant El-Akhadar areas, while water erosion is more active diversity, beauty and local inhabitants and ending with in El-Jabal El-Akhadar area. the declaration of El-Jabal El-Akhadar as a protected The harsh environmental conditions added the zone with all the legal regulations required. overgrazing, wide species collection and hunting, 6.1 Soil Conservation deforestation, unsuitable agricultural regime and other irresponsible human activities which undoubtedly The topography of El-Jabal El-Akhadar consists of hinder the natural vegetation regeneration and soil a large number of hills dissected by a huge number of

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau) 55 wadis. Therefore, it is very important to prevent water drops with age, the partial harvest of plants should be and wind erosion resulting from several factors, such restricted to the oldest individuals of the population. as ploughing, clearing and overgrazing. So, attention This solution may be applicable for the sowing of must paid to establish soil by dams and terraces in the many wild plant species by: (1) sowing introduced slope areas and in wadis and watersheds, afforestation plant species and (2) reseeding native plant species by and windbreak trees play a key role in soil selecting seeds of indigenous species, with the aim to establishment and preventing erosion. But the most create communities of plants that are nutritious to important object is to reduce tillage operations and livestock resilient to grazing and protective to the soil rain-fed agriculture as much as possible. surface, where the concept of preventing local people Recently, the authorities implemented many from using any natural resource is not easily programs for soil conservation by building dams and acceptable. In this way, the species population would rocky dykes, north and south of El-Jabal El-Akhadar remain large enough so as not to be vulnerable to Mountain and in Marmarica plateau. In the latter case, extinction. there were remarkable results in stabilizing and In fact, the conservation of all components of preventing soil erosion and increasing the amount of wildlife in the region is very important. Each one has water harvested but more efforts are needed. a basic role in the ecosystem cycle and all the components are greatly interdependent with each other. 6.2 Plant Diversity Conservation The life and continued existence of any plant or The markedly increased rate of plant diversity loss animal species are linked to the existence of the other in the study area is mainly attributed to the continuous types of organisms and even the existence of other increased rate of anthropogenic pressure. environmental elements (such as location, climate, soil The priority of plant diversity conservation in the and topography, etc.). region is to focus on medicinal, rare and endemic 6.3 Beauty Conservation species, by focusing on species that are important to the ecosystem such as Arbutus pavarii, Pinus The beauty of the region is so essential to tourists halepensis, Querecus coccifera, Juniperus phoenicea, and residents and is a further priority for conservation. Olea europaea, Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia lentiscus, It has a very rich wild life in addition to many Ziziphous lotus, Myrtus communis, Rosmarinus historical and ruins sites, mild climate, shining sky, officinalis, Thapsia sylphium, Thymus capitatus and and its long and fascinating coast. Artemisia herba alba. The attention of These areas of natural beauty suffer from wide conservationists should focus not only on the damage due to intensive human activities and the community or population levels but also at different gradual increase of tourism activities. The beauty of life stages of the species from seedling until adult the region needs to be an important priority for stage (life cycle). conservation programs. It is extremely necessary now Generally, adult plants are subject to be harvested to stop all harmful activities and begin a program of by local people during their peak vegetation growth environmental impact assessment for all the for use as a forage material for livestock or as a fuel. development programs in the area. The challenge is not to prevent people from using 6.4 Inhabitants Conservation them, but to rationalize the harvesting process while maintaining the minimum viable population of the The people in this area and their habits and species in different sites. Since the reproductive value traditional ways of cultivation and their grazing

