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Título Centrado En Caracteres Normales R/DECONSTRUCCIÓN INTERTEXTUAL Y POLIFÓNICA DEL MITO MEDIEVAL DEL GRIAL EN ‘EL MUNDO ES UN PAÑUELO’, DE DAVID LODGE Marta Guirao Ochoa Universidad Complutense de Madrid CONTENIDOS 1. INTRODUCCIÓN 2. DAVID LODGE Y SU OBRA 3. EL GÉNERO DE LA NOVELA ACADÉMICA 4. LODGE Y BAJTÍN: LA POLIFONÍA DEL DISCURSO 5. EL MUNDO ES UN PAÑUELO [SMALL WORLD] a. Origen e influencias: John Boorman, Jessie Weston, T.S. Eliot. b. Intertextos: Ciclo artúrico, Malory, Tennyson, Spenser, Ariosto, Chaucer, Yeats, Milton... 6. EL MITO DEL GRIAL 7. PERSONAJES Y MITEMAS DEL GRIAL EN ‘EL MUNDO ES UN PAÑUELO’ a. La construcción de Persse b. ¿El Grial, o los griales? c. Multiplicidad de búsquedas d. Arthur Kingfisher, dos reyes en uno e. La pregunta prodigiosa 8. EL FINAL DIALÓGICO, O CÓMO NO TERMINAR UN RELATO BIBLIOGRAFÍA DEBATE POSTERIOR R/DECONSTRUCCIÓN INTERTEXTUAL Y POLIFÓNICA DEL MITO MEDIEVAL DEL GRIAL EN ‘EL MUNDO ES UN PAÑUELO’, DE DAVID LODGE Marta Guirao Ochoa Universidad Complutense de Madrid La transmisión del mito, sus formas y consecuencias, ha sido ampliamente comentada desde las perspectivas psicoanalítica y antropológica, y en el ámbito de los estudios literarios a menudo se ha basado en la reiteración de elementos temáticos o estilísticos. Sin embargo, la función del mito “recuperado” en literatura contemporánea puede ir más allá de la mera repetición de tramas o formas, porque parte de un marco hermenéutico compartido entre autor y lector. Así pues, el autor contemporáneo cuenta de entrada con un horizonte de expectativas del lector marcado por su conocimiento más o menos detallado del mito. Y aquí es donde el autor puede erigirse en “transformador del mito”, que sujeto a procesos de reelaboración, se convierte en terreno fértil para la reinvención narrativa, ya sea con propósito ideológico, filosófico, cultural, estético o puramente lúdico. La revisión del mito supone la revisión de su lugar, su validez y su función en la literatura y en el mundo contemporáneo. Hoy veremos cuál es el signo de esa revisión mediada por la construcción intertextual, los conceptos bajtinianos de polifonía y carnaval, y el empleo de lo que T.S. Eliot denominó “método mítico”, en el caso del mito medieval del Santo Grial en El mundo es un pañuelo (Small World) del autor británico David Lodge. David Lodge (Londres, 1935), escritor, crítico literario y profesor de Literatura hasta 1987, es considerado uno de los más importantes críticos y novelistas británicos contemporáneos. Como novelista parte de un realismo cultivado en los años 60 como consecuencia de su interés por los escritores británicos antimodernistas de los 50, pero ya su novela The British Museum is Falling Down (1965) integra conscientemente algunos elementos de corte más innovador y metaliterario (“An Afterword” 163). Sin embargo, es a partir de la 2 publicación de Intercambios (1975) cuando Lodge efectúa un giro casi total desde el realismo de sus primeros textos a un estilo mucho más experimental, y con El mundo es un pañuelo (1984) se aleja definitivamente del estilo realista poniendo en marcha un extenso juego intertextual con todo un conjunto de narrativas de tradición europea asociadas a la leyenda artúrica, el mito del Grial y las novelas de tipo caballeresco. A partir de este momento, la reflexión formal, innovación estilística y construcción metanarrativa se convertirán en constantes en su obra de ficción. Él mismo demuestra ser consciente de cómo sus conocimientos de teoría y crítica literaria dan forma al desarrollo de su ficción, afirmando de manera general en un breve ensayo sobre El mundo es un pañuelo que su papel como crítico le ha convertido en “un novelista muy autoconsciente” (1986: 73). Y es que, como veremos, Lodge opta en su ficción por sustituir el paradigma imitativo y metonímico que caracteriza al estilo realista por el paradigma de lo artificioso, lo simbólico y lo metafórico, resaltando así la naturaleza autorreflexiva y metafictiva de su escritura. De particular interés, como he apuntado, es su recurso constante a modelos literarios canónicos, ya en forma de citas y alusiones, o por adaptación de sus estructuras y estilos. En el análisis de la obra de Lodge no puede obviarse, sin embargo, su faceta como ex profesor universitario, que marca temáticamente casi su totalidad. En efecto, el género más cultivado por Lodge, y por el que obtiene el mayor reconocimiento, es la típicamente anglo-americana “ficción académica”. Este género tiene sus raíces en el siglo XVIII y se fue desarrollando en varios subgéneros poco definidos hasta los años 50, cuando el clima social de la posguerra en Gran Bretaña estaba pasando por distintos cambios con la ruptura del consenso social, los preludios de una segunda revolución industrial y la amenaza de recesión económica (Sheppard 41). El sentimiento de desilusión generalizado también prendió en las universidades, y aparece como tema principal en una serie de novelas de ficción académica publicadas en esos años, especialmente la sin par Lucky Jim, de Kingsley Amis (1954). A partir de este momento, el género de la novela académica parece adoptar una mirada distante y crítica sobre su propio entorno. Más adelante, a lo largo de los años 60 y 70 el tono de frustración iría virando lentamente hacia una visión más diversa y humorística, aunque sin perder la perspectiva humana. Con personajes estereotípicos y situaciones absurdas se parodia en 3 estas novelas la función de la universidad y sus miembros como agentes sociales y culturales, pero en el fondo se tocan cuestiones éticas, políticas, psicológicas y emocionales que son extrapolables más allá del microcosmos académico, a toda la sociedad. Este es el paradigma en el que escribe David Lodge sus novelas académicas, desde La caída del Museo Británico hasta la más reciente, Deaf Sentence (2008). Como señala el crítico Bernard Bergonzi, una de las características más reseñables de las novelas académicas es la veta de intertextualidad que las recorre casi sin excepción (16). Este rasgo, particularmente acusado en aquellas escritas por profesores o ex profesores de literatura, tanto puede basarse en un paralelismo estructural más o menos explícito con obras literarias preexistentes, como puede construirse a partir de una proliferación de alusiones y citas que contribuyen a caracterizar a los personajes o la trama, por medio de la evocación de otros textos. En su caso, Lodge recurre a ambos tipos de intertextualidad como herramienta narrativa, integrando en sus novelas la cita, la imitación, la apropiación explícita y el comentario metafictivo sobre textos concretos, estilos, géneros y las corrientes de pensamiento crítico que buscan interpretarlos. Y desde el punto de vista narrativo es un tejido intertextual esencial e inevitable, puesto que sus novelas académicas no solo exploran las pretensiones y defectos de sus estereotipados personajes académicos, sino también la forma en la que la literatura y su estudio condicionan sus visiones del mundo, sus carreras y a veces sus vidas. Este recurso a la intertextualidad como elemento creador de significado refleja la influencia que sobre la labor creativa y crítica de Lodge ha ejercido el pensamiento de Mijaíl Bajtín; no en vano las formulaciones sobre teoría literaria de Bajtín constituyen el núcleo del concepto contemporáneo de intertextualidad. Según Bajtín, cualquier enunciado, tanto literario como no literario, se enmarca dentro de un contexto que le da forma y orientación dentro en la esfera social (1978: 120). Por tanto, todo acto de comunicación en realidad consiste en una interacción de enunciados en la que entran en juego discursos pertenecientes a distintos estratos sociales y temporales (dialectos sociales, profesionales, generacionales, autoritarios etc.) que coexisten en un determinado momento histórico (1996: 264). En el concepto bajtiniano del dialogismo, el significado surge precisamente a partir de la interacción y contraposición de voces discursivas heterogéneas y los contextos 4 asociados a estas, lo que recibe el nombre de “heteroglosia” o “polifonía del discurso”. Y desde un punto de vista literario, también la heteroglosia de Bajtín se refiere a la proliferación de voces y la interacción de discursos diversos que coexisten dentro del texto y son tangentes a él por fuera. En el ámbito literario, el fenómeno de la polifonía es, según Bajtín, especialmente acentuado en la novela, donde la subjetividad presumiblemente “monológica” del autor, marcada por su realidad social e individual, se complica con la aparición y el diálogo de diversos personajes, lenguajes y puntos de vista socialmente modulados, dando lugar a una orquestación de discursos procedentes de variadas extracciones sociales (1996: 289). En esta mezcla de discursos se generan significados complejos; por ejemplo el simbolismo, la parodia y la ironía se desarrollan dentro del diálogo-oposición de distintas visiones del mundo. De este modo la novela constituye para Bajtín un locus de tensión y conflicto, un género de naturaleza subversiva en el que se busca superar los enunciados univocales y monolíticos que caracterizarían al discurso “oficial”, de autoridad y centro. Esto, según explica, se consigue mediante la “carnavalización”, un proceso en el que se contraponen formas discursivas dialógicas y monológicas, lo opuesto se mezcla, y aquello que era autoritario o rígido queda subvertido o ridiculizado (1984). Para Bajtín el carnaval representa el cambio, la parodia y la risa, y la posibilidad de insuflar nueva vida en modelos literarios y sociales ya caducos. El conocimiento
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