56 Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau) animals have been a part of the ecosystem for area should be guided by a long planning strategy that thousands of years. is based on an acute understanding of the limitations Therefore, the local population must be paid special and potential of this very unique environment. attention. Their activities should not be prohibited but Obviously, the key of any conservation program in to modified in order to suit the potential of the region. this region is more and ever-better environmental The awareness must concentrate on changing the education and concomitant awareness. behaviors of inhabitants to get a large economic Generally, the following recommendations are income by the maximum possible utilization of the essential to conserve the species and to assist in available resources with minimum extinction and devising management strategy: environmental damage. To make any conservation  Representative natural species populations (flora program successful, various demands of inhabitants and fauna) should be maintained in situ for needs must be balanced with the capacity of the area conservation; resources.  Establishment of new populations in similar The awareness of local people about environmental habitats on the Mediterranean coast; degradation, biodiversity loss and their consequent  Encouraging botanical gardens and research effects not only on the surrounding areas, but even on institutes to maintain ex situ populations; themselves, is a fundamental step in any conservation  Biological and ecological management of the program. natural and artificial population; Somewhat similar, but more broadly focused, are  Preservation of plant seeds in a gene bank; the FIRM (forums for integrated resource  Plant harvesting in case of human use for any management), through which inhabitants take the lead purpose should be restricted to the oldest individuals in coordinating their own development trajectories of the population; [27].  Establishment of small protected areas within the By establishing a FIRM and inviting all relevant two regions with adequate legal protection, and the service providers (including agricultural and water collaboration of the local tribes in their territories, extension officers, education and health authorities, especially in the areas of valleys that are refugial sites, conservancy representatives, regional councilors and for a number of rare and endemic plant and animal traditional leaders, and universities and research species; centers) to participate in coordinated development  Re-cultivation of endemic, rare, medical and planning and regular monitoring of progress, local economic plant species in order to find a good source people can take charge of their own development of income source for the local inhabitants; according to their own preferences, and plan for and  Re-afforest the destroyed areas of J. phoenicea, manage anticipated risks as they occur. by re-collecting its seeds and treated in the laboratory to break the inhibiting stage (where it is very difficult 7. Recommendations to germinate in nature) and then re-disseminated, In fact, until now the development in these zones especially in areas that burned down or where J. lacks environmental vision. A new more balanced phoenicea has disappeared; vision is really needed where the natural resources and  Re-seeding and cultivation of plant species of inhabitants are valued both by government and civil environmental and pastoral value, such as leguminous society, where the sustainability and the inhabitants seeds in the southern areas of El-Jabal El-Akhadar are given the highest priority. The development of the and Marmarica plateau;

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau) 57

 There must be a vision of an integrated and El-Marj area (Barce), Master of Science Thesis, Botany Department., Faculty of Science, Banghazi University, far-reaching plan to deal with all environmental Benghazi, Libya, 2009. (in Arabic) components in the region, including conservation of [10] H.N. Le Houerou, Impact of man and his animals on all natural resources in the short and long term; Mediterranean vegetation, in: F. Di Castri, D.W.Goodal,  Environmental impact assessment for any project R.L. Specht (Eds.), Mediterranean Type Shrublands, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1981, pp. 479-522. or activity in the region; [11] F. Chamoux, Cyrene sous La monarchie des Battiades,  Re-afforestation in the areas of south El-Jabal Paris, 1953. (in French) El-Akhadar Mountain and Marmarica plateau is very [12] A. Rowe, A history of Ancient Cyrenaica, Cairo, important for soil conservation and to increase Cyrenaican Expedition of the University of Manchester, 1952. biodiversity. The afforestation must be with local [13] G. Galassi, Tehenu e le origini mediterranee della civilta plant species. egizia, la libreria dello Stato, 1942 (in Italian) (Tehenu and Mediterranean origins of Egyptian civilization, the References library of the State, 1942). [1] H.J. Jawda, Studies on Geomorphology of Libyan Lands, [14] F.A. EL-Athram, Political and Economical History of Faculty of Science Publications, Benghazi University Cyrenaica (from the 7th century B.C. to 96 B.C.), (Previous Gar-Yunis), Libya, 1973. (in Arabic) Benghazi University Publications, Benghazi, Libya, 1988. [2] N.A. EL-Fakhri, Study of soil seed banks in Sidi (in Arabic) El-Hamri area (south of El-Jabal EL-Akhadar Mountain), [15] Censuses from 1954 to 2006, General Authority for Master of Science Thesis, Botany Department, Faculty of Information and Documentation, The Libyan Science, Benghazi University (Previous Gar-Yunis), Government, Tripoli, Libya. Benghazi, Libya, 2009. [16] The Dynamic Statistics, The General Information [3] M.W. Barrani, Study of plant deterioration factors on Authority, The Libyan Government, Tripoli, Libya, 2008. Daphna zone (north eastern part of Libyan (in Arabic). coast-Tobruck), Master of Science Thesis, Department of [17] O.M. EL-Chaouch, A. Ben Mansoura, Assessment of the Environmental and Engineering Science, Academy of current status of Libyan pastures, the Technical Centre postgraduate studies, Benghazi Branch, Libya, 2008. (in for Environmental Protection, Tripoli, Libya, 1991. (in Arabic) Arabic). [4] M.A. Omar, Vegetation composition and seed bank, [18] H.N. Le Houerou, Natural Pastures and Fodder Resources study of beach sand dunes on Karkora area (a part of of Libya and Problems of Their Improvement, Report to eastern coastal zone of Libya), Master of Science Thesis, the Government of Libya, FAO, Rome, 1965. Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Benghazi [19] Y.M. EL-Barasi, N.A. Ahmaida, M.W. Barrani, A.O. University, Benghazi, Libya, 2009. EL-Amrouni, A. Omran, Pollution of agricultural lands [5] Meteorological records, unpublished data for Tobruck, by fertilizers and pesticides on EL-Guba and EL-Abrag Derna, Al Bayda and Benina meteorological stations, area in Libya, Annals journal, Tome VIII, Fascicule 1 Meteorological department, Libyan Government, Tripoli, (ISSN 1584-2665) (2010) 97-102. Libya (Deferent periods of time). [20] S.M. AL-Hadad, The ability of natural vegetation in [6] S. Brullo, F. Furnari, Taxonomic and nomenclatural notes EL-Jabal EL-Akhadar to regenerate after fires, M.Sc. on the flora of Cyrenaica (Libya) Webbia 34 (1) (1979) Thesis, Dept. Environmental and Engineering Science, 155-174. Academy of graduate studies, Benghazi branch, Libya, [7] H.N. Le Houerou, The Sahara from the bioclimatic 2004. (in Arabic) viewpoint, definition and limits, Annals of Arid Zones 34 [21] A. Andrews, Fragmentation of habitat by roads and utility (1) (1995) 1-16. corridors: A review, Australian Zoologist 26 (3 & 4) [8] B.M. Buhwarish, The effect of human activities on the (1990) 130-141. dynamics of soil seed bank in an area south of El-Jabal [22] R.T.T. Forman, L.E. Alexander, Roads and their major Al-Akhadar, Master of Science Thesis, Department of ecological effects, Annual Review of Ecology and Environmental Science and Engineering, Academy of Systematics 29 (1998) 207-231. Graduate Studies, Benghazi Branch, Libya, 2005 (in [23] S.C. Trombulak, C.A. Frissell, Review of ecological Arabic). effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities, [9] N.F. Abdel-Hadi, Vegetation and oil seed bank in south Conservation Biology 14 (1) (2000) 18-30.

58 Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)

[24] C. Nellemann, Globio-Global methodology for mapping , in: H.N. Barakat, A.K. Hegazy (Eds.), Reviews in human impacts on the biosphere, United Nations Ecology, Desert Conservation and Development, A Environmental program, Nairobi, Kenya, 2001 (available festschrift for Prof. M. Kassas on the Occasion of 75th at http://www.globio.info). Birthday, IDRC/CRDI, UNESCO/South Valley [25] H.G. Keith, A Preliminary Check List of Libyan Flora, University, Cairo, 1997, pp. 229-260. Vol. 1 and 2. Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian [27] J. Kambatuku, The Forum for Integrated Resource Reform, Tripoli, Libya, 1965, Management, Putting Communities at the Centre of Their [26] L. Boulos, Endemic Flora of the Middle East and North Own Development Process, Windhoek: NAPCOD, 2003.